attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaad1d2c1259 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 29 code switching used in conversations by an american student of the darmasiswa program saptina retnawati teena.calissta@gmail.com semarang state university, indonesia yan mujiyanto yanmujiyanto@gmail.com semarang state university, indonesia received: 15 june 2015. revised: 10 august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 abstract this study analyzes code switching used in conversations by an american student of the darmasiswa program, addressing four objectives to find out the types and the functions of code switching, the possible factors that cause the occurence of code switching, and the impacts of code switching to the abilities of involved languages.the approach of this study is qualitative. the researcher applies mixed techniques to obtain data; recording the conversations in natural setting and interview. the analysis is interpretive.the findings of this study indicate that three types of code switching found in the conversations; intersentential code switching, intrasentential code switching, and tag/emblematic switching. they are used for various functions due to several reasons. the most significant function is to emphasize the message which gets the highest percentage (27.6%) and intention to clarify the speech content to the other interlocutors is the most significant factor causing code switching whichgets highest percentage (40.8%).it is found that code switching gives impact to the abilities of involved languages in conversations. it results in the loss of english language ability and the gain of indonesian language ability. key words: code switching; conversations; darmasiswa program. how to cite: retnawti, s. & yan mujiyanto. 2015. code switching used in conversations by an american student of the darmasiswa program. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction in an attempt to promote and to share the indonesian languages and cultures, particularly bahasa indonesia, the government developed the scholarship program called darmasiswa program. this program was developed by the ministry of education in cooperation with the ministry of foreign affairin 1974 besides promoting and increasing the interest in the language and culture of indonesia among the youth of other countries, this scholarship has also been designed to provide stronger cultural links and understanding among participating countries. the darmasiswa program started in 1974 as a part of asean (association of south east asian nations) initiative, offering students from abroad to study bahasa indonesia, indonesian arts, music and crafts. according to the ministry of education, the participants in this programcan choose one of 45 different universities located in different cities in indonesia. at the state university of semarang, there were twenty students from some foreign countries who joined this scholarship in the academic year of 2013/2014. they were from hungary, scotland, lithuania, afghanistan, china, mailto:teena.calissta@gmail.com mailto:yanmujiyanto@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 30 england, italy, russia, peru, japan, germany, denmark, the united states, vietnam, portugal, poland, and thailand. because the purpose of the program is to spread the indonesian language, all participants are required to take bahasa indonesia course. in this course, students are taught bahasa indonesia starting from the basic level. the course also aimed toimprove students‘ skills in communicating with indonesians. therefore, thecourse material included indonesian grammar and conversation.it is hoped that the students would be able to communicate using bahasa indonesia inside or outside of the classroom both with darmasiswa students and indonesian native speakers. since the students came from different countries and each student had different mother tongues and different cultural backgrounds, the students might have used more than one language to communicate with others. to communicate with indonesian people, they might use english or indonesian.this situation opens up to the use of code switching in their conversation. this phenomenon motivates me to investigate more on how they communicate in daily life, especially how they switch from one language to another language, also the impacts of the use of code switching to the languages capabilities. code switching code switching is a phenomenon of switching from one language to another language in bilingual or multilingual communities (wardhaugh, 2006:101). codeswitching may also be defined as the alternation between two or more languages in a speaker‘s speech, occurs naturally in the scheme of bilinguality. some people may perform code switching unconsciously as the result of their ability in using more than one language, while others may perform code switching to repeat what has said before. this study focuses on the theories from hoffman (1991) and savilletroike.there are ten reasonsin total of why people perform code switching in the conversations. those reasons are talking about a particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something, interjection, repetition, intention to clarify the speech content, expressing group identity, to soften and straighten request or command, real lexical need, and the last is to exclude other people. hovewer, some people also may perform the different kinds of code switching. this study focuses on the theories from hoffman (1994) and poplack (2002) whose concepts of code switching can be summed up as:inter-sentential switching, intra-sentential switching, and emblematic-switching (tag switching). inter-sentential code switching is the switching that occurs between sentences. this code switching occurs at a clause or sentence level, in which each clause or sentence is in a different language. intersentential switching requires more fluency in both languages than tag switching because the portions have to follow the rules of both languages.it is found that the research subject in this study perform quite a lot of inter sentential switching. different from inter sentential switching which occurs in the sentence level, intra sentential switching occurs within a clause or sentence boundary (poplack, 2002). poplack states that intra-sentential switching is the most complex type of code switching, requiring that the speaker be able to control two linguistic systems simultaneously.the third saptina retnawati & yan mujiyanto. code switching used in conversations by an american student of the darmasiswa program __________________________________________________________________________________________ 31 type, tag switching, is an insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is entirely in another. bullock (2010:4) in suprihartanta (2012:36) states that ―tag switching is defined by the insertion of formulaic expression from language b (e.g., so, well, d‟accord?) into an uttereance in language a, primarily for pragmatic effect. methodology the study employed a descriptive qualitative design which concerned on utterances producedduring the conversations by the american student of darmasiswa program with her colleagues or with indonesian native speakers. i recorded the conversation in some informal occasions. the spoken conversations were then transcribed into written form so that i could analyze the code switching occurred from indonesian to english or from english to indonesian or from other languages she was able to speak. the analysis was focused on the types and the functions of code switching, and the cause of occurence of code switching in the conversation, also the impacts of code switching in terms of language capabilities. the data were obtained in several steps, included firtsly,observation, audio recording, and interviews. the triangulation process was conducted to ensure the reliability of data analysis.the next step wastransferring the spoken data into the written form. i transcribed the data without changing or improving them.the guideline of transcribing the data into written form was used as the standard of transcription. after being collected, i analyzed the data based on the types of code switching and then analyzed the data to find out the functions of code switching and the reasons why code switching occurred in the conversation. there were two stages in analyzing the data, i.e. data identification and classification and then data tabulation. results and discussion following hoffman and poplack, i devided code switching into three types; intersentential code switching, intra-sentential code switching, and emblematic or tag switching. the comparison of the occurence of code switching in transcription one until transcription four is described in chart 1. chart 1. comparison of the total types of cs in t1-t4 there were 105 types in total of code switching that occured in the four transcribed conversations in which intrasentential code switching dominated the conversation which occured 76 times. tag switching occured less than both inter0 20 40 60 80 100 t1 t2 t3 t4 intersentential intrasentential tag switching language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 32 sentential code switching and intrasentential code switching. an example of intrasentential code switching performed by research subject (a) and her indonesian friend (t) is given below: a : ―ya, all are closed at noon?‖ t : ―ya, i mean they‘ll open at...‖ a : ―3 a.m. in the morning?‖ t : ―five p.m.‖ a : ―oh, 5 p.m. yaya‖ t : ―they will start‖ a : ―ok . because i was trying to a warung over there that i usually go to, and...‖ t : ―warung, which one?‖ the indonesian word ‗warung‘ (small restaurant) is inserted between english utterances so that it can be categorized as intra-sentential code switching. among 105 occurences of code switching in this study, 29 occurences of code switching were functioned to emphasize the message. instead of using repetition, the speaker mostly switched from english to indonesian to emphasize the message in a conversation, particularly the specific topic such as difficulties that encountered when she learnt indonesian language for the first time. some words or expressions were inserted into the sentences she used. those are functioned to to convey surprise, emotional feeling, or to attract attention from other interlocutors. this function is known as interjection. based on the data analysis, the research subject performed eleven times of code-switching in the four conversations. the table below shows the result of the functions of code switching gumperz (1982), sert (2005), and holmes (2008) in the four transcribed conversations. table 1. total functions of code-switching occured in t1-t4 no. functions of cs total occurence of functions of cs in t1-t4 occ % 1. changing topic 0 0 2. emphasizing the message 29 27.6 3. expressing feeling 3 2.9 4. repetition 5 4.8 5. joking 0 0 6. quoting someone or something 11 10.4 7. showing solidarity 9 8.6 8. translation 11 10.5 9. equivalence 26 24.8 10. interjection 11 10.4 total 105 100 from the findings of this study, the code switching did not occur for changing the topic of conversation and for joking. some factors of causing the occurence of code switching are also discussed in this study. following hoffman and savillesaptina retnawati & yan mujiyanto. code switching used in conversations by an american student of the darmasiswa program __________________________________________________________________________________________ 33 troike, there are ten factors that cause someone to perform code-switching. those factors are talking about a particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something, interjection, repetition, intention to clarify the speech content, expressing group identity, to soften and straighten request or command, real lexical need, and the last is to exclude other people. in this study, it is found that the research subject mostly performed code-switching due to the intention to clarify the speech content for other interlocutors which held the highest percentage 40.9%. it occured 43 times in t1 to t4. real lexical need wass in the second position which occured 19 times or 18.1% in t1 to t4. both reasons to talk about a particular topic and repetition held the third position. they occured 11 times 10.5% in t1 to t4. among all factors of causing the occurence of code-switching, it is found that the research subject did not perform code-switching to soften and straighten the request or command nor to exclude other people. the occurence of code switching may give impacts to the languages involved in the conversations. one of the impacts are the occurence of language loss and language difussion (wardaugh, 2001). bilingualism and multilingualism are two crucial factors that can lead the speakers to language loss. in this study, the research subject who experienced code-switching in bilingual and mulitlingual setting, was known to experience the language phenomenon; language loss. there are some factors that cause the occurence of language loss by the research subject in this study. multilingualism and oppression of using indonesian language are external factors that results in codeswitching, which is then give impact to the loss of language that she has learned before (english, khmer, teo chew, and spanish). from the interview conducted by, it can be concluded that she experienced the loss of english capability. as english is the minority language here, she chose to use indonesian language more than english to communicate in daily life. she confessed that her english was gone down and that there were some english words that she could not speak anymore, particularly the sophisticated words. she preferred to use basic english vocabularies to communicate with indonesian native speakers who weree able to speak in english, because she followed their ability in english. other results from the interview was that she used more indonesian tag question, in the end of english sentences. for instance; ―you are going to come, ya?‖. the tag ‗ya‘ indicates that she follows the indonesian form of sentence; ―kamu akan datang kesini, ya?‖ in standard english, she might have used ―are you going to come here?‖, but she preferred to use indonesian form of sentence. the second factor that cause language loss is oppression of using a certain language. as it was stated and found by erin haynes (2010) that education field in u.s has a history of suppressing the active use of non-english languages for the purpose of promoting assimilation of the speakers. it is then related to the aim of darmasiswa program that all the students are expected to communicate with indonesian language with other speakers in daily life. it results in the habit to speak indonesian more than other languages. based on the observation and interview, the research subject in this study chose to speak in indonesian with indonelanguage circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 34 sian speakers at the first time they meet. she said that using indonesian with the native speakers of indonesia was more comfortable, eventough there might be switch to english or even javanese to clarify something. this, of course, gives impact to her ability in using english. based on the data in the transcribed conversations, i found several examples that she often inserted indonesian words to english sentence in order to keep the conversation with indonesian speaker flows smoothly. conclusion from the finding of this study, there are 105 total occurrences of code-switching. intersentential code switching occurred 22 times. intra-sentential code switching takesthe most frequent type of code-switching as it occurred 76 times. while emblematic/tag switching occurred less as it occurred only 7 times. the most frequent function is to emphasize the message which totally holds the highest percentage; 27.6%whichoccurred 29 times. there are some functions which are not occurred in this study, they are changing topic and joking. the most significant factors of code-switching is intention on clarifying the speech content for interlocutors which totally holds the highest percentage 40.9%. it occurred 43 times in t1 to t4. finally, this study is to answer the impacts of code switching in terms of capabilities of the involved languages. it is found that the research subject of this study experienced english language loss and language gain of indonesian language. the most significant factors that cause language loss and language gain were the multilingual settings she experiences in indonesia and the oppression to use indonesian language in daily life. references auer, p. 2002. code-switching in conversation: language, interaction and identity.london: taylor& francis e-library. ariffin, k. and husin, m. s. 2011. code-switching and code-mixing of english and bahasa malaysia in content-based classrooms: frequency and attitudes. the linguistics journal, vol. 5 issue 1. cantone, katja f. 2007. code-switching in bilingual children. new york: springer. chloros, p. g. 2009. code-switching. new york: cambridge university press. crawford, j. 1996. stabilizing indigenous languages: seven hypotheses on language loss causes and cures.arizona: northern arizona university fitriyani, i.d. 2013. code switching used by students in a speaking class activity (the case of the sixth semester students of english study program at dian nuswantoro university semarang in the academic year of 2012/2013). thesis. english language education post-graduate program semarang state university. guardado, m. 2002. loss and maintenance of first language skills: case studies of hispanic families in vancouver. thesis.vancouver: university of british columbia. gulzar, m. a. 2010. code-switching: awareness about its utility in bilingual classrooms. bulletin of education and research december, vol. 32, no. 2 pp. 23-44. retrieved 4 october 2013. saptina retnawati & yan mujiyanto. code switching used in conversations by an american student of the darmasiswa program __________________________________________________________________________________________ 35 gumperz, j. 1982. discourse strategies. new york: cambridge university press. hidayat, t. 2012. an analysis of code switching used by facebookers(a case study in a social network site). thesis. english education study program language and arts department of sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan (stkip) siliwangi bandung. retrieved on november, 11 2013. hoffmann, c. 1991. an introduction to bilingualism. london: longman group uk limited. marasigan, e. 1983. code-switching and code-mixing in multilingual societies. singapore: richard clay pte ltd. milroy, l. & muysken. 1995. introduction: code-switching and bilingualism research. new york: cambridge university press. suprihartanta f.p. 2012. code-switching in science teachers‘ talk: the case of codeswitching in the talk of the teachers of biology, chemistry, physics and mathematics of sman 1 slawi. thesis. english language education postgraduate program semarang state university. wardaugh, r. 1998. an introduction to sociolinguistics. new york: brasil blackwell. wardhaugh, r. 2006. an introduction to sociolinguistics fifth edition. oxford: blackwell publishing ltd. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa50ba71150 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 49 the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students’ creativity m. ali ghufron alghufron.87@gmail.com english education department, faculty of language and art education, ikip pgri bojonegoro indonesia masnuatul hawa pamujihawa@yahoo.co.id prodi pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, fakultas pendidikan bahasa dan seni ikip pgri bojonegoro indonesia received: 15 july 2015. revised: 19 august 2015. accepted: 26 august 2015 abstract this research is aimed at finding out: (1) whether or not collaborative writing technique is more effective than direct instruction in teaching writing of argumentative essay; (2) whether the students who have high creativity have better writing ability than those who have low creativity; and (3) whether there is an interaction between teaching techniques and creativity in teaching writing. this experimental research was carried out in ikip pgri bojonegoro in the academic year of 2014/2015 from march 2015 to june 2015. the population was the fourth semester students of english education department in the academic year of 2014/2015, and the number of population was 126 students who were divided into three classes. the samples, which were selected by using cluster random sampling, were iib as the experimental group and iia as the control group. each group consists of 42 students. the experimental group was treated by using collaborative writing technique, while the control group was treated by using direct instruction. the data analysis shows the following findings: (1) collaborative writing technique is more effective than direct instruction in teaching writing; (2) students with high creativity have better writing ability than those having low creativity; and (3) there is an interaction between teaching techniques and creativity in teaching writing. keywords: collaborative writing technique, direct instruction, writing ability, creativity how to cite: ghufron, m. ali. & masnuatul hawa. 2015. the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students‘ creativity. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction the use of small group and pair work in classrooms, particularly in second language (l2) classrooms, rests on strong theoretical and pedagogical bases. from a theoretical perspective, the use of small groups/pairs accords with a social constructivist view of learning. the roots of social constructivism are based on the work of vygotsky (1978). according to vygotsky, human development is inherently a socially situated activity. a child‘s (novice) cognitive development arises in social interaction with a more able member of society. the more mailto:alghufron.87@gmail.com mailto:pamujihawa@yahoo.co.id language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 50 able member (expert), by providing the novice with the appropriate level of assistance, stretches the novice beyond their current level towards their potential level of development. such assistance is now commonly referred to in the literature as scaffolding. however, as a number of researchers have shown (e.g., donato, 1994; storch, 2002), scaffolding can also occur among peers when working in group/pair work. thus, from a social constructivist perspective, learners should be encouraged to participate in activities which foster interaction and co-construction of knowledge. from a pedagogical perspective, the use of small group and pair work is further supported by the communicative approach to l2 instruction and its emphasis on providing learners with opportunities to use the l2. writing as a skill involves a number of complex rhetorical and linguistic operations which must be taught. the act of writing is deprived of an immediate context of communication. thus, for effective writing, the writer has to use a large number of formal features in order to help his/her readers infer the intended meaning. failure to use these features correctly causes vagueness, ellipsis and ambiguity in some writings. the use of small group/pair work in writing classes seems quite limited. it tends to be limited to the beginning stages (brainstorming), or more commonly, to the final stages of writing—the peer review stage. in this final stage, students review each other‘s written text and make suggestions on how it could be improved. a number of researchers (e.g., ferris, 2003) have noted the benefits of such peer reviews. foremost among these benefits is that peer reviews are a way of raising students‘ awareness of audience considerations (leki, 1993), and at the same time, they may help learners develop analytical and critical reading and writing skills (nystrand & brandt, 1989). byrne (1993: 1) states that writing is the act of forming graphic symbols. farbairn and winch (1996: 32) state that writing is about conveying meaning by using words that have been selected and put together in a written or printed form. ur (1996: 163) writing is the expressing of ideas, the conveying of a message to the readers, so that the ideas themselves should arguably be seen as the most aspects of writing. writing in efl classes is difficult for both teachers and students because there are many aspects to deal with. raimes (1983: 6) mentions those aspects are syntax, content, the writers‘ process, audience, purpose, word choice, organization, mechanics and grammar. byrne (1993: 3) mentions three aspects which make writing difficult. the first is the psychological problem. writing is a solitary activity. the teachers cannot get direct feedback like in speaking activity. the second is linguistics problem. the writers have to ensure that the choice of words, sentence structure, and other cohesive devices are correct for conveying their message. the last is the cognitive problem. writing is learned through a process of instruction. it is not a natural process like speaking. both raimes and and byrne basically have the same idea, but raimes does not classify the problem. audience and purpose of writing is included in byrne‘s psychological problem. byrne‘s linguistic problem covered syntax, word choice, mechanic, and grammar. meanwhile, raimes‘ writer process, organization and m. ali ghufron & masnuatul hawa. the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students‘ creativity __________________________________________________________________________________________ . 51 content are covered in byrne cognitive problem. because of that, learning to write is not an easy task to do. many students still make errors and mistakes and, then, they are fossilized. their interest becomes less and less and students begin to create negative stimuli about learning to write. this condition drives the students to assume that writing is a very difficult task to do. the problem emerges as students are not familiar yet with the types of written discourse in english due to lack of exposure. consequently, they are not able or willing to think directly in english. they, therefore, tend to formulate their ideas in indonesian language when they express ideas in writing. afterward they try to translate them in english which is not an easy task and even dangerous. to help the teachers in teaching writing to university students, teachers may use interesting teaching techniques to present their teaching materials that also help them in creating fun class. two of the alternative techniques are collaborative writing technique and direct instruction which are suggested to be applied in teaching writing. besides, the teachers should also determine another aspect that can influence students‘ writing skill. therefore, in this research, the researcher took verbal creativity as another factor that will be examined and used as moderator variable in teaching writing. barkley, cross, and major (2005: 256) define that in collaborative writing, students pairs or triads write a formal paper together. each student contributes at each stage of the writing process: brainstorming ideas, gathering and organizing information, drafting, revising, and editing the writing. it means that in pairs or triads, students will produce better work than when they work alone. collaborative writing will improve document quality by pooling the strengths of group members. at the same time, individual weaknesses are caught by the group and revised. ultimately, collaboration can be a form of motivation for students as they become excited about working in a group as well as the prospect of learning from other students. according to barkley, et al (2005: 256) there are seven guidelines for teacher/lecturer in collaborative writing process. the guidelines are as follows: (1) students from pairs or triads at your direction or by shoosing partners and then generate ideas by brainstorming together or conducted preliminary research; (2) together, students organize their ideas and create an outline; (3) students divide up the outline, selecting or assigning sections for each student to write initial drafts individually; (4) teams read first drafts, discuss and resolve any significant disparities in voice, content, and style; (5) teams combine individual sections into a single document; (6) teams revise and edit their work, checking for content and clarity as well as grammar, spelling, and punctuation; and (7) after the final edit, teams submit their papers to the professor for assessment and evaluation. the direct instruction, also called the natural approach, was developed towards the end of the 19 th century. the general goal of the direct instruction is to provide learners with a practically useful knowledge of language. the direct instruction is a method that the goal of instruction becomes the way of learning how to use a foreign language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 52 language to communicate. the direct instruction has one very basic rule: no translation is allowed (freeman, 1983: 18). teaching learning process is focus on explanation of grammar rules in classroom teaching, teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom. learners would then be able to induce rules of grammar. all teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful ‗everyday' language is taught (british council, 2011: 1). direct instruction focus on question-answer patterns teachercenteredness 1) classroom instructions are conducted in the target language; 2) only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught; 3) oral communication skills are built up in a progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teacher and students in small intensive classes; 4) grammar is taught inductively; 5) new teaching points are introduced orally; 6) concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas; 7) both speech and listening comprehensions are taught; 8) correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized. munandar (2009: 68) defines verbal creativity as an ability to think creatively and to measure one‘s fluency, flexibility, and originality of a verbal form which deals with words and sentences. mednick and mednick in sinolungan (in faisal, 2010: 42) say that verbal creativity is an ability to see a relationship of different ideas and to combine these ideas into new associations. children with this special ability are able to create new patterns based on their own thought in their cognitive mind. guilford in rockler (1988: 45) also states that verbal creativity is an ability to think divergently. thinking divergently means that it tries to find any possible alternative solution upon a problem. considering that background, the aims of this research are as follows: 1. whether or not collaborative writing technique is more effective than direct instruction to teach writing. 2. whether or not students who have high creativity have better writing ability than those who have low creativity. 3. whether or not there is interaction between teaching techniques and students‘ creativity in teaching writing. methodology related to this study, the writer used experimental study because the aim of this study is revealing the effect of teaching techniques and students‘ creativity towards the students‘ writing ability. it involves three variables. the first variable is independent variable. in this study, the independent variable is teaching techniques. the second variable is a dependent variable. the dependent variable in this study is writing ability. the fourth variable is a secondary independent variable or moderator/attributive variable. it is creativity. the population of this study is the second semester students of ikip pgri bojonegoro in the academic year of 2014/2015. the total number of the population in this research is 126 students who are divided into 3 classes, iia, iib, and iic. in this study, the writer only took two classes of the second semester students of m. ali ghufron & masnuatul hawa. the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students‘ creativity __________________________________________________________________________________________ . 53 ikip pgri bojonegoro. the two classes were iib and iia. ib was the experimental class and id was the control class. the sample, in this study, was chosen randomly from the population of clusters which is usually called as cluster random sampling. it means that all the members of the cluster must be included in the sample. table 1. summary of a 2 x 2 multifactor analysis of variance source of variance ss df ms fo ft(.05) conclusion between columns (teaching techniques) 618.8571 1 618.8571 36.40336 3.96 ho is rejected between rows (level of creativity) 2928.762 1 2928.762 172.2801 3.96 ho is rejected columns by rows (interaction) 80.04762 1 80.04762 4.708683 3.96 ho is rejected between groups 3627.667 3 1209.222 within groups 1360 80 17 total 4987.667 83 results and discussions hypotheses testing based on the summary of 2 x 2 multifactor analysis of variance (anova) above, some interpretations can be drawn as follows: 1. the impacts of employing teaching techniques (collaborative writing technique and direct instruction) upon the students‘ writing ability. based on the table, it can be seen that collaborative writing technique is more effective than direct instruction to teach writing. 2. the effect of creativity level upon the students‘ writing ability. based on the table, it can be seen that the students who have high creativity have better writing ability than the students who have low creativity. 3. the interaction effect of teaching techniques and creativity level upon the students‘ writing ability. based on the table, it can be seen that there is an interaction effect between teaching techniques and creativity upon students‘ writing ability. thus, the effect of teaching techniques on performance of writing depends on the degree of creativity. table 2. summary of tukey test between groups qo qt(.05) meaning category a1 a2 8.53 2.86 qo > qt significant b1 b2 18.56 2.86 qo > qt significant a1b1 a2b1 6.48 2.95 qo > qt significant a1b2 a2b2 2.58 2.95 qo < qt not significant language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 54 based on the summary of tukey test above, the interpretations can be drawn as follows: 1. comparing two means betweencolumns (collaborative writing technique is compared with direct instruction) by comparing two means betweencolumns (a1 – a2), it can be found that qo is 8.53. the value of qt for α=0.05 and n=42 is 2.86. because qo (8.53) is higher than qt (2.86), collaborative writing technique differs significantly from direct instruction to teach writing. the mean score of the students who are taught by using collaborative writing technique (77.88) is higher than the mean score of the students who are taught by using direct instruction (72.45). therefore, it can be concluded that collaborative writing technique is more effective than direct instruction to teach writing. 2. comparing two means between-rows (high creativity is compared with low creativity) by comparing two means between-rows (b1 – b2), it can be found that qo is 18.56. the value of qt for α=0.05 and n=42 is 2.86. because qo (18.56) is higher than qt (2.86), the students who have high creativity are significantly different from the students who have low creativity in writing ability. the mean score of the students who have high creativity (81.07) is higher than the mean score of the students who have low creativity (69.26). therefore, it can be concluded that the students who have high creativity have better writing ability than the students who have low creativity. 3. comparing two means columns by rows (collaborative writing technique is compared with direct instruction) for the students having high creativity by comparing two means columns by rows (a1b1 – a2b1), it can be found that qo is 6.48. the value of qt for α=0.05 and n=21 is 2.95. because qo (6.48) is higher than qt (2.95), the students who have high creativity and taught by using collaborative writing technique are significantly different from the students who have high creativity and taught by using direct instruction in writing ability. the mean score of the students who have high creativity and taught by using collaborative writing technique (84.76) is higher than the mean score of the students who have high creativity and taught by using direct instruction (77.38). therefore, it can be concluded that the students who have high creativity and taught by using collaborative writing technique have better writing ability than the students who have high creativity and taught by using direct instruction. 4. comparing two means columns by rows (collaborative writing technique is compared with direct instruction for the students having low creativity) by comparing two means columns by rows (a1b2 – a2b2), it can be found that qo is 2.58. the value of qt for α=0.05 and n=21 is 2.95. because qo (2.58) is lower than qt (2.95), it means that the students who have low creativity and taught by using collaborative writing technique are not significantly different from the students who have low creativity and taught by using direct instruction in writing ability. therefore, it can be concluded that the students‘ writing ability between the students who have low creativity and taught by using collaborative writing technique m. ali ghufron & masnuatul hawa. the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students‘ creativity __________________________________________________________________________________________ . 55 and the students who have low creativity and taught by using direct instruction is not significantly different. discussion by considering the data analyses above, there are some conclusions than can be drawn. 1. collaborative writing technique is more effective than direct instruction to teach writing. needless to say, teaching technique plays an important role in teaching and learning process. teaching technique is one of the aspects of teaching and learning process that needs to be fully considered by the teacher. good teaching technique will influence much the students‘ attitude toward the subject. in general, collaborative writing technique makes the learning more effective, attractive, meaningful, and successful. collaborative writing also can improve students‘ critical thinking. research findings on collaborative writing have been positive. research conducted in l1 settings (e.g., higgins, flower, & petraglia, 1992; keys, 1994) has shown that collaborative writing is a way to foster reflective thinking, especially if the learners are engaged in the act of explaining and defending their ideas to their peers. research conducted with l2 learners (e.g., donato, 1988; dicamilla & anton, 1997; storch, 2002; swain & lapkin, 1998) has shown that in the process of co-authoring, learners consider not only grammatical accuracy and lexis but also discourse. furthermore, and depending on the kind of group/pair dynamics formed (see donato, 1988; storch, 2002, 2003), collaborative writing may encourage a pooling of knowledge about language, a process donato termed collective scaffolding (donato, 1988, 1994). sherman (1998: 1) states that reflective writing, such as in collaborative writing, in the context of a public forum in which students are required to react to each other's writing engages students in a process of critical thinking. collaborative writing technique has many advantages as a functional unit of collaborative learning. active participation in the collaborative process is essential for learning to occur. by working collaboratively with their friends, the students will try to analyze their friends‘ work in writing. they can correct the mistakes made by their friends. sherman (1998: 1), states that in collaborative writing, the students are relying on peers for learning. it means that students work together to teach one another, and they alternate between the roles of student and teacher. this technique combines elements of both motivational and cognitive approaches to collaboration. the technique also promotes cognitive processing by using a structured approach to teaching and learning within a tutoring context. this technique also promotes active processing of material using activities that are strongly linked to achievement. from the statement above, it can be concluded that collaborative writing technique has some advantages such as: (1) it can promote effective learning; (2) it can combine both motivational and cognitive approaches to collaboration; (3) it can promote cognitive process through a structured approach to teaching and learning within a tutoring context; (4) it can promote language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 56 the students‘ achievement and the students‘ self confidence. on the other hand, direct instruction does not give enough challenge for students to develop their own creativity. in direct instruction, students are only given text and asked to analyze the text. the goal of instruction becomes the way of learning how to use a foreign language to communicate. the direct instruction has one very basic rule: no translation is allowed (freeman, 1983: 18). in this case, the students only develop their mechanical skill without being given chance to create their own ideas. 2. the students who have high creativity have better writing ability than the students who have low creativity. creative individuals have a great deal of energy. this great deal of energy makes them energetic and always ready to do everything. they will see any kinds of things, including the difficult one, as challenges to conquer. they like challenges and enjoy its every single activity. they like to explore their ideas and imagination and to think freely. furthermore, students with high creativity have a combination of playfulness, discipline, and also responsibility. they like to alternate between imagination and fantasy at one end, and rooted sense of reality at the other. besides, they do not like to be bound. they like to be given freedom to think and to express themselves in many ways. this kind of characteristics, in the end, leads the students who have creativity to get better score since they have better flexibility, fluency, and originality of thinking which are important in producing a piece of writing. csikszentmihalyi (1996: 58-73) defines the characteristics of the creative personality as follows: a. creative individuals have a great deal of energy, but they are also often quiet and at rest. b. creative individuals tend to be smart, yet also naïve at the same time. c. creative individuals have a combination of playfulness and discipline, and responsibility and irresponsibility. d. creative individuals alternate between imagination and fantasy at one end, and rooted sense of reality at the other. e. creative people seem to harbor opposite tendencies on the continuum between extroversion and introversion. f. creative individuals are also remarkable humble and proud at the same time. g. creative individuals to a certain extent escape rigid gender role stereotyping and have a tendency toward androgyny. h. generally, creative people are thought to be rebellious and independent. i. most creative individuals are very passionate about their work, yet they can be extremely objective about it as well. j. the openness and sensitivity of creative individuals often exposes them to suffering pain yet also a great deal of enjoyment. on the contrary, according to the statement stated by csikszentmihalyi (1996: 58-73) about the characteristics of creative personality above, it can also be inferred that students with low creativity tend to be passive. they do any kinds of tasks only based on the instruction given and do not really like if they are asked to think beyond what is given. in addition, they will be reluctant to do activities which require them to think creatively. they like something m. ali ghufron & masnuatul hawa. the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students‘ creativity __________________________________________________________________________________________ . 57 simple and like being guided. students with low creativity usually see process and challenge as burdens. the more activities they have to do, the more burdens they will have. they do not really like activities because they like simple, guided, and straightforward activities which in turns make the teacher should control them intensively. uebergang (2012: 1) states that limited creativity and views affect how we act. it means that the students who have low creativity will get difficulties in generating ideas and expressing it into written form. munandar (1999: 25) states that everyone has different level of creativity which affects their ways of thinking, their behavior, and their competences in all aspects. these are some of the reasons why their writing scores are less than those having high creativity. their low creativity makes them unable to express their ideas better. this can be seen from the results of their writing ability in which the scores of both control and experimental groups are lower than those having high level of creativity from both groups given treatment. 3. there is an interaction between teaching techniques and students‘ creativity in teaching writing. good teaching technique challenges students to perform better learning. they also minimize boredom and energize students to do more than usual. good teaching technique increases students‘ creativity. students are more creative when they are taught using challenging and interesting teaching technique. creativity as a process can be formulated as a form of thought in which an individual finds out new relationship, answer, methods, or new ways in facing a problem. csikszentmihalyi (1996: 58-73) states that creative individuals have a great deal of energy. this great deal of energy makes them energetic and always ready to do everything. they will see any kinds of things, including the difficult one, as challenges to conquer. they like challenges and enjoy its every single activity. they like to explore their ideas and imagination and to think freely. students with high creativity have a combination of playfulness, discipline, and also responsibility. they like to alternate between imagination and fantasy at one end, and rooted sense of reality at the other. besides, they do not like to be bound. they like to be given freedom to think and to express themselves in many ways. so, the students with high level of creativity are able to manifest nice learning activity into their writing. uebergang (2012: 1) states that creativity is associated with the ability to quickly think what is in our mind. it means that the students who have high creativity will easily express what in their mind in the form of writing. in collaborative writing, students in pairs or triads write a formal paper together. each student contributes at each stage of the writing process: brainstorming ideas, gathering and organizing information, drafting, revising, and editing the writing. it means that in pairs or triads, students will produce better work than when they work alone. collaborative writing will improve document quality by pooling the strengths of group members. at the same time, individual weaknesses are caught by the group and revised. ultimately, collaboration can be a form of motivation for students as they become excited about working in a group as well as the prospect of learning language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 58 from other students. this, of course, requires students to be more creative in doing so. in short, collaborative writing technique is easily done by the students who have high creativity. on the other hand, the students with low creativity have some difficulties in doing collaborative writing technique due to their insufficient storage of vocabulary and ability to understand materials. therefore, the students with high creativity are able to optimize their potentials when collaborative writing technique is implemented in their classroom activity. on the contrary, according to the statement stated by csikszentmihalyi (1996: 58-73) about the characteristics of creative personality, it can be inferred that students with low creativity tend to be passive. they do any kinds of tasks only based on the instruction given and do not really like if they are asked to think beyond what is given. in addition, they will be reluctant to do activities which require them to think creatively. they like something simple and like being guided. students with low creativity usually see process and challenge as burdens. the more activities they have to do, the more burdens they will have. they do not really like activities because they like simple, guided, and straightforward activities which in turns make the teacher should control them intensively. therefore, they need certain techniques to help them generating their ideas into written form. direct instruction asked the students to use both oral and written competence. in this teaching technique, students have no challenges to perform better learning, because the students only imitate what is given. direct instruction is a method that the goal of instruction becomes the way of learning how to use a foreign language to communicate. the interaction between teacher and students are like partner in teaching learning process. direct instructionshows that the students are passive in the process of teaching-learning and vocabulary is emphasized over grammar (freeman: 1983: 18). krashen and terrell in richard and rodger (2001: 185) said that direct instruction do not organize activities of the class about a grammar. students with low level of creativity are easy to adjust themselves to learn descriptive essay by using direct instruction. they are not required to selecting the most suitable words or phrases. due to their insufficient storage of vocabulary and ability to convey meaning, the teacher emphasized the teaching-learning in increasing their ability in vocabulary. as a result, they are not really able to lead their expression to explore their competence more. finally, the result of this research shows that teaching techniques and creativity play an important role to the students‘ writing ability. teaching techniques and creativity mutually influence one another in writing ability. it means that writing ability depends on the creativity level and teaching techniques. collaborative writing technique is more effective for the students having high creativity and direct instruction is more effective for the students having low creativity. therefore, it can be said that there is an interaction effect between teaching techniques and creativity upon students‘ writing ability. conclusion and suggestion conclusion in general, collaborative writing technique as one of the models of collaborative learning is more effective than direct m. ali ghufron & masnuatul hawa. the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students‘ creativity __________________________________________________________________________________________ . 59 instruction to teach writing to the fourth semester students of english education department, ikip pgri bojonegoro, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the students having high level of creativity have better writing ability in argumentative essay than those having low level of creativity to the fourth semester students of english education department, ikip pgri bojonegoro, in the academic year of 2014/2015. there is interaction between teaching techniques (collaborative writing technique and direct instruction) and creativity to teach writing to the fourth semester students of english education department, ikip pgri bojonegoro, in the academic year of 2014/2015. suggestion based on the research findings the conclusion of this research is that collaborative writing technique is an effective technique in teaching writing especially for students with high creativity. therefore, it is recommended that: (1) lecturers should apply collaborative writing technique to make students enjoy their learning in the classroom; (2) the students need to be actively involved in the learning activities in the classroom, asking questions, reading books, or learning from other learning sources; and (3) future researchers may conduct the same kind of research with different sample and condition. references barkley, e. f., cross, k. patricia, and major, c. h. 2005. collabor-ative learning techniques: a handbook for college faculty. san fransisco. jossey-bass. british council. 2011. direct method. available at: http://www.teaching english. org.uk/knowledge-database/ direct-method byrne, d. 1993. teaching writing ability. new york: longman group ltd. csikszentmihalyi, m. 1996. creativity: flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. new york: harper collins. dicamilla, f. j., & anton, m. 1997. repetition in the collaborative discourse of l2 learners: a vygotskian perspective. the canadian modern language review, 53, 609–633. donato, r. 1988. beyond group: a psycholinguistic rationale for collective activity in secondlanguage learning. unpublished doctoral dissertation. newark: university of delaware. donato, r. 1994. collective scaffolding in second language learning. in j. p. lantolf, & g. appel (eds.), vygotskian approaches to second language research (pp. 33–56). norwood, nj: ablex. faisal. 2010. the effectiveness of internet-based materials to teach writing viewed from the students‘ creativity. thesis. sebelas maret university. farbairn, g. and winch, c. 1996. reading, writing and reasoning. buckingham: open university press. ferris, d. 2003. response to student writing: implications for second language students. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 60 freeman, d. l. 1983. techniques and principles in language teaching. oxford: oxford university press. higgins, l., flower, l., & petraglia, j. 1992. planning text together. the role of critical reflection in student collaboration. written communication, 9(1), 48–84. keys, c.w. 1994. the development of scientific reasoning skills in conjunction with collaborative assessments. an interpretive study of 6–9th grade students. journal of research in science teaching, 3(9), 1003–1022. leki, i. 1993. reciprocal themes in reading and writing. in j. carson, & i. leki (eds.), reading in the composition classroom: second language perspectives (pp. 9–33). boston: heinle & heinle. munandar, utami. 1999. pengembangan kreafititas anak berbakat. jakarta: rineka cipta. munandar, utami. 2009. pengembangan kreatifitas anak berbakat. cetakan ke-3. jakarta: rineka cipta. nystrand, m., & brandt, d. 1989. response to writing as a context for learning to write. in c. m. anson (ed.), writing and response: theory, practice, and research (pp. 209–230). urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. raimes, ann. 1983. techniques in teaching writing. oxford: oxford university press. richards, j. c. and rodger t. s. 2001. approches and methods in language teaching: second edition. cambridge: cambridge university press. rockler, m. j. 1998. innovative teaching strategies. arizona: gorsuch scarisbrick publisher sherman. 1998. a post modern, constructivist pedagogy for teaching educational psychology, assisted by computer mediated communications. available at: http://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/aera91aa.html#dec. storch, n. 2002. patterns of interaction in esl pair work. language learning, 52(1), 119– 158. storch, n. 2003. relationships formed in dyadic interaction and opportunity for learning. international journal of educational research, 37(3/4), 305–322. swain, m., & lapkin, s. 1998. interaction and second language learning: two adolescent french immersion students working together. modern language journal, 82(3), 320–337. uebergang, joshua. 2012. how to have creativity in your writing skills. available at: http://www.street directory.com/travel_guide/149941/writing/how_to_have_creativity in_your writing_skills.html ur, p. 1996. a course in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university. vygotsky, l. s. 1978. mind in society. the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, mass: harvard university press. http://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/aera91aa.html#dec attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaeecea1040 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 153 semantics and philosophy of language in translation practice engliana engliana.seok@gmail.com universitas indraprasta pgri, jakarta received: 20 october 2015. revised: 10 february 2016. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract this writing is conducted to demonstrate the interrelationship between the concepts of semantics and philosophy of linguistics and its implication in translation discipline. the writer starts by pointing out methods and emphasis of semantics and translation theories, although the writer will specifically discuss the practice of semantics in translating semantic situation. there are three parts of discussions in this paper: part one is mainly discussed the semantic and translation theories, part two describes the relation between the two subjects, and finally, part three shows the readers of how the semantics take place in translating written language. the writer finally wishes that the readers, especially indonesian translators, will take benefit of understanding the semantics and use it for the benefit of as well as to denote and solve the problems and barriers in practicing translation. keywords: translation, semantics, philosophy of language, indonesian how to cite: engliana. 2016. semantics and philosophy of language in translation practice. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction in studying the human language, there are several concepts adopted by linguists in describing, explaining, and breaking down the language: syntax, which studies the organisation of the language‘s properly constructed expressions, such as phrases and sentences; semantics, which studies the ways expressions exhibit and contribute to meaning; pragmatics, which studies the practices of communication in which the expressions find used. philosophers and linguists are driven by different concerns and goals in determining methods and emphases. the philosophers tend to investigate the normatively of language and theoretical claims, whereas the linguists concern with variations in linguistic patterns and language acquisition. starting from plato, aristotle, and the stoic philosophers in the antiquity era had contributed some important concepts to language analysis and most of their basic concepts accounts on the aspect of reality. philosophers commonly draws a triangle that briefly represented the aspects of reality which connected by three elements: ‗language‘, ‗mind‘, and ‗world‘ and all of them comprise ―…the meaningfullnes of language.‖ grimmins (1998) mentions that ‗mind‘ ‗world‘ study mind relations to world in which we are exist, such as ―…perception, action, the mind‘s bodily constitution and intentionality (the mind‘s ability to think about what is in the world.‖ then the relation between the‗mind‘ – ‗language‘ are regarding ―the using and understanding language in a heavily mental mailto:engliana.seok@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 154 activity. further, this activity seems to be what the real existence of meaningful language consists in. in short, mind invests meaning in language.‖ (p. 3). many of the philosophers believe that ‗mind‘ and ‗language‘ are best conveyed through understanding so as to hold ‗the meaningfulness of language‘. moreover, ‗language‘ and ‗mind‘ denote (grimmins, 1998, p.4) that if mind assigns meaning to language, so also language enables and channels mind. acquiring and trafficking in a language brings one concepts, thoughts and habits of thought, with all sorts of consequences. also in the same page, ‗language‘ and ‗world‘ are defined as: since language is the vehicle of our descriptions and explanations of reality, philosophers are concerned about what if anything makes for a true or apt characterisation of reality. philosophers have these concerns for reasons of philosophical methodology, … but also owing to the naturalness and plausibility of a certain picture of meaning. thus, the concept that believes that meaning is constituted by ‗language‘, ‗mind‘, and ‗world‘ has played a major part in philosophy and presumably explained the attention to language for centuries both by philosophers and linguists. semantics is the study of meaning. in language, semantics covers the study of meaning at the levels of words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of discourse. furthermore, in philosophy of language this semantics studies are also related to reference studies. other than sense and reference, semantics is also covered some fields of study, such as truth conditions, argument structure, thematic roles, and discourse analysis as well as syntax. proposition, sense, and reference the elements of words, phrases, and sentences are strictly crucial to semantics study because each of them conveys different meaning in different ‗language‘, ‗world‘, and ‗mind‘. a single word can refer to several concepts that might be ambiguous to particular recipients or readers, depending on their:  mind-language, that conveys actions and perceptions  mind-world, that includes using and understanding language contributed by an individual‘s mind on a particular language.  language-mind, that enables language to connect and channel an individual‘s mind.  language-world, that pictures the true or apt characterisation of reality. in that matter, it does make sense to ask what language (i.e. english, french, indonesian, melayu, etc.) a sentence belongs to because a sentence itself is associated with a particular characteristic especially in utterance language, such as accent, pronunciation. meanwhile, in written language, sentence and phrase consist of a set of words and phrases expressing meaning and intention of the writer. semantics is concerned with the meanings of phrases and incomplete sentences as well as complete sentences. heasly and hurford (1984) say that: the meanings of whole sentences involve propositions; the notion of a propositions is central to semantics … a engliana. 2016. semantics and philosophy of language in translation practice. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 155 proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs (p.19). in other words, proposition means the persons or things referred to by expressions in the sentence and can be grasped by the mind of an individual person as an object of thought. propositions that correspond to the facts can be said as true, whereas the false propositions do not correspond to any facts. for example, the phrase ―…the president of the united states…‖ is grasped by our mind as a particular person and as the object of our thought., the u.s. president exists and is based on the facts and reality, thus we might say that the phrase is a true proposition. the ―president‖ is also the object of the expression refers to and in the appropriate context; we might be able to mention a name of the object. the referent of the phrase ―…the present president of the united states…‖ is barrack obama because this is a normal every day expression that never refer to different things. although in the context of previous years then we might capture another person, that is, george w. bush as the object of our thought. as one of the basic ideas of semantics, reference indicates which things in the world (or persons) are being talked about. it is the object of an expression refers to and two different expressions can have same referent, for instance, if we are talking about a situation in which budi is sitting alone in the middle of the room, then we also could have different expression to the same referent by saying the person in the middle. another example is the morning star and the evening star are both refer to the planet venus. according to heasly and hurford (1984), ―… the sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.‖ (p.28). the sense is the ―cognitive significance‖ or ―mode of presentation‖ of the referent. for example, although the referent for phrases ―the present president of the indonesian republic‖ and ―the establisher of demokrat party‖ is susilo bambang yudhoyono, yet these two expressions differ in sense. in other cases, the same word can have more than one sense. for instance, the words bank in the phrase ―the bank of indonesia‖ and ―the other bank of the river‖ are not the same in meaning for a reason that bank is a single word with many senses. a sentence can also have different senses, first look at the first two sentences. (1) the chicken is ready to eat. (2) the chicken is ready to be eaten. the object of thought of sentences (1) and (2) is chicken. next sentences show clearly different senses: (3) he greeted the girl with a smile (4) he greeted the smiling girl sentence (3), he smiles and in (4) the girl smiles. according to heasly and hurford (1984), ―on the relationship between sense and reference: the referent of an expression is often a thing or a person in the world; whereas the sense of an expression is not a thing at all.‖ (p.30). every expression, either it is utterance or non-utterance, that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has reference. for example, when we look up the meaning of a word in a dictionary, we may find many expressions with the same sense. dictionary is full of words and a foreigner who learns the meaning of his or her first word in english possibly could not learn only by looking them up in an english language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 156 dictionary. he/she might be able to learn his/her first words by having typical referents pointed out to him/her. dictionary and meaning according to heasbely and hurford (1984), ―a dictionary is a central part of the description of any language.‖ (p.177). dictionary can help the readers to learn and distinguish between various semantic senses of a word, for instance between the sense of free as adjective and free as verb. for instance, next of kin is not every day english vocabulary, but it is a technical terms used in referring to someone who has family connections, relatives. the meaning of next of kin contains no concept of female or male. regarding the word meaning in dictionary (heasly and hurford, 1984: 184), ―the linguistic semanticist is interested in the meanings of words and non in non-linguistic facts about the world.‖ thus a dictionary describes as the sense of predicates, whereas an encyclopaedia contains factual information of a variety of types, but generally no information specifically on the meaning of the words (p. 184). for instance, according to concise oxford, the word walrus is defined as ―large amphibious carnivorous arctic long-tusked mammal (odobenus rosmarus) related to seal and sea-lion. on the other hand, in webster‘s new collegiate, walrus is ―a very large marine mammal (odobenus rosmarus) of the arctic ocean allied to the seals, but forming a distinct family (odobenidae). in the male the upper canine teeth form greatly elongated protruding tusks. the skin makes valuable leather, the tusks are fine ivory, and the blubber yields oil.‖ (p.185). discussion meaning in translation theory larson (1984) mentions: …translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. this is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of a second language by way of semantic structure. it is meaning which is being transferred and must be held constant. only the form changes. (p.3) it can be noted the significance role meaning has taken in the translation process. meaning of the target language must be liner or equivalent to the source language, without disregarding the form of both languages. she also suggests that meaning becomes the cornerstone of translating, in which the process of re-expressing the meaning into the target language. thus semantic analysis is required to perform such duty. according to larson (1984), there are three kinds of meaning which should be taken into account into translation: referential meaning says that the word refers to a certain thing, event, attribution, or relation which a person can perceive or imagine; structural/organisational meaning; situational meaning which is very significant in understanding any text. it is the relationship between the writer or speaker and the addressee that affect the communication, such as place, time, age, sex, social status, relationship, presuppositions, cultural background, etc.(p.36-37) these kinds of meaning have important roles in understanding certain things about the communication situation. communication situation are factors in which the translator must be able to recognise, since engliana. 2016. semantics and philosophy of language in translation practice. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 157 the meaning is determined by (larson, 1984, p.421): …who the author was, the purpose he had in writing, who the document was written for, the relationship between the author and his audience, the culture of the source text, how much common information is shared by the audience who reads the source text and the audience for whom the translation is being prepared, …‖ once the author has determined his intention to write, he will choose a particular discourse type for the text. in the example given below, westall (2000) chooses fiction story for teenage audience with the world war i as its background information. he surely has a great deal of information about the culture and other contextual matter related to the story, characters, as well as his teenage audience. look at the sentence below that contains information the translator needs to be aware of. table 4 example my mother, who had gone very hungry during the u-boat campaign of world war i, and who frequently remembered queuing all day for a piece of suet, and being turned away empty-handed, became terrified that i, her only chick, would be starved to death by hitler. ibuku, yang menderita kelaparan selama kampanye u-boat nazi dalam di perang dunia i yang memotong jalur pasokan makanan, dan yang sering teringat saat mengantri seharian demi sepotong lemak atau gemuk sapi untuk dipakai memasak, dan kembali dengan tangan hampa, amat ketakutan bila aku, anak satu-satunya, akan mati kelaparan karena hitler. the author shares his ‗common‘ information to his audience through narrative using historical background. the goal of the translator (larson, 1984, pp.421422) then ... is to communicate to the receptor audience the same information and the same mood as was conveyed by the original document to the original audience. to do this, he must have the author‘s intent firmly in mind as he translates. semantics and translation in practice since meaning is the most discussed issue in translation, it is necessary for translators to know that larson distinguished two kinds of translations namely literal and idiomatic translations. she stated than literal translation tends to maintain the form of the source text instead of underlying the result on the meaning, meanwhile the opposite of literal translation is idiomatic translation which is also known as meaning-based translation, which ―…make every effort to communicate the meaning of the source language text in the natural forms of the receptor language‖ (larson, 1984, p.15). translators who are aiming to produce meaning-based translation result instead of another one need to be aware that ―idiomatic translation uses the natural forms of the receptor language both in the grammatical constructions and the choice of lexical language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 158 items. a truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation.‖ (larson, 1984: 16). duff‘s principle of meaning (1990) who emphasises the importance to preserve meaning in translating says that ―the translation should reflect accurately the meaning of the original text‖ (p. 10). for those reasons, translators should be able to preserve the meaning of the source language in reproducing it into the target language, and then the form or structure will follow the rest of the result. on the matters of overtranslation and undertranslation are often occurred in trying to preserve the meaning and reproducing the closest natural equivalent in the translation. according to newmark (1981), a semantic translation tends to be more complex, more ackward, more detailed, more concentrated, and pursues the thought-processes rather than the intention of the transmitter. it tends to overtranslate [italics added], to be more specific than the original, to include more meanings in its search for one nuance of meaning. (p.39) nida & taber (1982) differentiate overtranslation or expansions into two types: syntactic (or formal) expansions and lexical (or semantic) expansions. syntactic expansions is categorised into four kinds: ―(a) identification of the participants in the events, (b) identification of objects or events with abstracts, (c) more explicit indication of relationals, and (d) filling out of ellipsis, which may involve in any type of syntactic structure.‖ (p.166). meanwhile, the lexical expansions are divided into three different areas: ―(a) classifiers, (b) descriptive substitutes, and (c) semantic restructuring‖ (p.167). table 2 shows example of semantic restructuring so as to achieve its equivalence in translation. table 5 semantic restructuring source text we didn‘t grieve for our school target text kami tidak merasa sedih karena sekolah kami hancur lebur. the indonesian translation of ‗… grieve for our school.‘ is ‗…merasa sedih karena sekolah kami hancur lebur.‘ the translation carries more explanation and additional information in order to make it clearer for readers of the target text. in this context, the translator/researcher added information that was not stated in the source text. the additional information ‗… karena sekolah kami hancur lebur.‘ is taken from the previous context saying their school ‗…had been flattened by a landmine‘. newmark‘s over-translation which (1981) explained: a semantic translation tends to be more complex, more ackward, more detailed, more concentrated, and pursues the thought-processes rather than the intention of the transmitter. it tends to overtranslate [italics added], to be more specific than the original, to include more meanings in its search for one nuance of meaning. (p.39) in preference to have the original form of the source text reproduced in the target text, the translator/researcher decided to emphasize on the fine distinction of the meaning by including more information so as the readers can have comprehensive understanding. engliana. 2016. semantics and philosophy of language in translation practice. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 159 below are two examples of english – indonesian translation. english teenage novel is the souce text of these sentences. the first example (see table 3) shows us that description of word meaning from dictionary does not always alter the correct sense for translator in order to exploit the meaning of the author. the writer of this teenage novel indeed had considered the purpose he had in choosing and writing for and the goal of the translator is to communicate the same information, intention, and tone of text to the audiences/ readers. example 1 source text playground delights target text suka duka tempat bermain the word ‗delight‘ means ―something that gives you pleasure‖ (longman active study dictionary, 2005, p.194) and can be literally translated into ―kesenangan‖ or ―kesukaan‖ (kamus inggris – indonesia, 2000, p.172). however, here the translator/researcher translated ‗delights‘ into ‗suka duka‘. this is in line with the meaning of the context because the phrase ‗suka duka‘ is more explicit for readers to understand. idiomatic translation is applied for a reason that the translator/researcher uses the natural forms of the receptor language to communicate the meaning. the second example (see table 4) shows us the relation between meaning and cultural aspect of the two languages. as has been noted, as cited in dostert, that translation is ―the transference of meaning from one another set of patterned symbols in another culture …‖ (larson, 1984, p.431). example 2 source text we rejoiced, for it had been a soot-black victorian prison. target text kami bersukacita karena sekolah kami seperti penjara yang amat suram di jaman victoria. according to longman active study dictionary (2004), ‗soot‘ means ―a black powder that is produced when something burns‖ (p.712). meanwhile, it may also be defined as ―black powder in smoke, or left by smoke on surfaces‖ (oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary of current english, 1984, p.822). the context describes that ‗…a soot-black victorian prison…‘ is a figure of speech suggesting the gloomy atmosphere of the school. thus, the translator/researcher decided to translate it into indonesian as ‗…seperti penjara yang amat suram …‘. the selection of an appropriate genre and type of discourse for which the compound adjective of ‗soot-black‘ indicates an extremely black colour is understandable because indonesian does not have an equivalent translation for such phrase because it happens in another culture that is different from the indonesian culture. thus, the translation of ―…a soot-black victorian prison…‖ should be made clearer to the reader of the translated text. in the theory of translation, figure of speech cannot be translated word for word and if it is translated then equivalent language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 160 translation would not be precisely implied to the speech as it may diverse in meanings . according to duff‘s (1990) principles of translation, ―idiomatic expressions are notoriously untranslatable … if the expressions cannot be directly translated…use a non-idiomatic or plain prose translation [italics added]…‖ (p.11). since the purpose of translation is to preserve the meaning of the source language, the translator/researcher decided to use plain prose of indonesian ‗…seperti penjara yang amat suram di jaman victoria‘ emphasising the similarities between the object or concept of ‗…sootblack victorian prison‘. meaning is very important in translation and in order to expose implicit information from the source text, which could be misinterpreted by target readers of different language, the translator/researcher should recognise the situational setting and meaning of the specified information. duff (1984) says that ―the dictionary can say only what words mean, not what they do not mean. sensitivity towards attitude goes well beyond formal knowledge of a language.‖ (p.88). conclusion the writer concludes that translation can benefit from semantics and language philosophy. although they are driven by different concerns and goals, yet the methods, emphases, and different analysis can be summarized that the meaning of a complex expression, especially in translating text, is fully determined by the meaning of its parts and the way in which they are put together. references crimmins, mark. (n.d.). routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. retrieved on 22 july 2009, from (http://www.rep. routledge.com/article/u017 duff, alain. 1984. the third language. oxford: pergamon press ltd. duff, alain. 1990. translation. oxford: oxford university press. grimmins, mark. 1998. language, philosophy of in e. craig (ed). routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. london: routledge. retreived on 22 july 2009, from http://www.rep. routledge.com/article/u017 heasley, brendan and hurford, james r. 1984. semantics: a coursebook. cambridge: cambridge university press. larson, mildred l. 1984. meaning-based translation. lanham: university press of america. newmark, peter. 1981. approaches to translation. oxford: pergamon press ltd. westall, robert. 2000. falling into glory. berkshire, great britain: cox & wyman ltd. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 91 the representation of gender in english textbooks in indonesia fadhila yonata pascasarjana universitas negeri semarang fadhilayonata@yahoo.co.id yan mujiyanto pascasarjana universitas negeri semarang yanmujiyanto@mail.unnes.ac.id received: 3 july 2017. revised: 23 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract the urgency of revealing the actual situation of gender equality in education is the background of this study. two textbooks used regularly in senior high school level in semarang namely ‗bahasa inggris‘ (henceforth bi) and ‗aim high‘(henceforth ah) were used as the subjects of the study. briefly, the objectives of the study are to describe the similarities of the representation of gender in bi and ah and to describe differences of the representation of gender in bi and ah. in gathering the data, content analysis for analyzing gender representation proposed by brugeiilles and cromer (2009) was used as the instrument to gain the data after being adapted in some parts. the results of the analysis revealed that (1) both bi and ah are similar in the domination of male over female in the exercise and images part; they are also similar in depicting male characters engaged with higher education, social, and outdoor-based activities. in another side, (2) both bi and ah are different in which bi has no one femaleor equal shared domination in all of the parts while ah has female dominated the frequency in the course material and equal shared domination in the reading passage and conversation part. keywords: gender representation, content analysis, textbook how to cite: fadhila yonata & yan mujiyanto. 2017. the representation of gender in english textbooks in indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 91—101. ____________________________________________________________________________________ introduction the notion of equal gender awareness in society has been devoted since decades ago, especially in western countries. it was pioneered by the study from lakoff (1973) revealed women were more likely to be in lower-status position rather than men. from this study on, several scholars around the globe have been starting to realize about gender disparity and putting the focus on this topic. one of the concrete actions to diminish gender inequality was dakar convention held by unesco in senegal, 2000. the main topic is about education for all (efa) which this summit was trying to open state members to pay attention more toward equality in every aspect, especially in education. at the end of the meeting, efa created six goals that ought to be achieved in 2015 following convention. one of the goals is gender equality in education. recently, unesco (2015) has taken a decision to prioritize gender equality in its programs, and considered gender matters as a central issue in the global post-2015 education agenda. gender inequality or gender bias can be manifested in many aspects of education including access, retention, success career choices, opportunities, and teaching and learning materials. specifically, the consciousness of political mailto:fadhilayonata@yahoo.co.id mailto:yanmujiyanto@mail.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 92 correctness about gender matters has been forced in teaching and learning aids and materials. frankly speaking, a textbook is one of the teaching aids that can be a crucial tool to build students‘ attitude toward world life. it can be simply defined as a medium for providing materials and also sometimes exercises which are used as a basis for the course. this definition is also supported by tomlison (1998) that textbooks serve as a basis for language input that learners need and for language practice that occurs in the classroom. the use of textbook inside and outside the classroom may indicate this as a potential tool for introducing social norms and values. as a guidance, students mostly use the textbook to facilitate them in self-studying both at school and at home. it cannot be neglected that there will be much interaction between them and in other words students may acquire consciously or unconsciously both explicit and implicit knowledge provided by the contents embedded in the textbook. numerous studies have been conducted to supportively raise the awareness of gender equality in elt teaching materials, especially in textbooks. jones, kitetu, and sunderland (1997) found balanced gender representation in english textbooks. further, a curriculum of english teaching offered by sweden government has provided a blueprint in achieving gender equality. this situation may suggest that most of the european countries have started to concern on political awareness, especially gender matters. from local researchers, an across-country study involving indonesian and australian researchers namely utomo, mcdonald, hull, rosyidah, hartimah, idrus, sadli, and makruf (2009) reveal gender depiction in 86 textbooks from four major subject areas namely bahasa indonesia, english language, islamic religion, science and biology, social science and sport and healthy living. all the textbooks adopted ktsp curriculum or the indonesian previous curriculum. the result showed that male frequently appeared in public sphere while female tended to deal with work in private or domestic sphere. moreover, in terms of social leadership and technology, the male roles were presented dominantly. as language is used to communicate among people, it then expands the scope of gender that is not only about action that human performs but also linguistic resources used to communicate among humans. language holds an important role in our society since it influences to what extent our perception of the world and what we understand ‗natural‘ sex roles to be (mills, 1995: 62). further, the linguistic evidence shows what kind of things done by man is called as masculine, done by woman is called as feminine, and language with gender free is called neuter (mustedanagic, 2010). from these roles of language, it can be assumed that gender especially its identity can be represented, constructed and contested through language. moreover, roles for both women and men in society need to be balance. this situation is also called as gender equality. it can be achieved when ‗women and men enjoy the same status and have an equal opportunity to exercise their human rights and realize their full potential to contribute towards political, economic, social and cultural development, and to benefit from the results‘ (unesco, 2015: 10). either woman or man has chances to express her/his ideas and to act freely without being bounded by the sex status. the term gender equality is also interchangeably used with gender equity. gender bias, however, is the opposite meaning of gender equity. this condition is also called as sexism in which to describe fadhila yonata & yan mujiyanto. 2017. the representation of gender in english textbooks in indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 91—101. 93 ‗discrimination within a social on the basis of sexual membership‘ (wodak, 1997: 7). the bias or sexism occurs when one gender is treated unfairly than another gender. later on, the term gender bias is chosen to use more often in this study since it becomes the concern of the study. briefly, gender bias or sexism in language occurs when a certain gender is exploited unfairly and discriminated in terms of linguistic resources. vetterling-braggin (as cited in mills, 1995: 62) defines it as ‗a statement that is sexist if it contributes to, encourages or causes or results in the oppression of women‘. she then suggests the wider scope of definition as ‗a statement is sexist if its use constitutes, promotes or exploits an unfair or irrelevant or impertinent distinction between the sexes‘ (ibid.). commonly the sexism exists when male-related language is considered as a norm and standard in language use. if it does, female seems to feel being excluded and treated exclusively. in this study, stereotyped sex roles are examined broader in regards to sex-linked job possibilities and sex-based activity types. these are in connection with occupational and social roles suggested by jones et.al (1997). therefore, what kind of jobs addressed to both female and male is important to be studied in order to know the ideology about gender occupational roles contested in the textbook. as for example, female is restricted to occupations such as being a student and a nurse while male is portrayed in diversity jobs such as being a police officer, a doctor, a farmer, a soldier and a teacher (ansary and babaii, 2003). in similar vein, appropriate activities for male and female suggested by each textbook also needs to be scrutinized. thus, the general perspectives concerning gender social roles can be explained in detail. for instance, in case of one of indonesian pictorial textbook studies, damayanti (2014) revealed females were depicted more dependent than males and were also construed to be admirers of an action carried out by the males. in this present study, it investigates the way gender is portrayed in the course materials, the reading passage, the conversation, the exercises, and the images in the english textbooks. theoretically speaking, there is no indepth study that focuses on these part of the textbook used as the source of the analysis; this current study fills this gap. furthermore, this study also compared two distinctive textbooks‘ authors background in which one textbook is written by non-native speakers entitled ‗bahasa inggris‘ (henceforth bi) by widiati, rohmah, and furaidah and another one is by native speakers entitled ‗aim high‘ by falla and davies (2010). for the sake of being clear, this study aimed to answer research questions namely: (1) what are similarities of the representation of gender in bi and ah? (2) what are differences of the representation of gender in bi and ah? methodology to gather linguistic evidence in a whole textbook, content analysis is deployed as it is a systematic way of looking at the texts for their content (what they are about, and elements in them) rather than structure of language (sunderland, 2011: 39-40). as the concern of the study is about gender, thus the contents of the textbooks being analysed are everything related to gender issue. the identification process is guided by gender-related categories in which later the occurrences of all the categories are counted. in determining what the categories are being used in this study, methodological framework proposed by language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 94 brugeilles and cromer (2009) is employed. in this model, the gender-related issue is brought by a character. thus, the unit of analysis in this study is about sentences that embed the character in them. the content analysis is only used to identify the existence of the gender based on the categories or provide quantitative results. later, to complete the findings, the analysis of discourse in terms of how the specific gendered-character is is represented in the certain context. in short, the design generated in this study is to reveal what the textbook is broadly about concerning gender issue, who the characters are and how they are represented. the instrument of the current study is generated from the adaptation of brugeilles and cromer (2009) framework. there are some adjustments on the categorization to fit to the current study condition. since the original framework is not specifically addressed for efl textbook which is designed to all school textbooks, there are deletion and limitation of each category in order to make it more appropriate and adequate enough to answer research questions in this study. findings and discussions the first finding is about the overall representation of gender in both textbooks. based on chart 1, the identifiable similarity of the two textbooks is the domination of female characters as the whole. in bi, the proportion of male characters 48% is higher than the proportion of female ones which is only 35%. and only 17% of neutral or gender-free language is used in the textbook. from this general overview, there is a bias related to visibility of gender. the characters in the textbook were dominated by male-related nouns and pronouns. in the similar vein, the thorough analysis about gender represented in ah suggests the domination of male characters over female ones also. the proportion of male-related characters is 48% while female ones is only 39%. in this textbook, the neutral characters were barely used as the optional characters. chart 1.the overall gender representation in bi and ah 48% 48% 35% 39% 17% 13% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% bi ah male female neutral fadhila yonata & yan mujiyanto. 2017. the representation of gender in english textbooks in indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 91—101. 95 furthermore, regarding the components in a textbook, the findings are delivered in detail by dividing the results of the analysis based on the course material part, the reading passage part, the conversation script part, the exercise part, and the images. the percentages are provided in table 1. table 1.the percentage of female and male in bi and ah part of the textbook bi ah female male neutral female male neutral course material 31% 47% 22% 60% 27% 13% reading passage 47% 53% 0 48% 48% 3% conversation script 43% 57% 0 47% 47% 6% exercise 32% 36% 32% 30% 45% 25% image 36% 60% 4% 44% 54% 2% table 1 suggests male domination in all components of the textbook. firstly i report the results from bi. in course material, the proportion of male is 47% that is higher than female which is only 31%. fortunately, neutral characters are also used about 22% of the whole characters in the textbook. in reading passage, the significance number between male and female characters becomes smaller in which the representation of male 57% is only slightly higher than female 47%. there were 8 male and 7 female characters appeared as the main actor in the reading texts. in conversation text, male characters domination once again exists over female ones with the proportions are 57% for male and 43% for female. in the exercise part, the female characters are still underrepresented with only 32% of the characters are related to a woman while 36% of them are male characters. however, this gender bias is slightly faded away for the sake of the existence of gender-free language used as neutral characters which has 32% of the proportion in the exercise part. the last identified gender bias is in the image part which consists of 59 male characters or 60% and only 36 female characters or 36% of the total characters. the rest of them or only 4% depicted neutral characters.the results suggest the high domination of male characters over female in bi. this condition is even worse by the fact that never did female characters dominate the proportion of appearance than male ones in every component of the textbook. this suggests the supremacy of males over females. the exclusion of female from textbook has been shown in other research (ansary and babaii, 2003; barton and sakwa, 2012). the underexposed of females is vital with respect to the development of sexist attitudes unintentionally (barton and sakwa, 2012: 175). this is supported by the underpinning reason that a textbook is one of the compulsory materials needed by the students and it is exposed regularly and repeatedly. accordingly, students may be language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 96 influenced by this sexist knowledge unconsciously. furthermore, most students trust on the credibility of a textbook as an educational material and they ‗tend to absorb and assimilate the materials in minute detail without comment, and to be susceptible to their influence‘ (lee and collins, 2008: 128). secondly, the analysis goes on findings in ah. when looking at the result of the analysis in depth as being depicted in the table 2, in some parts there are some parts seem to have equal gender representation. in reading passage and conversation script, the proportion between male and female is surprisingly exactly balance. the both percentage of male and female characters in reading texts is 48% and the rest of them or the proportion of the neutral characters is 4%. the same case also occurred in conversational texts where the proportion of male and female is 47% and the rest of them is 6% left for neutral characters. the domination of male characters still occurred in the exercise and image part. the intriguing result takes place in course material part when female characters are significantly higher than male ones with the ratio 9:4. the urgency of identifying the domain of activities, occupations, and roles of the characters is to reveal stereotype about gender believed by the textbooks authors. based on the analysis, the characters depicted in both textbooks were represented under the domain of education, social, communication, business and industry (b and i), science and engineering (s and e), leisure, society, family, character, health, sport, transport, and music as the detail result can be seen in table 2. table 2. the domain of activity, role and occupation in bi and ah domain of activity, occupation, and roles bi ah female male female male education 9 15 11 11 social 10 14 2 4 communication 2 1 3 1 business and industry (b and i) 1 1 1 3 science and engineering (s and e) 0 5 3 2 leisure 4 3 8 9 society 0 2 2 8 family 8 9 14 11 character 21 17 29 29 health 0 0 2 9 sport 3 1 8 15 transport 0 0 0 4 music 0 3 0 0 fadhila yonata & yan mujiyanto. 2017. the representation of gender in english textbooks in indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 91—101. 97 evidence in course material part was also found that mostly examples of course material in bi were basically composed of male-oriented topics. specifically, male is depicted as an educated one such as about continuing study and involving in job related to science and engineering. this phenomenon may drive to an assumption that a man is corresponded with educated roles. this such assumption is supported by the evidence continue his study and receive a degree in engineering. the facts suggest only males can continue their study to get better knowledge and higher degree. a much closer look to reading passage part, the imbalance occurrence also appears in which female-related passages were underrepresented over male-related ones. this is in line with ansary and babaii (2003) revealed there are more male-oriented stories than female oriented ones. the domination of male as the main characters in reading passages is worth mentioning the position of male as a norm in life. this imagines problems and issues in the world are for manmade. this indicates the text engaging with female-related issues is not important. this is pernicious because reading passage as the main material for teaching and learning are recognised as ‗the first official agent and the most powerful engine‘ in socializing gendered knowledge (foroutan, 2012:771). therefore, the female-related topic should also be added more to give female students equal right as male students do. for closer analysis in the reading passage part, there are three texts related to female-oriented issues. the two first texts discussed about descriptive text of two female students. these texts denoted what characters of female students have and what kinds of activities they do in their spare time. in these texts, in engaging with their leisure time, they listen to music and read novel and short story. from these lists of activities, women are suggested to do domestic activities such as dealing with home-related activities. this such result is also supported by wu and liu (2015) who argue women are depicted more in the category of domestic activities which they undertake all the housework and perpetuate nursing and caring family. in male-only texts, otherwise, male characters were portrayed to be inventors as in case of the text about wright brothers who have invented plane. from this case, science and engineering were area of fieldwork closely related to men as wright brothers built up a plane firstly based on their ability in science and had background study as engineers. moreover, it was also represented in the figure of b.j. habibie who have been third president in indonesia and also established plane factory in indonesia. in the text entitled b.j. habibie, the story mostly told the biography of habibie from he was kid until becoming an indonesian president. further, male characters were portrayed as a clever and tricky ones represented in a narrative story entitled a kanchil. though the character in the story originally was an animal, but the authors used male-deixis as pronouns instead of neutral one. this may arise an assumption that male is as the norm and a standard to be a character in a story. the domination of male-related topics suggests that the authors tend to position male as a central in texts. it is not surprising male represents education field because indonesian statistics bureau (2015) noticed about 5.95% of female and only 2.61% of male population were illiterate. language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 98 regarding the conversation part, the number of female speakers show bias in which they had fewer chance to be speakers. topics of conversation around male-related life were still favoured by the authors. despite of the domination of the speakers, male, in the other side, only had small number of turns. this such finding was also found by parhem (2013) but the reverse that she yielded male and female characters have more and less equal occurrences in conversation in which female speakers had more participants and male speakers had more turns. female speakers surprisingly had many turns in each conversation especially in female-to-female interactions. the traditional cultures in indonesia, to my knowledge, have indicated female as an active speaker and male as a passive one. this such argument is supported by the findings that among all interactions, five of them were cross-gender interactions while these findings indicated balancedinterface. from analysis of insight into the exercise part, male still slightly outnumbered female. the comparison of male and female is in the ratio 1.15:1. in terms of character, women were portrayed as the ones tend to involve in action related to feelings. this suggests female is a sensitive creature in which she is sometimes easily to be disappointed, pessimistic, and runaway from problems. it is supported by verbs used in the sentences such as feel, trust, and get tired. in the other side, men were depicted to be problem solver and responsible for what they have done. for instance in the sentence joe wanted to bury the dead body of his pet bonnie at the backyard. the male name joe is responsible for his dead pet by not letting it unburied but burying it instead. the verbal data alone are not adequate enough to analyze hidden agenda in the textbook. as stated by mujiyanto (2016) that the dependence of verbal passages on visual representation is relative high. thus, involving the image part in this study is crucial. the stereotypes depicted in the pictures were female students tend to do indoor activity while male ones tend to engage with outdoor activity. for females, they were portrayed as diligent students which were supported by the evidence in the pictures that they were in library, discussing with friends, and always pictured with books in their hands. males, on the contrary, were depicted more to do traveling and hiking to the wild forests and mountains. in the course material of ah, female characters are portrayed under the domestic sphere as the one who actively takes care her family as can be seen in the evidence she is carrying a baby. this indicates women nurturing their baby as they are only the one who always carrying their baby, not their husband. moreover, woman is likely to spend her leisure time at home as it is found in a clause the subject she is doing an action watch at home when holiday is coming. in reading passage part, in chapter 1, a text entitled supermumexposed the struggle of a mother having fifteen children. in this text, the main character was described to have a difficult job to take care all kinds of housework. it is supported by the evidence from action verbs used in the text such as iron, clean, wash, drive, help and shop. her husband, however, only had a small portion of taking care the children because he worked from morning till noon at his office. the text is assumed to portray the real situation in the most european family. thus, by this evidence, the depiction of female is mostly fadhila yonata & yan mujiyanto. 2017. the representation of gender in english textbooks in indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 91—101. 99 appeared under the domain of family in which women thoroughly dominate activities related to housework and have a role as family carer. this statement is also supported by another evidence in the text entitled the simpson family. marge, a mother and a wife respectively, was depicted as a house wife. not only having role as a caregiver, occupation suited to female commonly is also shaped into only as a house wife. in the exercise past, it was revealed that female tend to carry out anything individually in their spare time. spending time at home was the common activity done by female characters in the texts. nevertheless, group-based activities were mostly found performed by the male characters. such as meeting up with same gender friends and playing football were the proof of male involving in same gender colony. the act of doing activities with other indicates male as a social being while female tends to be individual being. in the conversation part, male has power to control the conversation. it is caused by the fact that men mostly became initiators and women only gave feedback. from this phenomenon, female speakers can be categorized as passive speakers. the total number of turns also indicate men were likely to have freedom to express their ideas more than women did even though the entire number of speakers were equal. this phenomenon once again enhance the ideology of the authors discussed in the previous parts that men have a tendency to be active more in social activities such as interact with other people and their bravery also push them to initiate and control the conversation. the last part being discussed is images. the authors of ah have a tendency to utilize real picture rather than animated one or cartoon. overall, the percentage of femalerelated pictures 44% was lower than malerelated ones 54% which is also similar with barton and sakwa (2012) who revealed female were under-represented in the illustrations. further, the closer analysis related one picture with more than one characters also revealed similar result. however, in terms of mixed-gender pictures, the supremacy of female in the male and female pictures was slightly higher than male. this may not decrease the bias anyway since ‗female only‘ pictures were limited. regarding the stereotypes depicted in the images, there was a stereotype in occupation that male characters were depicted to work as doctor and dentist while female ones were depicted as nurse. this such result may strengthen the judgement about female having subservient role. their existences were expected only to help male‘s works in which male characters controlled the process of the works since they were addressed to have higher position than female ones. it was clear that gender bias still occurs in educational setting. so far, the findings were revealed from one of the source of learning materials, a textbook. this issue may be controlled by teachers at classroom as the one who can stir the classroom environment. further, teachers also can invite parents to have educational perspective (ali and mujiyanto, 2017) especially related to stereotype of gender. conclusion from this study it is found that authors‘ perspective is still bias in terms of gender stereotype at society. the content of the textbook as teaching and learning material language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 100 may reflect this phenomenon. from the result of the analysis, both bi and ah are similar in the domination of male over female in the exercise and images part; they are also similar in depicting male characters engaged with higher education, social, and outdoor-based activities. in another side. otherwise, both bi and ah are different in which bi has no one femaleor equal shared domination in all of the parts while ah has female dominated the frequency in the course material and equal shared domination in the reading passage and conversation part. these such results may be used as the suggestion for the stakeholders in providing adequate and proper textbooks as main source material for english teaching and learning process. at school, teachers as the main actor in the classroom can manage to equalize gender roles through selecting appropriate materials. references ali, m., and mujiyanto, y. (2017). the influence of cultural identities in second language acquisition: a perspective from secondary program (semarang multinational school). english education journal, 7 (1), 34-41. ansary, h., and babaii, e. (2003). subliminal sexism in current esl/efl texbooks. asian efl journal 5 (1). accessed april 23, 2017 from http://www.asian-efljournal.com/march03.sub1.php barton, a. and sakwa, l.n. (2012). the representation of gender in english textbooks in uganda. pedagogy, culture and society, 20 (2), 173-190. brugeilles, c. and cromer, s. (2009). analyzing gender representations in school textbooks. paris: ceped. damayanti, i.l. (2014). gender construction in visual images in textbooks for primary school students. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, (3)2, 100-116. education for all coordination forum republic of indonesia. (2014). a report on education for all (efa) achievement period 2000-2015. jakarta: ministry of education and culture. englishtina, inti. (2012). discourse on gender and sexuality. english education journal, 2 (2), 125-132. falla, t., and davies, p.a. (2010). aim high student‟s book 1. oxford: oxford university press. jones, m. a., kitetu, c., & sunderland, j. (1997). discourse roles, gender and language textbook dialogues: wholearns what from john and sally?.gender and education, 9(4), 469-490. lakoff, r. (1973). language and women‘s place. language in society, 2(1): 45-80. lee, j.f.k. & collins, p. (2008). gender voices in hong kong english textbooks – some past and current practices. sex roles, 59 (1/2), 127-137. mills, s. (1995). feminist stylistics. new york:routledge. http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/march03.sub1.php http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/march03.sub1.php language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 101 mujiyanto, yan. (2016). the dependence of verbal passages on visual representation in meaning-making. a paper presented on international seminar prasasti iii: current research in linguistics. solo: universitassebelasmaret mustedanagic, a. (2010). gender in english language and efl textbooks. a term paper submitted to halmstad university, hogskola. parhem, f. (2013). gender representation in children‘s efl textbooks. theory and practice in language studies, 3 (9), 1674-1679. sunderland, j. (2011). language, gender and children‟s fiction. london: continuum. tomlison, b. (1998). materials development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. unesco. (2015). a guide for gender equality in teacher education policy and practices. paris: unesco. utomo, i., anna. r, utomo, a., hull, t., mcdonald, p., & son, v. (2015). you have got to be carefully taught: attitudes to gender roles among school children in indonesia. paper presented at population association of america annual meeting, san diego. widiati, u., rohmah, z. &furaidah. (2014). bahasa inggriskelas x. ministry of education and culture, national office for research and development (balitbang). wodak, r. (1997). gender and discourse. london: sage. wu, h. and liu, w.l. (2015). gender representation in primary english textbooks in mainland china 1978 to 2003. international journal of humanities and social science, 5(6), 116129. language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 102 language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 99 learning the kanji vocabulary based on cooperative learning lispridona diner lisjoost@yahoo.com semarang state university indonesia dyahprasetiani prasetiani.dyah@gmail.com semarang state university indonesia received: 1 may 2015. revised: 10 august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 多くの外国語学習のために、漢字には画数・部首・筆順、読み方などのユニークな 特性を持っているので、学び、記憶するのことは難しい。スマラン国立大学の学生 に観察とインタビューの結果に基づき、漢字を読み書き方や意味を記憶するが難し いである。その理由は授業で勉強した漢字が多すぎる。今まで漢字の授業では面白 いメディァを使用しているが、漢字の読む練習に中心した。授業時間が足りないの で書く練習は自分で自宅でさせる。一方、日本語文に漢字を応用するのはあまりし ない。 上記の事実に基づき、著者は協同学習方法で漢字学習に関する研究を行った。本研 究では代替の教育漢字を提供し、その結果、学生協同の能力を向上させることがで き、漢字語彙（熟語）を習得する能力を向上させることができ、積極的に学習グル ープに関与していることが期待されている。テストの結果はそのメソッドが熟語習 得を向上させることができ、日本語文に漢字を適用する学生の能力を向上させるこ とができることを表す。 keyword: cooperative learning, kanji how to cite: diner, lispridone & dyah prasetiani. (2015). learning the kanji vocabulary based on cooperative learning. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. __________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction for many foreign learners, learning kanji is difficult. this is due to the unique characteristics of those letters, that have the bushu (radical), kakusuu (number of strokes), hitsujun (order of writing), as well as yomikata (how to read). therefore in kanji learning, interesting learning methods and techniques are required, so that the material can be delivered well and learning goals will be achieved. the educators need to prepare everything in order to design a good, active, innovative, creative, effective, and fun learning. preparation is including the selection of the teaching method, techniques, materials, media, and the syllabus. the course method and approach must be adjusted with the mailto:lisjoost@yahoo.com mailto:prasetiani.dyah@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 100 learning objectives and content. in fact, it is possible that one subject matter use more than one method. by using variety of method will create the achievement of the objectives of learning more meaningful. problems discovered in the kanji course in sophomore student in japanese department of semarang state university revealed that students are having difficulty in writing, reading, and memorizing the kanji. kanji learning done up to this point is using basic kanji book and flashcard media. it already interestedthe students, but only focused in improving student‘s ability in reading kanji. while the ability to write and applied kanji vocabulary in sentences involving students are less in practice because of time limitations. based on the above facts, the author tried to do the study analysis on kanji learning that employed cooperative learning method. students are expected to be actively involved to learn kanji in groups, improve collaboration among them, can increase the capability of mastering kanji vocabulary and apply it in sentences, can increase learning motivation through groupwork because they learn from peers. at the end it will resolvestudent‘s difficulty in learning kanji. the need of cooperative learning in learning kanji kokugo jiten mentioned 漢字は中国 で作られた表意文字。また、それをまね て日本で作った文字(1999: 298).kanji is hyoomoji which was originally made in china. the letters are then copied and made in japan. therefore there are two kinds of ways of reading kanji which are onyomi (chinese reading) and kunyomi (japanese reading). almost all kanji have two ways of onyomi and kunyomi. one character of kanji presented one meaning. all of the objects that exist in the world can be written with kanji, especially wago (words of japan) and kango (loan words from chinese). therefore, the number of kanjiare large. the uniqueness of the kanji as mentioned above is often troublesome students when studying it. so, it should be taught in stages according to the level of teaching and learning. katoo in sudjianto and dahidi (2007: 58) suggested that kanjifor foreigners are teachin the following composition: table 1. targets of teaching kanji to foreigners. teaching level the number of kanji allocation time basic intermediate advanced 400-500 700-800 300-400 13 weeks 18 weeks 9 weeks sum 1400-1700 40 weeks the course of kanji in japanese department of semarang state university also follows the composition above. the kanji is given to six semester students. lispridona diner & dyah prasetiani. learning the kanji vocabulary based on cooperative learning __________________________________________________________________________________________ 101 semester i and ii are basic level, semester iii and iv are intermediate level, and v and vi semester are advanced level. each of the semester students has to learn about 150 basic kanji taken from the basic kanji book. if is combined with examples of jukugo vocabulary contained in the textbook, each of the students has to study about 600-700 vocabulary of kanji. with regard to the large number of kanji that have to be memorized by the students, it is appropriate if the learner and lecturers seek the best ways to study kanji. "every technique has a preeminence and weakness of each and is still characterized by personal learning. macromedia flashcard used by teacher in the class are able to attract students who are interested in learning kanji but focus their attention on improving student literacy of kanji vocabulary. meanwhile, students lack practicing making sentences because of time limitation. such kind of practice activities would probably be felt hard by the students if they are done individually. because they cannot find out the right away whether the sentences they write are true or false. it is better if it is done in a group. the students can get feedback and learn from peers. therefore, cooperative learning needs to be employed as a method of learning. previous research was on the model cooperative learning conducted by dr. lisa cline (2007) in primary schools in florida, us. she studied the ―impacts of kagan cooperative learning structures on fifthgraders' mathematical achievement‖. according to her, rally coach, round table, and timed pair share techniques applied in mathematics learning in the fifth grade at elementary school could increase their learning achievements. the students learn math in a more relaxed, can increase the their creativity and initiative, they have the ability and courage to express ideas. those models made students become more excited and do not get bored while studying mathematics in the classroom. based on the above facts, the author tried to share a study of learning kanji with cooperative learning methods. this study is expected to provide alternative teaching learning model so that students can be actively involved in learning kanji in a group, can improve cooperative skill, and can enhance the capabilities of mastering vocabulary kanji. concept of cooperative learning cooperative learning is a term for a set of instructional strategies that are designed to educate the cooperation in small groups to achieve common goals. according to johnson (1998:26), ―in cooperative learning, students work with their peers to accomplish a shared or common goal. the goal is reached through interdependence among all group members rather than working alone. each member is responsible for the outcome of the shared goal‖. in cooperative learning, students make several small groups; each of its members has an academic ability, race or ethnic heterogeneous. each person in the group should actively cooperate to achieve common goals. this strategy could be an alternative to teach interpersonal skills and helps groups of heterogeneous ethnic races and to learn together. cooperative learning can help students in academic learning. techniques contained in the cooperative learning are superior in improving learning outcomes when compared to the study of individual or competitive. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 102 some experts suggested that cooperative learning is not only superior in helping students grasp difficult concepts but also very helpful in communicating scientifically through discussion, critical thinking, teamwork, build a sense of responsibility, a willingness to help friends groups, problem solving, interacting with friends or professors, social relations, improve selfconfidence, as well as develop trust between friends both individually and group. but not all learning in group is called cooperative learning. there are five important elements of effective cooperative learning (johnson, 1998:29): a. positive interdependence. each member of the group interdependent in order to accomplish the task. if each member does not help each other then the groups are unable to reach the destination. teacher creates an atmosphere that encourages students to feel mutual need or commonly referred to as the positive interdependence. the positive interdependence can be achieved through: interdependence in accomplish goal, interdependence in completed the task, also interdependence towards resource, material, role, and prize. b. the face-to-face interaction. to help the success of group work, interaction is necessary by means of mutual support and help group members. students face to faceat each other so they will make a dialogue. dialogue is not only done with the lecturer but also with peers. usually the students would be more flexible and easier if they learn with peers. c. individual accountability. each group member must have accountability towards his work. this is required so as not to interfere with the work of other groups. the bottom line is that individual accountability is a group assessment based on average mastery of all members individually. d. social skills. social skills needed to build a strong cooperation between group members. leadership, decisionmaking, trust-building, and communication are the skills that could be developed in cooperative learning. social skills in establishing relationships between students should be taught. students who are not able to establish interpersonal relationships will earn a rebuke from other students as well as teacher. e. group processing. an assessment of how the activities of the working group. by reviewing behaviour of group, students and teacher have the opportunity to discuss any special needs or problems within the group. cooperative learning objectives among the objectives of cooperative learning activities are as follows. 1. improving academic learning outcomes. even though the cooperative learning includes a wide range of social objectives, it also aims to improve the performance of students in academic tasks. some experts argue that this model excels in helping students understand the difficult concepts. 2. acceptance of the diversity. the cooperative learning gave opportunities to students who have different background and condition to work mutually dependent upon one another on tasks together. 3. the developing social skills. student‘s skills of cooperation and collaboration to lispridona diner & dyah prasetiani. learning the kanji vocabulary based on cooperative learning __________________________________________________________________________________________ 103 interact with other friends can be developed by applying cooperative learning. table 2. objectives of syntax in kanji learning syntax teacher role 1. present goals and set. to explain the purpose of learning and prepare students ready to learn. 2. present information presented information to the student all at verbal. 3. organize students into learning teams givean explanation to the students about the formation of team learning and help the group perform an efficient transition. 4. assist team work and study help team learn as long as students work on the task. 5. test on the materials test the student's knowledge on a variety of learning materials or groups presented the results of his work. 6. provide recognition prepare a way to acknowledge the efforts and achievements of individuals and groups. cooperative learning syntax in kanji learning in cooperative learning, students divideinto several groups, working in group, and learn from each other. it can be says that this model done by student, so spirit of working together in group can be built. learning activity undertaken in the group not only discussed the matter, but also solved the problem, brainstorming, explore or discover new ideas. group heterogenity allows them indirectly learning about cultures and issues of group dynamics. the implementation of cooperative learning can be modified according to the opinion of knight (2009)―teachers can utilize a variety of learning structures while providing cooperative learning‖. for the needs of learning kanji, the author modified cooperative learning syntax as follows: material explanation explanation stage is defined as the process of delivery points of the subject matter before the students study in groups. the main goal in this stage is the student's understanding towards the subject matter. at this stage the teacher gives a general overview of the subject matter that should be learn by the student. then, students will deepen such material in group learning. at this stage the lecturer use various methods, brainstorming, question answer, and even the demonstration. in addition, lecturers can also use various media to make learning process more interesting to the student. group learning after the lecturer explains a general overview about the issues of the subject matter, students divide into several groups according to the amount. the lecturer needs to develop an idea that students will learn more meaningful by working in groups. within the group, students will try to find and construct new knowledge together with peers. here, the students required to teach each other. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 104 furthermore, heterogeneous group that is formed based on the differences of each members, whether gender differences, religious background, socio-economic and ethnic diversity, and academic ability is important. in academic ability, it will be good if the member of the group consists of one person whom has high capability in academic, two people with academiccapable medium and one with academiccapable less. heterogeneity in the group preferred because (1) heterogeneous groups provide an opportunity for peer tutoring and support each other. (2)this group will enhance the relationship and interaction between religion, ethnicity, and gender. (3) group of heterogeneous eases the management of classes because by having one person capable of high academic, lecturer gets one assistant for every three people. through learning in teams, students are encouraged to share the information and opinions, discuss the problem together, comparing their answers, and correcting things that are less precise. then, a lecturer should give tasks and explanation to students. during group working, lecturer should become a facilitator and develop student‘s nature curious by encourage them to ask peers. evaluation students need to write down the work. it contribute lecturer in evaluating student‘s' ability by means of students presentation of the results of their work. other ways to evaluate student achievement are giving a test or quiz. tests or quizzes can bedone either individually or in groups. individual test will provide information on the ability of each student, and the test group will provide information on the ability of each group. at the end of the meeting a lecturer and students do a reflection. team recognition team recognition is giving reward to the most prominent team assignments. recognition and rewards are expected to be able to motivate the team to continue the good work and also evoked the other team motivation to be more able to improve their achievement. lecturer need to reward individual and group learning results. findings the findings of the implementation of the cooperative learning model on shokyukanji has been generating findings as follows: the ability of students in mastering kanji vocabulary and apply it in the sentence increased. the average value obtained from students in classroom experiments was 82.095 while the average value obtained from students in classroom control is 66.217. for details on these values can be seen in table 3. lispridona diner & dyah prasetiani. learning the kanji vocabulary based on cooperative learning __________________________________________________________________________________________ 105 table 3. result posttest score of experimental class table 4. result posttest score of control class the above table shows that student in experiment class got better score than the control class. the increase is obviously can be seen during the learning process. students in the classroom experiment looks more anthusias while attendingthe kanji class than the students in control class. advantages and disadvantages of cooperative learning advantages (1) by employing cooperative learning, each member of the small groups can complement each other and assist in resolving any material received so that each student will not feel burdened themselves when not able to work on a specific task. (2) due to the heterogeneous, group members have different thoughts so that they can exchange knowledge to complete the answers. (3) cooperative learning suitable to solve problems that require thinking together. (4) students may happy to learn because working with peer (5) not always depends on the teacher (6) can develop the ability of expressing ideas/knowledge of students (7) empowers students to be more responsible in learning 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 series1 0 20 40 60 80 100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223 series1 language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 106 disadvantages in the cooperative learning model, if member of the group cannot cooperate well and be compact, there will be: disagreements due to various differences that can cause not harmonious. (1) sometimes there are more members that dominate the group and some were just silent, so that the delegation of the tasks is not evenly distributed. lecturers must respond swiftly toward this. (2) it takes quite a long time because the member of the group have to do mutual discussion with in order to unite opinions and views that are considered true. (3) since most knowledge obtained from friends, then sometimes it is a little difficult to understand, because their knowledge is limited. sometimes an error cannot be corrected bypeer. (5) takes a long time to achieve success (6) assessment based on groups conclusion from the explanation above, it can be concluded that cooperative learning should be priotitized in resolving the problem. the purpose of this learning process is not just an academic purpose or knowledge of the competencies, but also the elements of cooperation in an effort to control the competence, acceptance of diversity and the development of social skills. this model can be one alternative learning method in the class. by engaging students in active, students are expected to be more responsible for the increased traffic of their learning on their own. the learning process will be more interesting and not boring and so achievement increases. cooperative learning teaches how to cooperate in resolving an issue/task in groups through discussion with peers who have different academic ability and different thinking. through it, then each member of the group will be sharing their knowledge and skills. the weakness of heterogeneity of the group can result the dominance among the group member, so it is possible if there is a very active student and non active student. advices can be given for those who want to implement such a model of learning. lecturers should pay attention to all students and encourage students to ask actively during the group work so that the learning objectives are achieved. references chieko, k., et al. 1991. basic kanji book vol. 1.tokyo: bojinsha co, ltd. cline, l. 2007. impacts of kagan cooperative learning structures on fifth-graders' mathematical achievement. san clemente, ca: kagan publishing. kagan online magazine, fall 2007. www.kaganonline.com. diunduh 2 maret 2013. foundation japan. 2008. nihongonoryo kushiken no jyukenannai. japan: the japan foundation http://www.cusd.claremont.edu/edu/el/pdfs/cooperative_learning_strategies.pdf http://www.jlpt.jp/e/. retreived 4 august 2012, 15.33 johnson, david w. dan johnson, roger t. 1998.cooperation in the classroom: interaction book. holubec: company edina, mn http://www.kaganonline.com/ http://www.jlpt.jp/e/ lispridona diner & dyah prasetiani. learning the kanji vocabulary based on cooperative learning __________________________________________________________________________________________ 107 kagan, s. & kagan, m. 1998. multiple intelligences: the complete mi book. san clemente: resources for teachers. kagan, s. 1994.cooperative learning. san clemente: resources for teachers. knight, j. 2009. cooperative learning: instructional coaching. version 1.2—october 16. online http://www.instructionalcoach.org 1 lie, anita. 2002. cooperative learning: mempraktekkan cooperatif learning di ruangruang kelas. jakarta: pt gramedia widiasarana indo nur, m. 2005. pembelajaran kooperatif. dirjen dikti depdiknas. nurul, maghfiroh. 2012. strategi pembelajaran kooperatif. http://nurulmaghfirohq. blogspot.com/2012/09/strategi-pembelajaran-kooperatif.html. accessed 1 april 2013. sanjaya, w. 2006. strategi pembelajaran berorientasi standar proses pendidikan. jakarta: prenada media group sardiman, a.m. 2005. interaksi dan motivasi belajar mengajar, jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. slavin, r. 1995. cooperative learning theory research and practise. boston: allyn and bacon soeparno. 1988. media pengajaran. intanpariwara sudjianto. 2004. paper pendekatan komunikatif dalam pengajaran bahasa jepang sumantri, m. 2001. strategi belajar mengajar. bandung: cv maulana wiriaatmadja, r. 2005. metode penelitian tindakan kelas. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. xamuel. kanji vs. romaji. online. www.xamuel.com/kanji-vs-romaji/ cached similar. retreived 16 februaty 2012 http://www.xamuel.com/kanji-vs-romaji/ http://www.xamuel.com/kanji-vs-romaji/ http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:xf5dl6jy6o0j:www.xamuel.com/kanji-vs-romaji/+the+difficulty+of+kanji&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 111 the contribution of patriarchy to the concept of manhood in african societies: a marxist reading of isidore okpewho’s the last duty email: fikoff75@gmail.com abstract this paper explores the concept of patriarchy as an undesirable ideology that promotes the oppression of the weak and vulnerable in society by the strong and powerful in isidore okpewho’s the last duty. it is widely held that patriarchy promotes the domination of men over women and promotes an artificial hierarchy of class in which women become subordinates to their male gender. yet, patriarchy does not only make subjugates of women. depending on the dictates and expectations of a culture, men, like women, can equally be made subjugates of patriarchy if they are deemed unworthy of the title of a man. this usually happens when they do not measure up to the standard of societal expectations, particularly, within african cultural setting. using the theory of marxism, this paper argues that patriarchy not only succeeds in creating a society that operates on classism in which women are the subordinates; men too become victims. in addition, patriarchy inflicts deep psychological trauma on men and women who suffer its tenets. the conclusion is that men and women collectively fight patriarchy in order to achieve an egalitarian society where synergy can be harnessed for the betterment of all. key words: capitalism, marxism, patriarchy, psychological trauma, egalitarianism, nigeria, introduction the concept of patriarchy as an undesirable ideology promotes the oppression of the weak and vulnerable in society by the strong and powerful in isidore okpewho’s the last duty. it is widely held that patriarchy promotes the domination of men over women and promotes an artificial hierarchy of class in which women become subordinates to the male gender. yet, patriarchy does not only make subjugates of women. depending on the dictates and expectations of a culture, men, like women, can equally be made subjugates of patriarchy if they are deemed unworthy of the title of a man. this usually happens when they do not measure up to the standard of societal expectations, particularly, within the african cultural setting. by using the theory of marxism, authors of this paper argue that patriarchy not only succeeds in creating a society that operates on classism in which women are objectified; men too become victims. in addition, patriarchy inflicts deep psychological trauma on men and women who suffer its tenets. the conclusion is that men and women collectively fight patriarchy in order to achieve an egalitarian society where synergy can be harnessed for the betterment of all. a qualitative method of research has been used to gather data through literature review confidence gbolo sanka department of english kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, ghana mailto:fikoff75@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 and to analyze the data. the paper proceeds by focusing on the literature review, the synopsis of the novel, a close reading and analysis of the novel and finally, the conclusion of the paper. narrative techniques such as charaterization, the saturation technique, stream of consciousness, humour and symbolism have also been discussed since they are means through which the concept of patriarchy and its contribution to the concept of manhood have been presented in the african context. literature review karl max, examining society from the varied angles of economics, sociology and politics observed the disparity that existed between humans and described the relationships as contingent upon the economic levels of people which resulted in a society built on class. according to bowens et al (2013), ‚the communist manifesto (propounded by karl max and friedrich engles18291895) describes the process by which society developed over time so that today it is divided into roughly two great classes.‛ marxists normally refer to the upper ruling class who own the means of production as the bourgeoisies while the working class is referred to as the proletariat. marx observes that the ruling class employs crude ways and means of constantly keeping the working class in a position of subordination since they overly exploit the labor of the working class. the working class makes all the profits and provides the goods and services enjoyed by the ruling class; however, their own benefits are nothing compared to the gains of the bourgeoisies. as mclellan states, ‚the proletariats are the poor laborers in the capitalist society being down-trodden by the bourgeois capitalists‛ (cited in odeh, 2010) ) it is marx’s belief that the exploitation and oppression of the proletariat shall not forever persist; they will become conscious of the exploitative and oppressive ways of the ruling class and revolt to create a bourgeoning egalitarian society. tyson (2006) commenting on marxist ideology stipulates that to the marxist critic, ‚differences in socio-economic class divides people in ways that are much more significant than differences in religion, race, ethnicity or gender.‛ yet the proletariats are often the last to observe this and allow their petty differences exemplified in race, religion, ethnicity or gender to separate and pitch them against one another instead of uniting them against the common threat of the ruling class. not only does tyson (2006) identify factors such as race and religion as some elements that militate against the synergy of the proletariat, she expatiates on ideological principles that help the continual perpetration of oppression and exploitation of the proletariat by the ruling class. she observes that ‚for marxism, an ideology is a belief system, and all belief systems are products of cultural conditioning.‛ to her, ideologies such as capitalism, religion, patriotism and so on are all products of cultural conditioning created to make people behave in ways societies deem acceptable. to the marxist critic, however, not all ideologies are required or useful. for instance, tyson (2006) observes that: patriotism is an ideology that keeps poor people fighting wars against poor people from other countries (one way or another, sufficient money can generally, keep one out of the armed forces during war time or, at least, out of the combat units) while the rich on both sides rake in the profits of war-time economy. in another instance, she cites religion as ‚an ideology that helps to keep the faithful poor satisfied with their lot in life, or at least tolerant of it, much as tranquilizer might do‛ (tyson, 2006). if all these examples are anything to go by, then one can conclude that patriarchy is also an undesirable ideology meant to favor language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 men as the ruling and domineering class while women, like the proletariat, become the oppressed, the subordinated and the downtrodden as typified in many african societies. indeed, several literatures exist on the economic relationship between men and women that places men at the helm of affairs while situating women at the receiving end of instructions. in an article entitled ‚the role of patriarchy in family settings and its implications to girls and women in south africa,‛ mudau and obidare defined patriarchy as: patriarchy is a system of society or government in which the father or the eldest male is head of the family and descent is reckoned through the male, hence the system promotes male privilege. the attitude and expectations organized on this basis rank men above women, providing a social structure that gives men uncontested authority. it is an obsession with control as a core value around which social life is organized. (2017) patriarchy in the typical african setting therefore gives undue advantage and total control of power to the male gender while denying the female of all of these privileges. one of the writings which support the above view is propounded by delphy (1984), a feminist critic who analyses the relationship between husbands and wife in the home environment that is the family as an economic unit, from the marxist point of view indicates that: *a+ll contemporary ‚developed‛ societies< depend on the unpaid labor of women for domestic services and childrearing. these services are furnished within the framework of a particular relationship to an individual (the husband). they are excluded from the realm of exchange <labor power. there is a clear indication from the above that within the home environment where the tenets of patriarchy are practiced, the man becomes the authority who wields power and controls the resources of the home while the woman becomes the cheap source of labor whose labor power is maintained through the gifts she receives from the husband. her labor is cheap because she is not given the proper equivalence of exchange for her services unlike what she might be paid for doing the same or similar kinds of work outside the home environment. in all these, it is necessary to note that it is not that women’s contribution to the family is not recognized as important; it is rather due to the fact that patriarchy, as tyson (2006) asserts, ‚defines women in their domestic roles as non-workers.‛ it is based on this reality that delphy further asserts that the relationship that exists between men and women is, to a large extent, contingent on power: ‚patriarchal men want to keep all of it; non patriarchal women want power to be equally distributed‛ (tyson, 2006). eisenstein (1999) shares a similar view with delphy on patriarchy. as a socialist feminist, she analyses power in relation to class origins and patriarchy. viewing capitalism and patriarchy as mutually dependent ideologies that work together to militate against the independence of the woman she states: <my argument here is that oppression and exploitation are not equivalent concepts as they were used by marx and engels. exploitation speaks to the economic reality of capitalist class relations whereas oppression refers to power as it is defined within patriarchal and capitalist relations. exploitation < capitalism. in this, eisenstein identifies the combined evils of capitalism and patriarchy as the cause language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 of the oppression of women. she, however, links the oppression of women to patriarchal roots of power control that segregates women and men into classes; women, regardless of their social position or standing become subordinates to men while men become the lords and wielders of power. she believes that in addition to the economic class of marxist criticisms, women also form a sexual class, because they establish the basic and necessary activities of society such as reproduction, child rearing and nurturing, domestic laboring and wage-earning. women in patriarchal societies perform all responsibilities that relate to reproduction and wage earning, yet they have little or no ownership to the very things they produce or reproduce because patriarchy puts them in a position of subordination and oppression in relation to another sexual class_____ the male. she, however, does not lose sight of the fact there are class divisions even among women and therefore recommends that a vocabulary and conceptual tools as a whole are developed to deal with the question of differential power among women in terms of their relation to men and the class structure (eisenstein, 1984). in addition, hartmann contends that patriarchy is ‚a set of social relations between men which have material basis, and which, though hierarchical, establish or create independence and solidarity among men that enable them to dominate women‛(cited in tong 2009) hartmann’s materialist account situates the material base as originating from ‚men’s control over women’s labor power‛; this control is constituted by restricting women’s access to important economic resources and by disallowing any women control over female sexuality and especially female reproductive capacities. this position, definitely reflects in the urgent need of a woman to satisfy the needs of her husband or lover for the material reciprocity he provides by not deserting her and her wards or in the relationship of reciprocity in which a woman has to please her boss in order to maintain her job. hartman concludes that men’s urge to control women is as strong as the bourgeoisies would want to control and manipulate the proletariat: capitalism and patriarchy are not two heads of the same beast. they are two dissimilar fiends, and they must be battled with different arms. in considering the relationship that exists between patriarchy and capitalism from a review of literature, one is quick to realize that the definitions of patriarchy are consciously applied to the subjugation of women by men. it appears that many feminist and socialist feminist critics do not observe that men equally suffer the tenets of patriarchy just as women do as this is especially the case when, in the eyes of society, the men in question do not measure up to the standards of societal expectations. situating this paper within the framework of zillah eisenstein views on the relationship between patriarchy and capitalism which she argues from the marxist point of view above, the authors of the paper argue that when the african cultural perspective of manhood( which is defined not only in the physical sense of the word but in metaphorical terms too to include wealth, sexual potency, physical and emotional strength) is taken into consideration, women alone would not be victims of patriarchy; men who are not considered ‚men‛ in the connotative sense of the word are partners with women together in the subordinate class commonly ruled by wealthy and powerful capitalist bourgeoisie men of authority. the contributions of patriarchy to the experiences those not regarded as ‚men‛ are normally negatively drastic with respect to their psyche. consequently, there is a need for the sexes to fundamentally do away with patriarchy which may subsequently help in eroding the capitalist hold thereby creating an egalitarian society for both men and women. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 synopsis of the novel the last duty by isidore okpehwo is a historical novel. the story is a recast of the historical accounts of the nigerian civil war in a fictional manner. at the beginning of the novel, the federal troops liberate the border town of urukpe where the igabo people dwell together with the simbas from the rebel occupation of the simba. aku, a simba woman, married to oshivere an igabo man, has to hide herself and her baby at the back of her home to escape a possible lynching by the townspeople because she belongs to the rebel tribe. chief toje, a rubber magnate, sensing immense competition from oshevire takes advantage of the mayhem of war to accuse oshivere of aiding rebel activities and suborns another citizen to indict him at a tribunal at iddu. meanwhile, chief toje, having lost his manhood and under the guise of being a supportive benefactor against the rebels, decides to use oshivere’s wife, aku, to regain his manhood. he is, however, unsuccessful, and in his stead, his disabled nephew, odibo rather indulges in an illicit affair with aku. the knowledge of this provokes a deadly machete fight in which both odibo and toje wound each other and fall into coma. analysis taking into accounts the fact that the last duty is a historical novel that recounts the happenings in nigeria during the outbreak of the civil war between the federal state and the secessionist state of biafra, it is clear that the case of nigeria is one significant example of how economic conditions become the defining elements or motive behind all social, political and cultural activities. according to history, there is every reason to believe that the conflict was the outcome of economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions among the different ethnic groups of nigeria. iweriebor opines that european imperialist occupation of africa, and for that matter the british occupation of nigeria ‚developed in the nineteenth century following the collapse of the profitability of the slave trade, its abolition and suppression, as well as the expansion of the european capitalist industrial revolution‛ (2018). the rise of industrialization in europe meant the need for the acquisition of raw materials and larger offshore markets for european goods and services. therefore, the economy of the colonized nations of africa was structured by the colonialist to serve their own economic needs. as shokpeka et al (2009) observe: the colonial economy in most of africa was structured to improve the economies of the colonizing or metropolitan powers. in the scheme of things, what mattered was how the colonial economy could benefit the colonizers. very little, if in any regard, was paid to the indigenous population. when the african population was taken into consideration, <power. surprisingly, the case of exploitation by the powerful colonialist was just a microcosm of the entire picture. featuring in the core relationships among the people was another severe case of exploitation, corruption and manipulation: the stronger and powerful within nigeria also used the civil war as a means of exploiting the weak and vulnerable economically, physically and psychologically. it is said that there is always another side to the truth; it is the other untold aspects of the nigerian civil war from the perspective of the civilians that isidore okphewho decides to tell his story adopting the stylistic approach of stream of consciousness also known as dramatic monologue, the author takes readers through the minds of his characters revealing the extent to which the rich and powerful with will go to exploit the weak and downtrodden. isidore okphewho also succeeds in revealing the severe physical and psychological damage the language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 116 weak and vulnerable experience in the hands of the powerful in war situations. using symbolism, isidore okpewho constructs a patriarchal capitalist character by name toje onovwakpo who, due to his capitalist and patriarchal mentality, abuses and exploits not only women but men also. he is a rich and powerful rubber magnate. he is extremely egoistic, arrogant, manipulative, domineering and cunning. as a patriarchal man, his patriarchal sentiments are revealed in his metaphorical thoughts of what manhood is. to him, a man is one who is wealthy, potent and expedient. if a man is a foremost citizen with a level of distinction and his name alone is capable of ensuring that his town is showered with endowments, then he deserves to be called a man in the truest sense of the word. in his own words: every town must have a few people whose names lend respect to the community. they should be the town’s foremost citizens, men of some distinction. it isn’t that these are the first men to be called to arms when a fight ensues between their town and another – no that’s a thing of the past. there are <again. (okpewho, 2003) in applying the theory of class consciousness as stipulated by karl marx, one appreciates that toje’s mindset is a revelation of the classism existent within the african society which views the concept of manhood based on not only the denotative meaning of the word but on its metaphorical functioning as pertains to name, wealth, and influence. there are different classes of men. therefore, a man is not a man in the full sense of the word if he lacks any of the societal qualifications that qualify him as such. to toje, the days when manhood was defined based upon the basis of strength and velour alone belongs to the past; all other metaphorical definitions of the word must apply. by implication, then, toje believes that men who do not belong to his class of wealth and prestige must be more than willing to offer themselves as sacrificial lambs to protect and satiate the upper class to which he belongs. if eisenstein thoughts on classism as it relates to patriarchy is adopted, then readers can assume that on the hierarchy of power, toje considers himself one of the most powerful in urukpe because of his wealth and social status. any other category of people (women or men) who are not at par with him on the socioeconomic ladder must be his subjugates and must be open to his exploitative tendencies. as such, he categorically uses derogatory descriptive words such as ‚small man,‛ ‚lamebrained,‛ and ‚fool‛ to describe such men as odibo and emuakpor who do not belong to his class (okpewho, 2003). the situation is worse for a woman like aku who patriarchy already defines as a subjugate of men. toje therefore relates to her in terms of her sexual class. yes, she is a subordinate because patriarchal tenets place her there, and she becomes open to exploitation because the capitalist mentality in toje sees a means of using her sexuality to regain his manhood. this is a deep revelation because readers begin to understand that patriarchal sentiments much as they affect women also affect men, but the implications for women are worst. patriarchy determines the worth and importance of men in relation to women, yet it does not allow every man to regard himself as a ‚real man‛ if he does not satisfy the criteria determined by society. the traditional definition of manhood especially as it pertains to many african cultures goes beyond biological traits or physiological features to include, wealth class and status. a man who therefore has only his biological traits to boast of may as well consider himself, at best, less of a man and must be willing to sacrifice and place himself at the mercies of the rich and powerful. this is toje’s belief, and to confirm it he categorically states: language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 this town has people like me to thank for whatever notice it has achieved today if therefore anything happens to people like me that might detract from the position in which we are held, no sacrifice should be great from anybody in this town to ensure that we keep our place, that we maintain our position. (okpewho, 2003) toje’s capitalist and patriarchal sentiments are always at work. in order to maintain and exert his power and influence, toje has to cut the ladder that will lead others to the top hierarchy where he is. as such, he recommends another enterprising, young man, mukoro oshivere, who is well beneath toje in terms of wealth, status and class for detention on false accusations of aiding the rebel occupations because toje sees him as a threat to his rubber business. the dynamics of classism and patriarchy are at work: toje is symbolic of the powerful capitalist bourgeoisie who will use diabolic ways and means of keeping mukuro oshivere, the hard working and enterprising proletariat, at bay so he does not climb up the ladder of wealth to become powerful and influential like him. again, toje’s suborning of another citizen, rukeme, to spew lies against oshivire at the tribunal is symbolic of the divisive strategies employed by those on the top hierarchy of the social ladder to constantly separate and confuse the proletariat so they lose focus of the real threat that stares them in the face. through these, readers are informed of the economic greed and patriarchal tendencies that fuel and dictate the actions of the rich and powerful towards the poor, weak, and vulnerable in many african societies. another key factor the novel reveals about the hand in hand workings of patriarchy and the capitalist motives evident in the seemingly harmless actions of the rich and powerful towards the poor is observed in the commodification of the weak and vulnerable. this is revealed in toje’s commodification of aku, oshivere’s wife and odibo his own crippled nephew. toje is a man of complexity. he knows that wealth alone does not define manhood; a man is a man not only because he is wealthy but because he is sexually potent too. therefore, sensing his weakness and the possibility of losing his revered position, he allows expediency to dictate his moves, and anyone or anything he must use to achieve his manhood becomes a tool. he underestimates and disregards the physical, psychological and emotional damage he causes to others provided his tool succeeds in fulfilling his desires. toje’s brutish and backbiting attitude is revealed through the following: that is why i have not hesitated to recommend a citizen here for detention on charges of collaboration with the rebels, and then suborned another citizen to draw up the details of the indictment. for i felt that mukoro oshivere stood in my way. and <here. (okpewho, 2003) the metaphorical descriptions and rhetorical question employed above reveal that toje’s patriarchal thoughts of manhood is that which drives him to use vindictive and unorthodox ways of regaining his sexual potency. toje considers himself an eminent man because he is wealthy and influential and his name equates credence and respect in his community. if therefore there lies within him a despicable problem that questions his manhood and potency thereby bringing upon him disgrace, then he demands his problem should be the society’s problem. if his glory is the glory of the society, then his shame must also be its shame. yet, he is not bold enough to seek the right help through the right means. toje’s crude and exploitative ways of obtaining whatever he wants is a criticism of the ideals of rugged individualism espoused by capitalist motive. because rugged individualism centers on the self, it naturally breeds greed and individualism which subsequently foster breeding grounds for exploitative tendencies. toje hatred for aku’s huband, oshivere, stems language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 118 from his desire to eliminate him from the rubber business in order to maintain a comfortable lead. his desire to exploit aku sexually is only to spite another subordinate in order to reassert his manhood. aku therefore becomes the victim of a sexual prowler who mars her integrity as a mother and a chaste wife because the circumstances of war force her into further subordination by becoming toje’s sexual commodity. their relationship is however, to some extent, symbiotic: in exchange for food, clothing and protection for herself and her son, she in turn grudgingly offers to fulfill toje’s sexual needs. aku metaphorically describes toje and his kindness as ‚a new kind of danger‛ (okpewho, 2003). yet, the irony is that, he is a danger she dares not escape because her survival and that of her child within the community of urukpe depends on the good will of toje who chooses to help her in a community where she faces constant threat of death and ostracism: and now i see a new danger, a new kind of danger. for several months now toje has shown us kindness. he has continued to buy clothes, food and other necessities for us, and to give me money from time to time. i feel very certain that<. i know what it is all about. (okpewho, 2003) the bare truth that such a chaste and faithful woman would have to succumb to the wiles of a sexual pervert like toje, who, is outwardly eminent but inwardly debased is heart wrenching. the extent of aku’s psychological pain and trauma shows in the series of rhetorical questions she engages herself in and which depicts the turbulence in her psychological makeup: where can i run, what can i do? if it weren’t for the goodness of the federal army commander here, who has warned that nobody should take the law into his hands, where would i be today? if i can no longer go to the market to buy foodstuffs for my child and myself then how can we survive? and my people? (okpewho, 2003) how long can i survive in this town if i stay isolated from the entire community except for a few soldiers who happen to stray to my stall? (okpewho, 2003) indeed, that she must either succumb to toje or face the wrath of the people is a choice that is difficult to make. these expressions of aku show the turmoil she is in. to use robert’s (2014) words ‚these expressions indicate desperate cry caused by hopelessness; the questions reveal her emotional state which[is] plagued by feelings of uncertainty about the future.‛ the questions also reveal her loneliness and isolation from the society that she is supposed to fully belong by marriage. aku is not the only victim of toje’s capitalist and patriarchal manipulations. his own nephew odibo suffers a similar fate because he is disabled, poor and a dependent on him. to reassure himself of his own manhood, power and authority, toje employs mental and psychological abuse as a way of exploiting another man. toje’s use of vituperative language on odibo makes him even doubt himself worthy of being human not to talk of being a man. he is one who has lost self-confidence and is full of feelings of inferiority all because toje ensures he drums into odibo’s ears constantly that he odibo is worthless. in the opening phase of his monologue, odibo is seen uttering statements littered with repetition and rhetorical questions: ‚i know i am nothing. i know i have nothing. but why does he keep making me feel bad?‛ (okpewho, 2003). these words of odibo seem innocent on the surface; however, they are pregnant with meaning. odibo is a subordinate who has come to accept the negative identity and status impinged on him by his superior. the ‚i know i language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 119 am nothing. i know i have nothing‛ he utters indicates that he knows he obviously does not belong to the class and status of toje, and certainly not to any class at all. he knows he does not have and will never have the wealth, power and influence toje has. he therefore resigns himself to fate and has no hope of overturning his fortunes because his mind which is representative of his will power is in the hands of another being he, odibo, sees as superior to him. to maintain his hold, toje also does enough to ensure that odibo never gets any form of mental emancipation, so he constantly hammers on odibo’s weaknesses in order to maintain him in his position of servitude: i think you are too dump to realize that. you are just a dump mass of body ambling about without any sense in your head. so stupid that even though you realize that a woman is afraid for herself and her child you do not see that if she has to go anywhere for any < (okpewho, 2003) in several other instances, toje does not relent in making odiborealise his worthlessness. in addition to the insults he constantly rains on odibo, toje has no qualms about issuing odibo with threats of taking away odibo’s job and his allowances if he ever senses that odibo has intentions of charting his own course and his independence: if you ever conceive that you can do whatever you like i shall have no regrets about taking your job and your allowances away from you and giving them to someone else who would gladly listen to my word. you can then go and fend for yourself – and god help your one hand! (okpewho, 2003) not only does toje try to manipulate and control those who he considers beneath his wealth and status, but also, owing to his wealth and influence, he tries to penetrates the military, the apparatus of the state, by covertly making utterances that indict and undermines the works of major ali, yet the major continues to entertain him because toje has the power, influence and the good will he major ali needs to make his command at the federal military post at urukpe successful. though he becomes wary of the seemingly good intentions of toje towards aku and his hatred for her husband, major ali refuses to act swiftly to rescue the woman from the clutches of toje all because he trusts that the man would do nothing of the sort to ruin his hard earned integrity. consequently, he stations a military man to oversee to the safety of the woman. yet, the irony is that the military man poses more threat to aku and her child because of the hatred he harbors for the simbian tribe aku hails from and his suspicions of the amorous relationship between aku, odibo and toje. to register his silent protest of his designated job okumagba says: only the consequences of such an action deter me from sticking the barrel of my gun through the window and blasting the brains clean out of that woman and her child. for that is what they deserve, like all rebels< but the trouble with this major <the day? (okpewho, 2003) but one of these days my patience would be spent. one of these days i’ll find i can no longer contain this anger. <myself once and for all from this hateful detail. (okpewho, 2003) from okumagba’s reiterations, one realizes that ali’s harmless protection of aku ironically rather exposes her to more danger, and his overly trust in toje’s integrity and his seemingly good will towards her blinds him, making it impossible to see beyond toje’s intentions. the implication of the author’s use of irony is to expose the reality that in war times and in general situations of immense complexities, no human intentions can be language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 120 overly trusted because even the most innocent of suggestions or intentions could be a recipe that spells disaster. yet in the midst of all the actions or the deeds of the wealthy and powerful bourgeoisies symbolized by toje and perpetrated against the proletariat to ensure the perpetual subjugation of the lower class represented by aku, oshivire, odibo rukeme and major ali, the author gives a clear indication that there will be a revolt that overthrows the powerful as predicted by karl marx. to demonstrate this possibility, isidore okpewho relies on his character agbeyebge who is symbolic of the intense tumultuous anger boiling up in all oppressed people and waiting to explode in the face of the powerful capitalist oppressors. in the prison at iddu is agbeyegbe. a youth full of strength and zeal and well educated. agbeyege appears to know and understand the real cause of the struggles of the people more than the other prisoners do, and in a series of rhetorical questions in his address to his fellow inmates, agbeyegbe carefully points out the very elements that form the crust of mankind’s struggles: you’ve got to try to understand, all of you. i do not think you fully appreciate this world-wide struggle that some of us are carrying out for the benefit of humanity. you see this military thing that is happening in our country today? it is only wasting our time. it can only succeed in retarding the cause of the destined confrontation, but it cannot stop it. never! < and what is the struggle that i am talking about? ... it is <on in the world today. (2003) in his rhetoric, agbeyegbe reveals the exploitation of the poor, weak and powerless by the strong and powerful. by making his fellow prisoners aware that the poverty they experience is not due to any divine cause, but the machinations and orchestrations of the powerful minority, he tries to enlighten and incite them into purposeful action that will lead to a possibility of changing their lives. even though his fellow prisoners comprehend his message, they become suspicious of his intentions because he easily offers himself to be the first to escape since he assumes he understands the problem of humanity better than they all do. with humor and biting sarcasm, the prisoners ridicule abgeyegba. for instance, in response to agbeye’s question to emeni as to why he never received promotion in more than thirty years of his work in the civil service, emeni responds: oh, i was just thinking< you see, i was in court every single day of my life, and every single day of my life i was bitten by at least one jigger, because i had no shoes on, so i was always worrying about jiggers. and now that i think of it, i think the reason i never got promotion after all was because i always had jiggers either in my mind or in my feet. (2003) indeed, the humor the author uses in the speech of emeni is not in any way to demean the seriousness of his message he tries to communicate; sarcasm is used to reveal that even those who claim to offer help of liberation could be as exploitative as the powerful, and therefore could not be fully trusted. yet, within agbeyegbe’s message is a foreshadowing of what is to come: the revolt that will displace the rich and powerful to a level of equality with the subjugates. again, agbeyegbe’s harsh words to oshivere concerning the possibility of aku’s infidelity while he is in prison also becomes another foreshadowing of the pain oshivire is to experience upon his release from prison. relating this foreshadowing of the overthrow of the bourgeoisies to a possible overthrow of the mutual works of patriarchy and capitalism, it is observed that okpkewho employs allusion, humor and irony. by mocking toje’s loss of sexual potency, okphewho succeeds in dislodging toje from the table of men to the language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 121 table of boys. in this way, toje does not even belong to the class of ‚small men‛ he set for men beneath his status like emuakpor. in toje’s heated exchange with emuakpor concerning the failed treatment of toje’s veneral disease, emuakpor states: save your tongue, my boy< let’s put it in more direct and proper language. a few months ago, you came up to me with a veneral disease. you complained of a terrible pain, of pus, of malignancies here and tumours there. i took a look at you and knew you were in a bad way. you were honest enough to tell me, on enquiry <yet again< (2003) emuakpor’s reference to toje as ‚boy‛ and his reckless use of abusive words on toje in the above extract only proves the triumph emuakpor enjoys over toje knowing very well toje’s weakness. he teases out information until he finally gets the exact knowledge of toje’s flawed manhood after which he exclaims: ‚o-ho! you mean to say, your shaft has gone limp?‛(okpewo, 2003). the humor with which he makes his exclamation shows he celebrates in the knowledge that toje is no longer a man. it is a moment of triumph because in the character of emuakpor, okpewho succeeds in using the same patriarchal mentality card toje uses to denigrate men who do not belong to his class to reduce him to a level far worse than that which he toje places others. emuakpor, again, seizes the opportunity to exploit toje by asking him to pay twice the amount of money for his second treatment. in effect, he pays toje back in his own coin to make him swallow the bitter pill he toje has all along been forcing men beneath his status to swallow. toje bitterly says: ‚i knew you would come to that<and i warn you that if this is the way you exploit people who come up to you like this, you are not going to have a good future with this trade‛ (okpewho, 2003). emuakpor, reflecting much later on his dealings with toje exclaims once again in another series of rhetorical questions mixed with humorous statements concerning how he plans to further reduce toje to nothingness: was this the omnipotent giant? i feel sorry for him<but he has himself to blame for whatever happened to him. i have always said that money makes a fool of a wise man< yet at his age he should know that it was all in his mind and try to relax. but he is <hungry days. (okpewho, 2003) thankfully, toje falls for emuakpor deception, and in referring to emuakpor as a lame-brained man, he ironically refers to himself because with his age, wealth and wisdom he allows himself to be exploited and deceived. toje’s suffering in the hands of emuakpor is not the only defeat he experiences. his second defeat occurs when both aku and odibo unite as subjugates in suffering to take consolation in each other’s arms against the common lord, toje, who visits suffering and shame upon their lives. when wild insatiable passion is awoken in aku by toje, she gives in to odibo who she senses also has sexual needs such as her own: for a long time, i had been witness to the look of a defeated man that he walked about with. but events since yesterday evening seem to have thrown a light on another side of him, or perhaps an aspect that had since lain concealed under what <tug of desire? (okpewho, 2003) in a mixture of metaphorical statements and rhetorical questions, aku speaks of the hidden desires and passion she senses in odibo and rationalizes why her subjugation and pent up emotions become the reason that draws her into an unwholesome affair with him. odibo, on the other hand, after his encounter with aku’s womanhood shakes off his cloak of defeat and despair upon the realization that he is a man after all so long as he is capable of satisfying a woman sexually in spite of his handicap: language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 122 how much does it take to be a man, besides knowing that someone takes good and healthy notice of your manhood, and you can come out and receive the fresh, beautiful morning air full in your face without fearing that some other man would take you to task for it?... any other man. (okpewho, 2003) upon this realization, toje’s hold on odibo’s mind is broken. odibo begins to see himself as equal to toje, even better than him now that toje’s manhood is flawed. the manhood in odibo emboldens him to defy toje. even when toje finally catches odibo and aku in an affair, odibo pulls up a quick defense for aku not so much because he wants to prevent toje from visiting any form of harm on aku but because he wants to spite toje and prove to him that he is no less of a man like him in spite of odibo’s deformity. odibo engages in a violent machete fight with toje over aku which nearly ends their lives, and in her narration of the incident to major ali, aku uses graphic imagery to depict the unwholesome fight that ensued between the men: i only went there to take something. but toje interpreted my presence there otherwise, calling me a harlot and everything. he tried to hit me, but odibo held his hand<toje got angry and slapped odibo<odibo himself got angry and they started to... so i ran – ran – (okpewho, 2003) the graphic imagery of violence as expressed in aku’s descriptions is an indication of the naked anger and the violent revolt the oppressed may vent on the oppressor to redeem their freedom and image. by fighting and wounding toje, odibo resists the oppressive rule of toje giving a clear indication that he, toje, is not an invincible or untouchable person as he claims. oshevire’s release from prison after his insistence on maintaining his integrity and truthfulness to the end in the face of lies and his ability to have swallowed the bitter pill of truth concerning the atrocities his wife had been subjected to indicates his stoicism. yet his death at the end is symbolic; it is a silent reminder and an indication that exploitation, if not dealt with will continue to plague us in our various societies. conclusion in conclusion, it is realized that the symbiotic relationship between capitalism and patriarchy militate to denigrate women as stipulated by zillah eisenstein. yet, the effect of both on men too cannot also be underestimated; it attacks the very core of their character and unleashes potent psychological damage in its wake. since this research concentrates on the negative emotional and psychological experiences of both men and women affected by the workings of patriarchy and capitalist exploitation, it is better for society in general to fight against the two devils. it is also recommended that further research is done to deal with how differential power among men in relation to classism affects them in other ways. references bowens, t. et al (2013).what is marxismall about? edited by andy katz, new york: world view forum. delphy c. (1984). close to home: a materialist analysis of women’s oppression. transl. diana leonard, massachusetts: university of massachusetts press. eisenstein z. (1999). constructing a theory of capitalist patriarchy and socialist feminism. critical sociology, 25(2/3), 196-217. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 eisenstein z. (1984). feminism and sexual equality: crises in liberal america, new york: monthly review press iweriebor, e.e.g. (2018). the colonisation of africa, new york: schomburg centre for research in black culture, exhibitions.nypl.org, accessed 02/11/18. mudau, t. j., & obidare, o. s. (2017). the role of patriarchy in family settings and its implications to girls and women in south africa., journal of human ecology, 58(1-2), 67-72. odeh, d. (2010). a stylistic analysis of isidore okpewho’s the last duty and helon habila’s waiting for an angel. (file:///e:/odeh%20dean's%20m.a%20english%20thesis,%20unn. 2010.pdf) 02/04/2018. okpewho. i. (2003). the last duty, nigeria: drumbeat. robert e. (2014). syntactic features in okpewho’s the last duty and nwapa’s never again. british journal of education, 2(2), 81-94. shokpeka, s. a., & nwaokocha, o. a. (2009). british colonial economic policy in nigeria, the example of benin province (1914-1954). journal of human ecology, 28(1), 57-66. tong r. (2009). feminist thought: a more comprehensive introduction, charlotte: western view press. tyson l. (2006). critical theory today, london: routledge taylor and francis group. file:///e:/odeh%20dean's%20m.a%20english%20thesis,%20unn.%202010.pdf file:///e:/odeh%20dean's%20m.a%20english%20thesis,%20unn.%202010.pdf language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 285 developing online learning media using task based language teaching and android video on writing action research proposal abstract due to the pandemic situation, there is a shift in the scientific writing learning process. the process changes from offline to online, where lecturers and students must be more active and involved in the learning process through website tutorials with microsoft teams application synchronously and asynchronously through lms ut. however, such a learning process also experiences problems both with wifi or the internet and the involvement and motivation of students in following it. to complete asynchronously using lms ut, the research team focused on developing online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video. this study aims to create online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video on writing material for classroom action research to improve understanding and writing classroom action research. the subjects of this research are 3rd-semester students at the open university. the research method is the development method using a modified 4-d model of instructional development of thiagarajan, semmel, and semmel (4-d model). the process of data collection is done by interview, observation, and filling out a questionnaire. the results of developing online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video are suitable for the hybrid writing learning process. students can be communicative in the web tutorial process. student learning outcomes are already above the average indicator of 75% through the developed learning media. in addition, students responded positively in their involvement in the learning process using task-based language teaching-based media and android video. keywords: developing, online media, task based language teaching, android video, writing introduction this pandemic's shift from offline to online learning has had a significant impact on the process of writing classroom action research (car), particularly the website tutorial at pokjar kalingga bangsri, jepara regency in the third semester, as well as on teaching methods and platforms that are essential in responding to the challenges of an education system that is increasingly shifting to the internet. from these conditions, teachers of writing english-language car have a big responsibility in making the enny dwi lestariningsih universitas terbuka ennydl@ecampus.ut.ac.id testiana deni wijayatiningsih* universitas muhammadiyah semarang testiana@unimus.ac.id dian ratu ayu uswatun khasanah universitas terbuka dian.khasanah@ecampus.ut.ac.id anjar setiawan universitas muhammadiyah semarang anjar17@unimus.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:ennydl@ecampus.ut.ac.id mailto:testiana@unimus.ac.id mailto:dian.khasanah@ecampus.ut.ac.id mailto:anjar17@unimus.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 286 learning process a success through an interesting, motivating, and effective online learning process. therefore, innovation in the learning process through website tutorials on english car writing material is needed in supporting the implementation of learning outcomes following the university strategic plan, especially the open university wherein 2025 the open university (ut) has a milestone towards development with ut indicators integrating technology in various aspects of service. however, no lecturers have developed interesting teaching media under the superior fields of ut's rip. instead, they have set the ut digital ecosystem in the support section to implement pjj, especially the e-learning platform development. in addition, students also need motivation and refresher learning with evidence of initial observations at pokjar jepara, where 60% of students feel confused in online learning and feel bored in the tuweb process that only uses microsoft teams and lms ut. about five students we interviewed stated that the need to refresh online knowledge during the pandemic motivated them to study online. it was interesting, especially writing car, so that the research team will develop online learning media based on taskbased language teaching and android video on research writing materials. class actions to motivate and achieve policy direction milestones formulated in the open university rip. in addition, writing is one component that determines whether a language learner is successful in learning a language. writing skills require the process and integration of other skills, namely reading, speaking, and listening (nückles et al., 2020). writing also presents numerous problems and requires significant effort to motivate pupils to convey their ideas in written form consistently and intelligibly, which is not a simple task. when considered a productive talent, writing is essentially a method of transmitting messages in written language that is equipped with a set of micro abilities (ramadhani & lestiono, 2015). a relationship has been established between writing and linguistic competencies such as grammar, vocabulary, writing mechanics, and text structure. when someone registers, they express ideas or messages, use words to convey those ideas or notes, use language construction to organize words and meanings, and text organization to create meaning and context. these aspects of writing abilities, on the other hand, are difficult and time-consuming. the truth is that subject and predicate agreement and the usage of a standard language as the foundation for grammatical norms continue to be the source of errors in developing scientific writing for students in writing classes (purnomo, 2014). task-based language teaching (tblt) is a task-based approach that focuses on improving language learning by focusing on studentcentered learning that affects student learning outcomes (handayani, 2017). to be more specific, task-based language teaching is an approach pattern that encourages students to actively communicate to achieve goals or complete assignments (putri & salatar, 2015). the tasks' activities must be relevant to the work you do every day. thus, the study is based on real-life scenarios and employs a process-oriented learning method, with the primary goal of developing communicative competence as language learning. but the communicative competence in question does not refer to the ability to use language accurately and appropriately in the same way that a native speaker does. nonetheless, it is consistent with koucka's idea of communicative language, which fosters the ability to communicate properly to achieve communication objectives (indrilla & ciptaningrum, 2018). the implementation of tblt has been carried out by researchers in 2017 but has not been modified with online learning and gamification (wijayatiningsih & wardhani, 2014). moreover, the demands for online integration and digital platform services have become milestones for the universitas terbuka strategic plan up to 2035. therefore, the development of this media is in line with the open university research main strategic plan 2020-2024. moreover, learning media conveys lessons between students and teachers in http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 287 the learning process in creating effective and efficient learning by influencing the conditions and learning environment to facilitate teachers and students in establishing communication and learning (apsari, 2018). therefore, (barham et al., 2019) suggests that learning media are technological and conventional tools in the learning process both inside and outside the classroom. he further explained that learning media are components of learning resources or physical vehicles containing instructional materials in the student environment to stimulate students to learn. the advancement of technology and information impacts the activities of everyday life today. communication and information exchange can be accomplished through the use of information technology. according to (fitriani et al., 2019), information and communication technology (ict) is an interactive medium that can communicate across long distances. while learning to write using technology or based on the internet is not the same as being used, they are both equivalent in that they are both dependent on the type of technology used and what is being taught in the curriculum (priyatmojo, 2012). additionally, online teaching with technology can help students learn more effectively if they are more involved, have access to more technology, and are more engaged in their learning (sianna & syawal, 2017). in teaching online also need some innovations, such as; android video. the vast majority of android devices are equipped with built-in sensors that detect motion, orientation, and changes in environmental conditions. the android operating system, which is the most widely used smartphone operating system globally (yulianti et al., 2019) supports three broad categories of sensors: motion sensors, environmental sensors, and position sensors (figure 1) (novariana et al., 2018). the development of online learning media based on simple task-based language teaching and android on writing materials, as well as the modification of previous research using tblt, is successfully implemented in the learning process (sholah, 2019). it was found that developing an android video with the tblt stages of pre-task, task, and post-task (review), which included understanding the target audience and context, then defining learning objectives, structuring the expressions, and identifying resources, was effective (sabarun et al., 2021). this section describes the development of online gamification learning media based on simple task-based language teaching and android on classroom action research writing material, as depicted in figure 1 below. figure 1. media development steps regarding the development of tblt-based media, online and android itself have never been specifically studied for writing material for classroom action research. the research that has been going on is only about the relationship between writing difficulties and writing motivation in general but has not been detailed in the direction of scientific writing (hartati, 2017). based on the explanation above, the purpose of this research is to develop online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android media on writing material for classroom http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 288 action research to improve the ability to understand and write classroom action research, especially in english (habibi et al., 2018). therefore, this study has two questions, namely; a. how is the process of developing online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video on writing material for classroom action research in english? b. how are student learning outcomes using online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video on writing material for classroom action research in the third semester of pokjar kalingga bangsri jepara? methodology the research approach employed is a research and development method with the ultimate purpose of developing a legitimate product and evaluating the product's efficacy in usage. this development research uses a modified version of thiagarajan, semmel, and semmel's (4-d model) instructional system development method (indriyanti & prasetyo, 2018). this development paradigm is comprised of the following steps: define (definition), design (design), develop (development), and disseminate (dissemination) (dissemination). the 4-d model was modified in this study by reducing the number of steps from four to three, namely define (definition), design (design), and develop (development). in addition, dissemination was omitted due to time and implementation constraints, and there is the fact that the media is valid during the developing stage (farha & rohani, 2019). the subjects of this study were 45 students enrolled in the third semester at kalingga bangsri pokjar. the following approach is presented for constructing this model: a. defining this defining step tried to identify and describe learning demands by examining the material's objectives and constraints. tutor interviews, indicator analysis, student characteristics analysis, idea analysis, response analysis, reading relevant research to address current problems, and literature evaluation on supporting theories are all included in this definition. b. designing the researchers designed the media developed based task-based language teaching and android video. c. developing experts validated the media at the developing step. the expert validation had the purpose of obtaining feedback and an expert assessment of the media design. 2) to ascertain the validated media's validity, it uses a pilot study. 3) this research used field trials to conduct and evaluate the updated learning media in a classroom setting. after the discussion, students were also handed a questionnaire to gauge their reactions to the created media use. after completing the learning, the researchers reflected on the actions undertaken. the reflection outcomes are utilized to revise learning media to get more effective and appropriate media development results. in addition, the research data collecting methods include interviews, surveys, and observations. for this research to be effective, the following conditions must be met: a. learning media are deemed valid if their score from the validator or an expert is in the good or very good category, greater than 4.00; b. 70% of the average student's capacity to grasp the notion of writing material is demonstrated in the following way: at least 70% of the total number of pupils responded positively to the learning activities. result and discussion the research results have some steps of developing media, which are critically shown in detail explanation below. a. define stage (defining) this stage started by analyzing and looking for the problem in the web tutorial learning process through microsoft teams by interviewing tutors and students randomly. then, the researchers diagnosed the problem indicators found, analyzed student characters, analyzed concepts and http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 289 responses in understanding classroom action research material, and reviewed theory relevant to the research process that occurs. based on the observations, tutors used lms media and microsoft teams for the hybrid learning process in the web tutorial program. besides, tutors also employed modules as supporting learning materials. students tend to be passive at the beginning of apperception because the internet network constrains them or they are not motivated to learn synchronously. based on the interviews, the researchers obtained data that most students felt less comfortable learning web tutorials with synchronous learning. about 51% said that they enjoyed learning web tutorials but still felt confused and had difficulties understanding car theory and how to write it in english. indonesia so that researchers focus their research on developing android video media with a simple quiz model as a form of stimulus for students to focus on the web tutorial process, either discussing together or giving individual opinions. from these findings, a media design called the android video design model based on task-based language teaching was carried out. b. conceptualization (design) phase with the first investigation, we will describe the process of developing online learning media based on task-based language teaching and an android video on writing material for classroom action research in english. the implementation of task-based language teaching serves as the foundation for developing online learning media. this simple android learning media requires students to be familiar with information technology, specifically computers, and smartphones, to access and use it effectively. the first step is to turn on the computer or smartphone, and the next step is for the child to turn on the internet connection. before students can access simple android gamification online learning application, they must first download the link to the application. then, they registered on google play, according to the instructions. it is recommended that students first learn how to access the android application, which is still in the form of an application that has not yet been uploaded to google play because it is still in the form of an application. therefore, downloading applications and installing them on their respective android smartphones are essential for students. if it is installed, they will use the media properly. c. development stage it is necessary to validate and test on a small scale the media at this stage of development to ensure that it is appropriate for use in the learning process. after attempting to operate a media platform, three things are produced during the development stage: expert validation, small-scale trials, and field trials conducted by distributing questionnaires via google form to students after attempting to operate the media platform. the validation process is repeated twice because the first validation result has a lower than the average score of 4, and therefore cannot be classified as suitable for use. as a result, the researchers attempted to revise the first validation results by adding or correcting parts of the media that were not yet considered suitable for use. the expert's initial validation results are shown in the following table 1. table 1. the experts initial validation no validator validation results rat sat material quiz 1 media expert 3.85 3.95 4.20 4.50 2 linguists 3.27 3.15 3.75 4.00 criteria not valid not valid not valid valid as a result of the first validation, only a portion of the quiz was valid, and it needed to be re-corrected before being applied to a small class scale. according to the media validator, certain sections of the media are still too plain in their illustrations, and the contrasting colors used are unsuitable for http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 290 viewing or reading. then, for rat and sat, there is still a lack of appreciation for the theory of taskbased language teaching; by requiring students to access the lms and participate in the discussion chat that has been provided, the learning process will not continue synchronously if no one has provided an opinion on the lms. as a result, all students agreed to contribute to the discussion in the lms as their primary task. for the revised portions of the car material, the car implementation process is presented on android media in a concise, clear, and concise manner that students easily understand. additionally, to enhance media validation, the research team enhanced the design and content for car by mobilizing all android media teams to make it better and more effective. after all, methods have been improved. a second validation is performed to determine whether the media is valid. table 2 summarizes the results of the second or final validation. no validator validation results rat sat material quiz 1 media expert 4.05 4.06 4.9 4.75 2 linguists 4.27 4.15 4.8 4.5 criteria valid valid valid valid it can be concluded from the validation results above that the simple android media based on task based language teaching is feasible to use and test on a small class scale at the bangsri jepara pokjar bi class in the third semester on a small scale. the average result of the validation results is greater than 4.00, putting it in the very good category, according to the results. aside from that, media trials conducted on a small class scale of 45 students resulted in an average score of more than 75. after implementing simple android media based on task based language teaching, the results of the data analysis were determined through statistical descriptive analysis, which included normality tests and ngain tests. the test data were examined for normality using the shapiro wilk data normality test, as shown in table 4.3, prior to being subjected to statistical descriptive analysis of the results. table 2. normality test tests of normality kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. pos_test .128 45 .062 .955 45 .078 pre_test .126 45 .071 .965 45 .196 the research hypotheses, as shown in the table above, include the following: the data on student performance follows a normal distribution (ho). is not normally distributed the data on student performance? h1: if the sign value is greater than 0.05, accept ho as the solution. because the shapiro-wilk significance value for the pretest was 0.196 > 0.05, it can be supposed that the data is normally distributed because the value of 0.078>0.05 is greater than 0.05. the descriptive statistical analysis could compare the pre-and post-test results to obtain an average pretest value of 67.44, which calculated the average http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 291 post-test value, with a standard deviation of 8.368. the lowest possible student score is 50, and the highest possible score is 85. there were 84.89 points scored after the test, with a minimum value of 70 points and a maximum of 100 points, and a standard deviation of 7.575 points scored before the test. additionally, to determine the effectiveness of the media utilized in the classroom, the data were analyzed using the n-gain test and the following score criteria. table 3. n gain score criteria gain score criteria gain > 0.7 high 0.7 medium gain < 0.3 low source (hake, 1998) according to the computation, the n-gain score of 0.54 indicates a moderate rise. additionally, the average response rate for the questionnaire on student involvement was greater than 75%, telling that the media was suitable for usage by instructors and students. the average scores calculated using the indicators mentioned above of media feasibility result from the second research objective, which is to increase the average value of classroom action research writing classified as such by the indicators of achievement of this media research and development. as a result of the three processes of define, design, and creating, it can be determined that online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video are viable for teaching students to write english classroom action research. the construction of online learning media based on simple android gamification and taskbased language teaching is declared suitable for use in the tutorial learning process based on the findings given in the research results section. furthermore, the study team outlines incorporating media into a tutorial class in this section. the web tutorial learning procedure lasts one semester and consists of eight meetings lasting two hours each. this procedure begins with developing a tutorial program plan and a tutorial event unit, with each session allotted 200 minutes. the twohour initial meeting included the pre-task, main, and post-task. in the pre-task segment, the instructor invites students to critique the nature of car for five minutes via the lms application's open chat column while also providing greeting videos to students. additionally, students record their attendance at lms. then, during the major task stage, pupils download and read the material provided by the teacher via the lms at a glance. the teacher then invited pupils to join microsoft teams and work in groups to discuss the problem given. first, students in the original group debate the meaning and qualities of car. then, students analyze car's advantages, disadvantages, and requirements in their various groups. additionally, there is a question and answer session via a live online conversation that the tutor monitors personally. then, in the post-task stage, students individually explore challenging subjects after the tutorial concludes by submitting the discussion's outcomes to the lms. following that, the tutor delivers feedback to students to assist them in comprehending what they have learned. at the second meeting, pre-task activities did by asynchronously via the lms, similar to the first meeting. then, the tutor provided materials and greeting videos. next, students conversed asynchronously via the lms chat about the tutorprovided discussion topic, namely the steps for writing class action research and filling out online attendance. in the major task component, students synchronously present content on the planning and implementation of car, including data gathering and analysis, via microsoft teams. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 292 the tutor will then monitor a live question and answer session. students were requested to submit a concept map to the lms the same day they completed the homework. the third meeting began with reviewing the first instructional assignment as a pre-task. students were given 60 minutes to complete the tutorial task. next, they are tasked with uploading projects to the lms. a live tutor monitors the work process via microsoft teams. then, in the 65th minute, students engaged in online conversations via web tutorials, advancing to the main job level. the tutor did not present a greeting video because the third meeting must include instruction on the first job. students were asked to take turns asking questions following the presentation of the third content, namely the research approach employed in classroom action research. the tutor then closes the session, and the student uploads a summary assignment of the third meeting discussion at the post-task stage. the fourth meeting remained with tblt and began with a pre-task as usual; there was a film from smart guru online that students may watch live on a web tutorial for 15 minutes. the students then apply problem identification and analysis to the guru pintar online learning videos and upload the results of the investigation and identification via the lms. then, for 60 minutes at the main task stage, students must make presentations according to their assigned groups using material plans and composing a car proposal. after that, there were question and answer sessions for brainstorming the problems given in 25th minutes to provide a stimulant for writing motivation. finally, students form an outline of the car proposal based on their interests and send it to the lms within a week after completing the activity. at the fifth meeting, students completed the second tutorial task for 60 minutes under the supervision of a live tutor via microsoft teams. then, at the 70-minute mark, students continued the debate in microsoft teams by presenting the group's next material. other students pay close attention and participate in the question-andanswer session. the phases of presentation and question and answer are included in the stage of the primary assignment. the instructor then provides feedback on the student's presentations. additionally, instructors required students to create a concept map of the content discussed at the fifth meeting during the post-assignment stage. at the sixth meeting, the tutor gave a stimulus for an android video application based on taskbased language teaching by providing an application url and students downloading and installing the application on their respective cellphones. they then work on game-based practice questions using the installed android application, supervised live. this pre-task activity lasted twenty minutes. following that, at the 30minute main job stage, the students responsible for the presentation resumed their presentation via microsoft teams, complete with an interactive question and answer session. additionally, the tutor provides feedback on the student's scientific writing tasks and presentation materials. then, during the post-task stage, students synthesize the subject presented by writing their thoughts in the lms portion of the chat room's lms section. at the seventh meeting's pre-task stage, the tutor instructed students to complete the third tutorial assignment to fulfill the tutorial's 60minute value. before beginning work on this third tutorial project, pupils were motivated for ten minutes by the tutor through ice breaking and then continued with the previous tutorial assignment. next, students debated the information for creating a class action research report during the 70th-minute main assignment stage by presenting their unique pieces for ten minutes per title. the lecturers and other students then provide feedback on the submitted car writing report. students who have demonstrated their words can revise and incorporate feedback from the instructor or classmates at the post-task stage. the instructor invited students to watch a video on the lms about producing conclusions and suggestions during the eighth meeting's pretask stage. the video is played for 15 minutes. then, as part of the main work, students practice writing conclusions and suggestions based on the video's examples. lecturers motivate and reward students who have completed their findings. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 293 students complete practice questions via the android application on their mobile phones at the post-task stage. students can access the number of scores earned using this program to determine their proficiency in writing classroom action research in english. according to an overview of tutorial meetings that incorporate android media, task-based language teaching needs collaboration between tutors, students, and technology to create appropriate and efficient learning outcomes. these findings corroborate setiawan & mulyadi (2021) research, which indicates that online learning must be adaptive and participatory to accomplish previously defined learning objectives. as a result of the issues identified above, it is also possible to conclude that technology plays a significant role in determining the smoothness of the hybrid learning process. it is consistent with prior studies indicating a dynamic between technology and pedagogy in the online learning process that facilitates the creation of authentic interactions similar to those found in face-to-face sessions (sumarsono & mbato, 2021). additionally, online learning media based on task-based language teaching are acceptable for usage in a hybrid learning process to promote student engagement with online communication and interaction. finally, it is consistent with earlier research, which indicates that gamification media based on taskbased language instruction encourages student engagement in the online learning process (lisyowati et al., 2021). conclusion this current research can be concluded that the outcomes of the production of online learning media based on task-based language teaching and android video on classroom action research are suited for use in the hybrid tutorial learning process, allowing students to be communicative throughout the web tutorial process. meanwhile, through task-based language teaching-based media and android video, student learning outcomes are already 75% higher than the average learning outcome indicator for classroom action research. additionally, students demonstrated strong engagement in the learning process through task-based language teaching-based media 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(2019). improving students’ writing skill using brainswriting strategy. project (professional journal of english education), 2(5), 714. https://doi.org/10.22460/project.v2i5.p714-721 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 85 the integration of genre based approach into scientific approach in when english rings a bell to teach recount text rizky nurul amalia riez.ondmove@gmail.com semarang state university, indonesia rudi hartono rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com semarang state university, indonesia received: 10 jule 201. revised: 15august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 abstract this study analyzed the integration of genre-based approach into the scientific approach elements as they are represented in a textbook entitled when english rings a bell published by the ministry of education and culture, indonesia. this study used descriptive qualitative method to analyze the integration of two approaches in the textbook. the result showed that there were four sections of integrations. the first was the integration of bkof into observing and questioning in scientific approach. the second was the integration of modeling of text (mot) into observing, questioning, and collecting information. the third was the integration of joint construction of text (jcot) into collecting information and associating. the last is the integration of individual construction of text (icot) into communicating. based on those findings, genre based approach was represented in scientific approach; all of the principles consisted in genre-based approach were accommodated in scientific approach. keywords: genre-based approach; integration; scientific approach; textbooks how to cite: amaalia, r.n. & rudi hartono. 2015. the integration of genre based approach into scientific approach in when english rings a bell to teach recount text. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction there is an urgent need to investigate this matter because of the confusion in implementing the new curriculum launched by ministry of education and culture in 2013. it is curriculum 2013 that replaced school based curriculum (kstp) as the previous curriculum. the changing of curriculum leads the changing of the approach used in it. in curriculum 2013, the government tries to impose scientific approach to all subject matters included teaching and learning english. on the other hand, suharyadi (2014: 1349) in his essays entitled exploring ―scientific approach‖ in english language teaching stated that this approach is not clear yet and probably it causes some controversies for language english teachers. whether the scientific approach is appropriate for teaching a foreign language, teachers should be aware in implementing scientific approach in teaching english to reach the goal of teaching and learning english in the classroom. it means that teachers should be aware in developing activities and preparing materials in the classroom. dealing with language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 86 using materials in classroom, the ministry of education and culture provides teacher‘s book as guidance for english teacher in implementing the new curriculum in the classroom. the book entitled when english rings the bell. this book implements the elements of scientific approach in presenting the materials. it guides the teachers starting from observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking. the term ―scientific approach‖ (abbreviated sa) commenced to be popular when the ministry of education and culture launched a new curriculum (curriculum 2013) for elementary and high schools to replace the previous curriculum. sa is believed to be able to develop students‘ affection, skills, and knowledge. sa is also considered relevant with the idea that learning is a scientific process in the classroom. thus, how learning takes place should be scientific-based, meaning that all processes and steps of learning should reflect fixed procedures starting from observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking. in fact, scientific approach has been very much used in science, research, and management, but not english language teaching. gba is derived from systemic functional linguistics from halliday (1985) and based on socio-cultural theory of lev vygotsky (1978) as the language learning theory. the main goal of genre-based approach is to make student communicate in spoken and written text. they have to know the communicative purpose of each text. in gba, teachers give the full support in the first cycle and it will decrease till they can do independently. it is stated in vygotsky‘s zone of proximal development that the student reach the upper limit of zpd if they are assisted by the better others. the curriculum cycle starts with the building knowledge of field (bkof), learning about text type, guided practice in using the text type, independent use of text type, reflecting on the text type and its use. methodology this study uses qualitative approach. in this approach researchers seek data in natural settings through observation, interviews, verbal reports, diaries and discourse analysis and its focus was understanding the process of what was going on in a setting (crocker, 2009: 5). in similar vein, bricky (2007: 2) pointed out that qualitative research was characterized by its aims, which related to understanding some aspects of social life, and its methods which (in general) generated words, rather than numbers, as data for analysis. however, the statistical data such as the frequency of occurrence of certain lexical items in the text was also useful in qualitative research and it was used to support the interpretation of the qualitative data. to find out the ways in which genrebased approach was integrated into scientific approach, there were some units of analysis. the data analysis was carried out in three major stages: scientific approach elements in recount text materials, genre based approach in recount text materials and the last the ways of sa integrated with gba. first was analyzing the scientific approach in recount text materials. second is analyzing the learning cycles in genre-based approach based on joyce and feez (1998). after collecting the data, it will be analyzed using descriptive qualitative approach. it is analyzed to know rizky nurul amalia & rudi hartono. the integration of genre based approach into scientific approach in when english rings a bell to teach recount text __________________________________________________________________________________________ 87 the way scientific approach integrated with genre based approach in the textbook. results and discussion the existence of gba in this textbook especially the building knowledge of field found in some of observing and questioning elements except the revealing of social purposes of the text. the revealing of social purposes of the text type is covered in the cover of the chapter. some of activities in building knowledge of field found are using related images and brainstorming vocabulary from images. those activities found in oq.1, oq.2, oq.4 and oq.5. the images used in those activities to be observed by the students and helped them to build the knowledge before they come to the core material that is recount text. another activity found as building knowledge of field in this textbook is establishing tenor by representing graphically status relationship between listener/reader and speaker/writer in term of power in observing and questioning 3 (oq.3). activity in oq.3 represents the establishing tenor by playing roles of lina and edo. by acting as lina and edo, the students are expected to understand how the tenor of lina and edo used. they are friends so the tenor established is close and there is no power. the integration of mot into observing and questioning in observing and questioning 6, the students are asked to read aloud of recount text from udinand edo. some of the students read it in front of the class and after that, every students should read it in each group to get feedback from their friends. from the explanation above, i found that the students are asked to read aloud recount texts from udin and edo with the difference experiences. the writer of the book tries to model the text without giving information about the text first i think because the students don‘t know about the genre used in udin and edo‘s text. they are just asked to read the texts aloud in front of the class. udin and edo‘s texts are in written form. so there‘s a shift from spoken text to the written text in this observing and questioning part. the integration of mot into collecting information the second teaching/learning cycle in genre-based approach, modeling of text found in the textbook. the modeling of text happened in text label and expression-level activities. the text level by sorting, sequencing, matching and labeling activities found in most of collecting information stages. those are ci.1, ci.2 and ci.3.in ci.1, ci.2 and ci.3 the students focus on sequencing and labeling activities in the recount text. furthermore, the expressionlevel activities by oral-aural presentation, spelling and reading aloud of the texts are found in oq.6 and ci.1. the integration of joint construction into associating the next cycle is joint construction of text (jcot). jcot existed in this approach. in some activities, the teacher gradually reduces the contribution to the text construction. those are found in the last part of collecting information and some of the associating part. those are ci.4, as.5 and as.2, the teacher reduces his/her language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 88 contribution by making them in a group and as a consequence, students move closer to being able to control the text independently. in jcot, there must be constructing or completing the text in group. those are also found in the last part of collecting information and some of the associating part. those are ci.4, as.1 and as.2. in the group they make editing a draft in groups. this activity is found in as.1 and as.2. the integration of icot into communicating some of evidences of the existence of the independent construction of text found in most of communicating element of scientific approach. first, the use knowledge of purposes, text structure, language and text features and appropriate strategy, the learner engage with or creates a text in specified context as authentic as possible. it is found in most of communicating elements. those are co.1, co.2 and co.3. second, learner consult with teachers and peers throughout the process. drafts are edited, reworked and proof read. it is found in co.2 and co.3. third, learner, peers, and teacher critically evaluate the texts and suggest. those are co.1, co.2 and co.3. forth, the students work independently with the text. it is found in co.2 and co.3. from those evidences, there are also some gba elements that are not existed in this textbook. those are representing graphically distance between listener/reader and speaker/writer in terms of time and space that should be existed in the bkof, presenting and practicing activities relating to the grammatical features of the text that should be in mot, role playing of the text in group, role play with class observing, listening to a text together and act on it that should be in jcot. the integration of bkof into observing and questioning there is the integration of observing and questioning for the first task and the second task with bkof. in this observing and questioning stages, teachers suggest to present the context through pictures. the students are asked to match the pictures with the statement. in teaching and learning cycle used in genre-bsed approach, presenting context is a part of building knowledge of field. joyce and feez (1998:29) offers some activities that can help teacher in building context such as presenting the context through pictures, audio-visual material, realia, excursion, field-trip, guest speaker etc. another point is that the statement of ‗if you have any problem, go to me‘ in this observing and questioning indicates the role of the teacher in the learning process. the teacher intervenes where necessarily in learning process to support students as they build knowledge and skill which have been explicitly negotiated. based onvygotsky‘s concept of development about language learning, if a teacher supports students, he or she moves through the zone of proximal development to their potential level of performance, real learning and progress possible. it means that the teacher support is urgently needed by the students to expand their potential. in this building knowledge of field, teachers support them and then gradually reduce their support in the next stages. form the presenting context through picture and teacher‘s support in this observing and questioning task; i can rizky nurul amalia & rudi hartono. the integration of genre based approach into scientific approach in when english rings a bell to teach recount text __________________________________________________________________________________________ 89 accomplish the integration between these stages with bkof. there is indicator that indicates the integration of observing and questioning in the 3 rd task with bkof. in this stage, the students are assigned to play the roles of the speakers in the pictures. it indicates the exploring of register in bkof. in exploring of register, joyce and feez (1998: 29) state that teacher can involve building knowledge of the topic of the model text is used, understanding the roles and relationships of people using the text and how these are established and maintained and understanding the channel of communication being used. playing roles is the good idea to engage the students with the context. in playing the roles, the students are expected to understand the roles and relationship of people using the text. the integration of mot into observing and questioning in observing and questioning (6), a model of text appears from udin and edo‘s recount text. this appearance of text is a start modeling the text. in this modeling of the text, students are assigned to read aloud the text. modeling activities are undertaken both the whole text, clause, and expression levels. in text-level activities, students have presentation activities, sort, matching and labeling activities. in clause-level activities, students present the grammatical features of the. in expression-level activities, students can have oral-aural, practice pronouncing, decoding, spelling or typing text (joyce and feez, 1998:30). joyce and feez categorize reading aloud in expression level of activities. some activities in expression level are oral-aural, pronunciation, decoding, spelling, handwriting or typing practice as needed for the use of text-type. from this activity, there is integration between observing and questioning (6) and modeling of text. in doing reading aloud activity, there will be some students read it in front of the class and after that every student should read it in each group to get feedback from their friends. if they have any problem, they can ask their teacher to help them. it shows that each learner has two level of development. those are a level of independent performance and a ‗level of potential development‘. reading aloud the text belongs to student‘s level of independent performance and reading aloud in his/her group to get feedback from other students belongs to ‗level of potential performance‘. in level of potential performance, students are possible to move through zone of proximal development to their potential level of performance by getting feedback from their friends. it is made possible through social interaction and joint construction with ‗more capable others‘ (gray 1987:30). from this activity, i can say that learning language in a social activity because there is an engagement among students and also between teacher and student in modeling the text. the integration of mot into collecting information in collecting information (1), a model of text appears from udin and edo‘s recount text. this appearance of text is a start modeling the text. in this modeling of the text, students are assigned to read aloud the text. modeling activities are undertaken both the whole text, clause, and expression levels.in text-level activities, students have language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 90 presentation activities, sort, matching and labeling activities. in clause-level activities, students present the grammatical features of the. in expression-level activities, students can have oral-aural, practice pronouncing, decoding, spelling or typing text (joyce and feez, 1998:30). in this stage students also make analysis the text. they make careful analysis on the experience consist of events. based on joyce and feez (1998:29), making analysis on the structural pattern and language features of the text belongs to modeling of the text stage. the integration of jcot into collecting information in collecting information (4), there are model of texts from beni‘s and dayu‘s experience. the students focus on identifying and writing events in the recount text in a group. joyce and feez (1998:30) name activity as small group construction of text and it belongs to joint construction of text. in identifying and writing events, they can go to their teacher if they need teacher‘s help. it shows that each learner has two level of development. those are a level of independent performance and a ‗level of potential development‘. writing the text belongs to student‘s level of independent performance and writing in a group to get feedback from other students belongs to ‗level of potential performance‘. in level of potential performance, students are possible to move through zone of proximal development to their potential level of performance by getting feedback from their friends. it is made possible through social interaction and joint construction with ‗more capable others‘ (gray 1987:30). from this activity, i can say that learning language in a social activity because there isan engagement among students and also between teacher and student in joint construction of text. the integration of jcot into associating in associating (1), the students focused on rearranging lina‘s experience when she got a scar on her face. firstly, they had to arrange the sentences into a good paragraph. next, they had to arrange the paragraphs into a good text. they did it in groups. the teacher provided support to his/her students. in this part, the teacher gradually reduced the contribution to text construction, as the students moved closer in order to be able to control the text-type independently. at this stage, the students were supported by the teacher and other s to construct a text based on the right schematic structure, i.e. the linguistic features they learned from mot and also knowledge of the field in bkof. they were able to construct it in groups or in pairs. when in groups or pairs, they were encouraged to talk to each other about what they would write and how they wrote it. from the activity in assoaciting (1), it could be concluded that there was an integration between associating stage and joint construction of text. the integration of icot into communicating in this stage, the students were supported by the teacher and other students to construct a text based on the right schematic structure, i.e. linguistic features they learned from mot and also knowledge of the field in bkof. they were able to construct it in groups or in pairs. when in groups or pairs, they were encouraged to talk to each other about what they would write and how they rizky nurul amalia & rudi hartono. the integration of genre based approach into scientific approach in when english rings a bell to teach recount text __________________________________________________________________________________________ 91 would write it. dewerianka and jones (2012:53) stated that that was called collaborative of production. they tried to collaborate with their friends or peers and, at the same time, the teacher gradually reduced the contribution to text-construction, as the students moved closer in order to be able to control the text-type independently (joyce and feez, 1998:30). conclusion based on the findings, i concluded that there is integration of genre-based approach into scientific approach represented in the textbook “when english rings a bell” published by the ministry of education and culture to teach recount text. those are four sections integration of genre based approach into scientific approach in this textbook. the integration can be displayed as a diagram below. figure 1. the integration of genre-based approach into scientific approach the first is the integration of bkof into scientific approach. that is the integration of bkof into observing and questioning. the second is the integrations of modeling of text (mot) into scientific approach. those are the integration of modeling of text into observing and questioning & collecting information. the third is the integrations of joint construction of text (jcot) into scientific approach. those are the integration of joint construction of text into collecting information & associating. the last is the integration of individual construction of text (icot) into scientific approach. that is the integration of individual construction of text into communicating.. references agustien, h. i. r. 2015. the 2013 english curriculum: the paradigm, interpretation and implementation. the 61 st teflin international conference. sebelas maret university. solo, 7-9 october 2014. bkof mot jcot icot •observing and questioning •observing and questioning •collecting information •collecting information •associating • communicating language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 92 celce-murcia, m., z. dornyei and s. thurrell. 1995. communicative competence: a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. issues in applied linguistics vol. 6 no 2, pp. 5-35. derewianka, b. & jones, p. 2012. teaching language in context. victoria: oxford university press. gerot, l &wignell, p. 1995. making sense of functional grammar. sydney: antipodean educational enterprises. goh, c. c. m & silver, r. e. 2004.language acquisition and development.singapore: longman. hammond, j, a. burns, h. joyce, d. brosnan, l. and gerot. 1992. english for special purposes: a handbook for teachers of adult literacy. sydney: nceltr, macquarie university. hayland, k. 2004. genre and second language writing. ann arbor: the university of michigan press. johnson, m. 2004. a philosophy of second language acquisition. london: yale university press. joyce and feez. 1998. text-based syllabus design. sidney: macquire university. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 140 the associative patterns of drug in modern dictionary of american slang words arina isti’anah english letters department, sanata dharma university e-mail: arina@usd.ac.id abstract slang words have been exercised by people in every day communication, particularly in informal speaking. the understanding of slang word meanings is beneficial for language users to maintain smooth communication with others. one of the alternatives to study word meanings is utilized by semantic analysis. drug is one of the most common referent of slang words in english. there are many synonymous words referring to drug, yet this paper displayed some of those words. the data were collected in a purposive sample method. the slang words taken as the data were restricted to those which were produced in 1990s and the 2000s. three key words referring to drug were involved to sort the data: amphetamine or nervous stimulant, ecstasy, and cocaine. the slang words analyzed were focused on the forms of exocentric compounding. there are two main objectives presented in this paper: to figure out what slang words referring to drugs and describe the associative patterns of the words. the data then were analyzed in terms of their associative patterns adopting mattielo’s theory (2008). the result shows that most of slang words referring to drug have appearance and effect patterns. keywords: slang, drug, semantics, associative patterns introduction language is an inseparable part of human beings’ lives. the use of language varieties can indicate certain meanings which can be understood by particular groups of community. slang is one of language varieties found in every day’s communication. people who do not belong to those who use particular slang expression may not get the point of speaking. slang is defined as informal vocabulary, usually stigmatized that often serves to mark out a subculture (llamas, mullany, & stockwell, 2007, p. 229). slang is also more typically used among those who are outside established higher-status groups, thus it describes words or phrases that are used instead of more every day terms among groups with special interest (yule, 2006, p. 211). new terminologies referring to particular reference are found in certain period of time. in 1990s, drug in america was highly abused. the government reported that drugs were still highly consumed. drugs abused during 1990s involved lsd, heroin, marijuana, crack cocaine, and amphetamines (www.serenityrecovery. com). in 1990s, americans used nearly 20 tons of amphetamines (burazin, 2002). the type of drug abused by american changed in 2000s as they used cocaine the most, spent in $36 billion a year (burazin, 2002). the high number of drug consumption also affects language use among people in america. to talk about drug directly is regarded taboo, thus they create new terms referring to drug. that kind of term is called as slang. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x drug is one of social factors which influences american slang (zhou & fan, 2013, p. 2211). slang expressions referring to drugs also develop as the types of drug abused by people in america also experience changes. a sociological view regards slang as ‚a social means of identification and cohesiveness within a group‛ (mattiello, 2008, p. 31). the previous statement emphasizes that slang words are only recognized by certain community as a means of referring to certain referent acknowledged by its own members. slang expressions also embody attitudes and values of group members. therefore, slang words can show group’s identity and the speaker’s background (fasola, 2014). in lexicography study, slang may be defined with two senses. the first sense mentions that slang is the restricted speech of marginal or distinct sub groups in society, while the second sense mentions that slang is quite temporary, unconventional vocabulary characterized primarily by connotation of informality and novelty (mattiello, 2008, p. 31). yust regards slang as the use of ordinary words in extraordinary senses or of extraordinary words in ordinary senses (mattiello, 2008, p. 33). on the other hand, sociolinguists regard slang as specific types of linguistic variables such as structural unit and its correlation with social parameters (androutosopoulus, 2000, p. 109). some people assume that slang is the same as jargon. in fact, it is not. mattielo argues that slang is different from jargon ‚in its lack of prestige and pretentiousness‛ (2008, p. 36). she further argues that slang is much more familiar and spontaneous than the technical jargon of science, medicine, academics, law etc. slang may be used within a particular group like musicians, doctors, soldiers, or seamen, but it does not exactly deal with status or reputation. thus, musicians can use funk, grunge, handbag, house, etc to refer to different types of music genres. slang is also different from cant. cant is the secret language of thieves, professional beggars, and other groups operating on the fringes of society (oed in mattielo, 2008, p. 37). otherwise, slang arises from language of the underworld and are used for the purposes of secrecy and conspiracy. for instance, the term skunk refers to drug. the previous term is used by drug dealers. slang is also different from dialect. dialect is geographically restricted language. nevertheless, slang is not necessarily associated with one region or social class (mattielo, 2008, p. 37). what is slang in british can be standard in america or may have a different meaning within the two regional varieties. an example is the word bomb which is used in british to refer to a success, particularly in entertainment. however, in america the word bomb is used to refer to failure. eble (1996) and munro (1997) underline the tendency of slang to name things indirectly or figuratively, especially through metaphor (mattielo, 2008: 44). for example, the word bird refers to an aero plane. metonymy also appears in slang such as tinnie/ tinny to refer to a can of beer, synecdoche (wheels refer to car), euphemism (family jewels ‘the man genitalia’), and irony (a little bit of all right ‘something or somebody regarded as highly satisfactory, especially applied to a pretty woman (mattielo, 2008, pp. 44-45). there are two kinds of equivalence condition in slang expressions: referential equivalence and functional equivalence (androutosopoulus, 2000, p. 113). referential equivalence refers to the two lexical items which have the same referential meaning, but a different expressive and/or social meaning. on the other hand, functional equivalence refers to the same communicative function in a specific context, all by having a different expressive or social meaning (androutosopoulus, 2000, p. 113). referent equivalence, is thus, the same as synonymy. it is the relation of ‚affinity which links two phonologically different words having a very similar meaning‛ (mattielo, 2008, language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 142 p. 160). there are different slang terms which refer to the same referent. for examples are horse and smack which refer to heroine; and coke and freebase refer to cocaine. such slang terms can be considered exact, absolute or perfect synonyms because they have the same referent in the real world (p. 161). they also belong to the same syntactic category and are mutually substitutable or they are interchangeably used in drug addicts’ conversation. studies on slang expressions have been exercised by some scholars. suryanto & setiawan observe slang words used by gamers in game online, clash of clans. they found some slang patterns used by the gamers: blending, acronym, abbreviation, and swearing words. the use of those pattern was due to their quick writing in gaming. slang words also mark the virtual community in online game. thus, the expressions such as watcha, lemebz, enuff and stfu are only understood by gamers of clash of clans (suryanto & setiawan). wahyuni & rosa (2013) observed types of word formation of slang words in tv advertisement. they chose tv advertisement as it promotes certain products or services by certain strategies, including slang expressions. in the advertisement, some forms of slang expressions were found: coinage and borrowing were mostly found in the data (wahyuni & rosa, 2013). jimmi conducted analysis on slang used in grown ups 2 movie. in his research, jimmi divides the analysis into types of slang according to chapman (1998): primary and secondary slang. the first kind of slang refers to the expressions which are generally used among people, such as terms used by urban street gangs. the second type of slang refers to terminologies used in a secret way to refer to drug, gamble, or other crimes. the reviews of studies prove that slang expressions are delicate data to analyze. however, those studies applied morphological and sociolinguistic approaches. the research on slang is common to those interested in how slang terms are formed, the internal structure of the words. sociolinguist also takes slang expressions as fruitful data to observe as the community background using slang can be described further. the causes and effects of using slang also interest sociolinguists. this paper attempts at observing slang expressions from another angle, semantics. as the study of meanings, semantics offers an approach to observe slang expressions and their associative patterns. there are four associative patterns of slang expressions referring to drug: the appearance, constituent, instrument, and effect patterns (mattiello, 2008, pp. 178-179). the first pattern concerns the primary features which characterize the external of the drugs, such as back tar and brown sugar. the appearance pattern involves the texture, quantity, and shape. the constituent pattern concerns the constitutive element of the drug, such as coke, acid, bromo, and meth. the instrument pattern is related to the way drug is taken or the instrument used for taking, such as main line, needle, and sugar. the last pattern, effect, is related to the effects produced upon the drug addict inhalation or injection, such as dynamite, black bomber, and happy dust. methodology this paper applied semantic analysis as it deals with how slang words are associated to their meanings by adopting mattielo’s theory (2008). to limit the analysis, this paper observed slang words with the referent drug. there are a lot of slang words referring to drug, yet this paper focuses on slang words which mean ‚amphetamine capsule or tablet‛, ‚ecstasy‛, and ‚cocaine ‚. those three meanings are chosen as they are the drugs mostly abused during 1990s and 2000s. the data were taken from dictionary of modern american slang. the slang words collected are then categorized based on their associative language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x patterns. each slang word associates to certain pattern proven by how the semantic properties of both slang words and their literal meanings are connected. this paper applied purposive sampling research as the writer picked some words with certain referent in order to figure out the associative patterns used in slang words. purposive sampling was chosen as the data collection method as it suits the nature research project which requires specific result justifications (riffe, lacy, & fico, 2005, p. 101). the slang words analyzed were also restricted in the form of exocentric compounding nominal groups. compounding creates a new, multiword item that behaves like a single part of speech (harley, 2006, p. 99). to be specific, exocentric compounding contains of two or more words whose meanings are not related to the head. in other words, exocentric compounding are compounds which do not have a head. the plural nominal constituents do not function as the head (boij, 2007). compounding occurs when two independently meaningful roots are directly combined to form a new, complex word, usually a noun or adjective, such as headstrong and high school. findings and discussion this part is divided into two sub-categories. the first part displays the number of associative patterns of the referent drug, while the second part displays the categories associative patterns of the slang words. from the research, there were found 132 words referring to drug. the table below displays the summary of the number of words . table 1 summary of the occurrence of drug slang words no types of associative patterns number percentage slang words 1 appearance 74 56% black deck, big brownies, bird egg, black beauty, blackbird, black cadillac, black gold, black molly, black tar, black whack, black widow, brain pill, green burger, head drug, pink heart, roaring twenty, snow seal, baby slit, banana split, bart simpson, big brownies, blue almonds, booty juicy, candy flip, coke biscuit, coke burger, dennis and the menace, disco biscuit, disco burger, double stacked, double stacks, fido dido, green burger, green triangle, herbal bliss, chocolate chip cookies, chocolate ecstasy, beak lunch, chocolate rock 2 effect 58 44% brain burner, brain tickler, energy powder, fast stuff, gofast, hitler’s drug, little bomb, lou reed, oliver reed, red devil, stay-awake, cali dreamers, california sunrise, cloud nine, dead road, happy pill, heavy sent, ebeneezer goode, flower flipping, gary albert, dime special, devil drug, chocolate rocket, breath of god, breakfast of champion, bob marley, beautiful boulders, atom bomb, woody woodpecker, rave energy, power pill, pit bull, lover’s language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 144 speed, love potion total 132 100% the research shows that there are only two kinds of associative patterns found in the data. most of slang words referring to drug have appearance pattern, shown by 74 words or in 56%. the effect pattern is shown in 58 words or represented in 44%. from each associative pattern above, there is a similarity from the slang words seen from their semantic properties. in the appearance pattern, semantic properties [+shape] and [+texture] are found in the data. in the effect pattern, three semantic properties are found: [+pleasure], [+popularity] and [+energy]. the table below displays the overview of semantic properties of the associative patterns of drug along with examples. table 2 summary of the semantic properties of drug slang words no types of associative patters semantic properties examples 1 appearance [+shape] bird egg, black cadillac, coke biscuit, black deck [+texture] white robin, big brownies, green burger, blue almond 2 effect [+pleasure] cloud nine, happy pill, dime special [+popularity] gary albert, bob marley, lou reed [+energy] energy powder, fast stuff, lover’s speed, rave energy in table 2 above, each associative pattern can be identified through some semantic properties. in the appearance pattern, the properties of shape and texture are found in the data. the examples of slang words having [+shape] property are bird egg, black cadillac, coke biscuit, and black deck. the appearance pattern is also identified by [+texture] as seen in the words white robin, big brownies, green burger, and blue almond. the effect pattern can be identified by the three semantic properties: [+pleasure], [+popularity], and [+energy]. pleasure is shown in the words cloud nine, happy pill, and dime special. the next property, popularity, is shown by the famous characters such as gary albert, bob marley, and lou reed. energy is the last property of the effect pattern shown in the words energy powder, fast stuff, and rave energy. in the slang word black cadillac, which means an amphetamine capsule, the appearance of the head cadillac can be compared to its literal meaning. based on oxford advanced dictionary (oad), cadillac means a large and expensive us make of car. the similar pattern observed in the literal and non-literal meanings of the words is on the quality of the referent. cadillac is categorized as a luxurious type of car in the us. compared to amphetamine, it is a type of drug popular in the us during 1990s. based on the journal of addictive disorders, americans spent $5.4 billion on amphetamine. that number of money is proven by the distribution of amphetamine in drug user markets, which was represented in 37%. thus, the word cadillac used in the slang word can be language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x compared to its quantity compared to the literal meaning. talking about the appearance pattern, shape is one of the markers appeared in slang words. in the word bird egg, the head egg is defined as a small oval object with a thin hard shell produced by female bird (oad). in nonliteral meaning, bird egg means an amphetamine tablet. from the two description, both words have the similar shape to compare. the tablet and egg are compared to have similar shape, which is tiny. the occurrence of bird in the slang word is also on purpose. compared to poultry, bird has smaller size of egg. thus, the slang word and its literal meaning are connected in terms of its shape. texture is another marker in the appearance pattern of slang words. an example of slang word having the similar texture to its literal meaning is big brownies. the head brownies can be defined as thick soft flat cakes made with chocolate and sometimes with nuts and served in small squares. the texture of brownies is soft and delicious when tasted. the texture in brownies can be compared to the recreational drug known as ecstasy. when drug addicts consume ecstasy, it is associated to tasting a delicious cake. this comparison is based on the texture of brownies and ecstasy. similar analysis can be applied to the slang word white robin. however, the texture is not found in the head, but the modifier white. the texture of color is the same as in ecstasy. the presence of robin as the embossed character is related to the popularity of the character. it is compared to the popularity of the drug itself. there were 58% of drug related emergence department admission which are in the forms of ecstasy. another example of slang word having appearance pattern is white robin. white robin refers to the recreational drug known as ecstasy. robin is a character in movie familiar in the us. the character is described as a thief who steals money from rich people and gives it to poor people (oad). the use of embossed character in drug slang word refers to the popularity of the character which is in line with the drug popularity. the appearance pattern here is seen from the word white whose texture is the same as ecstasy. the other associative pattern of drug found in the dictionary is the effect pattern. it is related to the effects produced upon the drug addict inhalation or injection, such as brain burner and brain tickler. the effect shown in the word brain burner is shown by the head, burner. in that word, drug is associated to a substance giving heat to the addict’s brain. this effect can create to being drunk and insanity. similar effect is shown in the word brain tickler. the head of the previous word reveals that drug can produce uncomfortable feeling in sensitive part of the body (oad), particularly brain. those two examples give negative effects of drug. those who abuse drugs can create negative effects towards others as their brain, or sanity, can be broken because of them. the effect pattern is also associated to famous people, for instance lou reed, oliver reed, gary albert, ebeneezer goode, and bob marley. lou reed produces an album entitled ecstasy in 2000s. its popularity is associated to drug by particular society. people tend to mention lou reed to refer to ecstasy rather than mention the kind of drug directly. oliver reed is another popular figure known for his alcoholism and binge drinking. his addiction once led him to a fatal heart attack which caused his absence on a movie (www.thedailybeast.com). ebeneezer goode is a song by the shamen, a british band, which is associated to drug since its singer was an ecstasy addict even when he was on stage. the singer mentioned that he enjoyed the effect of drug to boost his feelings and energy. the http://www.thedailybeast.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 146 popularity of the song is used as a slang word referring to ecstasy. the effect is found in other words, such as energy powder and happy pill. in energy powder, the effect is shown in the modifier. drug is associated to energy. thus, drug is abused in order to give its abusers more energy. it is not neglected that some famous people abused drugs to boost their energy. drug is also associated with happiness, such as in the word happy pill. the modifier shows the effect of drugs. drug is associated to pleasure. the addicts can feel pleasure when abusing drugs. those two examples are associated to positive effects felt by the addicts. rave energy is another slang word which has effect pattern. the modifier rave is related to illegal drugs (oad). the head energy is related to the enthusiasm held in the party. thus, rave energy has effect pattern as it gives enthusiasm and power to join the party. other words having similar effects are go fast, stay-awake, fast stuff, and pit bull. the discussion above reveals that drug is mostly associated to its appearance in terms of shape and texture. the shape of drug is utilized by community to call it in different words. the shape associated to drug is in the forms of size and color. the texture of drug is found in the form of noun head which refer to the material in which drug is formed. in the effect pattern, the slang words also convey a pattern. drug is associated with pleasure, popularity and energy. the slang words are formed in a pattern of compounding with can created the feeling of pleased and happy. the popularity effect is often related to famous figures or things which are attached to drug addict. on the other hand, the property of energy is built in the society to leave such sensation to its addicts when they consume drugs. conclusion slang words are chosen by particular community to communicate in informal speaking. the replacement of one word to another due to its being taboo is found in english, including when they talk about drug. this study proves that slang words referring to drug have particular pattern, particularly seen from its associative patterns. slang words referring to drug has two associative patterns: appearance and effect. the appearance pattern is found more in the dictionary, which are presented in semantic properties [+shape] and [+texture]. the effect pattern is found in the dictionary and represented in semantic properties [+pleasure], [+popularity] and [+energy]. in sum, slang words are kinds of language variety which have consistency in their associative patterns, proven by their semantic properties. however, further research observing slang words in different word formation can be done to figure out whether the consistency still occurs in different word formation. references androutosopoulus, j. k. (2000). extending the concept of the (socio)linguistic variable to slang. mi a szleng? (what is slang?), 109-140. boij, g. (2007). the grammar of words: an introduction to morphology. new york: oxford university press. burazin, c. (2002). current development. journal of addictive disorders, 1-12. dziedzic-rawska, a. (2014). semantic relations between the components of slang exocentric nominal compounds in english slang. studia anglica resoviensia, 12-22. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x fasola, j. (2014). slang and its history. 53rd international scientific conference of daugvapils university. daugvapils: department of science daugvapils university. harley, h. (2006). english words: an introduction. oxford: blackwell publishing. llamas, c., mullany, l., & stockwell, p. (2007). the routledge companion to sociolinguistics. new york: routledge. mattiello, e. (2008). an introduction to english slang: a description of its morphology, semantics and sociology. milano: polimetrica international scientific publisher. riffe, d., lacy, s., & fico, f. (2005). analyzing media messages: using qualitative content analysis in research. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates publisher. suryanto, g. y., & setiawan, s. (n.d.). the use of slang words by gamers in the game online. 1-8. wahyuni, s., & rosa, r. (2013). types of word formation of slang words found in tv advertisement. english language and literature , 257-266. yule, g. (2006). the study of language, third edition. new york: cambridge university press. zhou, y., & fan, y. (2013). a sociolinguistic study of american slang. theory and practice in language studies, 3(12), 2209-2213. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 31 english teachers’ responses on the indonesian mooc: technology for autonomous learning (a qualitative survey at central java province, indonesia) rudi hartono semarang state university, indonesia e-mail: rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com received: 20 july 2017. revised: 25 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract the birth and existence of indonesian massive open online course (imooc) facilitate english teachers in indonesia to improve their english teaching skills and explore various potential digital tools to help promote autonomous learning in their language classrooms. to prove this fact i did a qualitative survey on 17 english teachers as the imooc participants from central java. i gave them questionnaires through a google form. by using this data collection technique i got their responses on the importance and advantage of the indonesian mooc as technology for autonomous learning in their english classroom context and situation. based on the survey data, it was known that the participants: 1) had not followed moocs (60%), 2) did not know the advantages of mooc (70%), 3) knew imooc (86%), 4) were interested in following imooc (100%), 5) became autonomous learners (90%), 6) were upgrading their ict competence for english teaching (100%), 7) were improving their career as english teachers (100%). from this survey, i have much invaluable information to map the role and function of the indonesian mooc for english teaching and learning autonomously. the indonesian mooc is really significant for english teachers to face a global era, especially for their digital literacy competence. keywords: english teacher; indonesian mooc; digital technology; autonomous learning how to cite: hartono, r. 2017. english teachers‘ responses on the indonesian mooc: technology for autonomous learning (a qualitative survey at central java province, indonesia). language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 31—39. __________________________________________________________________________________ introduction technological innovation will transform not only how we teach (or learn) but also what we teach (or learn). the rapid advancing scientific areas such as the brain sciences, artificial intelligence and the psychology of learning will influence conceptual basis of teaching and learning. the challenge for educational organizations such as universities and colleges is to learn from these innovations and to incorporate what is new mailto:rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 32 and helpful. therefore, teachers need to adopt a rational integration which integrates modern teaching techniques and traditional pedagogical model for higher achievement (rai & chunrao, 2016). with the development of information technology, lifelong learning and autonomous learning for community residents will be a main topic forever (li, 2016). moocs are a new phenomenon with important implications for online learning in postsecondary institutions, professional development, and corporate e-learning (kennedy, 2014). the acronym mooc itself first appeared in december 2011 (kim, 2011) in reference to an artificial intelligence course offered by a stanford university professor. the term ―massive‖ refers to an educational institution offering courses enrolling a lot of students. ―open‖ means these courses are free for anybody in the world to access. ―online‖ indicates this is a form of e-learning and learners needs to study via the internet. the courses are taught via digital forms of media, not through paper books, face-to-face lectures and chalk scratches on the blackboard. ―courses‖ means the learning content provided is not fragmented knowledge, but a course which is designed for learning step by step. although the name of mooc does not define the course providers, the providers are usually among the best universities in whichever country. in moocs, learning materials are delivered via an lms (learning management system) which usually has functions of emending video clips, group assignments, discussion forums, and social networks (wang, 2012). moocs are courses designed for large numbers of participants, that can be accessed by anyone anywhere as long as they have an internet connection, are open to everyone without entry qualifications, and offer a full/complete course experience online for free (open et al., 2015). on the other hand it was said that the moocs have the most signifcant contribution potential to alter the relationship between learner and instructor and between academe and the wider community (siemens & knowledge, n.d.). the mooc platforms provide institutions with cloud-based hosting environments for delivering courses, offering scale and functionality while the institution provides the coursematerial and reputational value. while traditional online courses are not new, the success of the present format is a recentphenomenon. the mooc was conceived by the university of manitoba in 2008. wide public interest in moocs followed later in 2011, with an open online course in artificial intelligence by stanford university and massachusetts institute of technology (mit). this course attracted over 160 000 students from more than 190 countries (czerniewicz, deacon, fife, small, & walji, n.d.). in particular, moocs succeeded the trend of open education movement that focuses on howopen education tools, resources, and knowledge can improve the quality of education (iiyoshi and kumar2008) in (adamopoulos & sciences, n.d.).these massive open online courses have recently garnered widespread public attention for their potential as a new educational vehicle. there are now multiple mooc platforms (including the edx consortium, coursera and udacity) offering hundreds of courses, some of which have had hundreds of thousands of students enrolled (anderson, huttenlocher, & kleinberg, n.d.). we articulated five principles that can help mooc instructors design and manage hartono, r. 2017. english teachers‘ responses on the indonesian mooc: technology for autonomous learning (a qualitative survey at central java province, indonesia). language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 31—39. 33 massive classes. these five principles meaningful, engaging, measurable, accessible, and scalable – were synthesized from conceptual development and information systems theory(drake, hara, & seeman, 2015).this growing interest for language literacy consttute language moocs as an evolving and expanding area with newdevelopments likely to offer greater variety of courses and moreinnovatve social learning pedagogies. currently, practtoners, language teachers, instructonal designers are exploring how to design efcient language courses that have the characteristcsof open access and massiveness (researcher, 2015). thus, moocs are learning tools for learners to acquire knowledge and competences in different areas. but moocs create opportunities to ―learn by example‖ how to teach in innovative ways, to (meta)elearn. we have available courses from universities around the world, with different views, different strategies with different teams. it is a wonderful opportunity to learn about learning, teaching, assessing, motivating and engaging students (falcao & fernandes, 2016).the ‗open‘ and ‗massive‘ aspects of moocs – not onlyconnectivist, but also other forms of moocs change the roles of learners and instructors such that learnershave more autonomy than in conventional courses (milligan & littlejohn, 2014). after we know many about moocs over the world proposed by some institutions and supported by mooc experts, i introduce a new trend of special mooc desined for indonesian context, called the indonesian massive open online course (imooc) published in 2016 and tried to be conducted in 15 universities in indonesia. this is a new mooc for pre and inservice english teachers in indonesia involving more than 300 english teachers indonesia from banda aceh, batam, bandung, jakarta, semarang, salatiga, yogyakarta, malang, surabaya, denpasar, ambon, balikpapan, makasar, and watampone. in relation to the imooc, lee (2016) as the designer and instructor from vanderbilt university in nashville, tennessee, usa told usmuch about it. she said that the u.s. embassy's regional english language office (relo) worked with fifteen indonesian university professors from around indonesia developing this course, the first indonesian-developed imooc created solely for indonesian participants. during the creation process, the indonesian developers learned how to use the free version of the canvas e-learning platform, created suitable materials for autonomous learning, and worked together as in teams to ensure that participants of the program receive the best instruction possible. this course focuses on "autonomous learning and apps to create an autonomous classroom." there are five modules to aid in your understanding of autonomous learning and provide you with the skills to support you in creating your own autonomous classroom. each module runs for two weeks with activities and discussions to support your learning. module 1 covers introductions & autonomous learning, module 2 is about digital literacy, module 3 discusses mobile devices for teaching and learning, module 4 talks about video use, and module 5 introduces creating videos with smartphones. this imooc is really demanded and followed by many english teachers in indonesia and evidently proved that it is successfully done in improving the english teachers‘ skill of teaching. that is why i did a language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 34 survey by taking a sample from a group of participants followed the imooc held by semarang state university (unnes) to inform that this program is really invaluable and beneficial for english teachers in the central java, indonesia. methodology this research used a qualitative survey that asked 17 participants open-ended questions to find out more information about their responses on the indonesian mooc, sometimes in preparation for doing quantitative surveys. test surveys to eliminate problems (farrell, 2016). the participants were english teachers from central java areas. the imooc name of we conducted at unnes is unnes-imooc 2017. it was conducted from february 13 to april 20, 2017. the questionnaire was created by using google form that can be seen in the following link goo.gl/6cg3fv. the participants filled it out and their responses can be seen and checked from the admin dashboard. the data (responses) were tabulated and analysed qualitatively and each data from each questions were discussed interpretively. results and discussion in this part i state the findings taken from the questionnaire and preceded in the table and charts. the first finding can be checked in the table 1. it is the whole participants‘ responses from the whole questions given in the questionnaire. result from the questionnaire tabel 1. participants‘s responses taken from the questionnaire no. questions yes (%) no (%) 1. they had followed moocs 18 92 2. they knew advantages of moocs 30 70 3. they knew imooc 86 14 4. they were interested in following imooc 100 0 5. they became autonomous learners after imooc 90 10 6. the imooc upgraded their ict competence of english teaching 100 0 7. the imooc improved their career as english teachers 100 0 from the table 1 we can see that only 3 participants (18%) had ever followed moocs while 14 participants (92%) had not done yet. just 5 participants (30%) knew advantages of moocs and 12 participants (70%) did not know yet. then in relation to the indonesian mooc (imooc) almost 15 participants (86%) knew or recognized it well while 2 others (14%) did not know it anymore. all 17 participants (100%) were interested in following the imooc and 15 participants (90%) became autonomous learners after following the imooc program while 2 participants (10%) were not yet. then the whole participants (100%) felt and proved that the imooc could upgrade their ict https://goo.gl/6cg3fv hartono, r. 2017. english teachers‘ responses on the indonesian mooc: technology for autonomous learning (a qualitative survey at central java province, indonesia). language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 31—39. 35 competence of english teaching and improve their career as english teacher. in the following pages i present the data in the charts that describle the participants‘ responses taken from each question in the questionnaire. participant’s responses of question 1 chart 1. participant‟s participation in moocs from the chart 1 we can see that 3 participants (18%) had ever participated in moocs while 14 participants (92%) had not done yet. it means that moocs were new for them and they were not familiar yet with them. participant’s responses of question 2 chart 2. participant‟s knowledge of moocs advantages 16% 84% participation of moocs yes no 30% 70% knowledge of moocs advantages yes no language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 36 chart 2 informs that only 5 participants (30%) knew advantages of moocs well and 12 participants (70%) did not know yet. it means that they had not ever known yet before because moocs were relatively new for them in their school area. participant’s responses of question 3 chart 3. participant‟s recognition of moocs chart 3 shows us that almost 15 participants (86%) knew or recognized the indonesian massive online course (imooc) well because they had ever known from us in after they followed the imooc socialization held by relo jakarta while 2 others (14%) did not know it anymore. participant’s responses of question 4 chart 4. participant‟s interest in imooc program it is good news for us through the chart 4 we know the information that all participants (100%) were interested in following the imooc. it was because they were eager to know the 86% 14% recognition of imooc yes no 100% 0% interest in imooc yes no hartono, r. 2017. english teachers‘ responses on the indonesian mooc: technology for autonomous learning (a qualitative survey at central java province, indonesia). language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 31—39. 37 new trend of english teaching coming to their area virtually and were not patient to take part in a new paradigmn of english learning program. participant’s responses of question 5 chart 5. becoming autonomous learners after imooc program chart 5 also gives us a big hope that 15 participants (90%) became autonomous learners after following the imooc program while 2 participants (10%) were not yet. it can be proved through their independent learning during following the imooc program. they learned new lessons by reading online articles, searching resources, and applying some apps for english teaching autonomously. participant’s responses of question 6 chart 6. upgrading ict competence after imooc program 90% 10% autonomous learners after imooc yes no 100% 0% ict competence after imooc yes no language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 38 the next other good news is also described in the chart 6. it is stated that the whole participants (100%) felt that the imooc could upgrage their ict competence in english teaching. the facts can be seen from their competence in using new apps learned in the imooc program and creating videos for their tasks and uploaded them in youtube. beside that they were able to use some new apps for teaching english in their autonomous classrooms like canva, padlet, socrative, quizlet, quizstar, hot potatoes, grammarly, evernote, etc. participant’s responses of question 7 chart 7. improving career as english teachers after imooc program what happened with the last chart? in the chart 7 we really know that the imooc participants had got new knowledge of how to use technology for their teaching and learning. they now know how to teach their classroom using digital technologies. they are literate with digital technologies so they can be grouped into the men with digital literacy. the imooc had improved their career as english teachers after they followed this program. conclusion from the findings above it can be conluded that the imooc participants recognized the program well, were interested in following the imooc, became autonomous learners after the imooc, felt and proved that the imooc upgraded their ict competence of english teaching, and improved their career as english teacher. then as the suggestion it can be said thet the indonesian mooc lives in the heart of imoocers. it lives from the contribution of every single learner. withoutthe their active participation, the imooc would be dead. therefore, it should be in the interest oftheimooc provider to raise the share of its active learners(meinel & schweiger, 2016). references adamopoulos, p., & sciences, m. (n.d.). what makes a great mooc ? an interdisciplinary analysis of student, 1–21. anderson, a., huttenlocher, d., & kleinberg, j. (n.d.). engaging with massive online courses. 100% 0% career improvement after imooc yes no language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 39 czerniewicz, l., deacon, a., fife, m., small, j., & walji, s. (n.d.). introduction to moocs : definition and characteristics moocs in the broader higher education landscape. drake, j. r., hara, m. o., & seeman, e. (2015). five principles for mooc design: with a case study, 14, 125–143. falcao, r., & fernandes, l. (2016). teaching project management on-line : lessons learned from moocs, 8(4), 351–358. farrell, s. (2016). 28 tips for creating great qualitative surveys. retrived from https://www.nngroup.com/articles/qualitative-surveys/. kennedy, j. (2014). characteristics of massive open online courses (moocs):, 13(1), 1–16. lee, d. (2016). the indonesian massive open online course (imooc) on technology for autonomous learning. retrieved from https://canvas.instructure.com/courses/1127738. li, f. (2016). how to improve community resident autonomous learning based on virtual learning, 12(1), 60–65. meinel, c., & schweiger, s. (2016). education sciences a virtual social learner community — constitutive element of moocs. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci6030022 milligan, c., & littlejohn, a. (2014). professional learning in massive open online courses, 368–371. open, m., courses, o., moocs, c., mobile, m., learning, o., eco, c., … an, m. (2015). definition massive open online courses ( moocs ), (march), 1–5. rai, l., & chunrao, d. (2016). influencing factors of success and failure in mooc and general analysis of learner behavior, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.7763/ijiet.2016.v6.697 researcher, s. (2015). personalized moocs for language learning: a challenging proposal, (november), 1–13. siemens, g., & knowledge, c. (n.d.). things you should know about … tm mooc s. wang, s. (2012). from e-learning to mooc, 35–42. language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 40 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 1 kelsea’s objections against men’s stigma in leading a kingdom in johansen’s the queen of the tearling ikka malia chairun nissa diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia email: manissan.manis@gmail.com abstract kelsea is a female character in a novel written by erika johansen entitled the queen of the tearling. when she is nineteen years old, she becomes a queen. although she has the highest status in her kingdom, sometimes underestimated by men because she is a girl. the purpose of this research is to reveal kelsea’s objections against men’s stigma in leading a kingdom. this is a qualitative research. the result of this research shows that kelsea breaks the men’s stigma saying women are weak. kelsea argues with the general of her army because he thinks women are bad in military strategy. moreover, kelsea proves that she has power to dismiss her uncle from her castle because he corrupts and takes the freedom of the women who satisfy him. in addition, kelsea sets herself equal with her queen guards to learn how to fight with sword and wear armor because she will do something while those men die for her. as a conclusion, kelsea acts as a strong woman with dignity. keywords: politics, tearling, objections, feminism, men’s stigma introduction in this world, there are men and women. men mostly work outside while women stay at home. men lead and women follow them. men take actions to protect women. from these phenomena, men considerably have higher status and more important roles compared to women. in politics matter, men tend to make decisions. women will simply agree because men believe that women have lower status. according to millett (2000), politics is powerstructured relationship; a group of people controlled by the other group. the power here belongs to men. a group of women will keep silent when men have reached a decision. this is unfair because women also have right to state their thought. “…our society…is a patriarchy…every avenue of power within the society, including the coercive force of the police, is entirely in male hands” (millett, 2000, p. 25). millett also mentions t.s.eliot’s statement that the philosophy and art of our culture is “of male manufacture”. it seems that men dominate this world in many areas because the center of power is on men. this matter raises women’s objection because they also want to take a part in the society. basic patriarchal polities or social distinctions of patriarchy include temperament, role, and status (millett, 2000). there is a prejudice of male superiority, so superior status is in the male and inferior status is in the female. the temperament contains stereotyped terms, masculine and feminine. meanwhile, the role of women is always about infants and the rest of human achievement, interest, and ambition belongs to the male (millett, 2000). “…aggression, intelligence, force, and efficacy in the male; passivity, ignorance, docility, “virtue,” and ineffectuality in the female” (millett, 2000, p. 26). furthermore, tyson (2006) states that traditional gender roles put men as rational, strong, protective, language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 2 and decisive; while women are emotional (irrational), weak, nurturing, and submissive. those words are the description for both sexes. although it is not always true, people seem to believe that it is not wrong either. male and female have very different life experiences and cultures. they have been educated since they are babies, for example taking compliment from someone. a person says “this kid is beautiful, isn’t she?”, so the baby girl is educated to be beautiful. this illustration happens to a baby boy when he is complimented as handsome (millett, 2000). “in a society where status is dependent upon the economic, social, and educational circumstances of class, it is possible for certain females to appear to stand higher than some males” (millett, 2000, p. 36). this statement relieves the anxiety of women about their position. surely women have a chance to be equal to men, even higher. in this research, i use a novel entitled the queen of the tearling written by erika johansen because it talks about a woman who wants equality. kelsea, the main character, is a queen surrounded by men. those men are her queen guards and soldiers. kelsea is neither feminine nor slender; even she does not look like her mother, the late queen elyssa, who has perfect beauty. kelsea is still nineteen years old. she is too young to be a queen, but it is her right to claim the throne at this age because her mother has passed away. since a baby, kelsea does not live at the keep (the castle) in order to protect her. her uncle, regent thomas, always tries to kill her. hence, her queen guards pick her up from a cottage in the wood to take her back to the castle. at first, kelsea is underestimated by her queen guards. the queen guards know that kelsea has lived with carlin and barty, kelsea’s foster parents. those men have stigma that kelsea is as weak as her mother, queen elyssa. on the other hand, they do not know what kelsea has learned with carlin about how to be a true queen and the knowledge about how to survive in an open area with barty. here, kelsea tries to prove that she is not like what her queen guards think. the problem comes when kelsea stops the slavery in her kingdom, tearling. based on the mort treaty (a peace agreement) made by queen elyssa and the red queen, tearling needs to send two hundred and fifty slaves to mortmesne. otherwise, the red queen as the queen of mortmesne will invade tearling. the invasion will surely come, so kelsea plans the military strategy with her general, but the general hesitates to kelsea’s decision because she is a girl. general bermond says that women are bad in military. methodology this is a qualitative research using feminism approach. the theories used in this research are sexual politics by kate millett and feminism by lois tyson. the material object is the novel the queen of the tearling by erika johansen. this novel is the first series of tearling trilogy written in 2015 and published by harpercollins publishers. the data are taken from this novel through literary study. there are some procedures conducted in this research, they are: (1) identifying the topic in the novel the queen of the tearling related to feminism, (2) doing a literature review that is relevant with the research question, (3) collecting the data and reading the novel the queen of the tearling by erika johansen, (4) analyzing the data and explaining it according to the theory of feminism, and (5) summarizing the explanation. discussion what kelsea has learned kelsea is the child of queen elyssa, the former queen of tearling. not long after giving birth, there is information about the death of queen elyssa. then, regent thomas, language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 3 kelsea’s uncle, leads tearling. he always wants the throne for himself and tries to kill kelsea when she is a baby. in order to be safe, kelsea is moved to a secret cottage in the middle of the wood and raised by her foster parents, carlin and barty. when kelsea reaches her nineteenth birthday, she will be ready to claim her throne. carlin is actually queen elyssa’s former teacher and a friend of kelsea’s grandmother. now carlin teaches kelsea in the cottage, so kelsea will be a true queen with intelligence. carlin has her private library in the cottage and it becomes kelsea’s classroom too. carlin teaches kelsea basic math, languages, geography, and history. if kelsea can do her assignments before dinner, she may read one literary work and stay awake till the book is finished. carlin is fair, but firm: “carlin was fair, but she was also hard. if kelsea completed all of her schoolwork by dinnertime, her reward was to be allowed to pick a book from the library and stay up reading until she had finished” (johansen, 2015, p. 8). not only carlin, barty teaches kelsea as well. he used to be a queen guard and a botanist. kelsea learns how to survive in an open area with barty. he tells her the way to set a trap for rabbits, to recognize plants that can be eaten, and to defend her with a knife. kelsea knows the wood around the cottage very well and she loves to ride a horse. she can climb the trees and hide herself with the help of her dark green cloak. kelsea’s temper among the men there are nine queen guards from the keep (the castle) picking up kelsea at the cottage. they need to take kelsea back to the castle because kelsea has been nineteen years old and have right to claim the throne as the heir of tearling. at first, most of the queen guards do not bow to kelsea with all their heart. the captain of the queen guards, carroll, bows very low, but there is a pause before other queen guards bow to her. one of them even gives only little bow: “a moment passed before the rest bowed as well. the guard with the mace bent perhaps an inch, with the slightest perceptible dip of his chin” (johansen, 2015, p. 5). hesitation towards kelsea some of the queen guards do not believe if kelsea is the real princess because kelsea does not look like her mother. the real princess must have a royal jewel and a scar on her skin. kelsea has them because she is indeed who they are looking for: “she looks nothing like her mother,” the red-bearded man replied sharply…”she has the raleigh eyes,” another guard remarked. “i would prefer to see the jewel and the scar,” replied the leader, and the red-haired man nodded as well” (johansen, 2015, p. 5). this phenomena show that kelsea has not obtained the respect and trust from her queen guards. thus, kelsea wants to prove to them that she is better than what they think. the first thing kelsea does is riding a horse. she feels tired and hurt because they all ride horses in a very long period. however, kelsea is disappointed because all men ride male horses, but she is provided with a female horse: “why did they bring me a mare, when you all ride stallions?” “we didn’t know if you’d be able to ride, lady,” he replied, and this time there was no mistaking the mockery in his voice. “we didn’t know if you could control a stallion” (johansen, 2015, p. 20). the man’s statement refers to humiliation. kelsea knows that the queen guards think she is weak. she hides her pain and continues to ride the horse: “but how could she win the loyalty of any of these men? they probably thought her weak. perhaps they thought all women so…now the tips of her fingers were numb, her palms raw and reddened from the rough leather of the reins” (johansen, 2015, p. 17-18). when they stop riding, carroll orders lazarus, one of the queen guards, to take care of kelsea’s horse, but kelsea rejects it language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 4 because she wants to do it by herself. this rejection shows that kelsea is independent. she is able and willing to do it. on the other hand, kelsea becomes angry when lazarus lets her decide the name of the horse: “you’re the queen, lady. her name is whatever you choose,… “her name, please.” kelsea’s temper kindled. the men all thought so badly of her. why?” (johansen, 2015, p. 20). kelsea forces lazarus to speak. finally lazarus tells kelsea that he usually calls that female horse may. here, lazarus plays with kelsea’s temper. kelsea gets annoyed with lazarus’ prejudice: “what the hell did you think i was doing out there in the woods all these years?” “playing with dolls, lady. putting up your hair. trying on dresses, perhaps.” “do i look like a girl’s girl to you, lazarus?” kelsea felt her voice rising” (johansen, 2015, p. 20-21). helping to set up a tent in the middle of the journey to the castle, kelsea camps with the queen guards. they all have specific jobs to do based on carroll’s command. kelsea feels useless and she wants to help. she knows that she is about to be a queen, but it is not completely right to do nothing: “…the rest of the guard, who were also going about their various tasks. she noticed the youngest guard pulling the makings of her tent from his saddlebags…she’d never felt more useless” (johansen, 2015, p. 27-28). eventually kelsea offers a help to set up a tent with pen, one of the queen guards, which is friendly. pen is the youngest among the queen guards and he is friendly to kelsea. although kelsea has the highest status among those men, she still has to push them to state what she wants. sometimes kelsea does it with force. she wants to break the stigma saying she is weak. the struggles for convincing her queen guards work on kelsea. she gets an appreciation from carroll, her captain because she is not like what he thinks before. carroll is sure that she will be a true queen, not like the former queen elyssa. carroll says this statement before leaving them all because they need to be separate: “lady, i think you’re made of much stronger stuff than you appear. you strike me as one who might make a real queen one day, but you’re marked for death, and so are those who follow you” (johansen, 2015, p. 31). being hangover next, kelsea meets fetch on the journey to the castle. fetch is a thief but he belongs to the good side because he hates regent thomas, kelsea’s uncle who corrupts. fetch and his companions doubt that kelsea can lead the kingdom properly. kelsea needs to pass a test from fetch: “we wanted to see what sort of queen you look to be.” “why not just give me a test, then?…i’ve had too much mead to take an examination” (johansen, 2015, p. 80). being hangover, kelsea can answer fetch’s question well. kelsea drinks ale, a kind of beer, with fetch and his companions. she also plays cards with them. here, kelsea proves that she is not a fool. one of those men gives a compliment: “she’s not drunk,” morgan disagreed. “she’s lost her legs, but there’s nothing wrong with her wits” (johansen, 2015, p. 82). stopping slave shipment when kelsea succeeds to arrive at the keep (the castle), kelsea directly asks her queen guards to stop the slave shipment. in order to avoid the invasion from the red queen (mortmesne’s queen), tearling must send two hundred and fifty slaves to mortmesne. the people of tearling will be safe from war, but they suffer for losing their family. kelsea has made a clear decision to give freedom for her people: “there will be no more shipments to mortmesne!” the queen shouted, and the language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 5 crowd answered in another incoherent roar” “(johansen, 2015, p. 127). the people of tearing are grateful, but the overseer of the census, arlen thorne, impolitely debates with kelsea. kelsea shouts to arlen thorne and explains that she cares with her people’s safety. she will think about the coming invasion later. arlen thorne warns kelsea and he doubts that kelsea is the true heir of tearling: “the queen of the tearling has been dead these many years,” thorne announced. “if you claim to be the uncrowned princess, this kingdom will require better proof than your word” (johansen, 2015, p. 124). kelsea wins the debate because arlen thorne is ordered to let go the people of tearling from the cages of slaves. before this, those people are put in cages to send to mortmesne. this time, the cages are being opened and burned: “kelsea had never seen fire so hungry; flames spread over the floor of the cage and then began, improbably, to climb the iron bars. a burst of heat blew across the lawn, scattering the few people who had ventured too close to the cage. it was like being in front of a lit oven” (johansen, 2015, p. 134). dismissing regent thomas the quick action of kelsea after being crowned is dismissing regent thomas, her uncle. although he is the only family she has, she takes him away. regent thomas is evil and bad. he corrupts and never thinks about the prosperity of the kingdom. all he wants is satisfaction for him. regent thomas is absolutely a man, but he cannot refuse kelsea’s decision and stay in the castle. kelsea’s position as a queen is higher than a regent. the family relation does not disturb kelsea to do what is right: “…he had the same deep green, almondshaped eyes as her own. a true blood relation, and the only one she had left…this man wasn’t a relation, her mind insisted, not if she didn’t want him to be” (johansen, 2015, p. 163). kelsea has more intelligence than regent thomas. it can be seen when kelsea understands mort language and speaks to one of regent thomas’ women. kelsea breaks the stigma that men are smarter than women. here, kelsea is smarter than her uncle: “the regent stared at marguerite with a bewildered expression, and kelsea shook her head, disgusted; he didn’t even speak mort” (johansen, 2015, p. 241) preparation for the coming invasion the red queen will invade tearling soon because kelsea stops the slave shipment. actually kelsea has dilemma between the freedom of her people or avoiding invasion. there is also no guarantee if kelsea will win the war against the red queen. thus, kelsea prepares for the coming invasion by improving self-defense. kelsea is good with a knife but she wants to master a sword. kelsea warns all her guards to be ready for the red queen’s invasion. the people of tearling will be evacuated if mortmesne army comes. on the other hand, lazarus, one of kelsea’s guards, promises her to protect kelsea no matter what. he dedicates his soul for kelsea: “then i vow to guard you against death.” kelsea blinked…she had won a guard. only one, but he was the most important” (johansen, 2015, p. 117). lazarus is a strong and loyal man. when he says he wants to protect kelsea, it means his position is superior. kelsea needs protection because she is a woman. in contrast, lazarus’s dedication is done because kelsea is above him. kelsea is his queen, so lazarus works for kelsea in terms of protecting. still, kelsea gets a higher status than lazarus. debating with general bermond general bermond is the leader of tearling army. he gives orders to others. he language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 6 is used to taking care of battles without an agreement from the former queen elyssa. now is different because kelsea leads the kingdom as the queen of tearling. kelsea is preparing for the coming invasion, so she discusses the military strategy with general bermond. but he underestimates kelsea because he thinks women are bad in military stuff: “forgive me, majesty. but as i told your mother many times, women haven’t the gift for military planning. she always left these matters to us” (johansen, 2015, p. 282). general bermond suggests kelsea to send slaves in order to avoid the invasion from the red queen. kelsea becomes angry because general bermond cannot understand her decision to stop the suffering of people. it is true that people will suffer more if there is an invasion, but at least they can gather with their family by not being separated. kelsea acts bravely and she shows her capability to make general bermond do what she wants. it means kelsea, as a woman, takes control against a man. she finally gives an order to general bermond and convinces him that she is his queen: “general genot is not the king of mortmesne, any more than you are the king of the tearling, bermond…i will ship no more slaves, not even you. resign yourself to that fact, and let’s move forward” (johansen, 2015, p. 282-283). armor and sword for kelsea kelsea wears armor as long as she goes back to the castle from the cottage in the wood. the function of this armor is to protect and hide her identity. kelsea is used to wearing dark green cloak, but she often wears armor everywhere, including in her coronation. she does not like the weight of the armor and it is not comfortable either, but it is necessary: “i need my own armor, and soon. a silly queen i’ll look when i’ve been slowly flattened into a man…god granted me a small enough helping of femininity. i’d like to keep what i have” (johansen, 2015, p. 153). when she has become a queen, she asks fell, an arms master who is responsible to make such thing, to create kelsea’s armor with her size. fell feels surprised because it is very rare for a woman to wear armor. once again, kelsea has broken this man’s stigma: “only appearance, lady, but appearance in a queen is important. for you to wield a sword, it’s…not queenly…and it might take a while to find a blacksmith who’ll make armor for a woman” (johansen, 2015, p. 230). moreover, kelsea orders a sword to wield. she also learns how to fight with venner, an arms master that oversees training. kelsea is not like women in general who are feminine. kelsea wants to be equal with men and fighting together with them against the red queen. being a fake soldier after kelsea commands to forbid any slave shipment, arlen thorne secretly builds cages to send slaves to mortmesne. he has an agreement with the red queen. with the help of a magical necklace, kelsea knows thorne’s plan. kelsea tells this to her guards but no one believes her in the beginning: “thorne. he’s made a deal behind my back, and he’s on the way to mortmesne with a shipment of tear…dammit, lazarus, i know!…don’t even think about trying to stop me, lazarus” (johansen, 2015, p. 349). kelsea’s guards chase arlen thorne together with kelsea. kelsea cuts her hair very short and wears army dress in order not to look like a queen. the appearance of kelsea looks masculine. kelsea rules to do this although her guards feel reluctant. they do not believe kelsea’s vision through her necklace. the way kelsea tracks thorne’s direction is also by using her magical necklace: “…the sapphire began to pull kelsea along. there was no other way to describe it; the thing exerted physical force, as though a language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 7 string were tied beneath her rib cage” (johansen, 2015, p. 357). this scene proves that kelsea’s orders will always be a must for her guards, a woman leading men. she has a crucial status as the queen, so the hesitation coming from her guards will be no problem as long as they do what is told. conclusion as a conclusion, it can be concluded that kelsea has higher status than the men around her. her position as a queen allows her to make decisions to lead her kingdom. kelsea has more intelligence than her uncle because kelsea is educated well as long as she is being away from the castle. kelsea is a strong woman who likes to learn how to fight with a sword and she is good enough with a knife. to defend herself, she wears armor. this proves that kelsea is not weak and passive like women in general. here, kelsea shows aggression, intelligence, and force against men. she breaks men’s stigma by stating her objections. references johansen, e. (2015). the queen of the tearling. new york: harpercollins publishers. millett, k. (2000). sexual politics. urbana and chicago: university of illinois press. tyson, l. (2006). critical theory today (2nd ed.). new york: routledge. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x the basic concept of narratology and narrative devi sari panggabean universitas sumatera utara, indonesia email: devisaripgb@gmail.com rahmadsyah rangkuti universitas sumatera utara, indonesia abstract the field of narratology is concerned with the study and analysis of narrative texts. it puts under investigation literary pieces of language and yields an understanding of the components has in its very texture. the aim of this article is to provide insights about the field of ‘narratology’ and its associated subject of study ‘narrative’. it also tries to sketch the main issues concerning these two concepts. for this, the present review is presented in two major sections, each with related discussions about narratology and narrative. the first major part, narratology, will be presented in three sections: the first section, deals with the definitions and origins of narratology. the definitions are inspected and the researchers show how they go from general (encompassing all which is narrated) to more specific (encompassing literary narratives told by a narrator) ones. the second section, focuses on the two phases of narratology which are classical and post-classical ones in which narratology changed its orientations and scope. the last section is devoted to some of the elements and components of which narratology is made up, such as narration, focalization, narrative situation, action, story analysis, tellability, tense, time, and narrative modes which will be elaborated on in more details. the second major part, narrative, will be presented in four sections: first the concept will be defined and introduced. then the features which make a narrative will be specified and elaborated on. in the third section, some of the elements of narratives like story, discourse, events, and existents are stressed. in the last section, it is elucidated that narrative is not just a written printed genre, rather it consists of performed genres such as plays, films, and operas. keywords: narratology, narrative, definitions, classical/post-classical narratology wer can be found in what gerard prince (1990) asserts when he says narratology helps to show the structure behind a narrative text. in defining narratology, he stresses the temporal aspect of narratives believing that narratology illuminates temporality and also human beings as temporal beings. prince also pinpoints narratology’s vital implications for humans’ self-understanding. bal (1991) also sketches narratology in this way as she explains it is: “the theory of narrative text. a theory is a systematic set of generalized statements about a particular segment of reality. that segment of reality, the corpus, about which narratology attempts to make its pronouncement consists of narrative text” (p. 264). in a classification for narratology, jahn (2005) bases his discussion on ferdinand de saussure’s concepts of ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’. saussure believes a signifier to be a form and a signified to represent a kind of meaning. following these understandings, jahn asserts that for a narrative text, the discourse or the specific mode of presentation is the signifier and the story (which transfers a sort of meaning and content) is the signified. thus for jahn, story and introduction the beginings of narratology − like the roots of all western theories of fiction − jahn (2005) asserts, go back to plato’s (428-348 bc) and aristotle’s (384-322 bc) distinction between ‘mimesis’ (imitation) and ‘diegesis’ (narration) (jahn, 2005, n2.1.4.). the two terms are crucial and some have used them as their basic terminology in their studies. one such writer and theorist is chatman (1990) who uses these concepts to distinguish between diegetic narrative genres which include: epic narratives, novels, short stories and mimetic narrative genres which are: plays, films, and cartoons. according to phelan (2005), tzvetan todorov coined the french term narratologie (‘‘narratology’’) in his 1969 book grammaire du “de´came´ron”. phelan points that todorov used this word in parallel with biology, sociology, and so forth to suggest “the science of narrative”. aside from the beginning with which narratology is identified, one may consider what narratology exactly is and what it does. the ansretracted language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 185 other signifying systems and with the modalities of these traits” (prince, 1982, p. 5). so it is clear from this and other definitions that narratology does not deal with the abstract levels of a specific narrative nor with the interpretative dimension of narratives; but it investigates narratives’ structure and basic traits which ultimately give shape to what a narrative is and what distinguishes it from other forms. considering the origin and roots of ‘narratology’ about both its name and discipline, prince explains that though the term narratology is new, the discipline and what they do in it, is not new but it goes back at least to plato and aristotle (1982). but as a discipline, jahn explains, narratology started to take form in 1966, and this was the time when the french journal communications published a relevant issue with the title “the structural analysis of narrative” (jahn, 2005,n2.1.1.). jahn explains that it was just three years later that tzevan todorov coined the term narratology to refer to the theory of the structures of narrative and this was when a narratologist aims to describe and investigate the structural properties of a narrative. this is called “dissecting the narrative phenomenon into its component parts” and attempting to determine its functions and relationships (ibid., n2.1.1.). admittedly, prince (1982) also asserts that during the twentieth century narratology has been considerably developed. he says that narratological activity has been growing since the last ten years significantly. further, he explains that narratology expanded its scopes to other literary fields and it also attracted so many “literary analysists and linguists as well as philosophers, psychologists, psychoanalysts, biblicists, folklorists, anthropologists, and communication theorists” (p. 4) in many parts of the world. narratology can be considered based on two classifications introduced by jahn. in making a distinction between discourse narratology and story narratology, jahn (2005) refers to the swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure who, in jahn’s words, is the “founding father of structuralis” (n2.1.3), and explains how he differentiated the two concepts of discourse and story, with his specific terminology which are: the signifier which is the same as discourse (a mode of presentation) and the signified which is the same as story (an action sequence). thus, based on the same source narratology pursues two traditions: discourse narratology analyzes the stylistic choices that determine the form or realization of a narrative text (or performance, in the case of films and plays). also of interest are the pragmatic features discourse are the backbones of his narrative investigations. discourse, as viewed by jahn, refers to stylistic innovations and choices that make up the ultimate realization of a narrative text which is unique to every writer. however, story refers to the actions that “emplot” and makes “a stream of events into a trajectory of themes, motives, and plot lines” (2005, n2.1.3.). narratology definition and origin of narratology the study of narrative, as put forward by fludernik (2006), is narrative theory. narrative theory, or narratology, is the study of narrative as a genre. its objective is to describe “the constants, variables and combinations typical of narrative and to clarify how these characteristics of narrative texts connect within the framework of theoretical models (typologies)” (ibid, p. 8). originally established by tzevan todorov, narratology is defined (by him) as the theory of the structures of narrative (in phelan, 2006). the term narratology has been defined by some writers in more or less the same way. the general idea we get from these definitions is that narratology studies the formal features of a narrative. prince (1982), for instance, defines it as: “the study of the form and functioning of narrative” (p. 7). this term is moreover defined by meister (2009) as a “humanities discipline” which is dedicated to “the study of the logic,principles, and practices of narrative representation” (in huhn, meister, pier, schmid, and schönert, 2009, p. 329). however, schmid (2010) expresses that there is a criticism by which writers are warned that narratology must not confine itself to be merely analytic; because this will result in objective descriptions which hence will be deprived of any free interpretation. this outlook hints at the idea that narratology should make its borders larger. it suggests that narratology, with widening its scope, can be more insightful. this is reflected in the era of post-classical narratology. it gives narratology a respite to interact with other disciplines (the next section will provide a more detailed discussion on this issue). narratology examines what all narratives have in common, and what allows them to be narratively different (prince, 1982). there is a delicate point in the definition of narratology to which prince has pinpointed and that is the idea that narratology is not concerned with “the history of particular novels or tales, or with their meaning, or with their esthetic value, but rather with the traits which distinguish narrative from retracted language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 186 that contextualize text or performance within the social and cultural framework of a narrative act. story narratology, by contrast, focuses on the action units that ‘emplot’ and arrange a stream of events into a trajectory of themes, motives and plot lines. the notion of emplotment plays a crucial role in the work of theorists like the historian hayden white (1996 [1981]) and cultural philosophers such as paul ricoeur (1991) and michel foucault. (jahn, 2005, n2.1.3) classical and post-classical narratology narratological studies consist of two phases: 1) the classical phase, and 2) the post classical phase. “during its initial or classical phase, from the mid-1960s to the early 1980s, narratologists were particularly interested in identifying and defining narrative universals” (meister, n.d., cited in hune et al, 2009, p. 329). this tendency was in air even a decade later in 1993 which is evident in a definition of narratology from those years: “the set of general statements on narrative genres, on the systematics of narrating (telling a story) and on the structure of plot” (ryan von alphen, 1993, p. 110). however, a decade later, narratology was alternatively described as (a) a theory (prince, 2003, p. 1), (b) a method (kindt and müller, 2003, p. 211), or (c) a discipline (fludernik and margolin, 2004, p. 149). however, in scheffel et al’s (n.d.) viewpoint, the third option seems more suitable since it subsumes the two previous terms, that is theory and method. they explicate that the term discipline covers both theoretical and practical approaches to narrative and narratology. a second phase in narratological studies is the post-classical phase. narratology is not limited to only one theory and discipline. from postclassical perspectives, narratology is a discipline which is wide enough in scope to be applied to other disciplines. as quoted from rimmon-kenan (2004), the transition to post-classical narratology is a “shift from a fairly unified discipline to one characterized by a diversity of approaches” (p. 47). this phase is the time for the emergence of inter-disciplinary approaches like ‘feminist narratology’, ‘cognitive narratology’, ‘post-modern narratology’, and other sub-disciplines (ibid., p. 49). thus, there appears to be two viewpoints toward the concept of narratology. in one, we are faced with the “formalist-structuralist discipline” as it is called by rimmon-kenan (2004, p. 44), and in the second, some inter-disciplinary narratology emerges which opens the ground for more practical and in-depth studies. components and elements of narratology in narratology, a narrative is analyzed from the point of view of its constituent components. in this section, we may point to jahn’s (2005) classification of these components. jahn suggests three broad categories. the first of these, is narration (voice), focolization (mood), and narrative situation, the second is action, story analysis, tellability, and the third broad category is about tense, time, and narrative modes. as one can see, each of these categories carry some subcomponents. for a general understanding, as well as, familiarity with narratological components and elements, some issues about each one of these subcomponents will be raised and explained. narration (voice), focolization (mood), and narrative situation aiming to elucidate the concept of narration, some point should be mentioned about narrator since it is a dependent highly related concept. narrators may be overt or covert. an overt narrator is one who refers to him/herself in the first person (“i”, “we” etc.), one who directly or indirectly addresses the narratee, one who offers reader-friendly exposition whenever it is needed. a covert narrator, in contrast, is “one who has a more or less neutral (nondistinctive) voice and style, one who is sexually indeterminate, …, one who does not intrude or interfere, one who lets the story events unfold in their natural sequence and tempo” (jahn, 2005, n3.1.4.). narrators may be homodiegetic, autodiegetic, heterodiegetic. this classification is based on the narrator’s relationship to the story (genette, 1980, p. 248, in jahn, 2005, n3.1.5.). a homodiegetic narrator is present as a character in the story. jahn explains that the prefix ‘homo-’ suggests that the narrator is within the level of action. there is another term in relation to homodiegetic narrator, which is autodiegetic narrator and which has the same meaning; but the only difference is that the narrator here, is the protagonist. but in a heterodiegetic narration, the story is told by a heterodiegetic narrator who is not present as a character in the story (jahn, 2005, n3.1.5.). the second subcomponent is focolization or mood which poses the question of “who sees?” vs. the question of “who speaks” (which is about narrators discussed earlier). focolization centers on the idea that a specific narration or story is seen/told from whose perspective. in this respect, two terms are introduced: external focolization and internal focolization. external focolization refers to “the candidate for a text’s perspectival orientation who is the narrator” retracted language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 187 (jahn, 2005, n3.2.4.). internal focolization is when the narrative events are “presented from a character’s point of view” (ibid.). also, four types of focolization are determined by jahn: fixed focalization, which is the presentation of narrative facts and events from the constant point of view of a single focalizer; variable focalization, that is “the presentation of different episodes of the story as seen through the eyes of several focalizers”; multiple focalization which refers to a technique of “presenting an episode repeatedly, each time seen through the eyes of a different (internal) focalizer”; and finally, collective focalization that is “focalization through either plural narrators (we narrative) or a group of characters (collective reflectors )” (jahn, 2005, n3.2.4.). the third subcomponent is narrative situation. in clarifying narrative situation, jahn mentions stanzel’s model as a base for his discussion. stanzel has a complex framework about narrative situations which aims to give some typical patterns of narrative features, including features of “relationship (involvement), distance, pragmatics, knowledge, reliability, voice, and focalization” (jahn, 2005, n3.3.1.). according to jahn (2005), both genette (1988 [1983]: chp. 17) and stanzel (1984), use the term narrative situation to refer to more complex arrangements or patterns of narrative features. based on the same source, genette hires the classifications of voice (narration) and mood (focolization) so that he can come to some possible combinations of these two. stanzel is more interested in “describing ‘ideal-typical’ or (as we shall say) prototypical configurations and arranging them on a ‘typological circle’ ” (1984: xvi, in jahn, 2005, n3.3.). concepts like firstperson narrative, authorial narrative, and figural narrative are raised in the discussion of narrative situation which are related to voice. moreover, we-narratives, you-narratives, simultaneous narration and camera-eye narration are further debates within the narrative situation. all in all, in the narrative situation the aim is to mix some other components in order to achieve a number of new interpretations. action, story analysis, tellability the second category is action, story analysis, tellability. action refers to“a sequence of acts and events; the sum of events constituting a ‘story line’ on a narrative’s level of action” (jahn, 2005, n4.1.). action refers to a kind of “causal connectivity” between story units (ibid., n4.6.). the other term, tellability is what abbot (2009) asserts that ‘tellability’ is originally introduced by labov (1972). abbot continues: this is what prince (2008) has referred to as narratibility, which is what makes a story worth telling. it allows a positive answer to the question “what’s the point?” tense, time, and narrative modes the last of these categories introduced by jahn (2005), is “tense, time, and narrative mode”. jahn distinguishes between two kinds of tenses: the narrative past and the narrative present. the use of tense in a character’s discourse, jahn clarifies, depends on some factors like the current point in time in the story’s action (jahn, 2005, n5.1.) however, the tense of a specific narrative does not remain the same in the whole narrative, but it changes. this is where we need the term tense switch/tense shift which refers to a shift from the current narrative tense to the complementary narrative tense (i.e., narrative past to narrative present and vice versa) (ibid.). jahn also has classified tense according to the anteriority or posteriority relationship between discourse-now and story-now, which in turn gives up three classifications: retrospective narration which produces a past-tense narrative whose events and action units have all happened in the past; concurrent narration that produces a present-tense narrative whose action takes place at the same time as it is recounted (discourse-now and story-now are identical); and at last prospective narration produces a future-tense narrative which recounts events that have not yet occurred (jahn, 2005, n5.1.4.). time and time analyses are concerned with three questions: ‘when?’, ‘how long?’, and ‘how often?’ order refers to the handling of the chronology of the story; duration covers the proportioning of story time and discourse time; and frequency refers to possible ways of presenting single or repetitive action units (genette, 1980, pp. 33-85 & 87-112 & 113-160; rimmon-kenan, 1983, pp. 43-58). the relevant terms one may face in regard to order, are the two basic concepts of flashback/retrospection/analepsis and flashforward/ anticipation/prolepsis. the former is the presentation of events that have occurred before the current story-now, while the latter refers to the presentation of a future event before its proper time (jahn, 2005, n5.2.1.). for determining the duration within a narrative, two fundamental points are necessary: discourse time (the time it takes an average reader to read a story), and story time (the fictional time taken up by an action episode, or, more globally, by the whole action) (ibid., n5.2.2.). duration, jahn (2005) affirms, consists of five forms according to the pace of discourse time in relation to story time: isochroretracted language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 188 nic (or scene based on genette, 1982), speed-up/ acceleration/ summary, slow-down/ deceleration, ellipsis/ cut/ omission, and pause; jahn explains these terms mainly referring to genette (1982), rimmon-kenan (1983), and toolan (1988). speed-up is when an episode’s discourse time is considerably shorter than its story time. slow-down occurs when an episode’s discourse time is considerably longer than its story time. ellipsis is the stretch of story time which is not textually represented at all; some crititcs, e.g. genette (1982), rimmon-kenan (1983), and toolan (1988) observe ellipsis as a kind of speed-up (jahn, 2005, n5.2.3.). finally, pause is when discourse time elapses on description or comment, while story time stops and no action actually takes place. the third main concept in time is the notion of frequency. frequency answers the question: ‘how often?’. frequency let’s a narrator to hire strategies for recounting events in a summative or repetitive way. based on jahn (2005) there are three main frequential modes: a) singulative telling in which the narrator recounts once what happened once; b)repetitive telling, recounting several times what happened once; c) iterative telling, recounting once what happened n times (ibid., n5.2.4.). the third component of this category is narrative modes. it refers to the ways that a narrative representation can be presented. jahn makes a distinction between telling and showing or the traditional terms mimesis and diegesis, respectively. he asserts showing is when the reader directly involves in experiencing or witnessing the events of a specific narrative mode. logically in such a situation there remains little or no room for narratorial mediation (narrative discourse); in telling, the narrator has an overt control of the presentation of actions. jahn (2005) draws a combinatory conclusive debate from what has been just elaborated. he believes that for each frequential durational relationship (discussed above), there exists a form of narrative mode that is showing or telling. jahn details such relations and links that in scenic presentation (a durational component), there is a showing mode which presents a continuous stream of detailed action events; in such a case, the durational aspect is isochronious (the story time and discourse time are almost the same) (n5.2.3.). he continues that in summary, there is a telling mode in which the narrator briefly tells readers about a sequence of events, and the durational aspect, is logically, speed-up. in description, jahn says, where the durational aspect is pause, a sort of telling mode is evident in which the narrator introduces a character or describes the setting. in commentary there exists a telling mode, in which the narrator comments on the instances of the story like characters, actions, etc., thus the durational aspect evident is again pause (jahn, 2005). narrative narrative definition an indispensable notion in narratological studies is the narrative. narrative in its broad sense may refer to a variety of genres. according to barthes (1977), “the narratives of the world are numberless” (p.20). the essence of this sentence is reflected in the writings of other figures, as well. fludernik (2006), for instance, believes that “narrative is all around us” (p. 1). but when we speak about narrative, we inevitably think of a ‘literary’ form, short story or novel. fludernik writes, narrative is related to the verb ‘narrate’ and that narrative is not just confined to novels or historical writings (ibid., p. 1). she further broadens the scope of narrative to ‘narration’ and declares whatever is narrated is a narrative: narrative is associated above all with the act of narration and is to be found wherever someone tells us about something: a newsreader on the radio, a teacher at school, a school friend in the playground, a fellow passenger on a train, a news-agent, one’s partner over the evening meal, a television reporter, a newspaper columnist or the narrator in the novel that we enjoy reading before going to bed. we are all narrators in our daily lives, in our conversations with others, and sometimes we are even professional narrators (should we happen to be, say, teachers, press officers or comedians). (fludernik, 2006, p. 1) nash (1994) holds a similar perspective toward narratives and says that narratives in one form or another “permeate virtually all aspects of our society and social experience”. he expands narrative scope and takes it out from the context of literature and expresses narrative can be found also in “the recollection of life events, in historical documents and textbooks, in scientific explanations of data, in political speeches, and in day-to-day conversation” (p. xi). in the above definitions, a sort of ubiquitous nature is devoted to narratives, i.e. they are considered to cover a broad range of modes of expressions. against these definitions which allocate a wide scope to narratives, abbott explains that other narratologists (genette,1980; prince, 1987; chatman, 1978) define narrative in a limited sense as a kind of storytelling in which a narrator addresses a narratee, or as the telling of retracted language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 189 some past events (abbott, 2002). as it is evident in this definition, a condition is assumed for a work to be considered narrative, and that is the occurrence of the speech act of telling a story by an agent called a narrator. furthermore, this definition stresses the telling of a story by a narrator which emphasizes a language-based phenomenon, excluding visual or musical narrative forms. narrative has been moreover defined by toolan (2001) in this way: “narrative is a perceived sequence of non-randomly connected events, typically involving, as the experiencing agonist, humans or quasi-humans, or other sentient beings, from whose experience we human can learn” (p. 2). it seems that for toolan the feature of “event sequence” is a necessary feature of a narrative. narrative features (narrativity) there are some major characteristics for narratives introduced and discussed by toolan (2001). he explains that narratives have as their features: a degree of artificial fabrication or constructedness a degree of prefabrication “trajectory” meaning that they have a beginning, middle, and an end a “teller” (even if he is invisible) the feature of “displacement” (the ability of human languages to be able to refer to things or events that are removed, in space or time, either from the speaker or the addressee) narratives involve the “recall” of happenings (toolan, 2001, pp. 4-5). for other features of narratives we may hint at sternberg who conceives sequentiality to be a substantial feature. for him sequentiality is the “the play of suspense/ curiosity/surprise between represented and communicative time” (2010, p. 637). these plays of time which create feelings of suspence, curiosity, and surprise, are the building blocks of narratives because non-narratives are deprived of such temporalities. this is more touchable in descriptive or expository texts which are deprived of this feature. when we read such texts, we merely get some information about something and we are not involved in it. narratives on the other hand, make readers involved by such plays of time which in turn arise their curiosity and the features sternberg mentioned. another feature, is the causal connections between the events in a narrative. the literature is rife with this notion that this sense of causal agency can account for “a necessary condition of narrativity” (richardson, 1997, p. 106; white, 1981; bal, 1997; bordwell, 1985; rabinowitz, 1987). narrativity is what schmid also considers. schmid (2010) develops his theory of eventfulness. he defines event as “a special occurrence, not part of everyday routine, unprecedented incident, deviation from a normative regularity, meaningful departure from the norm, crossing of a prohibition border” (p. 8). based on schmid the conditions by which eventfulness is achieved, are: “relevance, unpredictability, persistence, irreversibility, and non-iterativity” (pp. 8-12). narrative genres narrative is not limited to one scope and type, but it is wide and encompasses many genres. jahn quotes roland barthes’ list in which he mentions some of these genres: there are countless forms of narrative in the world. first of all, there is a prodigious variety of genres, each of which branches out into a variety of media, as if all substances could be relied upon to accommodate man’s stories. among the vehicles of narrative are articulated language, whether oral or written, pictures, still or moving, gestures, and an ordered mixture of all those substances: narrative is present in myth, legend, fables, tales, short stories, epic history, tragedy, drame [suspense drama], comedy, pantomime, paintings (in santa ursula by carpaccio, for instance), stainedglass windows, movies, local news, conversation. moreover, in this infinite variety of forms, it is present at all times, in all places, in all societies; indeed narrative starts with the very history of mankind; there is not, there has never been anywhere, any people without narrative; all classes, all human groups, have their stories, and very often those stories are enjoyed by men of different and even opposite cultural backgrounds *...+. (barthes, 1975, p. 237; jahn’s emphases, cited in jahn, 2005, n2.2.1. conclusion narratology as a vast branch of study entails the analysis of structures that reside in a narrative. what was already discussed in this article may give readers a general picture of the narratological world. as it was explicated, narratology deals with narratives’ traits which ultimately distinguish them from other genres. the two basic ever present terms in this fields were realized to be story and discourse which refer to modes of presentation and the meaning/content, respectively. what was emphasized in this investigation (specifically sections 3), was the layers by which a narrative may be inspected. the surface layer retracted language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 190 of a narrative was the arena on which classical narratologists could function. on this layer, they suffice to explain the basic observable features of language in a specific narrative. they did not go beyond the level of the narrative itself (words, sentences, or the whole written material). nevertheless, the newer approaches in the study and analysis of a narrative, benefit from other disciplines. this hybrid approach for narrative analysis has a wider scope and thus goes beyond textual levels. this kind of approach may include issues about feminism, cognitivism, post-modernism, etc. three sections were devoted to the elements of which narratology is made up. these elements (narration, focolization, narrative situation, action, story, analysis, tellability, tense, time, and narrative modes), can be viewed and analyzed from a narratological perspective in a specific narrative text. what usually is done in the analysis of these elements is to determine how a particular element is shown in a narrative or how much it is similar/different with regard to the discourse. this study, focused on the concept of narrative, too. narratology is vitally dependent on narrative as it has a determining role in this field. this study was a struggle to cover the most crucial and key concepts relating to narrative as well. the definition of narrative was put forward in this review. furthermore, the features which made a piece of writing a narrative were scrutinized. to better digest what a narrative is, this article immersed more deeply in narrative and studied its elements and genres. this was done to give readers a more comprehensive idea of narratives. references abbot, h.p. (2009). narrativity. in hühn, p., meister, j.c., pier, j., schmid, w., schönert, j. (eds.). handbook of narratology. berlin: walter de gruyter. abbott, h.p., (2002). the cambridge introduction to narrative. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. bal, m., (1991). narration and focalization. in bal, m. (ed.).(2004). narrative theory, london: routledge. 1, 263-296. bal, m., 1997. narratology: introduction to the theory of narrative (2nd ed.). toronto: university of toronto press. barthes, r. (1977). introduction to the structural analysis of narratives. in mcquillan, m. (ed.). (2000). the narrative reader. london: routledge. 109-114. bordwell, d. (1985). narration in the fiction film. madison: u of wisconsin p. chatman, s. (1978). story and discourse: narrative structure in fiction and film. ithaca and london: cornell university press. prince, g. (2003). a dictionary of narratology. lincoln: u of nebraska p. toolan, m. (2001). narrative: a critical linguistic introduction. london: routledge. retracted language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 153 vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english rudha widagsa faculty of teacher training and education, universitas pgri yogyakarta, indonesia. email: widagsa@upy.ac.id arum perwitasari faculty of humanities, leiden university centre for linguistics, the netherland email: a.perwitasari@hum.leidenuniv.nl mezia kemala sari faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah sumetera barat, indonesia. email: miss.mezia@gmail.com received: 22 march 2018. revised: 30 march 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract vowel spacearea (vsa) represents kinematic movements of the articulators and measures speech intelligibility. by looking at the vowel space area, the current study intends to examine the role of minangkabau in the acquisition of english as a second language. we conducted a speech production experiment involving ten english monophthongs in isolated sentences. we measured the formant frequencies (f1/f2) values and computed the vowel quadrilateral. the results showed that the minangkabau learners of english did not have similar vsa pattern when compared to the native english speakers. they did not open the jaws and move the tongues as similar as the native english speakers in pronouncing english vowels. the results were discussed in the area of second language acquisition. keywords: acoustic measurement, formant frequencies, l2 acquisition, vowel space area how to cite: widagsa, r., perwitasari, a., & sari, m.k. (2018). vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 153—164. introduction second language (l2) adult learners were pertinent to produce l2 phonetic segments differently than the native speakers of the l2 target language (flege & fletcher, 1992; mcallister, 1997). l2 learners are predicted to use their native language categories in l2 production asfirst language (l1) may interfere l2 acquisition (lado, 1957; arabski, 2006). the interference may occur in their pronunciation patterns, called interference phonology (crystal, 1987). the interference could be recognized in the formant frequencies values. in general, the formants frequencies would generally crucial to identify the intelligibility and the correct pronunciation of vowels (peterson & barney, 1952; hillenbrand & nearey, 1999). the activation of l2 vowels increases in the inhibition of l1 production (jacewicz & fox, 2012; green & abutalebi, 2013). the influence of l1 in the production of l2 vowels would be estimated through vowel space area/ vsa (flipsen & lee, 2012). vowel space area (vsa) would show the spectral dimensions of tongue height (first formant/f1) and anterior-posterior position of the tongue (second formant/ f2) of the tongue for each vowel (kent & read, 1992; cruttenden, 2001). first and second formants roughly relate tothe size and shape of oral cavities created by jaw opening and tongue language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 154 position, and the vsa is an acoustic representation for the kinematic movements of the articulators (lee & shaiman, 2012). generally, a large vsa would create clearer and more intelligible speech than a smaller vsa (bradlow & bent, 2002). ample of research had been conducted in the area of cross-language comparisons and sound predictions of vsa represented in the formant frequencies. for instance, iverson & evans (2007) revealed that germans, french, spanish, and norwegians learners of english successfully employed formant movements and duration to recognize english vowels. earlier, flege et al (2003) found that earlylow learners of english produced more formant movements in english vowels while late learners produced less formant movements. formant frequencies showed different characteristics of first language (l1) and l2 vowels. the study on the l2 acquisition on indonesian regional languages is still underrated. perwitasari et al. (2015) examined the interference of javanese on english acquisition using a production experiment. the results of the experiment showed that javanese learners of english produced english vowels duration significantly different from the native english speakers. in view of the prior research, we are intrigued to investigate how the indonesian learners from other regional languages produce english vowels. the present study intends to examine the role of first language, in this case minangkabau, in the acquisition of english as a second language. second language acquisition second language acquisition theories, such as the feature hypothesis (mcallister, flege & piske, 2002) and the linguistic desensitization hypothesis (ldh) (bohn, o.s, 1995) will be the baseline of the study. the feature hypothesis (fh) predicts the acquisition of phonological features in l2 speech (mcallister, flege, & piske, 2002). the model posits that l2 features that are not contrastive in l1 will be difficult to acquire. the difficulty in producing phonetic features will be reflected in low production accuracy of l2 features in the speech production. this hypothesis was a part of flege's speech learning model (slm, 1995). to prove the prediction, mcallister et al. (2002) studied native speakers of estonian, english and spanish, who had been living in sweden for 10 years. the study was designed to test the feature hypothesis on the acquisition of swedish among those l1 speakers. according to l1 sound systems, swedish involves a complex quantity distinction between temporal and spectral dimensions. estonian makes a more expanded use of segment duration than swedish, english expands some, and spanish has none. as predicted, the finding suggested that the estonian l1 speakers performed equivalently to swedish l1 speakers, the english l1 speakers performed less successful and the native spanish speakers performed least successful. in contrast, the linguistic desensitization hypothesis (ldh) assumes that l2 learners are sensitive to durational cues when perceiving l2 vowels and predicts that vowel duration will be used to differentiate the non-native vowel contrasts (bohn, 1995). bohn tried to convince that adult l2 learners were apt to rely more heavily on duration when identifying the synthetic english vowels than on spectral quality. he designed a perception test of american english vowels by spanish and german l1 learners. as german employs vowel contrast for both temporal and spectral dimensions, the study has successfully proved widagsa, r., perwitasari, a., & sari, m.k. (2018). vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 153—164. 155 that german speakers had the use of duration in the perception of vowel distinctions. surprisingly, the native speakers of spanish pose no difficulties in perceiving the l2 vowels. it suggested that duration cues in vowel perception are easy to access whether or not listeners have had specific linguistic experience with them (bohn, 1995, p. 294). because vowel duration is easy to access and salient, the hypothesis predicts that l2 learners employ durational information, which is contrastive in the l1. l1 minangkabau and l1 english minangkabau (also called as minangkabaunese) is an austronesian language spoken in west sumatra. the speakers of minangkabau are approximately seven million speakers. in 2007 there were 4.220.032 speakers of minangkabau (except mentawai islands) resided in west sumatera. in addition, the language is also spoken in negeri sembilan (malaysia), muko-muko (bengkulu), tapaktuan (aceh), pekanbaru and taluk (riau) (jufrizal, 2007). although the language has a large number of speakers, the study on minangkabau remains under described when compared to other indigenous languages in indonesia, such javanese and sundanese. minangkabau phonology indicates six monophthongs for the minangkabau vowel system; /i, u, e, ә, o and a/ although there are allophonic variations in realization (almos, 2012). the language does not have word stress (gil, 2006). minangkabau as the other malay variants does not distinguish vowel based on duration. moussay (1998) argues that most of minangkabau people are bilinguals. they first speak minangkabau as mother tongue then indonesian as a national language. minangkabau people are able to shift in two languages easily in any circumstances. he also mentioned that fluency in two languages will gradually interfere production of the two languages. correspondingly, minangkabau speakers frequently use phonetic features of minangkabau language when they speak in indonesian and vice versa. english, on the other hand, has a large number of vowel invetories when compared to minangkabau. english has at least 11 vowels, including/ɪ/, /ʌ/, /ʊ/, /e/, /ɒ/, /ᴂ/, / i:/, /ɔ/, /u/, /ɜ/, /ɑ/ and devided into two vowel categories; short and long vowels(roach, 1998, pp.14-19). meanwhile, skandera and burleigh (2011, p.35), mention that there are 12 vowel phonemes in rp and in most of english accents, 5 are typically long and 7 are typically short. they also differ english vowels into tense (long); and lax (short) vowels. the tense vowels are / i:/, /ɔ/, /u/, /ɜ/, /ɑ/and the lax vowels are/ɪ/, /ʌ/, /ʊ/, /e/, /ɒ/, /ᴂ/. the aim of this paper, therefore, is to: (1) improve current understanding about minangkabau by describing the formant frequencies of minangkabau, and (2) assess how the minangkabau speakers produce english vowels.if minangkabau has a smaller number of vowels and experience the absence of vowel length in its first language, does the native language affect the english production of minangkabau speakers? if the answer appears to be true, we argue that the minangkabau-english learners would have difficulties in producing english vowels. as a result, their formant frequencies would not be in a native like manner. methodology the purpose of this experiment is to evaluate the success of the minangkabau learners of english in producing 10 english vowels (/iː/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ɜː/, /ʌ/, /ɑː/, /ɔː/, /ʊ/, /uː/) in /bvd/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 156 consonantal context. this section presents the design of the experiment and describes the subjects, the stimulus material, the recording equipment and the procedure. participant ten native english speakers (five of which were female) and ten minangkabau learners of english (five of which were female) participated in the study. the native english subjects, as a control group, were aged between 21 and 30 years at the time of testing. they are originally from various states in the united states of america. at the time of recording, the native english participants resided in yogyakarta and remained a short stay in indonesia. the minangkabau-english learners, as an experiment group, were aged around 21 and 25 years old at the time of testing. the second language learners were minangkabau, mainly from west sumatera. they had started learning english since the age of 7-11 years old. they had practically received 9-16 years of english classes during their formal education system ranging from 2 to more than 4 hours per week. some of the subject stopped learning in quite ranging age for about one to three years. in order to figure out the english skills, it was ascertained that all l2 learners in this study had studied english in the university level. all of them had never visited or stayed in english-speaking countries.we eliminated the participants if they (a) were not native speakers of minangkabau and or english, (b) pronounced target stimuli incorrectly, (c) showed any speech and voice disorder. stimuli we use two different kinds of stimuli. first, we used minangkabau words in isolation to make an investigation of minangkabau formant frequencies. the words are labi, bilah, belek, buto, boto (moussay, 1998, pp.41-43). the words are isolated into a sentence ―awak kecek an (word stimuli) baliak‖. second, we used english words to investigate the speech production of minangkabau learners of english. the stimuli consisted of ten english monophthongs such as bead, bid, bed, bad, bird, bud, body, bawd, buddhist, booed (ladefoged, 2001). in order to make a natural speech, the stimuli were inserted in a carrier sentence “i say (bvd) again”. the carrier sentences were shown on the screen, in a random and sequence order. during the experiment, the sentences appeared twice. procedure prior to recording session, the participants followed some initial stages. first, the participants received a short introduction monologue which contained words simulated for the recording. second, they were introduced with the experiment and recording procedures that they were involved. afterwards, the participants were recorded in sound-attenuated room. the recording utilized digital audio recorder (h4n zoom) and adjustable microphone headset (sennheiser pc 141) with 44, 1 khz/16 bit sampling. the distance of microphone was set approximately 3 cm in order to create constant sound record for the whole session of every subject. the minangkabau subjects were recorded in language laboratory of universitas muhammadiyah sumatera barat.in the recording session, each participant sat in front of computer display with active mode recording tools (audio, video recorders and headset microphone). once the stimuli appeared on the screen, subjects started to produce the sentence according to what they widagsa, r., perwitasari, a., & sari, m.k. (2018). vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 153—164. 157 saw. the participants‘ speech production were documented and stored in a computer file. acoustic analysis the audio recording data were analysed acoustically. weused praat 5.3.56 (boersma & weenink, 2013) for annotating speech. the measurements for the acoustic analysis focus on the formant frequency (f1 and f2) values. vowel space area derived from formant frequency values were tracked through the estimation and plotted in each vocal tract. the formant frequencies (f1 and f2) values were traced by identifying on the formant peak of the chosen time point. the value of pitch was automatically computed through the spectrogram display. the value of f1 and f2 was especially measured at the midpoint of the steady stated of the selected vowel and were converted to bark scale using the following formula: zi = 26.81/(1+1960/fi)0.53 (traunmüller, 1988).after calculating means of the formant frequencies (f1/f2), we show them on the vowel quadrilateral. statistical analysis to measure a difference between the production of l1 minangkabau and l1 english speakers, we conducted statistical analysis. separate multi way between subjects anovaswere conducted to compare the effect of participants‘ first language experience or group (minangkabau x english)and english vowel(/iː/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ɜː/, /ʌ/, /ɑː/, /ɔː/, /ʊ/, /uː/)on f1 and f2 values. the analysis was performed in r version 3.0.1 (r development core team, 2014). results and discussion vowel space area of minangkabau l1 we conducted an acoustic investigation especially of vowel space area defined by formant frequencies of minangkabau sound system. we embedded minangkabau vowels in words and incorporated them in sentences. the results of formant frequencies of minangkabau vowels are as follows: table 1 formant frequencies of l1 minangkabau minangkabau vowels f1 (hz) f2 (hz) /ɪ/ 277 2077 /e/ 384 2056 /a/ 638 1501 /u/ 442 1377 /o/ 466 1043 table 1 shows the mean formant values in hz of the five minangkabau vowels spoken in isolated sentences. vowel space area of minangkabau vowels is illustrated in figure 1. figure 1 formant frequencies of l1 minangkabau figure 1 shows the vowel /i/ is considered as front and close vowel in minangkabau. vowel /e/ appears to be a more close mid vowelwith f1 which as almost as low as the closed vowels /u/ and /o/. vowel /a/ seems to be fairly centralized, open mid vowel. vowel /o/ appears to be more closed mid, back vowel. vowel /u/ is considered as a close mid and language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 158 central vowel in minangkabau. vowel space area of minangkabau-english l2 we measure the formants frequencies of l1 minangkabau and l1 english pronouncing english vowels. the results of f1 and f2 values are listed in table 2. table 2 formant frequencies of minangkabau learners of english when compared to native english speakers in the /bvd/ context. english vowels minang-english l2 english l1 f1 (hz) f2 (hz) f1 (hz) f2 (hz) iː 408 2403 314 2407 ɪ 403 2394 482 1837 e 555 2104 610 1849 æ 600 2104 613 1792 ʌ 683 1608 640 1584 ɑː 676 1636 795 1276 ɔː 665 1261 724 1275 ʊ 695 1663 376 1331 uː 422 1220 374 1281 ɜː 567 1607 493 1607 for f1 values, the main effect of an l1 experience yielded an f ratio of f (1, 180) = 0.634, p > .05. it indicates that there was no significant group effect indicating that there was no difference between l1 minangkabauand l1 english speakers. however, the statistical results showed that there is a main effect of vowel [f(9, 180) = 31.31, p < 0.001]. the interaction between groupand vowelwas significant as well, f (9, 180) = 19.6362, p < 0.001. the result indicates that the difference of vowel production between l1 minangkabau and l1 english speakers for f1 values or the degree of closing and opening of oral cavity was not influenced by the experience with a specific linguistic concept through the native language, but it is merely based on the nonnative vowels. some vowels appeared to create problems for the minangkabau speakersregardless the specific linguistic features that are absent in the l1.the interaction between l1 groups and l2 vowels indicates that for f1 values, the impact of l1 groups was modulated by the l2 vowels. for f2 values, there is a significant main effect of group [f (1, 180) = 25.86, p < 0.001]. the factor vowel [f (9, 180) = 53.52, p < 0.001] was significant. the interactionbetween groupand vowelwas significant as well [f (9, 180) = 6.10 p < 0.001]. the results indicate that for the f2 values, the l1 minangkabau and l1 english speakers were significantly different between groups and between non-native vowels. due to the cross linguistic experience, the nonnative vowels were pronounced differently from the native english speakers. the quadrilateral graph of the ten english vowels spoken in isolation is specified in figure 2. figure 2 vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english in pronouncing english vowels in the /bvd/ context. the tokens per vowels were connected by the solid lines for l1 and the dotted lines for l2. widagsa, r., perwitasari, a., & sari, m.k. (2018). vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 153—164. 159 figure 2 shows the vowel space area including the formant frequencies of minangkabau and english speakers. the considerable scatter of english vowels /iː/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ɜː/, /ʌ/, /ɑː/, /ɔː/, /ʊ/, /uː/ in isolation showed a greater overlap. the degree of opening/ closing of oral cavity represented in the f1 valuesfor the minangkabau learners appears to be smaller and lower than the l1 english speakers, though the difference between the groups were not statistically significant. the f2 values or the degree of frontness and backness of the highest, however, were statistically different and smaller than l1 english speakers. to sum up, l1 minangkabau speakers did not largely open the jaw anddid not position their tongues as similar as the native english speakers in pronouncing english vowels. the minangkabau-english learners did not make any difference between long and short vowels such as /i:/ vs /i/ and /ʌ/ vs. /ɑː/ due to the absence of long vowels in the l1 minangkabau. vowel /i:/ largely falls within the area of vowel /i/. moreover, the vowel space areashowed l1 minangkabau had a hard time differentiating /e/ and /æ/, as l1 minangkabau did not have any experience pronouncing vowel /æ/ in the native language. as they created smaller and lowervsa, their speech production and intelligible speech were not as clearest as the native english speakers. it further supports the idea of bradlow and bent (2002). these results indicating the significant difference in the production of english vowels by minangkabau speakers are in agreement with the feature hypothesis (mcallister, flege, & piske, 2002). the current study found that l2 features that are not contrastive in l1 would be difficult to acquire. the minangkabau learners of english have differently produced the long vowels, which are contrastive in minangkabau. however, the absence of the specific feature in the l1 does not the only cause of production difference between the l2 learners and the native speakers. the learners‘ experience with non-native vowels was found to affect the production. some vowels such /e/ which exist in the l1, were not pronounced correctly by the minangkabau-english learners. the results have shown that the learners did not show the speech production in a native like manner. the difficulty in producing english vowels was shown in low production accuracy of english features. conclusion the results obtained so far indicate that minangkabau learners of english produce english vowels with smaller vowel space area. the difference of first formant frequency which represent the degree of opening and closing of oral cavitiy, was not significant between the minangkabau learners of english and native english speakers. in contrast, the second formant, which represents the frontness and backness of highest part of the tongue, appeared to be statistically significant. overall, the minangkabau-english learners have difficulties in producing certain english vowels. the minangkabau speakers were attributed to the failure to produce some english vowels such as (/i:/, /i/, /ʌ/, /ɑː/, /e/ /æ/). therefore, although the minangkabau learners of english seemed to undershoot of the movements of some english vowels, the results may not provide a real implication and changes in phonetic perception, which may occur in the english learning. previous studies on l2 speech production in indonesia have rarely been done and it is mainly based on auditory judgment and experience of teachers or researchers in language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 160 teaching practice. hence, the measurement of this study can be useful for teachers of english to detect l2 error production of vowels replacing the subjective judgment. this experimental study is expected to shed light on second language acquisition or more specifically in english pronunciation of nonnative speakers. acknowledgement the authors would like to thank english language education study program, university of muhammadiyah sumatera barat, indonesia for providing the minangkabau learners of english as respondents and the language laboratory. any of the opinions, findings, statements and conclusions expressed in this article are solely the responsibilities of the authors. references almos, r. 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(1988). paralinguistic variation andinvariance in the characteristic frequencies of vowels. phonetica, 45, 1–29. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 162 appendix male 1 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 2,2899 2,344 638 1501 2522 0,055 bilah i 5,0556 5,0997 277 2077 3251 0,044 belek e 7,8902 7,9408 384 2056 2794 0,051 buto u 10,4698 10,5003 442 1377 2645 0,031 boto o 13,2845 13,3674 466 1043 2761 0,083 male 2 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 1,7017 1,7818 704 1605 2755 0,080 bilah i 4,9888 5,0375 333 2234 2724 0,049 belek e 8,1246 8,1969 495 2071 2770 0,072 buto u 11,1047 11,1494 417 1093 2856 0,045 boto o 15,0926 15,1575 554 1157 2861 0,065 male 3 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 1,7891 1,8647 650 1404 2365 0,076 bilah i 6,5214 6,5709 321 2041 2924 0,050 belek e 10,0687 10,134 481 1867 2452 0,065 buto u 13,2028 13,2389 368 1290 2272 0,036 boto o 16,5474 16,5834 477 1110 2581 0,036 male 4 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 3,5694 3,6561 620 1532 2773 0,087 bilah i 6,7526 6,829 327 2179 3147 0,076 belek e 10,2507 10,333 358 2071 2796 0,082 buto u 13,5808 13,6616 489 1371 2572 0,081 boto o 17,2569 17,3178 424 1028 2644 0,061 male 5 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration widagsa, r., perwitasari, a., & sari, m.k. (2018). vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 153—164. 163 labi a 1,575 1,6438 709 1522 2705 0,069 bilah i 4,6287 4,6813 358 2043 3050 0,053 belek e 7,1507 7,2072 498 1979 2642 0,057 buto u 9,7121 9,7606 388 1349 2541 0,049 boto o 12,7929 12,8291 532 1257 2758 0,036 female 1 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 2,5659 2,6794 922 1479 2282 0,114 bilah i 6,0135 6,1042 400 3014 3627 0,091 belek e 9,2185 9,3222 504 1968 2698 0,104 buto u 12,5355 12,6208 411 1062 1719 0,085 boto o 16,28 16,3633 500 1131 3050 0,083 female 2 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 1,4754 1,5588 922 1795 3165 0,083 bilah i 4,3793 4,4409 408 1961 3309 0,062 belek e 7,2205 7,2979 651 2103 3239 0,077 buto u 9,9341 9,9679 477 1400 3215 0,034 boto o 13,2269 13,2756 559 1230 3484 0,049 female 3 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 4,8034 4,8624 738 1725 2901 0,059 bilah i 8,2149 8,302 317 1434 3348 0,087 belek e 11,9083 11,9937 709 1646 2964 0,085 buto u 14,9573 14,9961 357 847 1395 0,039 boto o 17,8824 17,9442 424 883 2818 0,062 female 4 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 164 labi a 2,3896 2,4784 876 1821 3069 0,089 bilah i 5,7949 5,8524 390 2689 3557 0,058 belek e 8,8262 8,8913 601 2258 2868 0,065 buto u 12,7685 12,832 459 1283 3307 0,064 boto o 16,4067 16,4799 600 1303 3355 0,073 female 5 word vow el t1 t2 f1 f2 f3 duration labi a 1,9302 2,0012 908 1665 2716 0,071 bilah i 4,999 5,0508 339 2265 2965 0,052 belek e 8,0562 8,1306 497 2143 2771 0,074 buto u 11,0439 11,0814 369 1160 1817 0,037 boto o 14,2669 14,3161 534 1046 3544 0,049 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x dialogue translation shift analysis in karyamin’s smile by ahmad tohari kirana septiani wanodya saputra universitas kristen satya wacana salatiga, indonesia deta maria sri darta universitas kristen satya wacana salatiga, indonesia email: deta.darta@uksw.edu abstract a dialogue carries feelings and thoughts of a character in a story. it might also convey emotional expressions. in the translating process, emotional expression, one of many factors which needs to be considered, is regarded as expressive meaning. thus, in translating dialogues, it is necessary to preserve the emotional expression of the source language. as translation process involves two different languages, there could be changes occurred from st to tt. therefore, this study aims to use translation shift to seek the changes in dialogue translation in some short stories in karyamin’s smile. this research is a qualitative-descriptive analysis as it proposes to identify the types of shift used in dialogue translation and analyze the equivalence to the st. the dialogues that have been categorized were examined the equivalence using a translation assessment rubric proposed by khanmohammad and osanloo (2009). the result shows that each type of shift used more or less affects the equivalence of dialogue translation. the types of shift that are mostly appeared are structure shift and unit shift. those types produce some patterns. the patterns found in structure shift are passive to active forms, affirmative to interrogative sentence, affirmative to imperative sentence. in unit shift, the patterns found are word to phrase, phrase to sentence, and word to sentence. in sum, structure shift can create more significant changes compared to unit shift as the patterns found mostly result in the changing intention of dialogues. keywords: dialogue, equivalence, emotional expression, expressive meaning, translation shift translation. she mentions expressive potential which means that translating process in general should not only focus on the structure but the expressive meaning as well. thus, her theory can be applied in translating dialogues as it concerns about the expressive meaning as well. it is expected that the message and the emotion of the translated dialogue can be as well as if the readers read the original language. landers states that “translation is rightfully target-oriented” (51). there were previous studies analyzing shift in translation. for instance, suhaila (2010) analyzes unit shift in a fiction novel, while sipayung’s research (2018) is translation shift analysis on billingual history textbook, and sunarto (2015) proposes to examine translation shift found in noun phrase in subtitle of a movie written by unofficial subtitle writer. unit shift is one of the types in category shifts. thus, the object of suhaila’s only uses one type of the shifts, while sipayung’s uses more types of shift – structure shift, class shift, unit shift, intra system shift in his research. on the other hand, the object of sunarto’s analysis is only the noun phrases found in the subtitle. the difference of this study with those researches is introduction to translate words or texts, translators need to use strategies or procedures to help transform the st to tt equivalently. translation shift is one of the translation procedures to translate words or texts. shift according to hatim and munday is “the small linguistic changes that occur between st and tt” (26). in other words, shifts are the changes that happen in translating process. catford (1965) defines shift as the changes from formal correspondence in the process of going from the sl to the tl. he divides shift into two major types of shift; level shifts and category shifts. catford also develops category shifts into four types, they are structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-shifts (rank-changes), intra-system-shifts. in a story, dialogue is a part which carries feelings and thoughts of the characters. it might also contain the emotional expression of the characters. in translating the dialogue, house (2015) proposes several interacting factors which need to be considered, these are some of them; the structural characteristic, the expressive potential, and the constraints of the two languages involved in language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 149 equivalence. it strengthens the idea equivalence is one of the concerns in translation. shift in baker (2018) is considered as the changes which occur or may occur in the process of translating. in other words, shift is the changes itself that are produced in the translating process. she also mentions that certain values of expression or content across a semiotic border are part of translation in which shifts are concomitant with this transfer. this is to say that certain values of expression and content are regarded as the essential parts that need to be preserved in order to deliver the messages to the target reader. the two major types of shift according to catford (1956) are level shift and category shift. level shift means that there is a sl term that has different equivalent level in the tl. in other words, there is a different grammatical structure between sl and tl. category shift is a shift that can occur at all ranks; clause-structure and sentence-structure. the category shift is divided into four types of shift; structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-shifts (rank-changes), intra-system-shifts. structure-shift occurs when the structure of language in the tt is different from the st. this type of shift can be found at other ranks. in grammar, structure-shift can occur at all rank, while classshift happens when the tl has different class from the sl. this is to say that a tl item is possibly a member of a different class from the sl in order to be equivalent. on the other hand, unitshift is defined as the changes of rank in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the sl is a unit at a different rank in the tl. meanwhile, intra-system shift, “occurs internally, within a system; that is, for those cases where sl and tl possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the tl system” (80). dialogue according to cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary is a conversation written for a book, play or film. a dialogue might not only contain messages. it might carry feelings or the emotional expression of a character. the emotional expression can be referred to expressive meaning, as baker said, “it relates to the speaker’s feelings or attitude rather than to what words and utterances refer to” (13). when translating, newmark (1988) mentions four levels in general which translators have to bear in mind; sl text level, referential level, cohesive level, level of naturalness. those four levels are also the important things which can also be considered when translating dialogues. baker states, “cohesion is the network of surface relations which links that the object which focuses on dialogue translation and this study examines dialogue translation using four types of category shifts. the necessity of preserving meaning and emotion has been a concern in translating dialogues. thus, this study will focus on identifying types of translation shifts used in the translated dialogues and how the type of translation shifts used produces equivalent translation. this study attempts to examine the type of shifts used in translating dialogues and analyze the equivalence of shifts used in the tt (english) of karyamin’s smile (senyum karyamin) compared to st (indonesian). this research uses a compilation of short stories by ahmad tohari, senyum karyamin (karyamin’s smile). ahmad tohari is known as one of the popular indonesian authors who started his writing career by making short stories. the compilation contains thirteen short stories which were published in many newspapers in the 1970s-1980s era. there will be only several short stories chosen to analyze which contain a lot of conversation due to limited time. the short stories that are used to be examined are karyamin’s smile, the list of favours for sanwirya, and surabanglus. concerning the importance of preserving the message and emotional expression in translating dialogue, this study may be used as a reference in translating dialogues using translation shift and how to preserve the meaning and emotional expressive of the dialogues in st. translation major students may use this study as knowledge to help learn about translation. they may also use this analysis as knowledge to get a better understanding of the use of translation shift. this study may not only be used in translation major, students in world literature major can use this research as a reference in understanding literary works. newmark defines translation as “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text” (5). rendering the meaning in the way that the author intended can be interpreted that the focus of translating process should not only be on the structure of language but the messages should be able to be delivered to the target reader (tt). as according to catford that translation is “the replacement of textual material in one language (sl) by equivalent textual material in another language (tl)” (20). munday (2008) adds that equivalence has been the prominent issues in translation. the definitions of translation above mostly relate to the description with the issue of language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 150 words and expressions to other words and expression in text” (218). to create dialogue cohesion, there are factors that should be the focus in translating dialogues. newmark (1988) suggests several considerations when addressing to whom the dialogues are intended to; the kinship and intimacy, class, sex, and age. methodology this research is a qualitative-descriptive study as it deals with analyzing the quality of dialogues translation. the source of the data was taken from the text translation of compiled short stories of karyamin’s smile. the data collected from the chosen short stories which contain a lot of dialogues (karyamin’s smile, the list of favours for sanwirya, and surabanglus). the number of dialogues in every short story has to be listed before determining which stories to analyze. only the dialogues which contain translation shifts will be used. the data chosen from the short stories which contain a lot of dialogues in order to get more options to examine since there might be dialogues which do not use translation shifts. dialogues in the chosen short stories were sorted regarding the use of translation shift. the dialogues were selected and categorized according to the use of shifts using a comparative table which consists of st, tt, and type of shift. the analysis used a comparative table to seek the changes from the original language to the target language. the changes include the structure, the meaning, and the emotional expression of the dialogues. afterward, the comparative table was divided according to the type of shift used (structure shift, class shift, unit shift, intra-system shift) to seek the pattern in each type of shift. every pattern found in each type of shift were examined to analyze how the shifts used is equivalent to the st. results and discussion the objective of this research is to identify what types of shift used in translating dialogue and how the type of translation shifts used produces equivalent translation. thus, this study seeks for the dialogue translation in which translation shift occurred. there are twenty five dialogues found in the st which contain translation shift from the three short stories chosen. this study divides the discussion into two subs; identifying the type of shift used in the dialogue translation and analyzing the equivalence dialogue translation using a translation quality assessment rubric. types of shift there are two major types of shift according to catford; category and level shift. this study only uses the category shift which consists of four types; structure shift, class shift, unit shift, and intra-system shift. the twenty five dialogues obtained were classified into those four types according to the shift used. the result presents that there are seven dialogues in which structure shift occurred, one dialogue in which class shift happened, fourteen dialogues which are categorized as unit shift, and three dialogues which are identified as intra-system shift. structure-shift structure shifts happen when the structure of the sentence from sl to tl changes. there are seven out of twenty five dialogues which contain structure shift from the three short stories chosen. the structure shifts found are done by changing from passive to active form, affirmative to interrogative sentence, interrogative to imperative sentence. eastwood (1994) in oxford guide to english grammar mentions that there are four types of sentence; statement, question, imperative, and exclamation. those four types of sentence possess different structure. therefore, structure shift can happen when there is a transformation from one to another type of sentence. structure shift from passive to active form the changing from passive to active form occurs due to the transformation of the sentence from st to tt. generally, active form is marked when the subject acts something and the position of the subject is put at the beginning of the sentence whereas the subject in passive form receives the action of the verb and is put at the end of the sentence. the table 1 presents the result. the data shows that all the changes from passive to active form occurs from st to tt. the st (indonesian) uses the passive form and the tt (english) uses active form. this pattern might be a sign that it is more natural to use active form in direct conversation since all the dialogues in tt are in active form rather than preserving the passive form in the st. structure shift from affirmative to interrogative sentence affirmative refers to positive statements, while interrogative relates to questions. the changing from affirmative to interrogative sentence and vice versa is categorized as structure shift as the structure and the purpose of the sentence is different. the order of subject, verb, and language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 151 object is also put differently. the table below is the dialogue translations identified as structure shift done by changing the affirmative to interrogative sentence. the finding shows that the unit shift that happens from affirmative to interrogative does not occur in the other way. it is rarely found the shift from interrogative to affirmative sentence. structure shift from interrogative to imperative sentence interrogative sentence aims to give questions. on the other side, imperative sentence is meant to give order to someone. the contrasting function of those two types of sentence also possesses different structure. nonetheless, if there is a change from interrogative to imperative sentence, it is regarded as structure shift as they both possess different structure. the example is the interogative sentence in st “hayo cepat; mana uang iuranmu?” is translated into “come on, give me your donation!”. the use of punctuation clearly expresses that there is a change of type of sentence from st to tt. class-shift when there is a different class of item between st and tt, it is categorized as class-shift. in other words, when there is a part of speech in the st that is changed in the tt, it can be classified as class shift. class-shift verb to noun ideally, a verb in the st could be translated as a verb in the tt. however, since every language might not have the equal word for another language, it is possible that class shift occurs in the translating process. the example taken from the text shows that a verb is translated into a noun: the sentence in st “kami belum pergi dari sini karena kami sudah sepakat akan mengasihani suamimu.” is translated into “we are still here and we’ve decided to show our sympathy.” the word “mengasihani” (have mercy on someone) in the st is a verb, while “sympathy” in the tt is a noun. it clearly shows that there is a class-shift happened since a verb in the st has been changed into a noun unit shift as explained in the theory that unit shift is the changes of rank in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the sl is a unit at a different rank in the tl. the data found that the unit shift used in the dialogues happens from word to phrase and vice versa, phrase to sentence, and phrase to word. unit shift from word to phrase and vice versa phrase according to the book collins cobuild english grammar is “a set of words that is smaller than a clause, and that is based around a particular word class”. it obviously explains that phrase and word belong to different rank. table 1. structure shift from passive to active form st tt type of shift sudah, min. pulanglah. kukira hatimu tertinggal di rumah sehingga kamu loyo terus that’s it, min. just go home. i think you left your heart at home, that’s why you’re so lethargic structure shift passive form  active form pulanglah. istrimu kini pasti sedang digodanya. go home. i bet they are flirting with your wife right now. structure shift passive form active form dia yang kusewa mobilnya i rented the car from him. structure shift passive form  active form table 2. structure shift from affirmative to interrogative sentence st tt type of shift jangan kira mereka hanya datang setiap hari buat menagih setoran kepada istrimu. do you really think they come every day to ask for debt payments to your wife? structure shift affirmative  interrogative sentence kamu diam saja, apakah kamu tidak melihat ikan putih-putih sebesar paha? why are you so quiet? do not you see those thigh-sized white fish? structure shift affirmative  interrogative sentence aku mau lihat koran kemarin, atau hari ini can i please see yesterday’s or today’s paper? structure shift affirmative  interrogative sentence language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 152 nevertheless, when a word in the st changes into phrase in tt and vice versa means that there is unit shift due to the change of rank. unit shift from phrase to sentence the definition of sentence according to collins cobuild english grammar is “a group of words that express a statement, question, or command”. on the contrary, phrases are just a group of words smaller than clauses. a phrase cannot express a statement, question, or command. it means that a sentence provides information more than a phrase. thus, this change is also regarded as unit shift due to the change of rank level in the tt. unit shift from word to sentence unit shift is explained as the changes of ranks. it can occur at all ranks. it is possible to happen from a smaller to a bigger rank and vice versa. the example below indicates the use of unit shift as the st is considered at the word level and it is changed into a sentence. it obviously presents the change of rank from word to sentence. intra-system shift intra-system shift found in the dialogue translation mostly deals with the different system of plural and singular in each language. this analysis found how the system of plural and singular between the sl and tl different. intra-system shift from singular to plural the use singular and plural for noun helps to distinguish the number of nouns. plural nouns mean that the number of nouns is more than one. meanwhile singular noun indicates that the number of the noun is only one. when the noun in the st changes from singutable 3. unit shift from word to phrase and vice versa st tt type of shift syukur! marilah. ada banyak cara untuk merasa kasihan kepada penderes itu. good! let’s discuss it. there are many ways to express our sympathy to the tap sapper. unit shift word phrase nah, begitu! kita akan menunjukkan diri kita sebagai si putus asa sesudah bergelandang selama tujuh tahun. there! we shall show that we are the desperate people who have been wondering around for seven years. unit shift phrase  word menolong? help us? unit shift word phrase bung mau berbicara soal koperasi! so the gentleman here wants to discuss about the cooperative enterprise! unit shift word  phrase yang pertama-tama harus kita selenggarakan adalah makanan untuk keluarga sanwirya. first, we must think about the food for sanwirya’s family. unit shift phrase word table 4. unit shift from phrase to sentence st tt type of shift pekerjaan calo. he was a ticket scalper unit shift phrase  sentence apa kataku! yang seorang ini akan mulai dengan yang sulit-sulit. what did i tell you? this one will start with complicated stuff. unit shift phrase  sentence kau menyuruh kami meminta ubi kayu? tak mungkin! you ask us to beg for cassava? that’s impossible! unit shift phrase  sentence ceritanya mengesankan. gali ya? his stories were very impressive. he’s a robber, isn’t he? unit shift phrase  sentence tak perduli yang mana maksudmu. i do not care what all of you mean. unit shift phrase  sentence kasihan dia i really pity him unit shift phrase  sentence language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 153 lar to plural and vice versa, it means that the st has experienced the use of intra-system shift. the finding shows that the singular nouns in the st have been changed into plural in the tt. this changing is regarded as intrasystem shift due to the number of nouns that has been changed in the tt. dialogue translation analysis this part seeks how the type of shift used creates equivalent dialogue translation and assess them using an adapted rubric. the dialogues which have been categorized based on the types of shift used are analyzed according to the rubric. the rubric for translation quality assessment adapted from hajar khanmohammad and maryam osanloo (2009), in their journal entitled moving toward objective scoring: a rubric for translation assessment. they proposed a new translation quality assessment rubric by collecting several translation quality assessment rubrics and then recreated them into a new formula. below is the new rubric proposed. table 7. rubric items score accuracy 30% finding equivalent words 25% register 20% grammar and preservation of style 15% shifts, addition, omission 10% there are some items in the rubric which the total of the whole assessment must be 100%. accuracy achieves the highest point when the translation could convey the original message completely to the target readers without omission or addition. the lexical choices used in the translation is assessed as the ability to find equivalent word. it refers to the vocabularies used to make the translation equivalent to the st. in the rubric, register relates to the cultural context. on the other hand, grammar and preservation of style concern about grammatical issues of the tt and the native-like fluency in grammar. lastly, shift, addition, and omission focus on the use of shift, addition, and omission in the tt. structure shift there are three patterns found in the structure shift; passive to active form, affirmative to interrogative, and interrogative to imperative, and. among those three patterns, the changing from passive to active form and affirmative to interrogative sentence are the most frequent patterns appear. there are three dialogues found in each pattern in terms of accuracy, the three patterns found in the structure shift generally produces equivalent meaning in the tt. accurate translation is achieved when the meaning or message in the st could be conveyed completely to the target readers. among the three patterns, the changing form from passive to active creates better translatable 5. unit shift from word to sentence st tt type of shift setuju? do you all agree? unit shift word sentence kasihan i pity him unit shift word sentence sudah, min. pulanglah. that’s it, min. just go home. unit shift word  sentence table 6. intra-system shift from singular to plural st tt type of shift batumu juga belum dibayarnya, kan? he hasn’t paid for your stones, right?? intra-system shift singular  plural istrimu tidak hanya menarik mata petugas bank harian. your wife is not only attractive for those daily bank officers. intra-system shift singular  plural musim ini semua orang hanya menanam ubi estepe sebab celeng dan monyet tak mau menyukainya. this season everybody only planted the stp cassava because the boars and the monkeys do not like those types. intra-system shift singular  plural language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 154 tion compared to other patterns. it only changes the structure or the order of the words, but does not change a lot of meaning, intention, and emotional expression of the original dialogues. this pattern could be regarded as a good way to bring out the emotional expression of the dialogues and make it sounds interactive as the dialogues in the stories are direct communication. from the three patterns, the data found that the dialogue translations have no issues about finding the equivalent words. the vocabularies used are still coherent with the st. in terms of register, the st has been translated well as it does not transfer any mistranslation in cultural context. the use of structure shift in the dialogue translation basically does not create grammatical issues. the dialogue is mostly translated well. even though the structure shifts occurred do not produce grammatical errors, it is found that the changing grammatical structure can result in different intention of the original dialogues in two of three patterns. it happens in the changing from affirmative to interrogative sentence and interrogative to imperative sentence. these patterns show that the different type of sentence between st and tt creates different intention in the dialogue. for instance, “kami belum pergi dari sini karena kami sudah sepakat akan mengasihani suamimu” is translated into “we are still here and we’ve decided to show our sympathy”. the st is meant to ask someone, while the tt tends to give order to someone. in this case, the different type of sentence creates different intention and context which can be interpreted differently by the readers because of the different function between those two types of sentence. the data present that structure shifts found in the dialogue translation can result in different intention in the tt. nonetheless, there are two dialogues found in the changing from affirmative to interrogative and interrogative to imperative sentences that still produce equivalent translation even though the structure of the original dialogues has changed. it is due to the connotation meaning that lies in the original dialogues which makes the translated dialogues considered equivalent to the st. for instance, “hayo cepat; mana uang iuranmu?” which connotatively intends to order someone to give money. the translation becomes, “come on, give me your donation!” which obviously aims to give order. it shows that the changing structure occurred for the sake of preserving meaning of the original dialogues. in translating process, it is also possible that the changing of structure due to the shifts occurred produces omission and addition in the tt. nevertheless, the omission and addition added do not change the message of the original dialogues. class shift the changing class from noun to adjective in table 2.1.1 basically still delivers the message well. the translation could convey the intention of the dialogue to tt clearly even though there is a class shift. the vocabularies mostly used in the tt are suitable to the st which could help the readers to get the meaning. the register in the tt is also fine as it does not contain any mistranslation of cultural contexts. therefore, the score for accuracy, finding equivalent words, and register get the full point. in terms of grammar, there is no error found in the tt. both st and tt are also in a form of affirmative sentence which aims to state something. the use of shift could help the target readers get the meaning of the dialogue even though there is a change from verb to noun. the word “mengasihani” refers to an act of sympathizing which is a verb and translated into a noun, “sympathy”, that is a feeling of caring. there is no omission in the dialogue translation in which class shift occurred, but some additions. however, the use of class shift does not create a huge gap in term of meaning and emotional expression between st and tt. unit shift the limited vocabularies and different registers in the tt result in the use of unit shift occurred in the translation. there are some words that cannot be translated into words and turn to be phrases or sentences. the changing is considered as unit shift. it occurs at all rank. from the three patterns found in the use of unit shift, the shift from phrase to sentence is mostly appeared. the accuracy of the dialogue translation which uses unit shift is basically close to the st. the translation still reflects the original meaning of the dialogues. the word choice in the three patterns is also considered appropriate as it preserves the context of the dialogues. in terms of register, the dialogue translation generally does not contain any mistranslation which leads to the gap meaning. the correct grammar helps target readers to understand the message of the st. grammatically, the dialogue translation presented in table 3.1.1, 3.2.1, 3.3.1 which use unit shift does not contain any errors. however, there are omissions and addition in the tt which assist target readers to get the message of the original text better. for language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 155 instance, the subject added in “he was a ticket scalper” is originally a phrase which is without subject. nevertheless, it could help the target readers to link the dialogue with the whole story. the changes from the small rank to bigger rank result in addition, while in the other way result to omission. intra-system shift the intra-system shift happened in the dialogue translation generally does not change the entire meaning of dialogues in the st. table 4.1.1 shows that the changes deal with the different system of numbering. this is to say that the shift used only changes the quantity of the nouns. the lexical choice used in the translation are regarded suitable that reflects the source language. there is also no misinterpretation in the register from st to tt. the dialogue translations in which intrasystem shift occurred do not have grammatical issues which impact to the whole meaning and context. the use of grammar could represent the source language well. the data found some additions in the tt, but it doesn’t create different context from the original dialogues. nonetheless, the dialogue translation in which intra-system shift occurred is basically considered fine as it could still produce equivalent dialogues. conclusion from the three short stories chosen, there are twenty five dialogues in which translation shift occured. the shifts found in the dialogue translation are structure shift, class shift, unit shift, and intra-system shift. the data indicate that the dialogue translation which involves different languages generally results in the changing of structure in the tt. it can be seen in the structure shift and unit shift that occurred in the dialogue translation. there are three patterns found in unit shift; word to phrase, phrase to sentence, and word to sentence. the pattern that mostly appears is phrase to sentence. every shift more or less creates different sense of meaning in the target language. the different sense of meaning can be caused by the changing intention, limited equivalent words, omission and addition, and also the different system of numbering. among those factors, the changing intention mostly reveals more significant changes as can be seen in the changing form of sentence from affirmative to interrogative and interrogative to imperative. it may also produce different emotional expression in the dialogue translation which could affect the way the readers perceive the dialogues. however, even though most of dialogue translations in which structure shift occurred result in the changing intention, there are two dialogue translations found that still create equivalent meaning as the message of the original dialogue can be preserved well. while the changes from phrase to sentence which mostly occur in the unit shift basically do not change the meaning of the dialogues, it either reduces or adds the dialogues due to the different rank. to sum up, compared to unit shift, the dialogue translations in which structure shift occurred can result in significant changes of meaning due to the changing intention that mostly appears references bassnett, susan. (2002). translation studies. new york: routledge. baker, m. (2018). in other words: a coursebook on translation. london & new york: routledge. catford, j.c. (1956). a linguistic theory of translation. london: oxford university press. collins cobuild. (2011). english grammar. harpercollins publishers. e, sunarto. (2015). a translation shift analysis of noun phrase in subtitling of ice age 4 movie. thesis. surakarta: universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. (http://eprints.ums.ac.id/33222/) hatim, b. & j. munday. (2004). translation: an advance resource book. usa&canada: routledge. house, juliane. (2015). translation quality assessment: past and present. londres: routledge. khanmohammad, h.& m. osanloo. (2009). moving toward objective scoring: a rubric for translation assessment. researchgate, vol.1. landers, e. clifford. (2001). literary translation: a practical guide. great britain: cromwell press ltd. munday, j. (2008). introducing translation studies: theories and applications. london&new york: routledge. newmark, peter.(1988). a textbook of translation. new york: prentice hall. sipayung, k. tuahman. (2018). the impact of translation shift and method on translation accuracy found at bilingual history textbook. humaniora, vol.30. suhaila, suhaila. (2010). unit-shift analysis of english indonesian translation of ‘the tale of the. three brothers’ by j. k. rowling. thesis. jakarta: english letters department uin. (www.repository. uinjkt.ac.id) tohari, a. (2015). senyum karyamin. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. tohari, a. (2015) karyamin’s smile. transl. rosemary kesauly. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaf0a5f10e0 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab1c84510b6 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab32d031187 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 348 needs analysis of english for medical purposes: a student perspective rinawati faculty of medicine sultan agung islamic university rinawati@unissula.ac.id setyo trisnadi faculty of medicine, sultan agung islamic university trisnadisetyo@gmail.com didik murwantono faculty of language and communication sciences didik.m@unissula.ac.id abstract english has been integrated into medical curriculum in higher education in countries where english is not the official language of instruction. for medical students—non-english department students—english has been taught to meet specified academic and professional needs of learners in so-called english for specific purposes (esp). to ensure that english program is relevant to the learner’s needs, a need analysis is required. this study aimed to investigate the english needs of the first-year medical students taking a compulsory program of english for academic purposes at faculty of medicine, sultan agung islamic university. the data were collected using a questionnaire to assess the medical students’ purpose of learning english, the importance of learning english, language learning needs of major language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) and their preference of assessment type. the data were descriptively analyzed. forty-five students consisting of 67 % female and 33% male completed the questionnaire. most students (76%) used english when studying. all students agreed on the importance of english. the most important sub skill included reading technical article in medicine, listening to audio and listening oral presentation, giving spoken presentation, writing medical prescription. individual achievement was the most preferred type of assessment. the medical students agreed on the importance of english specific purposes. the interpretation of findings will be useful for the design of english for specific purposes in the study setting. keywords: emp, esp, needs analysis introduction english proficiency is fundamental in the globalized world due to the fact that english is the dominant global language (jiajing, 2007). as the lingua franca for business, communication, science, technology, and also education, english plays a major role. the necessity to use english among professionals, academics, and students has led to the rapid increase in the teaching and learning english for specific purposes (esp) (dudley-evans & st. john, 1998; mayo, 2000; johns, 2013). due to its significance as a global language, english has been integrated in the curriculum of tertiary education in countries where english is not the official language of instruction or nonenglish speaking countries all over the worlds. in brazil, a federal regulation–the national curricular guidelines requires the medicine undergraduate to be proficient in at least one foreign language, preferably english. (gutierres, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 349 2020) in china, the necessity for effective communication in english and the recommendation to teaching it in medical education has been established as one of the goals of its curriculum (ling & fu, 2007). in the 1990’s, the dental english course started to be part of the curriculum in japan aiming at familiarizing common english terminologies used in clinical and practical dentistry (rodis, 2011). in iranian tertiary education, english for specific purposes (esp) are offered as compulsory courses focusing for medical science students on reading comprehension, grammar, and vocabulary (alavi, kaivanpanah, & taase, 2018; nezakatgoo & behzadpoor, 2017). the objective of esp programs was to provide students with the specific english skills required to function in different professions. besides being regarded as the revolutions in language teaching, it concentrates on learners. the curriculum design of a language teaching program requires a proper needs analysis also known as needs assessment) (juan, 2014) to assess the learner’s need (hyland, 2002); identify the language skills used in determining and selecting materials based on esp and to evaluate learners and the learning process (basturkmen,2010); to describe the learners’ needs in learning esp (ellis and johnson, 1994); and to set the learning outcomes (ahmed, 2014). in discovering students' needs, needs analysis is part of decision making in designing a course. as basturkmen (2010) puts it “needs analysis process is an attempt to answer questions regarding when, where, and why language learners need target language.” richards and platt (1992) suggest to arrange the needs according to priorities. graves (2000) mentions that need analysis is not only a systematic but also ongoing process. he also states that it is not merely gathering information about student's needs but also interpret the information in order to develops an effective course. despite its importance, esp courses, the evaluation of english language need for this specific program have rarely been done. (poedjiastutie, 2017; kusni, 2013;). in addition, most of the needs analysis for esp merely describe their finding. this study was aimed at investigating the language needs of the medical students of first year medical students attending esp course at the faculty of medicine of sultan agung islamic university in indonesia. in this present study, an attempt was also made to provide an interpretation on the findings to inform the respective esp design. methodology this research was conducted among the students of the faculty of medicine, sultan agung islamic university (unissula) research instruments the structured questionnaire was adapted from a questionnaire developed by gessesse (2009). the questionnaire was prepared based on the opinion expert in the field of teaching english as a foreign language after conducting a comprehensive literature review on related topics. the questionnaire covered different themes namely the goals of medical students learning english, the significance of learning english, student preferences towards learning environments, the order of significance of key language skills, language learning needs related to primary language skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening), their preferences of the type of assessment. based on the feedback and the experts’ opinion, it was corrected and reorganized. the latest version of structured questionnaire included six different themes with number of items as follows: on medical students' purposes of learning english (7 items), significance of learning english (3 items), their preference of learning environment (5 items), significance order of major language skills (4 items), language learning needs regarding major language skills (reading-7 items, writing-8 items, speaking-6 items, listening-6 items), their preference of assessment type. the part of language learning needs regarding major language skills was adapted from a similar study by gessesse (2009). except for a multiple-choice question on the participants’ preference of assessment type and a rank order scaling type of question on analysis of medical students' english http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 350 language needs. the significance order of major language skills, the entire questionnaire employed five-point likert scale format. research procedure data collection procedure to conduct a comprehensive needs analysis, there are many instruments and sources of data collection from which data are collected in the related literature. the data needed during the needs analysis process can be collected through several data collection instruments including questionnaires, authentic oral and written text analysis, discussions, structured interviews, observations and assessments including formal or informal assessments (dudley-evans and john, 1998). in this present study, the data were collected using a questionnaire (in form of a google form) distributed to 45 medical faculty students who voluntarily participated in this research. a comprehensive literature review was carried out before preparing data collection instruments. participants were informed of the research objectives and processes before the data collection process. data analysis in line the objectives of the study, the data were analyzed quantitatively. descriptive statistics were mainly done. because of the nature of the questionnaire items the section on participant preferences of the type of assessment was analyzed with frequency and percentage, result and discussion forty-five students in study completed the questionnaire. the students’ responses to personal information about the learners included their background information, their purposes of learning english, their learning preferences, their attitude towards the english language, their preferences were both quantitative and qualitative described. students’ purposes of learning and language use the most the students were asked to express their degrees of agreement on importance to purposes of learnings. adjectives that signify agreement and disagreement were given weights 1(not important) to 4 (most important). details regarding the student’s purposes of learning english. the descriptive values gained through the analysis of the purpose of reading, are provided below (see table 1). table1. students’ purposes of learning english purposes of learning english i learn english to: mean study other subjects 3.34 interact with people 3.27 read medical articles 3.18 perform activities in my study 3.09 write medical reports 2.79 use in my future career 3.34 the most important purpose of learning english as perceived by the students was to study other subjects (3.34) and use in their future career (3.34). the purpose of studying other subjects was due to the fact that they were non-english major. it is interesting that they have responsed “studying other subject” and “using english in future career” options with the same degree of importance. the former and the later choice implied the academic and professional purpose of learning english, respectively. both awareness of http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 351 goals confirmed their belief that english learning is of importance for their vital skills, lifelong learning, instead of short-term objectives. in their future career, they are expected to engage in an evidence based practice (ebm) which is defined as “conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.” (sackett, 1996). therefore, during their pre-clinical and clinical education the students are exposed to ebm that requires medical students to understand the scientific basis of clinical practice by reading primary scientific literature including critically appraise research articles which is mostly published in english. to remove the language barrier especially for students from non-english speaking countries, bitran (2012) suggested an explicit teaching of reading strategies for research papers by including activities to understand the structural characteristics of scientific texts, to develop an inquiry-based reading approach and to understand the student’s metacognitive strategies to assist the students to become competent lifelong learner. this finding is similar to that of by mona faisal al-qahtani (2013) investigating motivation towards studying english among the first year of applied medical sciences students (female section) at the university of dammam in saudi arabia. students attitude towards the english courses students were asked to express their opinion on the importance of the english courses in section of the questionnaire. the question item to assess their perception on the importance of english courses. based on the students’ responses, all students (100%) thought that english course is important. this showed a positive attitude to the english courses. table 2 presents that all-medical student perceived that english course are important with two different degrees of importance (important and very important). the students' reflections showed that they were aware the significance of the english course to improve their english to facilitate them in achieving their learning goals the foreign language acquisition. numerous studies have already been carried out on the subject attitude and its impact on the acquisition of a foreign language showing that attitudes play an effective and important role in learning and teaching process. attitude has been shown to be one of the main reasons, if not the single most significant factor in language learning (sauvignon, 1976:295) which discourage zainol abidin, et al. (2012) learning. in other words, positive relationship exists between students’ attitude and their english language achievement (fakeye, 2010) meaning that positive attitudes facilitate language learning and are associated with language success. this explains why negative attitudes hinder language acquisition that krashen (2006: 15) referred to as “psychological barriers” that block students' affective filter leading to the failure in language learning. to conclude, this positive attitude is an advantage to the teachers and to all other stakeholders to provide the students with english program to meet their specific needs. this positive attitude possibly motivates to learn for they have also instrumental purposes of their own in learning english. the students’ macro skills choices in following section of the questionnaire, the students were also expressed their best choices of macro and micro skills. students were asked to identify the most important macro skill in learning english. the results were expressed in frequency. as for the learners’ language needs in speaking skills, the student’s response regarding each and every item within the macro skill area are presented in the table below (see fig2). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 352 fig 1. students’ macro skills choices table 1 shows the most important english language skills for the medical students. they considered speaking as the most significant skills for them. the results are in line with some other studies conducted in turkish context (see taşçı 2007: ayas and kırkgöz 2014), and revealed that learners wanted to improve their speaking skills. master (2015) mentioned that there are at least three speaking situations in which english is needed including intra-professional communication, spoken interactions in conferences or medical discourse communities moreover, rahman (2015) stated that the main cause of creating such esp courses is to establish communicative environments. in addition, this finding supports that of kayaoglu & dagakbas' (2016) concluding that speaking was perceived as the most important skills to acquire for medical students at karadeniz technical university in turkey. this finding is different from that of a case study among medical students in indonesian university showing that reading skills are the most important language skills. (khrismawan, 2019). this suggest that the syllabus design need to accommodate this as it was proposed by schleppegrell & bowman (1986) that medical students are required to make presentations. the students’ micro skills choices details regarding what micro skills perceived as essential within each and every macro skill are presented in table 2. regarding reading skill, reading medical books and technical papers reading medical books has been found the top two macro skills. this finding is in line with that of study by çelik, h. (2018). this finding confirmed that english is important for medical professionals because most medical information-like books, articles, documents and journals for medical professionals is available in english (kang,2004); kurfurst ,2004). furthermore, due to the exponential rate of the number of published articles in medline, it is estimated that a dedicated doctor would need to read about 17 articles a day every day of the year to keep up to date with current knowledge. according to sackett (1981) and durbin (2009), clinicians, researchers and medical students read journal articles read the technical papers like medical journal articles for various reasons including but not limited to the following: “to update oneself with progress in a particular specialty/field of study, to find out a solution for a specific problem-could be diagnostic (tests/methods) or therapeutic (medical/surgical), to know about causation, clinical features, and course of a disorder/disease, to understand certain fundamental aspects like pathophysiology, to get an idea for carrying out a research work, to find support for one’s views” among the technical (scientific) paper in the field of medicine, reports of original research falling into the category of the primary literature has been the “core” of scientific publication (hersh, 2008). this suggests to include authentic reading materials taken from the medical books and medical journals in the syllabus of esp for medical students. in addition, it is important to teach the students the respective reading strategies as it was proposed by paltridge & starfield (2004). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 353 in term of writing skills, the students perceived that writing assignment was the most important micro skill. this finding might be in line with the need to reading books and technical articles in medicals. most of the time the students’ needs to read references in completing their assignment such as making lab reports. the last item in the questionnaire was in the micro skills of speaking. it was also found that the students perceived that a spoken presentation has been the most important micro skill. table 2 the student’s perception on the english macro skill table 3. students’ choices of evaluation systems ways of testing. i want to be tested through: mean mid and final semester examinations 2.95 pair works 3.06 individual achievements 3.04 a series of tests, quizzes, assignments, class works, homework etc. 3.04 group and class performance 3.04 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 354 students’ evaluation system preference students also suggested also the best evaluation method they want. a pair work has been the most preferred assessment system followed by individual assessment group and class performances as a third entry. the assessment plays an importance in student academic achievement (herman (2013). umar (2013) suggested that assessment is not intended to judge what the student have learned instead an “aid to learning’ and provides learners “a sense of accomplishment” (dudley-evans and st. john ,1998; douglas,2000). this is especially important in case of esp assessment as it was proposed by assessment enhances the learning process and serve as a learning device. (dudley-evans and st. john, 1998: 212). conclusion this study has investigated the english language needs of medical students to inform and help course designers and stakeholders to develop effective english for medical purposes courses to fulfill the needs of medical learners. the findings of the present showed that the medical students agreed on the importance of english specific purposes had a positive attitude on the english courses. the findings present that student perceive that 'reading medical textbook and technical papers to be the most important reading sub-skill, 'writing assignment ' to be the most significant writing subskill, 'listening to oral presentations' to be the most crucial listening subskill, and finally 'asking questions in class' to be the most fundamental speaking sub-skill., grammar, vocabulary, speaking and finally writing. proficient reading sub-skills and 'reading medical articles in journals' to be the least. the in reading, findings showed that students needed to get training mostly in 'reading medical textbooks' followed by 'reading instructions for assignments/ projects. in writing, the result presented that student requested training mostly in 'writing research papers' followed by 'answering exams'. in listening, the findings showed that students needed training mostly in ' following and understanding lectures' followed by following questions/ answer sessions in class. and finally in speaking, the results revealed that students needed training mostly in 'giving oral presentations' followed by 'participating in seminars' the findings will be useful for the design of english for specific purposes in the study setting. the findings could also be used to inform the planning especially the contents to be included in esp courses for medical purposes. acknowledgments the authors wish to thank the students of faculty of medicine, sultan agung islamic university for their participation in this study. we would also thank the institution of research and community service (lembaga penelitan dan pengabdian unissula) for the supports. this study was supported by an internal research grant of sultan agung islamic university. references ayas, özlem, kırkgöz, yasemin. 2014. the academiz and vocational english needs of the school of health students. çukurova üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 42(1): 39-55 ahmed, m. k. 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129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 the implementation of using picture media on teaching present continuous tense mezia kemala sari muhammadiyah university of west sumatera, indonesia meziakemalasari@umsb.ac.id yulyana putri pascasarjana universitas andalas, indonesia yulyana.putri.yp@gmail.com abstract the research is about the implementation of using picture as the media in teaching present continuous tense. the purpose is to see is there any significant implementation of using media in teaching present continuous tense. this research conducts three steps (pre-test, treatment and post-test) and held in four meetings. the participants are 21 students of class viia of mts muhammadiyah padangpanjang by using purposive sampling. this pre-experimental research is quantitative and the data taken from pre-test and post-test and test sheet is used as the instrumentation. the result showed that the using of picture as media has implementation in teaching present continuous tense. it can be seen from the student‘s scores‘ improvements taken from all indicators. generally, total mean of students‘ score of pre-test is 43.24 meanwhile the mean score of post-test is 71.62. the effectiveness of using this media is implemented from students‘ scores which are increased after learning present continuous tense by using picture. while the most significant improvement is in the use of –ing form as the core of the present continuous tense. keyword: picture media; present continuous tense introduction generally, english language has two tenses that consisting eight parts and they have different meaning depending on such things as the time and length of an action, and how the speaker sees it (eastwood, 2002, p. 82). it seems complicated and caused several problems for indonesian learners to learn english tense. widagsa, et.al (2017) stated the study of english as foreign language for indonesian regional language is still underrated. it possibly can be caused by tense because the indonesian language itself does not recognize the tense. commonly, the students have problem in understanding some tenses such as students hard to distinguish between simple present tense, present continuous tense and gerund because the form ―v + ing‖. sometime, they are confused when they should use simple present tense and present continuous tense. tense problem is one thing that commonly occur in students‘ english learning in all aspects beside grammatical, spelling, vocabulary and so on (sari, 2017, p.19). so, teacher has to be creative in teaching this material and make the students totally understand it. as a teacher, it is necessary to find the new teaching media to overcome the problems and not to forget to motivate the students. teachers have used games, pictures, songs, real object, cartoon and movie as their teaching media to grow the student creativity in learning process. however, in teaching process, the using of media and teaching material should be suitable. there are many media can be used in teaching present continuous tense such as two and three mailto:meziakemalasari@umsb.ac.id mailto:yulyana.putri.yp@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 dimensions media. mackey (2005) mentioned media likes picture, movies or song lyric are usually most often used as a tool to learn. it means tool that teacher used in classroom can be able to manipulate to seen, to hear and to read in order to facilitate teaching in the class. according to sabri (2010) the kinds of two and three dimension media are draft, graph, poster, picture, flat map and relief map. there are several benefits of using media in teaching process. first, clarified the instruction so that not to verbalize. second, superintend limited of room, time and senses. third, using appropriate and have variations media can decrease students passive. the last, teacher will be able to give equal motivation, experience and perception. in this research, picture is chosen as a media in teaching present continuous tense. picture is a number of pictures, photos, and painting from book, newspaper or another source that can be used as teaching aids (sabri, 2010, p. 110). using picture in teaching present continuous tense is one of the way how alternative teaching aids in teaching english, because most of students like to read comics that has interest picture. students are practiced to use their imagination by the picture and able to describe the picture everywhere. then, student will remember about the material. there are some similar research has been conducted by another researchers. kateřina joklová (2009) observed about using pictures in teaching vocabulary. in her research, she found the main goal of this thesis was to show how pictures can be put to use in english classes in a few ways and to answer the questions how and why this works and in what way exactly they help the learner remember the words he or she studies. the similar joklova research with this research is the using picture media. in joklova research picture used in teaching vocabulary, but in this research researcher using picture media in teaching present continuous tense. second, the research was observed by gallis nawang ginusti (2014). she observed about improving the speaking skills of grade viii students of smp negeri 2 godean through pictures. the result of her research that the implementation of pictures in the teaching and learning process of speaking is believed to be effective to improve the students‘ speaking skills. the similar gallis research with this research is the using picture media. in gallis research picture used to improve students speaking skill, but in this research researcher using picture media in teaching present continuous tense. the last, the research was observed by arum wahyuningsih (2011). she describes about students‘ writing skill through picture media in grade x of office administration 2 of smk negeri 1 tempel. the result of her study indicated that the process of teaching and learning accompanied with pictures could lead the students‘ motivation in writing and their skill improvement. the similar wahyuningsih research with this research is the using picture media. in wahyuningsih research picture used to improving students‘ writing skill, but in this research researcher using picture media in teaching present continuous tense. related to the review of related finding above, this research is more focus in using picture media in order to know the implementation of the media in teaching continuous tense. even though, there are number of studies discuss on some using picture media in teaching, but the researcher consider conducting a research, especially on the implementation of using picture media in teaching present continuous tense at viii grade students of mts muhammadiyah padangpanjang. methodology the study is pre-experimental as one of models experimental research. sukardi (2007) stated that pre-experimental research was the language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 simple research that used singular variable used individual or group as object of study. this research is used to know the implementation of using picture media in teaching present continuous tense. population is the students of viii grade students of mts muhammadiyah padangpanjang which consist of class a and b. in this research, the researcher take the sample by using purposive sampling technique and the sample taken is viii.a class which has 21 students. the instrument of this research is test sheet. a test or exam (short for examination) is a tool or technique intended to measure students' expression of knowledge, skills and/or abilities. in completing this study the test should be based on an achievement test which was the result later use as data. in order to get an enough data researcher will divide the test into two: pre-test and post-test. the purpose of giving the classroom tests was to measuring the skills, knowledge of intelligence, ability or talent possessed by individuals or groups (arikunto, 2010, p.193). the media is a picture which consists of daily activities that are familiar and it will be given during the treatment. technique of data collections is preparation and doing pre-test, treatment and post-test. after all completed, then data analysis is conducted and describe it in order to get the purpose of this research based on the three indicators of present continuous tense, they are: subject, to be and v+ing. according to malla (in copland and garton, 2012: 8), the procedure of using picture in teaching present continuous tense, as follows. first, divide the class into groups of two or three. each group decides who will mime and who will guess. decide which group will go first and say that each group will have two minutes to guess as many actions as they can. second, bring the first group to the front of the class. ask the child who mime to stand so all the children in the class can see. give the child the first card. they mime the action on the card. the group has to guess what the mime by calling out. third, after two minutes, the group counts the number of cards it has collected and records the number on the board. the cards are given back to the teacher and the second group comes to the front to guess. last, the winning group is the one with most points recorded on the board. results and discussion these are the main results as the finding of this research explained in several tables based on their categories. pre-test and post-test distribution score based on indicator the following is the pre-test and post-test distribution score based on the three indicators that conducted in this research about present continuous tense. the results are in tables and figure form. indicator 1 (‘subject’ of present continuous tense) table 1 the students‘ score of indicator (1) no pre-test post-test item correct (%) incorrect (%) total correct (%) incorrect (%) total 1 1 10 (47.6) 11 (52.4) 17 (80.9) 4 (19.1) 2 2 14 (66.6) 7 (33.4) 12 (57.1) 9 (42.9) language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 3 3 16 (76.1) 5 (23.9) 35.34 % 16 (76.1) 5 (23.9) 62.54 % 4 4 6 (28.5) 15 (71.5) 12 (57.1) 9 (42.9) 5 5 11 (52.3) 10 (47.7) 13 (61.9) 8 (38.1) 6 6 12 (57.1) 9 (42.9) 13 (61.9) 8 (38.1) 7 7 9 (42.8) 12 (57.2) 9 (42.8) 12 (57.2) based on the table above, it can be seen the percentage of students‘ pre-test score in indicator 1 (subject) is still low in the pretest. total percentage of the indicator is 53.34%. the students still not comprehend yet about the uses of ‗subject‘ in present continuous tense. but, in the post-test, it can be seen that there is increasing score after the students receive the treatment. the percentage is 62.54%.it means there is an improving here although not too significant. it seems, the ‗subject‘ problems still become a confusing thing for students and make it match and suitable with the present continuous tense requirements in sentence. indicator 2 (‘to be’ of present continuous tense) table 2 the students‘ score of indicator (2) no item pre-test post-test correct (%) incorrect (%) total correct (%) incorrect (%) total 1 8 11 (52.3) 10 (47.7) 55.06 % 12 (57.1) 9 (42.9) 71.39 % 2 9 9 (42.8) 12 (57.2) 14 (66.6) 7 (33.4) 3 10 7 (33.3) 14 (66.7) 13 (61.9) 8 (38.1) 4 11 13 (61.9) 8 (38.1) 15 (71.4) 6 (28.6) 5 12 14 (66.6) 7 (33.4) 17 (80.9) 4 (19.1) 6 13 12 (57.1) 9 (42.9) 16 (76.1) 5 (23.9) 7 14 15 (71.4) 6 (28.6) 18 (85.7) 3(14.3) based on the description above, it can be seen the percentage of students‘ score in indicator two is still low. total percentage this indicator is 55.06 %. the students still not understood yet about the use of ‗to be‘ in present continuous tense. but in the post-test, it can be seen that there is the effectiveness of using picture media teaching present continuous tense in this indicator. the total percentage of this indicator is increase from 55.06 % to 71. 39 %. ‘v+ing’ of present continuous tense table 3 the students‘ scores of indicator (3) no item pre-test post-test cor-rect (%) incorrect (%) total correct (%) incorrect (%) total 1 15 9 (42.8) 12 (57.2) 17 (80.9) 4 (19.1) 2 16 7 (33.3) 14 (66.7) 18 (85.7) 3 (14.3) 3 17 10 (47.6) 11 (52.4) 17 (80.9) 4 (19.1) language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 4 18 5 (23.8) 16 (76.2) 35.34 % 15 (71.4) 6 (28.6) 80.23 % 5 19 6 (28.5) 15 (71.5) 15 (71.4) 6 (28.6) 6 20 7 (33.3) 14 (66.7) 17 (80.9) 4 (19.1) 7 21 8 (38.1) 13 (61.9) 19 (90.4) 2 (9.6) the use of ‗v+ing‘ is the main point in present continuous tense. it can be constraint when student forget to use –ing form in their sentence beside the gerund function. so, in this indicator, as seen in table 3 above, it can be seen there is significant improvement of students‘ score where the pre-test only 35.34%then after treatment improved become 80.23%. this significant improvement is the implementation of using media in teaching this tense to the students. the can suddenly remember if the present continuous tense, then the ‗-ing‘ form should be conducted and picture media plays the important role here. for comparison the percentage of indicator of present continuous tense, before and after using picture media on teaching. it can be seen as follows. figure 1 the comparison percentage of each indicator in pre-test and post-test based on the figure above, it can be seen the whole improvement of students‘ score. the difference between pre-test and post-test mean is 28.38. the difference between pre-test and post-test in indicator 1 (subject) is 9.54 %. the difference between pre-test and post-test in indicator 2 (to be) is 16.33 %. the difference between pre-test and post-test in indicator 3 (v+ing) is 44.89 %. in order to finding the mean score of whole pre-test and post-test, it can be concluded in the table below. table 4 the mean table of pre-test and post-test no. code of samples score pre-test post-test 1 01 48 84 2 02 60 68 3 03 28 60 53,00 55,06 35,34 62,54 71,39 80,23 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 subject to be verb+ing pretest post test language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 no. code of samples score pre-test post-test 4 04 52 76 5 05 52 72 6 06 16 80 7 07 28 60 8 08 56 72 9 09 40 68 10 10 28 72 11 11 56 64 12 12 56 72 13 13 48 60 14 14 28 72 15 15 60 84 16 16 28 60 17 17 40 72 18 18 64 68 19 19 56 84 20 20 52 76 21 21 12 80  908 1504 ̅ 43.24 71.62 it can be seen that total mean of pre-test is 43.24 and the total mean of post-test is 71.62 which is quite significant and effective. there is significant implementation that can be seen in the final sore of students. in other hand, the using of picture media on teaching present continuous is effective. it can be proved on pre-test and post-test. picture as the interesting visual thing for student can stimulate them to remember the formula of present continuous tense which consist of subject, ‗to-be‘ and v+ing that has been indicators in this research, picture of activity that occur in the treatment is succeed to attract the students become more active and understand the tense material easily instead of just remembering the formula. moreover, they can easily improve their vocabulary too by seeing the picture. on teaching grammar, especially present continuous tense, teacher must be creative to choose teaching media. this media was quite suitable when used on teaching present continuous tense at viii grade students. teacher can create the picture based on their students‘ knowledge and environment. so that, the students quite understand what the teacher means and remember the lesson. based on the result of research, it showed that the using picture media on teaching present continuous tense was effective. for the next lesson teacher can use this media when teaching present continuous tense. conclusions the main concern in this pre-experimental research is the discussion of any implementation of using picture media on teaching present continuous tense at viii grade students of mt‘s muhammadiyah padangpanjang. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 based on the research findings, it can be concluded that there is implementation of using picture as the media in teaching present continuous tense research at viii grade students of mts muhammadiyah padangpanjang. it can be proved by the improvement of student‘s score between pretest and post-test. the significant increase occurred mostly in indicator verb ‗ing‘ form but the others also show the increasing score. in general, the total mean of pre-test is 43.24 and the total mean of post-test is 71.62 which is quite significant and effective. so, after getting the result of research it can be emphasized that the using of picture as media has implementation in teaching present continuous tense. references arikunto, s. (2013). prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: pt. rineka cipta copland, f., garton, s., & daviz, m. (2012) crazy animal and other activities for teaching english to young learners. london: british council eastwood, j. (2002). oxford guide to english grammar. hongkong: oxford university press ginusti, g.n. (2014). improving the speaking skills of grade vii students. thesis. faculty of language and art. yogyakarta: universitas negeri yogyakarta joklova, k. (2009). using picture in teaching vocabulary. thesis. czechia: masaryk university mackey a., & gass, s.m. (2005). second language research: methodology and designed. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates sabri, a. (2010). strategi belajar mengajar; microteaching. jakarta: quantum teaching. sari, m.k. (2017). an analysis of students problem in writing recount text. educative: journal of educational studies. 2(1), 14-21 sukardi. (2007). metodologi penelitian pendidikan; kompetensi dan praktiknya. jakarta: bumi aksara wahyuningsih, a. (2011). improving students‘ writing skill through picture media.thesis. faculty of language and arts yogyakarta: state university of yogyakarta widagsa, r., perwitasari, a., & sari, m.k. (2018). vowel space area of minangkabau learners of english. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 153-164. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa93ca610cb • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _________________________________________________________________________________________ 113 designing a model of research paper writing instructional materials for academic writing course: textbook evaluation m. ali ghufron alghufron.87@gmail.com semarang state university, indonesia mursid saleh mursids@hotmail.com semarang state university, indonesia received: 30 december 2015. revised: 30 january 2016. accepted: 3 march 2016 abstract this study attempted to evaluate an academic writing textbook used in english education study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro, east java, indonesia. the fourth edition of a book entitled ―writing academic english‖ written by oshima and hogue was critically evaluated based on two major points, namely general attributes of the textbook and the learning-teaching contents of the textbook. the general attributes of the textbook cover the book in relation to syllabus and curriculum, the methodology, the book‘s suitability to learners, physical and utilitarian attributes, and efficient outlay of supplementary materials; and the learning-teaching content of the textbook covers general elements (move of the tasks, tasks‘ objectives, etc.), academic writing (specified on research paper writing), vocabulary, grammar, and exercises. the questionnaires developed to evaluate the textbook were adapted from textbook evaluation checklist developed by mukundan, nimehchisalem, and hajimohammadi (2011). the results indicate that the lecturers and students were not really satisfied with the book since it does not represent the students‘ needs and curriculum (the curriculum of english education study program of ikip pgri bojonegoro mandated to teach research paper writing for writing iv course). the materials provided there are not specified to research paper writing. however, the textbook is very good in some points such as the methodology, physical and utilitarian attributes, layout of the book, general elements (move of the tasks, tasks‘ objectives, etc.), academic writing (from paragraph writing to various essays writing), vocabulary, grammar, and exercises in the area. keywords: academic writing, textbook evaluation, instructional materials, teachers‘ perspectives, students‘ perspectives how to cite: ghufron, m. ali & mursid saleh. 2016. students‘ differences and students‘ outcomes in english learning. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction there are two forms of instructional materials: printed forms, such as textbook, workbook, teacher‘s guide, etc., and nonprinted forms, such as videotapes, audiotapes, and computer-based materials. intructional materials are considered as main component in tefl programs, which is very essential for both teachers and learners. especially, textbooks are the mostly used teaching and learning materials for both teachers and the learners. they do not only provide a framework for teachers in achieving the aims and objectives of the course, but also serve as a guide to the teacher when conducting lessons. on behalf of the learners, a textbook truly affects their attitudes and performance to the lesson throughout the course. it is a fact that when learners like their textbooks, they like the course as well and become active participants to the lesson. the textbook is an important source of input and a great opportunity for efl learners to communicate in the target language, which is realized only mailto:alghufron.87@gmail.com mailto:mursids@hotmail.com language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 114 in classroom settings in most public schools (tok, 2010). commonly, english teachers teach their students by using available textbooks. however, such learning materials which are really suitable with the needs of the students are not always available. this condition should not discourage the teachers as far as they have the objective(s) of the teaching or are familiar with the need(s) of the students. by having the objectives of the teaching/ learning or being familiar with the needs of the learners, the teachers can develop their own materials for the learners to achieve the objectives or to fulfill the needs of the learners. since english teachers use ‗textbooks‘ in their classrooms, they have the right to be involved in the process of evaluation in order to be provided with the relevant textbook for their specific learner group. their views on the usefulness and effectiveness of the textbooks are also worth scrutinizing their textbooks, so as to identify the weak and strong points in relation to their own teaching situation. this is required because selecting textbooks involves matching the material to the context where it is going to be used, and a wide range of specialists share the view that no textbook that is designed for a general market will be absolutely appropriate and ideal for one‘s particular group of learners. as grant (1987: 8) claims (the) ‗perfect book does not exist', yet the aim is to be to find out the best possible one that will fit and be appropriate to a particular learner group. sheldon (1988) suggests that textbooks do not only represent the visible heart of any elt program, but also offer considerable advantages for both students and the teachers when they are being used in esl/efl classrooms. cunnigsworth (1995) suggests that potential, which textbooks have, in serving several additional roles in elt curriculum, is an advantage. he argues that textbooks are an effective resource for self directed learning, an effective source for presentational material, a source of ideas and activities, a reference source for students, a syllabus where they reflect pre-determined learning objectives, and support for less experienced teachers who are yet to gain confidence. in addition to that, hycroft (1998) states that one of the primary advantage of using textbooks is that they are psychologically essential for students since their progress and achievement can be measured concretely when we use them. textbooks play a prominent role in the teaching/learning process and they are the primary agents of conveying the knowledge to the learners. besides, one of the basic functions of textbooks is to make the existence knowledge available and apparent to the learner in a selected, easy and organized way. hutchinson and torres (1994) argue that the textbook has a very important and a positive part to play in teaching and learning of english. they state that textbooks provide the necessary input into classroom lessons through different activities, readings and explanations. thus, they will always survive on the grounds that they meet certain needs. regarding the multiple roles of textbooks in elt, cunningsworth (1995) identifies a textbook as a resource in presenting the material, a source for learners to practice and do the activities. they also provide the learners with a reference source on grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. what is more, textbooks serve as a syllabus and a self-study source for learners. they also serve as a support for the beginning teachers who have ghufron, m. ali & mursid saleh. 2016. students‘ differences and students‘ outcomes in english learning. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 115 115 yet to gain in confidence. thus, it can be said that the fundamental role of textbooks is to be at the service of teachers and learners but not their boss. richards (2001) states that without textbooks, a program may have no impact, therefore, they provide structure and a syllabus. besides, the use of a textbook in a program can guarantee that students in different classes will receive a similar content and therefore, can be evaluated in the same way. in other words, textbooks provide the standards in instruction. moreover, they include a variety of learning resources such as workbooks, cds and cassettes, videos, etc., which makes the learning environment interesting and enjoyable for the learners. while there are many theorists, as mentioned before, that point out the extensive benefits of using esl/efl textbooks, there are many other researchers and practitioners who do not necessarily accept this view and retain some well founded reservations on the subject. allwright (1982) suggests that textbooks are too inflexible and generally reflect the pedagogic, psychological, and linguistic preferences and biases of their authors. some proponents of authentic classroom language models have argued that the problems with many textbooks are not necessarily the fact that they are culturally or socially biased, but that they are actually too contrived and artificial in their presentation of the target language. they argue that it is crucial to introduce learners to the fundamental characteristics of authentic reallife examples of both spoken and written discourse. they have demonstrated that many scripted textbook language models and dialogues are unnatural and inappropriate for communicative or cooperative language teaching because they do not adequately prepare students for the different types of pronunciation (brazil et al., 1980; levis, 1999, litz, 2005), language structures, grammar, idioms, vocabulary and conversational rules, routines and strategies that they will have to use in the real-world (cathcart, 1989; 1991; yule et al., 1992, litz, 2005). they further contend that the scripted unauthentic language found in many textbooks does not lend itself to communicative practice, but instead can lead to an oversimplification of language and unrealistic views of real-life situations. it can also provide additional inaccurate advice about the target language society that can be particularly dangerous for students entering the target language community or those who are expecting to engage in significant amounts of real-life interactions with native speakers. whether one believes that textbooks are too inflexible and biased to be used directly as instructional material or that they actually help teaching and learning, one cannot deny the fact that textbooks still maintain enormous popularity and are most definitely essential. rea-dickins and germaine (1994: 4) state that ―evaluation is an intrinsic part of teaching and learning‖. evaluation plays a key role in education and it is important for the teacher since it can provide valuable information for the future going of classroom practice, the planning of courses and management of learning tasks by students. finally, evaluation is essential for the use of instructional materials such as textbooks. cunningsworth (1995: 7) suggests that we should ensure that ―careful selection is made, and that the materials selected closely reflect [the needs of the learners and] the aims, methods and values of the teaching program‖. language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 116 one other reason for textbook evaluation is that it can be very useful in teachers‘ development and professional growth. ellis (1997) suggests that textbook evaluation helps teachers go beyond impressionistic assessments and it helps them to acquire useful, accurate, systematic and contextual insights into the overall nature of textbook material. if one accepts the value of textbooks in elt, then it must surely be with the qualification that they are of an acceptable level of quality, usefulness, and appropriateness for the context and people with whom they are being used. in the literature, the subject of textbook evaluation is not particularly extensive. pre-eminent theorists in the field of elt textbook design and analysis such as williams (1983), sheldon (1988), brown (1995), cunningsworth (1995) and all agree, for instance, that evaluation checklists should have some criteria pertaining to the physical characteristics of textbooks such as layout, organizational, and logistical characteristics. other important criteria that should be incorporated are those that assess a textbook‘s methodology, aims, and approaches and the degree to which a set of materials is not only teachable, but also fits the needs of the individual teacher's approach as well as the organization's overall curriculum. which a set of materials is not only teachable, but also fits the needs of the individual teacher's approach as well as the organization‘s overall curriculum. finally, textbook evaluations should include criteria that pertain to representation of cultural and gender components in addition to the extent to which the linguistic items, subjects, content, and topics match up to students' personalities, backgrounds, needs, and interests as well as those of the teacher and/or institution. ellis (1997) distinguishes two types of materials evaluation, namely, predictive evaluation and retrospective evaluation. a predictive evaluation is designed to make a decision regarding what materials to use. teachers who are required to carry out a predictive evaluation determine which materials are best suited to their purposes. once the materials have been used, further evaluation may be conducted to find out whether the materials have worked out for them, and this type of evaluation is called retrospective evaluation. as it can be understood from the aforementioned definitions, both predictive and retrospective evaluations aim at making the teaching/ learning environment more effectively. they both help teachers to make appropriate judgment concerning the effectiveness of their teaching including the materials they used. the reasons for materials evaluation activities are also many and varied. one of the major reasons is the need to adopt new coursebooks. another reason as cunningsworth (1995) emphasized is to identify particular strengths and weaknesses in coursebooks already in use. such activities also permit teachers to make optimum use of their strong points and strengthen the weaker areas by adapting and substituting materials from other books. coursebook analyses and evaluation do not only help teachers to develop themselves, but also helps them to gain good and useful insights into the nature of the material. moreover, as hutchinson (1987) points out, materials evaluation do not only serves the immediate practical aim of selecting teaching materials, but also plays a critical role in developing teacher‘s awareness in a number of ways, which are teachers being able to analyze their own presuppositions about the nature of language and learning, ghufron, m. ali & mursid saleh. 2016. students‘ differences and students‘ outcomes in english learning. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 117 117 forcing teachers to set their prerequisites and helping them to see materials as an essential part of the whole teaching/learning situation. sheldon (1988) points out that textbook evaluation is done for two reasons. first, the evaluation will help the teacher or program developer in making decisions on selecting the appropriate textbook. furthermore, evaluation of the merits and demerits of a textbook will familiarize the teacher with its probable weaknesses and strengths. this will enable teachers to make appropriate adaptations to the material in their future instruction. in this line, cunningsworth (1995) and ellis (1997) propose that textbook evaluation can be of three types, namely ―preuse‖, ―in-use‖, and ―post-use‖ evaluations. evaluation of textbooks for pre-use, or predictive, purposes helps teachers in selecting the most appropriate textbook for a given language classroom by considering its prospective performance. the second type of evaluation aids the teacher to explore the weaknesses or strengths of the textbook while it is being used. finally, post-use, or retrospective evaluation helps the teacher reflect on the quality of the textbook after it has been used in a particular learningteaching situation the textbook entitled “writing academic english” written by oshima and hogue was used as main resources in teaching academic witing course in english eduation study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro since 5 years ago. this particular research reported on a survey that was conducted on academic writing teachers in ikip pgri bojonegoro. it is hoped that this study will be a preliminary evaluation of the mentioned textbook and it is also expected that the results of this evaluation study will reveal the areas that need to be revised and improved in that particular efl textbook. furthermore, it is hoped that this study will raise the awareness of textbook writers in onsidering various criteria for the development of esl/efl textbooks; and of english teachers in developing textbooks which accomodate students‘ needs and learning outcomes in curriculum. methodology this research was designed by using descriptive research model. the data about the assessment of the academic writing textbook used in english education study program of the subject group, which consists of the academic writing teachers working in english education study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro is based on the results of the data collection instrument (teacher textbook evaluation form). participants the study was done with 3 academic writing teachers (2 males, 1 female) at english education study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro. all of participants have 2-5 years experience in teaching. besides, this study also involved 10 students of the fifth semester students of english education study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro. the ten students were chosen purposively. the students chosen to be involved in this study were those who have the highest score in their academic writing (writing iv). instrument the data collection instrument consists of two parts. the first part is about the subjects‘ personal information; the second part is the language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 118 textbook evaluation checklist, which elicits the criteria of a textbook for english course. ―textbook evaluation checklist‖ was adapted from textbook evaluation checklist developed by mukundan, nimehchisalem, and hajimohammadi (2011). this textbook evaluation checklist covers two major points, namely general attributes and learningcontent. from the two major points, there were 31 questions dealing the textbook which is going to be evaluated. for the statements in the ―textbook evaluation checklist‖ a likerttype of equal-range was used. the statements in the inventory have been labelled as; ―completely agree (5)‖, ―agree (4)‖, ―partly agree (3)‖, ―disagree (2)‖, ―completely disagree (1)‖. in order to guarantee the reliability of the data, focus group discussion (fgd) was also done among the respondents and the researcher. limitations this study is limited to academic writing teachers in english education study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro. therefore, conclusions need to be verified by conducting similar studies across different universities. it is assumed that teachers and students answered the questions honestly and with seriousness. another limitation of this study is that the present study is a micro level evaluation study, however, it can be complemented with a macro evaluation study, which is on the task level. results and discussions the data of this study were gotten from questionnaires distribution to 3 academic writing teachers and 10 fifth semester students of english education study program of language and art education faculty of ikip pgri bojonegoro, east java, indonesia. the results are presented as follows: table 1. the results of textbook evaluation checklist (adapted from checklist which was developed by mukundan, nimehchisalem, and hajimohammadi (2011) no. criteria score total n (%) 5 (%) 4 (%) 3 (%) 2 (%) 1 (%) general attributes a. the book in relation to syllabus and curriculum 1 it matches with the specifications of the syllabus 4 (31%) 9 (69%) 13 (100%) b. methodology 2 the activities can be exploited fully and can embrace the various methodologies in elt 13 (100%) 13 (100%) 3 activities can work well with methodologies in elt 13 (100%) 13 (100%) c. suitability to learners 4 it is compatible with background knowledge and level of students 10 (77%) 3 (33%) 13 (100%) 5 it is culturally accessible to the learners 8 (62%) 5 (38%) 13 (100%) 6 it is compatible to the needs of the learners 13 (100%) 13 (100%) 7 it is compatible to the interests of the learners 13 (100%) 13 (100%) d. physical and utilitarian attributes 8 its layout is attractive 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) 9 it indicates efficient use of text and visuals 6 (46%) 7 (54%) 13 (100%) e. efficient outlay of supplementary materials 10 there is a teacher‘s guide to aid the teacher 13 (100%) 13 (100%) learning-teaching content a. general 1 most of the tasks in the book are interesting 7 (54%) 6 (46%) 13 (100%) 2 tasks move from simple to complex 13 (100%) 13 (100%) 3 task objectives are achievable 5 (38%) 8 (62%) 13 (100%) 4 cultural sensitivities have been considered 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) ghufron, m. ali & mursid saleh. 2016. students‘ differences and students‘ outcomes in english learning. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 119 119 5 the language in the book is natural and real 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) 6 the material is up-to-date 4 (31%) 9 (69%) 13 (100%) 7 it covers a variety of topics in elt 8 (62%) 5 (38%) 13 (100%) 8 the book contain materials taken from elt research findings 13 (100%) 13 (100%) 9 the book covers materials of writing research paper 13 (100%) 13 (100%) b. academic writing 10 tasks have achievable goals and take into consideration of learner 10 (77%) 3 (33%) 13 (100%) 11 models are provided for different genres 13 (100%) 13 (100%) c. vocabulary 12 the load (number of new words in each lesson) is appropriate to the level 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) 13 there is a good distribution (simple to complex) of vocabulary load across chapters and the whole book 8 (62%) 5 (38%) 13 (100%) 14 words are efficiently repeated and recycled across the book 8 (62%) 5 (38%) 13 (100%) d. grammar 15 the spread of grammar is achievable 5 (38%) 8 (62%) 13 (100%) 16 the grammar is contextualized 7 (54%) 6 (46%) 13 (100%) 17 examples are interesting 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) 18 grammar are introduced explicitly 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) e. exercises 19 they have clear instructions 13 (100%) 13 (100%) 20 they are adequate 13 (100%) 13 (100%) 21 they help students who are under/over-achievers 9 (69%) 4 (31%) 13 (100%) from the table above, it is known that questions in the textbook evaluation checklist were divided into two major points: general attributes and learning-teaching content. the general attributes cover the book in relation to syllabus and curriculum, methodology, suitability to learners, physical and utilitarian attributes, and supplementary materials. the learning-teaching content covers general aspects (such as move of the task, etc.), academic writing aspects, vocabulary, grammar, and exercise. general attributes the first major point that was evaluated from the textbook entitled ―writing academic english‖ written by oshima and hogue is general attributes. in this part, there are 5 aspects that were evaluated. the first aspect is the book in relation to syllabus and curriculum. from the table 1 above, it is clearly seen that 31% of respondents disagree with the statement that says about the suitability of the textbook with the syllabus and curriculum, while 69% of respondents completely disagree. therefore, it is concluded that the textbook entitled ―writing academic english‖ written by oshima and hogue does not match with the syllabus and curriculum of academic writing course in english education study program of ikip pgri bojonegoro. the curriculum there mandates the materials that should be taught in writing iv must deal with the elt research paper writing. the second aspect is methodology. there are two statements dealing with this aspect. the statements deal with the activities in the textbook whether or not can be exploited fully and can embrace the various methodologies in elt; and activities can work well with methodologies in elt. in both of the first and the second statements, 100% of respondents completely agree with the statements. it means that in this point (methodology), the textbook is excellent. the third aspect is the textbook suitability to learners. this aspect covers four statements, i.e. the compatibility of the textbook with the students‘ background knowledge and students‘ level, the textbook accessibility of the culture to the learners, the textbook compatibility to the needs of learners, and the textbook compatibility to the interests of learners. the results show that 77% of respondents agree with the first language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 120 statement, and 33% of them partly agree. then, for the second statement, 62% of respondents partly agree with the statement and 38% of them do not. for the third and the fourth statements, 100% of respondents disagree with the statement. therefore, the conclusion is the aspect of textbook suitability to learners still does not have good suitability to learners, since there are still some parts that do not fulfill the students‘ needs. the fourth aspect is the physical and utilitarian attributes. this aspect involves two statements. the first statement is whether or not its layout is attractive and the second one is whether or not it indicates efficient use of texts and visuals. the results reveal that 69% of respondents completely agree and 31% of them agree with the first statement. while for the second statement, it is seen that 46% of respondents agree and 54% of them partly agree with the second statement. in conclusion, it can be said that the textbook has good enough physical and utilitarian attributes especially its layout. the last or the fifth aspect of the general attributes is supplementary materials. there is only one statement proposed to the respondents dealing with this aspect. the statement is whether or not the textbook provides teacher‘s guide to help the teacher in using the textbook. 100% of respondents answered that there is no teacher‘s guide provided. learning-teaching content the second major point that was evaluated from the textbook entitled ―writing academic english‖ written by oshima and hogue was learning-teaching content. in this part, there are also 5 aspects that were evaluated. they are general aspects (such as move of the task, etc.), academic writing aspects, vocabulary, grammar, and exercise. the first aspect that was evaluated from this part is general aspects. they deal with whether or not (1) most of the tasks in the book are interesting; (2) tasks move from simple to complex; (3) task objectives are achievable; (4) cultural sensitivities have been considered; (5) the language in the book is natural and real; (6) the material is up-to-date; (7) it covers a variety of topics in elt; (8) the book contain materials taken from elt research findings; and (9) the book covers materials of writing research paper. the results show that 54% of respondents agree and 46% of them partly agree with the first statement. for the second statement, it seen that 100% of respondents completely agree. the third statement was answer by respondents with the results that 38% of respondents completely agree and 62% of them agree with the statement. the next is the fourth statement which was answered by respondents with the results that 69% of respondents completely agree and 31% of them agree with the statement. then, the fifth statement was answered and results the same percentage with the fourth statement, it is 69% of respondents completely agree and 31% of them agree with the statement. the next is the sixth statement which deals with the novelty of the materials. the results show that 31% of respondents agree and 69% of them partly agree with the statement. the seventh statement deals with textbook‘s topics variety in elt. 62% of respondents disagree and 38% of them completely disagree with the statement. the eighth statement deals with the materials which are taken from elt research findings. the respondents answered that 100% of them disagree with the statement. the last is the statement dealing with the materials of writing research paper. the answer from respondents is the same as the eighth statement. it is 100% of them disagree with the statement. finally, it can be concluded that the textbook is good enough in terms of general attributes. however, if it is used for teaching and learning of academic writing course (writing iv) in english education study program of ikip pgri ghufron, m. ali & mursid saleh. 2016. students‘ differences and students‘ outcomes in english learning. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 121 121 bojonegoro is still not relevant with the students‘ needs and curriculum. this is caused by the inexistence of the materials in the textbook which cover elt research findings and research paper writing in which the two of them are in line with the students‘ needs and curriculum for writing iv course. if it is analyzed further, this textbook is relevant with the curriculum if it is used to teach academic writing course in the terms of sentences, paragraph and essay writing (writing i, writing ii, and writing iii courses). according to richards (2005: 1) effective instructional materials in language teaching are shaped by consideration of a number of factors including teacher, learner, and contextual variables. teacher factors include the teacher language proficiency, training and experience, cultural background, and preferred teaching style. learner factors include learner‘s learning style preferences, their language learning needs, interests, and motivations. contextual factors include the school culture, classroom condition, class size, and availability of teaching resources in situation where the materials will be used. therefore, in order to fulfill the students‘ needs and adjust the curriculum, there should be new instructional materials which cover elt research findings and research paper writing. the second aspect that was evaluated from the textbook is academic writing. this aspect covers two statements. the first statement deals with achievable goals of the tasks and whether or not it has been taken into consideration of learners. the results show that 77% of respondents agree and 33% of them partly agree with the statement. the second statement deals with models of different genres provided by the textbook. the results reveal that 100% of respondents completely agree with the statement. therefore, it can be concluded that the textbook is very good in terms of academic writing aspects. the third is vocabulary aspect. there are 3 statements dealing with this aspect. the first statement is whether or not the load (number of new words in each lesson) is appropriate to the level. 69% of respondents completely agree and 31% of them agree with this statement. the second statement is whether or not there is a good distribution (simple to complex) of vocabulary load across chapters and the whole book. the answers show that 62% of respondents agree and 38% of them partly agree with the statement. the last statement is whether or not words are efficiently repeated and recycled across the book. the answers show that 62% of respondents agree and 38% of them partly agree with the statement. then, it is concluded that the textbook is very good in vocabulary aspects. the fourth is grammatical aspect. there are 4 statements dealing with this aspect. the first statement is whether or not the spread of grammar is achievable. the answers of respondents show that 38% of them completely agree and 62% of them agree with the statement. the second statement is whether or not the grammar is contextualized. the results reveal that 54% of respondents partly agree and 46% of them disagree with the statement. the third statement is whether or not examples are interesting. the answers show that 69% of respondents partly agree and 31% of them disagree with the statement. the fourth statement is whether or not grammars are introduced explicitly. the answers show the same results as the third statement. the 69% of respondents partly agree and 31% of them disagree with the statement. then, from the results above, it is concluded that the respondents are not satisfied enough with grammatical aspects in the textbook. the last aspect that was evaluated from the point of teaching-learning content is exercises. it covers 3 statements. they are whether or not (1) the exercises help students language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 122 who are under/over-achievers; (2) they are adequate; and (3) they have clear instructions. for the first and the second statements, 100% of respondents completely agree with those two statements. then, for the last statement, 69% of respondents agree and 31% of them partly agree with the statement. the conclusion is the textbook provides very good exercise for every single topic discussed there. however, some of them do not have a very clear instruction. conclusion after analyzing the textbook entitled ―writing academic english‖ written by oshima and hogue by using textbook evaluation checklist developed by mukundan, nimehchisalem, and hajimohammadi (2011), it is concluded that the lecturers and students were not really satisfied with the book since it does not represent the students‘ needs and curriculum (the curriculum of english education study program of ikip pgri bojonegoro mandated to teach research paper writing for writing iv course). the materials provided there are not specified to research paper writing. however, the textbook is very good in some points such as the methodology, physical and utilitarian attributes, outlay of the book, general elements (move of the tasks, tasks‘ objectives, etc.), academic writing (from paragraph writing to various essays writing), vocabulary, grammar, and exercises in the area. besides, if it is used for teaching and learning of academic writing course (writing iv) in english education study program of ikip pgri bojonegoro is still not relevant with the students‘ needs and curriculum. this is caused by the inexistence of the materials in the textbook which cover elt research findings and research paper writing in which the two of them are in line with the students‘ needs and curriculum for writing iv course. if it is analyzed further, this textbook is relevant with the curriculum if it is used to teach academic writing course in the terms of sentences, paragraph and essay writing (writing i, writing ii, and writing iii courses). therefore, in order to fulfill the students‘ needs and adjust the curriculum, there should be new instructional materials which cover elt research findings and research paper writing. references allwright, r. 1982. what do we want teaching materials for? elt j. 36(1). brazil, d., coulthard, m., and johns, c. (1980). discourse intonation and language teaching. london: longman. cathcart, r. 1989. authentic discourse and the survival english curriculum. tesol quarterly., vol. 23. chin, p., koizumi, y., reid, s., wray, s., and yamazaki, y. 2012. academic writing skill: students‟ book 1. new york: cambridge university press. cunningsworth, a. 1995. choosing your coursebook. oxford: heinemann publishers ltd. ellis, r. 1997. the empirical evaluation of language teaching materials. elt j., 51(1). grant, m. 1987. making the most of your textbook. london: longman. hutchinson, t. and torres. 1994. the textbook as agent of change. elt j., 48: 4. hutchinson, t. 1987. what is underneath? an interactive view of the material evaluation. in l. e sheldon (ed.), elt textbooks and materials: problems in evaluation and development, (pp. 37-44), oxford: modern english publications. hycroft, j. 1998. an introduction to english language teaching. london: longman. levis, j. 1999. intonation in theory and practice revisited. tesol quarterly., 33: 1 litz, dra 2005. textbook evaluation and elt management: a south korean case study. thesis. retrieved on march, 10, 2009 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/litz_thesis.pdf. ghufron, m. ali & mursid saleh. 2016. students‘ differences and students‘ outcomes in english learning. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 123 123 mukundan, j., nimehchisalem, v., and hajimohammadi, r. 2011. developing an english language textbook evaluation checklist: a focus group study. international journal of humanities and social science. vol. 1(12). richards, j. c. 2001. the role of text books in a language program. london: cambridge university press. richards, j. c. 2005. materials development and research-making the connection. paper presented at a colloquium on research and materials development, at the tesol convention, san antonio. readicckens, pp., and germaine, k. 1994. evaluation. in canadlin and widdowson (ed.), oxford university press. sheldon, l. 1988. evaluating elt textbooks and materials. elt journal, 42(2). tok, h. 2010. tefl textbook evaluation: from teachers‘ perspectives. educational research and review vol. 5(9). williams, d. 1983. developing criteria for textbook evaluation. elt journal, 37(3). yule, g,. matthis, t., & hopkins, m. 1992. on reporting what was said. elt journal, 46(3). attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaa1e8610c3 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 1 self-access centre (sac) in english language learning arif suryo priyatmojo english department universitas negeri semarang, indonesia e-mail: arifsuryo.unnes@gmail.com rohani english department universitas negeri semarang, indonesia e-mail: rohani_australia@hotmail.com received: 30 july 2017. revised: 31 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract students of higher education in the global world need to have sufficient knowledge and skill in utilizing ict (information and communication technology) to face national and regional competition. to achieve this outcome, higher education (university) through its lower units faculty and department can facilitate it through self-access centre (sac). english department of univeritas negeri semarang is one of the state universities in central java, indonesia which has sac used for academic purposes. this study is aimed at 1) finding benefits of sac in a course ‗ict in language learning‘, 2) reporting its benefits to promote independent learning, and 3) finding constraints faced in utilizing sac. this study used qualitative approach employing swot analysis. the data is gained through three instruments: direct observation, interview, and study document. two classes of ict in language learning were taken as the objects of the study. the results showed that the students of the english department gain benefits of sac as they are facilitated with lots of facilities both software and hardware. then, the students can also produce their own teaching media through utilizing available media independently. it can be seen from how the students can use free available online products such as edmodo, moodle, skype, wikispaces, pbwork, and tumblr with their creativities and modifications for learning objectives. furthermore, sac needs to have good management which involves not only from the department but also from faculty and university. keywords: self-access centre, independent learning, ict in language learning how to cite: arif suryo priyatmojo & rohani. 2017. self-access centre (sac) in english language learning. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 1—9. ________________________________________________________________________________ introduction in 2015, the english department of universitas negeri semarang (unnes) has already built a learning facility called selfaccess centre (sac) which had been planned for years. this facility is funded by studentparent collaborative committee (in indonesia: badan kerja sama orang tua mahasiswa). it is placed on the 3rd floor of b3 building. sac (self-access centre) has been widely known in some asian countries such as malyaisa, thailand and hongkong, but it is something new in indonesia. most facilities are in the form of language centres. this relates to a research finding by suriaman (2015) that less concern is addressed to the availability of sac in indonesia. it is hoped that sac becomes a pilot project similar to language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 2 those used by many international universities and it will be a learning centre for the students of english. one of the reasons why sac should be facilitated in the higher education is due to the changing of learning methodologies which affects how the students learn english from teacher-learning centre into student-learning centre. this type of learning focuses on students, as the learning subject will also promote independent learning. for decades, most learning processes were held in the learning class focusing the teachers as the model or source of information (one-way learning). it is due to a very strong influence of behaviorism theory by skinner. this theory proposes that the learning achievement must be affected by the input given by the teachers to the students. today, live has changed including the development of technology which affects how the teachers and students deal with learning process. in the 21 st century there has been a change for learning from behaviorism to constructivism ((dewey, 1916; piaget, 1972; vygotsky, 1978; and brunner, 1990). the learners develop not only from the input given by the teachers but also from the context leading to how the students adapt to the available technology. the description above has become one pedagogical reason why the english teachers must be adaptive to this change including technology. hence, higher education or university needs to facilitate this change by providing facilities to support the language learning. in this case, the facility is realized through self-access centre. furthermore, it needs a research to describe this facility as it is a new one even though this sac has been supported with software and hardware as well as a technician. in this study, we were interested in doing a research related to the utilization of sac in the learning process. the writers conducted this study to answer three research questions: (1) what are the benefits of sac in ict language learning class?, (2) how do sac support students‘ independent learning in ict in language learning class, and (3) what are the constraints found in ict in language learning class? self-access centre self-access centre (sac) firstly appeared in the university of nancy, france with its name crapel (gremmo & riley, 1995) which then spread to usa, europe and asia. its first objectives were to accommodate language learning outside of the classroom (keating & gabb, 2005: 6), to promote independent learning (benson & voller, 1997), to motivate students‘ language learning (benson & voller, 1997), to improve students‘ confidence (lai, 2001) and to provide a wider room compared to conventional classrooms (kwan & lyons, 2001). according to cooker (2008) sac should have four principles: 1) sac is self-access, 2) sac providers need to collaborate with sac users, 3) sac should be fun and 4) sac should be one of the main media the students rely on. sac in the english department of unnes to facilitate the students‘ language learning, the english department needs to collaborate with others as it is not easy to get funding. in 2015 funded by student-parent collaborative committee in the faculty, the english department established sac (self-access centre). many facilities are provided here such as computers installed with many software applications, printed books, wi-fi access, active speakers, air conditioner, arif suryo priyatmojo & rohani. 2017. self-access centre (sac) in english language learning. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 1—9. 3 reading room, multimedia room, discussion room, sofa, and free mineral water. it is designed to be a comfortable place for the students to have their academic activities independently. the followings are some pictures of sac. figure 1. reading room figure 2. facilities for students figure 3.independent learning language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 4 the concept of sac relates to the position of unnes which proclaims to be a conservation university. based on the regulation of rector number 27 year 2012 article 1, conservation university, in handling education, research and community service,is based on conservation principles – protection, preservation, natural utilization for natural resources, environment, arts and cultures. one of the conservation programs is implemented into a paperless policy (article 7) by using ict in language learning. here, sac is related to the university policy as language learning that can be facilitated through the implementation of sac. of course this is related to some other studies such as those conducted by suriaman (2015), harji & vafaeepor (2015), and ferguson (2016). in addition, sac has also become a facility that motivates the students as this does not promote competition so that the learning process will encourage confidence, respect, safety, and welcome from other students (lai, 2001). then, learning process at sac will give broader learning class compared to conventional class (kwan & lyons, 2001). principles of self-access centre according to cooker (2008), there are some principles on how to use sac as the learning facility: a. sac is self-access. all sac users must understand how to use sac after the socialization and guidance. they should know that sac is not only as the learning facility but also as the source of language learning; b. it needs collaboration between sac provider and users. the students will not only use sac for language learning but also give idea and opinion on how sac is used for varied benefits. c. sac is as a fun learning facility. this should be equipped with fun media such as music, film and teleconference. d. sac should be a learning centre for the students. based on those principles, sac can be used to support students‘ learning independence by using the available abilities especially for ict in language learning class. ict in language learning ict in language learning is a class that must be taken by the students in the 6 th semester. this class has been prepared by the department as the basic skill before the students go to school dong teaching practice. they must be literate in utilizing technology as the learning media. as the result, creativity, ideas and opinions are demanded. in doing so, the students need to be facilitated with facilities such as available mobile devices, comfortable learning classes, good internet connection, comfort andcleanliness facilitated in sac. the following is the description of ict in language learning. arif suryo priyatmojo & rohani. 2017. self-access centre (sac) in english language learning. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 1—9. 5 table 1. course description of ict in language learning learning outcome the students are expected to understand types of technology used in language teaching, particularly for teaching english at schools ranging from elementary school to high school and being able to use all in the classroom as teaching tools or media for improving students‘ english mastery in the global world. class outcome  the students understand the utilization of technology in the global world  the students are able to produce and use available technology to teach english in every level of education course description this subject introduces the students of english education of how technology has been integrated in the teaching learning process in the global world. global teachers are challenged to emerge technology in the teaching and learning process started from elementary until high school levels. (source: learning plan of ict in language learning 2016) it can be seen from the table that the students are demanded to acknowledge technology and its products started from elementary school to high school levels. the development of technology in the global era should be supported by the development of students‘ literacy in technology. constructivism constructivism, as the learning theory was used as the theoretical background of this study. the theorists proposing this theory were dewy (1916), piaget (1972), vygotsky (1978) and bruner (1990). the constructivism emphasizes on the learning process of the students. piaget stated that knowledge is constructed by the concept of asimilation and accomodation. related to this theory, learning process by utilizing internet correspond to it. the learning process basing on the constructivism will lead to its success depends on three main factors – learners, learning enviroenment, and teacher. the factors are as follow: 1. learning eenvironmentt a. complex, relevan, realistic context; b. learning source and idea of knowledge; c. factual and available data 2. students a. social interaction; b. responsibility; c. independence; d. development of knowledge; e. sense of belonging toward the learning process 3. teachers a. facilitator b. scaffolding c. available supporting facility seven pilars of conservation universitas negeri semarang is one state university in central java, indonesia. the university has proclaimed as a conservation university since 2012. based on the regulation of universitas negeri semarang no. 27 year 2012 article 1, conservation university is meant as the vision and mission which actualizes the education, research and community service based on the conservation principles (protection, preservation, and sustainable use) to natural resources, environment, arts and cultures. one conservation program is actualized into a paperless policy (article 7) by optimalizing the use of technology. in language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 6 doing so, the department has responsibility to implement, develop, manage, observe and evaluate this paperless policy. in addition, the department also needs to facilitate supporting facilities, so sac is in line with the policy. previous studies researches related to this study have already been conducted by many researchers from indonesia and international universities. for example, the first study was conducted by suriaman (2015) who did a research in an effort how to develop independent learning through self-access centre. she is a lecturer of civil engineering in tadulako, palu. the research objectives are to find out the effectiveness of sac and the strategy in utilizing sac for learning process. the findings show that sac gives significant contributions toward learning even though it needs srategy and good implementation in tadulako university. the next research was a colaboration between harji from multimedia university of malaysia and vafaeepor from the university of azad, iran (2015). their research was how to integrate reading materials through internet (internet-based material). its objective was to integrate authentic materials from the internet in a reading class. the research used constructivism theory underlying it. then, another research related was conducted by ferguson (2015) from the university of mahidol, thailand. it focused on the benefits of sac as the independent learning facility for the students. this is a new one in thailand. ferguson stated that most students in thailand relied on the teacher so that he introduced sac as a new learning facility without excluding local wisdom since it is a main part in thailand. the study shows that the students were enthusiastic in using sac, and they could communicate with the other students globaly from other countries. the previous studies are related to this study as they focused on the use of sac and internetbased learning. in tadulako, sac are used for both internal users such as university and external users or stakeholders. it can be seen that sac had a collaboration with bbc, so it is open for public purposes. technology will always improve that demands it users to adapt and use it for academic purposes when they go to working world. methodology this is a qualitative study using swot analysis. two classes of ict in language learning were used as the sample (nonrandom sampling). to get the data, three techniques of collecting data (direct observation, interview, and study document) were used. it is hoped that by using three different techniques of collecting data, the result will be more valid and comprehensive. the design can be seen from figure 4. arif suryo priyatmojo & rohani. 2017. self-access centre (sac) in english language learning. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 1—9. 7 figure 4. model swot (suriaman, 2015) research objectives the objectives of the study are to 1) find the benefits of sac in ict language learning class, 2) to identify the role of sac in promoting independent learning in ict language learning, and 3) to find constraints in the utilization of sac in language learning class. research site the research was conducted in ict language learning class in the english department of universitas negeri semarang. techique of data collection to collect the date, the researcher used direct observation, interview, and document. the observation was used to see the learning process in ict language learning. it is used to observe directly the benefits of sac to the students in the learning process. besides, the observation was also used to identify independent learning of the students and the constrains faced by the students in the learning process. then, interview was used to get direct information about what the students did in the learning process, the students‘ independent learning, and contsraints faced by the students. the last was document used to see the product produced and used by the students in ict language learning. by using three different instruments, the data would be more valid and reliable. results and discussion referring to the research questions, three research finding are described covering the benefits of sac toward ict in language learning, sac support toward students‘ independent learning and constraints found in sac use in ict language learning. benefits of sac toward ict in language learning the students are benefited from the use of sac in ict language learning class based on three data – observation, questionnaire and interview. the students responded that sac has provides main advantages for their learning process as the followings. a. sac is a convenient learning facility for ict in language learning process due to its facilities such as free wifi, available computers, printed book references, and available subscribed online journals; b. sac enables students learning process on ict in language learning as it provides software and hardware; c. sac has been located in a very appropriate place in the 3 rd floor of b3 building so that the students are able to have ict learning process well. strengths weaknesses opportunitie s threats evaluation & suggestion direct observation interview study document language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 8 sac support toward students’ independent learning referring to the result finding, sac has promoted students‘ independent learning. all students responded that sac provide its positive contribution for students‘ independent learning even though one student said that sac should be in the form of booth not room. the students‘ responses can be categorized into the followings. a. sac promotes independent learning as facilitated by free wifi and computers; b. sac helps the students finish their assignment; c. sac enables the students to get any information/ references freely; d. sac benefits the students to read available books due to the integration of sac and library; e. sac becomes one of the most convenient learning facilities in the english department to do academic activities. it can be concluded that sac has promoted students‘ independent learning because the facilities help the students to do many academic activities such as searching online information and completing assignment. also, the students need to have freedom to find references. constraints found in sac use in ict language learning even though sac gives benefits to learning process, it also faces some constraints identified as the following. a. unstable internet access; b. unstable electricity; c. sac needs more space as at particular time, many students from different classes use it; d. not all students focus on the academic activities as it can be found that many students open social media for nonacademic purposes e. sac needs to have more staffs to handle many activities and give better service to the students. conclusion language learning has changed since 21 st century from behaviorism which emphasized on teachers‘ input into constructivism in which the students need to be given opportunities to improve his language learning by adapting available learning ways and techniques. one of which is by utilizing technology in their language learning which include language learning facilities such as sac (self-access centre). it has been identified by some researches and also this research that sac gives benefits to the students‘ learning process for its available facilities and independent learning even though improvement needs to be always done for a better management utilization. sac also meets the university conservation program. later, sac needs support from faculty and university so that it can be used for wider purposes not only to be used by the students of english department but also the students in the university. references benson, p & voller, p. (1997). autonomy and independence in language learning. new york: longman. bruner, j. (1990). acts of meaning. cambridge: harvard university press. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 9 ferguson, mathew robert. (2015). learn by yourself together: getting thai students in the door for self-access language learning. the asian efl journal. 84, 48-65. gremmo, m.j. & riley, p. (1995). autonomy, self-direction and self-access in language teaching and learning: the history of an idea. system, 23(2), 15-164. harji, m.b., & vafaeepour, alireza. (2015). integrating internet-based materials in reading comprehension course: a theoretical constructivist perspective. the asian efl journa, 83, 51-74. jarvis, huw. (2013). computer assisted language learning (call): asian learners and users going beyond traditional frameworks. the asian efl journal.15 (1), 190-201. keating, s. & gabb, r. (2005). putting learning into the learning commons.a literature review.victoria: victoria university. kohnke, lucas. (2012). facilitating the implementation of ict to teachers. the asian efl journal. 64, 75-84 kwan, l & lyons, l.h. (2001). different learning patterns in self-access. relc journal. 32(2), 63-79. lai, j. (2001). towards an analytic approach to assessing learner autonomy. in dam, l. (ed.): the aila review, 15, 34-44. piaget, j. (1972). the principles of genetic epistemology. london: routledge & kegan paul suriaman, aminah. (2015). strategies in promoting independent learning through self-access centre at tadulako university.the asian efl journal, 88, 29-58. universitas negeri semarang.(2012). tujuh pilar konservasi. accessed 22 february 2016 from http://konservasi.unnes.ac.id/?page_id=378#) http://konservasi.unnes.ac.id/?page_id=378 language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 10 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found 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to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaab1e281046 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfea9dd9e41155 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 the analysis of system constraints in national treasure 2: book of secrets movie andi tenrisanna syam state islamic institute of palopo email: risannasyam23@gmail.com abstract this paper discussed about system constraints in ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie. the writer used the qualitative research with discourse analysis approach to explain the content of this paper. there were two data sources; it was the primary data and secondary data. the primary data were movie and the movie script of ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛. the secondary data source were got from books, essays, articles, magazines, internet and journals. in this research, the writer used documentation as the way to collect the data. documentation was movie script. the writer found that: (1) some people would open communication with various ways by saying: hi, hello, good afternoon, and introduce himself, (2) during 45 minutes those were 4 conversations on mobile phone. two of them do not use an open signal, (3) there are verbal communication such as; ok, yeah, uh-huh, well, all right, and uh and non-verbal communication such as: smiling, head nodding, laughing, eye contacting, and increasing volume of voice, (4) these are a lot of statements that can be interpretable and hearable, (5) bracket signals in this movie such as intonation and shifts in body position, (6) overlaps (not-interruptions) do happen in this movie, (7) nonparticipant move to be participant by repeat sentence that he overhears in the ongoing conversation and non-verbal signal (gazing steadily), (8) the bracket signals are intonation and shifts in body position, (9) the preempt signals found in the movie are: no...no, excuse me, hoi, with respect and i am sorry, and (10) the grice maxim of relevant is ignored. keywords: discourse analysis, system constraints, national treasure 2: book of secrets movie. introduction discourse is often translated as serious writing or conversation, rational and neatly arranged in the organization. mcarthur issued the term "unit or part of connected speech that is no more than a sentence" (1992: 316). basically, discourse is used as a verbal record of events (sayings) and includes participants who speak, write and also have connotations implied by listeners and readers. thus, discourse can take the form of poetry, essays, speeches or dialogues. this is the use of language above and beyond the level of sentences and discourse study is the study of text and context, focusing on actual oral sentences. discourse analysis examines the oral or written forms and also structural and functional aspects. in discourse, literary and non-literary forms are analyzed. the form of literary is under certain genres. the non-literary form is nothing but functional aspect of language, used in everyday life. such is the subject of literary or non-literary analysis. if it is literary, this study is called language style. many analysts also choose narrative and non-narrative genres. whatever the approach, one common point in all the approaches is that discourse involves communicating messages above and language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 beyond the sentence level and involving the language used in direct relations. there are some constraints in the use of language. goffman (1976) claimed that these constraints are universal and appear in all types of communication and in all languages. he revealed that there are two kinds of communication constraints, i.e., system constraints and ritual constraints. sacks, schegloff and jefferson (1974), among others, have explored the system constraints like how we open and close conversations, turn signals, recover messages, etc. system constraints also apply to more formal communication channels. a ritual constraint is a social transition that equips social interaction. goffman (1976), there are eight system constraints that are universal in human communication. they are signals that indicate open and close, backchannel signals, turnover signals, acoustically adequate and interpretable messages, bracket signals, and nonparticipant constraints, preempt signals and grecian norms for communication. these norms were proposed by grice (1975) as criteria for cooperative communication. they are relevance, truthfulness, quantity and clarity. these norms are also called ‘maxims’. while the system constraints give us the components required for all communication systems, ritual constraints reveal the system of social markers that allow communication to flow in an appropriate way. for example when we begin a conversation, we expect that others wish to converse with us and will value what we have to say. we hope to receive a fair share of our talk time and will, ourselves, allocate equitable transfers to others. in part, we judge this willingness in terms of backchannel signals. if backchannel signals differ across cultures, we may misjudge the value placed on our participation. in all cultures greetings are given and returned. if the greeting is not returned, something has gone wrong in the social interaction. such ritual expectations form the fabric of social life. firth (1935) rightly argued that language is fundamentally a way of behaving and making others behave. this study discussed about one of the forms of literary works. it is a film. film is a medium message that wants to be presented to moviegoers. film becomes a medium for improving, educating, and increasing knowledge. as a medium, film is a good solution to a number of life problems. films show other lives that are close to real life. the audience can watch all parts of the story, most of all the films have internal conflicts and people can learn anything about life from there. as discussed above, literature as a film element has become a thriving medium culture. the film is able to summarize and present the social culture that has existed since long ago in the form of mythical tales into stories that can be enjoyed in the form of audio-visual equipment. messages and cultural values exist in film can be channeled become moral lessons for film lovers. film is a powerful media for visualizing educational values, social criticism because only art products. films have special meanings and significance to be taught about human beings to see themselves, their situations, their hopes, their problems, and their worries in real world. the writer interested in analyzing the ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie. national treasure: book of secrets is an american mystery-adventure film released on december 21, 2007. directed by jon turteltaub, the producer is the director himself and jerry bruckheimer. the storyline of this film is the idea of gregory poirier, cormac wibberley, marianne wibberley, terry rossio, and ted elliott. script writing was done by cormac wibberley and marianne wibberley. the 124minute long cinema is distributed by walt disney studios motion pictures, earning a profit of 457 million us dollars. in this adventure-filled sequel to the 2004 blockbuster national treasure, nicolas cage reprises his role as artifact hunter and archaeologist language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 extraordinaire ben franklin gates. in this outing, gates learns of his own family's implication in the assassination of abraham lincoln by john wilkes booth. gates must then locate an elusive diary, not only to clear his family's name, but to unearth and connect several secrets, buried within the book, that point to a massive, global conspiracy. the film co-stars jon voight, harvey keitel, and helen mirren as ben's mother. jerry bruckheimer returns as producer. some scholars have analyzed movie by applying discourse analysis approach, such as: tobing (2013) aimed to find the cultural aspect in the 8 mile movie and how power influenced the interlocutors. the finding of the data analysis showed the stereotype that was built in the recent society about white-americans and african-americans is not occurred in the 8 mile movie, whereas it showed how a whiteamerican boy was being underestimated by african-americans. there were also some utterances that characteristically contained power which were spoken by the main character. the power that was contained in utterances refers to utterances which would give different effect to interlocutors and the main character himself. these kind of utterances could make the interlocutors obey what main character said, did something against the main character, or it could change the personality of the main character himself. satria, rina and ardi (2014) conducted research on the form and meaning of slang of on sid and nancy movie. they found that some of the slang (meaning) can change to be positive. sid and nancy slang not only by using good words (positive sense), but also using bad or taboo words (negative sense) as well. most of slang forms are derived from bad or taboo words. uniquely, the negative sense of the slang (taboo word) can change its sense to be positive in meaning. methodology the writer used the qualitative research to explain the content of this paper. there were two data sources; it was the primary data and secondary data. the primary data were movie and the movie script of ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛. the secondary data source was obtained from books, essays, articles, magazines, internet and journals. in this research, the writer used documentation as the way to collect the data. documentation was a written or printed original paper, official or legal form of something and can be used to deliver important evidence or information. documentation in this case is the ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie script. the writer took note that it is necessary in the film with a screenplay print "national treasure 2: book of secrets". when watching the film, the writer marked the parts of the conversation that being the subject of the study and then recapitalized into a table. the procedure of collecting data were as follows: (1) the writer selected ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie, (2) the writer watched the ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie, (3) the writer selected the ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie script, (4) the writer read all of ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie script, (5) the writer collected and took notes about certain system constraints element from the ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie script. the steps on analyzing the data qualitatively were as follows: (1). the writer watched the ‚national treasure 2: book of secrets‛ movie, (2) the writer read and learnt all sentences from the movie script, (3) the writer identified the element of extrinsic and system constraints from the movie, (4) the writer described the data and (5) the writer made conclusion based on data analysis. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 findings and discussions in this part, the writer described the eight system constraints existing in national treasure 2: book of secrets movie. 1. channel open signals in common conversation in all communication, there must be ways to show that communication is about to begin and then begins, and ways to show that it is about to end and then ends. in analyzing national treasure 2: book of secrets film, i found that some people would open communication with various ways. the actor and actress begin conversation with asking person’s name to make sure that he/she speaks with the right person. the actor/actress in film uses hi and hello when they meet someone. 1) ((bird chirrups)) patrick : abigail abigail : hey, patrick ((kisses patrick’s cheek)) patrick : nice to see you two together again. abigail : yeah + + well + + we’re not. in line (1) patrick opens conversation with calling the name then abigail replies by saying hey, patrick and patrick expresses his happiness by saying nice to see you two together again. in the following dialogues, riley introduces himself to connor: riley : mm + + i know you. you’re the white house curator (shakes connor’s hand) i’m riley. we met, uh + back in / / connor : / / oh right*. you are, uh + + ben’s assistant. in line (3) ben starts conversation by saying excuse me then ask an offer because the cops seem to be annoyed with his activity. 2) (policeman speaks french) ben : excuse me, officer. may i help you? in line (4) abigail says hi and nice to meet you when she meets wilkinson. wilkinson replies her greeting by calling abigail with her last name and her title but abigail just wants to be called by her first name. in line (5), the security greets ben by saying good afternoon, sir and ben replies his greeting by saying hello in english accent. 3) (indistinct chatter) abigail : hi. wilkinson : dr. chase. abigail : oh, abigail, please. wilkinson : abigail abigail : nice to meet you. wilkinson : have a seat. wilkinson : well, thanks for agreeing to meet with me. 4) ben : whe::! security 2 : good afternoon, sir. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 ben : ((english accent)) hello. 2. channel open signal on phone conversation schegloff (1968) describes the four basic parts of phone conversation namely (a) summons-answer sequence, (b) identification sequence, (c) greeting sequence, and (d) howare-you sequence. during 45 minutes those were 4 conversations on mobile phone. two of them do not use an open signal. a) summon-answer sequence abigail responses directly to ben’s summon by saying ‚hey, what?‛ rudely because abigail actually doesn’t expect a call from ben. 5) abigail : (speaks with ben) hey, what? b) identification sequence the names of answerer is given in the identification sequence, a first name of caller is preferred rather than last name. 6) ((phone rings)) ben : hi, dad. patrick : ben. 3. close signal the close signals in this film are okay, good bye; see you later, and ok, thank you so much. 7) abigail : good night. ((connor kisses abigail’s cheek)) 8) connor : good night. 9) abigail : (°) ok, ben, i’ve got to go. 10) ben : there is a map or clue to a map on the statue + + she hung up. 11) patrick : = ok son, just be careful. good bye. 12) ben : bye. someone else is after the treasure = 13) abigail : i am looking for the curator’s office. which way was it again? = 14) man : = just follow the stairs round then turn first left. 15) abigail : oh, thank you so much. 16) abigail : riley riley : thank you. ok. see you later. thank you. bye-bye. in line (8-9), the close signal is good night. connor feels that he should go earlier. in line (10) the close signal is okay, abigail ends the conversation quickly because she doesn’t want ben know that she meets wilkinson. patrick and ben end the conversation by saying good bye in line (12-13). abigail ends the conversation by saying thank you so much after a man helps her to show the way to curator’s office in line (14-16). in line (17) riley uses many close signals namely see you later and byebye. 4. backchannel signal according to hatch (1992) some backchannel signals are verbal and nonverbal communications. i found verbal communication such as; ok, yeah, uh-huh, well, all right, and uh. 17) wilkinson: he must have uh + + planned the assassination. 18) ben : i see. 19) ben : = it is a cipher. see how the letters are coupled? 20) abigail : uh-huh + + 21) riley : what’s the keyword? ben : i don’t know yet. riley : all right = 22) abigail : ok, four drawers. four-digit combination? what about a year? riley : uh + + let me see. queen victoria, born 1819. 23) riley : all right ((smiles)) language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 24) patrick : yes sir, i am ((high pitch)). this isn’t some garbage from a history book. my grandfather told me this story himself. i saw the truth of it in his eyes = 25) ben : well then, fine! if that’s what you want, let’s have it out right now! ((high pitch)) 26) abigail : (moves forward to ben) not if the right answer’s ((claps her right hand)) something we need to figure out as a couple. that’s what couples do, ben! ((high pitch)) 27) security 2: sir! 28) ben : i’ve got a lovely bunch of coconuts! here they are, standing in a row! small ones, big ones, some as big as your head! ((screaming)) 29) abigail : yeah + + well + + we’re not. 30) ben : yeah. 31) riley : did you learn that from my book? ((smiles)) patrick : ((stares blankly at riley)) riley : ((smiles)) in line (18 & 19) the backchannel signal is i see. ben has understood what wilkinson had explained. abigail makes noise uh-huh to indicate she agrees with ben that the letters on paper have been coupled in line (20-21). in line (22) the backchannel signal is all right. it shows that riley has received the message that ben does not know the keyword. uh in line (18) shows riley understands that abigail needs information about queen victoria’s birthday. besides, i found some non-verbal communications, they are: smiling, head nodding, laughing, eye contacting, and increasing volume of voice. in line (24) the backchannel signals are smiles and eye-contact. riley smiles at ben indicating that he understands what ben has said. there is eye-contact when ben asks for help to riley and riley accepts ben’s offer. in line (25, 26, 27, 28 and 29) the actors and actress are found to have the taken the floor by increasing the volume of their speech. increasing the volume of speech is one of backchannel signals. in line (30-31) ben says yeah to indicate that he agrees with abigail. in line (32) patrick is speechless and stares blankly at riley. riley watches and interprets the feedback. when patrick does not offer feedback, silence ensues and riley diagnoses patrick’s response by smiling. 5. turnover signals speakers have a variety ways to project end of a turn and the next speaker gets a chance to begin a turn. slowing of tempo, vowel elongation, and falling intonation all help to signal the end of a turn, a place for an exchange in turns. although turns are usually timed well, overlaps do happen. overlaps are thought to show alignment between the communication partners. in line (33-34) patrick tries to help wilkinson complete his utterance. however, this collaborative completion is considered a violation against turn exchange rule or convention since they are executed simultaneously. however, the violation is analyzed as being tolerable due to the phenomenon that patrick effort to help wilkinson complete his turn shows deep attention to the topic being discussed. 32) wilkinson: booth was a student of latin. he shouted ‚sic simper tyrannis‛ after he shot lincoln. ‚thus always to / / tyrants. 33) patrick : / / thus always to tyrants. we know. 34) abigail : that’s actually kind of / / 35) ben : / / oh, abigail ∙ h h 36) riley : what? ((laughs)) hey! ((moves forward to second floor)) what are you doing here? i mean, it’s your house, but< i sent you a copy of my book. did you get a chance / / 37) abigail : / / no, i haven’t read it yet. 38) riley : mm + + i know you. you’re the white house curator (shakes connor’s hand) i’m riley. we met, uh + back in / / language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 39) connor : / / oh right*. you are, uh + + ben’s assistant. 40) peter : guy claims he had this page for 140 years then just suddenly comes forward with it? + + + why? 41) man : we’ll find out. 42) ben : montesquieu, yeah ‚a government should be set up so that / / no man need be afraid of another. 43) cop 1 : / / no man need be afraid of another. in line (35-36) abigail tries to gain the floor but while she is still in the process of completing her turn, ben comes and speaks with her. in line (37-38) abigail does not let riley to complete his turning. the violation was analyzed as being intolerable due to the fact that abigail immediately takes the floor without evidence that riley wants to give up the floor. the violation in the form of overlap oh, right item occurred between line (39-40) where connor executed riley’s statement too soon that resulted in overlap of utterances. the violation in the form of overlap is analyzed as being intolerable for the reason that connor should wait until riley completely terminated his turn. in line (41-42) peter invites collaborative turn completion as a way of checking his officer’s comprehension. this is projected with rising question intonation followed by a pause, with the hope that his officer can chime in. it can be seen from line (43-44) an overlap in the form of overlap collaborative completion comes between ben’s utterance in line 43 & cop 1 in line 44. it is clearly seen that cop 1 tries to help his interlocutor complete his turn. 6. acoustically adequate and interpretable messages in this film, these are a lot of statements that can be interpretable and hearable. in line (5) the message can be interpretable clearly. the entire people exit when president lincoln’s been shot and a man yelled that all of the people in the room must go out. all of the people automatically run to safe themselves. in line (46) michael can interpret thomas utterance. michael plans to shoot charles but thomas with his dying breath warns michael to do his planning and michael fulfills thomas willing. 44) man : president lincoln’s been shot! man 2 : everybody out! all of you! boy : killer’s on the loose! everybody in the room gets out. 45) michael wants to shoot charles. thomas : ∙ h h no! 46) girl 2 : do you own a red ferrari? 47) riley : hm? ((looking at the window, laughing then leaving his seat)) wait! wait! that’s my car! 48) abigail : i cannot believe you broke in. what did you take? ben : it’s just my things. abigail : hand it over, ben. ben : ∙ h h i need to see the booth diary page. 49) peter : guy claims he had this page for 140 years then just suddenly comes forward with it? + + + why? man : we’ll find out. 50) wilkinson and his friend are on the trail of ben. wilkinson : daniel! hold it. what is that? in line (47-48) the girl asks riley about his car which has been towed, riley is aware then goes out from the bookshop. in line (49) abigail knows what the thing that ben has already taken and when abigail asks ben to give it back, she directly gets her id card back. in line (50) the man can interpret what peter offer to him although peter implicitly asserts that he must observe about wilkinson’s coming. in line (51) daniel wants to chase ben, abigail and riley but then he stops to do that because wilkinson offers to hold it. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 7. bracket signals i found some bracket signals in line (5261). there are, of course, many different signals both verbal and nonverbal – that can be used as bracket signals such as intonation and shifts in body position. in line (52) the bracket signal is body movement namely stand up from his seat. in line (53) the bracket signal is reading the newspaper and giving the newspaper to peter. 51) wilkinson: (stands up) ladies and gentlemen, i present to you + + (shows the missing pages) one of the missing pages from the infamous diary of john wilkes booth with the name of thomas gates written on a list along with all the other killers. 52) man: (reads the newspaper loudly) on the page are the names of the conspirators in the lincoln assassination, as well as a previously unknown conspirator, thomas gates. thomas gates is said to be the great-great-grandfather of treasure hunter benjamin franklin gates (gives the newspaper to peter). 53) patrick: he took his son’s hand (clutches ben’s hand and looks at his eyes deeply) he look him in the eye, and he said, with his dying breath, ‚the debt that all men pay.‛ 54) riley: ((strikes the table)) laboulaye! what is that? 55) abigail: well + + we actually found some latent letter fragments on it (gives an envelope) take a look. 56) wilkinson: (takes a candle closer) random letters. a cipher? 57) ben: let me guess? it’s the wrong time. it’s the wrong place. i’m wrong again! wrong about us, ((moves down to first floor)) wrong about thomas gates ((jumps up)) wrong that you’d like ((claps his hand and points upward his index finger to abigail)) the queen anne chair! ((high pitch)) 58) abigail : (moves forward to ben) not if the right answer’s ((claps her right hand)) something we need to figure out as a couple. that’s what couples do, ben! ((high pitch)) 59) abigail: how did you get in, ben? + + riley! come out here! riley: what? ((laughs)) hey! ((moves forward to second floor)) what are you doing here? i mean, it’s your house, but< i sent you a copy of my book. did you get a chance / / abigail: / / no, i haven’t read it yet. riley: mm + + i know you. you’re the white house curator (shakes connor’s hand) i’m riley. we met, uh + back in / / 60) ben looks at the back and sees that wilkinson is on the trail of him. ben: wilkinson. wilkinson: stop them. go, go, go! ben: (runs) he’s the one after the treasure. the bracket signal is patrick clutches ben’s hand and looks at ben’s eyes deeply in line (54). in line (55) the bracket signal is riley strikes the table. in line (56-57) the bracket signals are abigail gives an envelope to wilkinson and wilkinson takes a candle closer so that he can see the writing clearly. in line (58 & 59), the verbal signal is the conversation between ben and abigail and the non-verbal signals are ben’s and abigail’s gestures and voice qualities. in line (58) ben utters the sentences on high pitch that makes the entire people in buckingham palace are startled. ben moves down to first floor, jumps up in the middle of ladder-step, claps his hand and points upward his index finger. in line (59), abigail moves forward to ben, utters the sentences in high pitch and claps her right hand. in line (60) riley laughs and moves forward to second floor when abigail sees them in her house and riley also shakes connor’s hand to acquaintance. in line (61) ben looks at the back and sees that wilkinson is on the trail of him so that ben runs. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 8. nonparticipant signals there are some nonparticipant signals in this film such as: in line (62) charles is actually a nonparticipant. he was thomas’s son. he turns to be a participant because he repeats part of what he overhears in ongoing conversation. in line (63) the securities in buckingham palace are nonparticipant but then turn to become a participant because ben, abigail and riley have made a commotion in buckingham palace so that the securities abate the commotion. 61) thomas : it’s a playfair cipher. charles : playfair cipher? michael : can you decode it? thomas : cipher’s impossible to decode without the key. 62) abigail : (moves forward to ben) not if the right answer’s ((claps her right hand)) something we need to figure out as a couple. that’s what couples do, ben! ((high pitch)) a security comes closer to ben. security 1 : sir. you and your misses, take it outside = ben : = now looks what you’ve done. you’ve brought the little bobbies down on us! you take the misses outside. i’m staying here. ben : whe::! security 2 : good afternoon, sir. ben : ((english accent)) hello. ((riley’s notebook beeping, alarm wailing)) security 2 : the fire alarms gone off. riley : uh-oh. god save the queen. security 2 : all units. go to action zebra. security 1 : what’s going on? security 2 : haven’t the foggiest. (indistinct chatter) ((alarm blaring)) security 2 : someone or something is causing this. security 3 : check your primary stations. security 2 : this doesn’t make any sense. security 3 : find the source terminal and check public areas four and eight. at the main gate, all the people exit from buckingham palace. man : this way, ladies and gentleman. thank you very much. keep moving. keep walking until you’re on the other side of the fountain. 63) girl : oi! sparkle. come on. ok. here we go. riley : i’m a little bit allergic. abigail : riley. riley : thank you. ok. see you later. thank you. bye-bye. girl : sit! sorry! riley : thanks for waiting for me. can i see the thing? 64) girl : i thought that guy, benjamin gates, found the treasure. riley : well, yes, ben did + + but i am the co-finder. girl : oh ∙ h h i’ve never heard of you. riley : oh! ∙ h h girl 2 : oh, my gosh. are you + + ben gates? riley : yes + + yes, i am. girl 2 : do you own a red ferrari? riley : (opening his eye glasses) yes, i do. girl 2 : well, it’s being towed. the girl and her dog in line (64) are a nonparticipant but then turn to be a participant because her dog disturbs riley so she apologies for that. in line (65) the girl 2 becomes participant by gazing steadily to riley. 9. preempt signals in addition to nonparticipant constraints, there also have to be ways for participants to interrupt each other. there need to be ways to do this for participants to interrupt an ongoing channel message. emergencies come up when speaker must interrupt each other. there need language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 116 to be ways to do it. in this case, preempt signals are used. there are times when we need to preempt the talk in order to request repair or message clarification. in line (66) the preempt signal is excuse me. wilkinson stands up claiming that gates was one of the co-conspirators and the architect in the lincoln assassination and is just as guilty as booth. 65) wilkinson: = excuse me. i have a question i’d like to ask. what do you think happened to that booth diary page that was pulled out of the fire? ben : we may never know. 66) patrick : = this is an outrage. you’re calling my + + grandfather a liar. wilkinson : with respect, now you are calling my great-great-granddaddy a liar. patrick : yes sir, i am ((high pitch)). this isn’t some garbage from a history book. my grandfather told me this story himself. i saw the truth of it in his eyes = wilkinson : = i’m sorry sir. i truly am. 67) ben : why don’t you just make a list of what’s okay for me to say or not write something. security : second. hoi! abigail : what’s right or wrong? security : you two stay (long put) right? ben : no! no, no, man. don’t leave me in here! riley : that’s great ((riley’s earphone beeps)) wow. 68) ben : see the desk, without you. bye-bye. riley : no< no< don’t let her go. ben : abigail. in line (67) wilkinson interrupts patrick by saying with respect and i am sorry, sir. in line (68) the preempt signal (i.e. hoi!) that used by the security is seemingly rude because ben and abigail do not stop arguing one each other. in line (69) the preempt signal is verbal sound no! riley interrupts ben to let abigail follow their planning. 10. gricean norms for communication goffman also noted that communication cannot truly work unless participants generally observe four major norms of cooperation: relevance, truthfulness, quantity and clarity. these norms are called maxims, were proposed by grice (1975) as criteria for cooperative communication. a) relevance in line (70-71) the conversation between ben and riley are relevant. from ben and riley utterances we may infer that people should get a dog because a robbery can change the alarm code of someone’s house in 20 minutes only. in line (72-73) the conversation between abigail and riley seem to be contradicted. 69) ben : you did that in 25 seconds (look at his digital clock) 70) riley : that’s why i tell people to get a dog. 71) abigail : how did you get in, ben? + + riley! come out here! 72) riley : what? ((laughs)) hey! ((moves forward to second floor)) what are you doing here? i mean, it’s your house, but< i sent you a copy of my book. did you get a chance / / 73) ben : you do? do you know the origin of the expression? 74) riley : does + + anyone but you? 75) ((buzzing)) ben : you’re not coming. 76) abigail : call security. 77) wilkinson: give me what you got at buckingham, it won’t be necessary. 78) ben : tell that to my father. 79) ben : no (believe me, i understand). 80) (policeman speaks french) language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 ben : excuse me, officer. may i help you? 81) peter : guy claims he had this page for 140 years then just suddenly comes forward with it? + + + why? 82) man : we’ll find out. 83) patrick : find the old one. i like her. abigail and mitch wilkinson have a meeting in a cafe. 84) (indistinct chatter) abigail : hi. 85) patrick : ben, can you imagine if the confederates get their hands on the city of gold? my god. 86) ben : i’m going to talk to her. you’re coming with me. in line (74-75) ben does not convince that riley knows about that expression. from riley’s answer we infer that riley actually does not know the origin of the expression. this means the gricean maxim of relevant is ignored. in line (76-77) the conversation between ben and abigail are relevant. we infer that abigail will call security if ben does not permit her to observe the queen’s room. in line (78-79) the conversation between ben and wilkinson are relevant. we infer that ben actually does not want give the wooden plank to wilkinson except his father permits him. in line (80-81) ben believes that riley’s mini helicopter will get a clue on the torch so that riley needs not to get on the torch. in line (82-83) we infer that peter’s officer must find out the answer of peter’s question (i.e. why does wilkinson come forward with diary page?) the conversation between patrick and ben are relevant in line (84-85). then, we may refer that patrick wants ben just to come back to ben own house and be together with abigail. in line (86-87) patrick asks and requires answer yes/no but ben’s answer is irrelevant. this means the grice maxim of relevant is ignored. b) truthfulness riley pretends that he is ben gates because the first girl who speaks with him never hears about him in line (88). the cop pretends as a ticket seller, the cop implicitly asserts that ben and riley will go to buckingham palace in line (89). ben pretends that he is tipsy. but, ben actually makes a scene to deceive the security in line (90). 87) girl 2 : oh, my gosh. are you + + ben gates? riley : yes + + yes, i am. 88) riley : yes, actually. it is. cop 1 : ok, so you get the ticket (pretends to take a ticket from his pocket) riley : ((laughs)) yeah. great. 89) security 2: good afternoon, sir. ben : ((english accent)) hello. security 2 : been drinking, have we? ben : just a nip. popped down to the pub for a pint! bit of all right! going to arrest a man for that? going to detain a blighter for enjoying his whiskey? security 2 : so, it’s just enough. ben : bangers and mash. bubbles and squeak. smoked eel pie. security 2 : sir! ben : haggis! security 2 : that’s it! dismount the banister! ben : i’ve got a lovely bunch of coconuts! here they are, standing in a row! small ones, big ones, some as big as your head! ((screaming)) c) quantity language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 118 there are 9 actors/actresses in this film. the conversations are dominated by ben as we see in line (91-94). connor, peter and two of his officers get few chances to speak and daniel only speaks once in line (94). 90) ben : so recapping: the knights of the golden circle was a southern extremist group, operating in the north to subvert union forces. had thomas not burned the legendary missing pages from the booth diary, the killers may have found a vast treasure of gold, and the union may well have lost the civil war. thank you. ((applause)) 91) ben : hms resolute. a british ship that got lost in the arctic in the 1800s. it was salvaged by american whalers, and then congress sent it back to england. when the ship was finally retired, queen victoria had two desks made from its timbers. voila. resolute twins. 92) ben : let me guess? it’s the wrong time. it’s the wrong place. i’m wrong again! wrong about us, ((moves down to first floor)) wrong about thomas gates ((jumps up)) wrong that you’d like ((claps his hand and points upward his index finger to abigail)) the queen anne chair! ((high pitch)) 93) ben : you see? you see? (goes down to the crowded around people) everybody, listen to this. this is more interesting than that (hugs an old man) she thinks that even when i’m right, i’m wrong! isn’t that right? abigail, just because i answer a question quickly doesn’t make it wrong ((high pitch)) 94) daniel speaks with wilkinson on the phone. daniel : excuse. excuse me. coming through, i got them. they’re at the main gate. ((siren wailing)) d) clarity in line (96) john wants to decode the message in his diary. thomas says that it cannot be decoded without the key. michael does not understand what thomas means. thomas then explains that message can be decoded if there is a key word or phrase. but john clarifies that what thomas needs actually has been on that paper. 95) thomas : cipher’s impossible to decode without the key. john : what, what do you mean by ‚a key?‛ thomas : a key word + + or phrase. john : i believe what you need + + is right there (point at the sentence) 96) dr. nichols: surratt, copiae? wilkinson: military supplies. mary surratt was convicted and hanged for supplying booth with a rifle and field glasses. 97) ((wheels squeaking)) ben : where’s the ferrari? riley : irs impounded it. ben : the irs? riley : funny story. my + + + accountant set up a + + corporation on an island that didn’t exist and assured me that that’s how rich people do it. then i got audited and slapped with a huge fine + + plus interest. wanna know what taxes are on five million dollars? six million dollars. but enough about me. ∙ h h what’s new with you? 98) ben : you do? do you know the origin of the expression? riley : does + + anyone but you? ben : dr. samuel mudd was convicted of being a co-conspirator in the lincoln assassination. the evidence was circumstantial. he was later pardoned, but it didn’t matter. mudd’s name still lives in infamy and i will not let thomas gates’ name be mud. 99) patrick : wait a minute. ben : what? patrick : he took his son’s hand (clutches ben’s hand and looks at his eyes deeply) he look him in the eye, and he said, language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 119 with his dying breath, ‚the debt that all men pay.‛ ben : ‚the debt that all men pay?‛ patrick : the debt that thomas paid. in line (97) dr. nichols cannot interpret what surratt copiae means. so, wilkinson explains clearly who surratt is. in line (98) ben asks why irs impounds riley’s car and riley explains that he has not paid the taxes yet. in line (99) riley does not know what the expression of ‚his name is mud‛ means. so, ben explains to riley about it. in line (100) ben needs more explanation from his father about grandpa charles story and patrick finally remembers his grandfather’s story and tells it to ben. conclusion from the movie, we can conclude some points, they are: the ways of openings and closings communication done in several situation are different. the backchannel signal is different in all settings and matches the role of the speaker. in communication, there must be a set of signals that enable the exchange of turns smoothly. people use backchannel cues to make the speaker know that they don't understand. all languages have a bracket signal to cue the readers and listeners that the communication part is not directly in line with other messages. one way to move from non-participant to participant is to repeat parts of what we overhear in the ongoing communication. grice maxim of relevant is ignored in this movie. acknowledgment many thanks to the editors and reviewers for their very helpful suggestions and recommendations, and to muhammad sutrisno for his invaluable advice in reading over drafts of this article. references fairclough, n. 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(1974). a simplest systematics for the organization of turntaking for conversation. language, vol. 50, 696-735. satria, d. j., rina, n., and harvi, a. (2014). an analysis of slang on sid and nancy movie. abstract of undergraduate research, faculty of humanities, bung hatta university, 1(2), 2014. schegloff, emanuel a. (1968). sequencing in conversational openings. american anthropologist, 70, p. 1075-1095. http://repository.uksw.edu/bitstream/123456789/3457/2/t1_112008056_full%20text.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 examining the simplified novels (sns) as supplementary materials in light of the teachers’ objectives and teaching techniques mahmoud abdelrazig mahmoud barakat amna mohammed bedri assistant professor, faculty of education, university of khartoum & omdurman islamic university, khartoum, sudan. email: barakatmahmoud99@yahoo.com associate professor, ahfad institute of languages, ahfad university for women, khartoum, sudan. email: amnambedri@hotmail.com received: 7 february 2018. revised: 20 march 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract simplified novels are believed to assist in the achievement of a number of language and non-language objectives. this paper will examine the possibility of using the simplified novels as supplementary materials with secondary school students from the teachers‘ perspectives. the study uses the interview as a tool to elicit data about the teachers‘ objectives and the techniques employed in teaching the simplified novels. ten teachers are included in the sample: 4 females and 6 males. they all work in model secondary schools and teach the simplified novels to their students. it has been found that the main objective is to improve the students‘ reading skills with a moderate potential for supporting their oral/aural skills. increasing students‘ motivation is viewed as an important objective, while non-language objectives have received no attention. as for the teaching techniques, loud reading is found to be dominant, with almost complete absence of silent and home reading. discussion comes in the second place (5 teachers), while role play is used by only 3 teachers. the study recommends the use of more challenging materials as the teachers believe the simplified novels being used do not help increase their students‘ vocabulary. moreover, the teachers‘ beliefs about loud reading and non-language objectives need reexamination. keywords: simplified novels, objectives, techniques. how to cite: barakat, m.a.m., & bedri, a.m. (2018). examining the simplified novels (sns) as supplementary materials in light of the teachers‘ objectives and teaching techniques. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 115—122. introduction since 2008 the sudan ministry of education has introduced the macmillan simplified novels sns as supplementary materials to the main language textbook in the secondary schools to help improve the students‘ reading, vocabulary and overall english language skills. this paper aims to examine the sns in light of the teachers‘ objectives and the techniques they use in teaching them. length can make using the original novel in the classroom a time-consuming task. this problem in the limited classroom time can partially be solved by using simplified versions. brownlie et al. (2006, p. 71) suggest that not every chapter need be processed in the same depth and not every literary technique or comprehension strategy needs to be covered, i.e., teachers have to be selective in their focus and clear about the acceptable mailto:barakatmahmoud99@yahoo.com mailto:amnambedri@hotmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 116 degree of objective achievement. tsai (2012, p. 103) advocates the use of novel as a main reading material in the foreign language classroom. he investigated the students' perceptions and found positive results in support of exploiting the novel despite the difficulties they had faced. novels and good stories, according to (harris et al. 2011, p. 65), serve a number of functions such as developing learners' awareness of narrative discourse structure, stimulating interest and imagination and raising cultural awareness. cremin (2009, p. 113) believes the teacher's role should be to seek out fiction texts which require the children to actively participate in making meaning and they should use a wide range of open-ended strategies that foster children's curiosity and develop their personal responses in spoken and written language. zoreda et al. (2008, p 28) suggest using simplified novels sns with their film adaptations to achieve linguistic and intercultural goals in efl classroom. original literary works, according to littlewood (2000, p. 178 and p. 182), can help foreign language learners from different perspectives: language, style, subject matter (content), symbolization and intellect. these perspectives which can be viewed as objectives or goals are necessarily positioned in a hierarchy. the more advanced the learners' language level is, the more likely their objectives would go beyond language itself. most interestingly, littlewood (ibid) states that much of what is said about literary works as regards these perspectives at advanced stages ―can also be applied to constructed texts used at earlier levels.‖ vincent (2000, p. 214) states that ―one advantage of the reduction in length and complexity of a simplified version of a standard text is that it provides an opportunity for literary-like behavior … and an introduction to making judgments of value.‖ picken (2007, p.151) analyzed some sns and he believed they could help build the learners' metaphorical abilities and ―give readers the kind of interpretative and value-related experience that is called literary.‖ according to oxford's guide to the 'why' and 'how' of using graded readers (2013, pp. 6-7), reading many sns in an extensive reading program develops reading skills and strategies. these readers should be at or below the learners' reading ability so as to develop reading fluency and confidence as well as gradually build vocabulary. in addition to improving reading fluency and vocabulary, macmillan's guide to graded readers (2006, pp. 7-8) adds the following advantages: improving language construction (grammar and discourse), improving writing skills, building confidence and independent learning and creating a positive attitude. methodology the study has used the interview to generate accounts of 10 teachers from model schools. the sample includes 4 females and 6 males, which is deemed sufficient to represent both genders. the sample represents 8 schools from three areas in khartoum state. all the teachers in the sample are experienced. their experiences range between 15 and 26 years of continuous career in teaching english in the secondary schools. they are all graduates of english and two of them hold mas in applied linguistics (elt). it is also worth noting that using tape-recording was avoided in order to encourage the teachers to talk freely without feeling any threats of being vulnerable. no claims of generalized results are made unless further quantitative evidence is found to support them. individual cases and barakat, m.a.m., & bedri, a.m. (2018). examining the simplified novels (sns) as supplementary materials in light of the teachers‘ objectives and teaching techniques. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 115—122. 117 multi-layered meaning are what these interviews attempting to allow for. findings and discussion the objectives table 1 shows the teachers‘ views about the possible objectives that can be achieved by using the sns in the classroom with secondary school students. seven out of the ten teachers of the sample believe the sns can help improve the students‘ reading skills. the other three are skeptical of the quality of the language which they describe as extremely simplified and may not allow for adequate training in all the sub-skills of reading. in order for the enhancement of the reading skills to be realized, it is not only important to carefully select the reading materials, but also to consider the students‘ language level and the teaching techniques employed by the teachers. generally speaking, it can be stated that the sns can be used to supplement the reading passages of the language textbook and improve the students‘ reading skill table 1 the teachers‘ objectives objectives t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 no reading      ×  ×  × 7 oral/aural skills     × ×  × ×  6 writing × × × × × × ×  × × 1 overall education  × × × × × × × × × 1 motivation ×  ×   × ×    6 vocabulary × × × × × ×   ×  3 gain marks × × × × ×   × × × 2 appreciation × × × × × × × × × × 0 cultural enrichment × × ×   × × ×  × 3 critical ability  × × × × × × × × × 1 six out of the ten teachers think the sns can provide opportunities for oral/aural practice in the classroom. the themes, events and characters of the sns can form the basis for discussions in which the students can express their opinions freely. the teachers should therefore be aware of the need to allot time for activities that generate oral response. such activities should be varied and go beyond the simple question-and-answer technique to sustain students‘ interest and engagement. however, four teachers of the sample do not see a possibility for addressing this objective by means of using the sns, which indicates lack of integration of the oral/aural skills and the reading skill. a reading lesson need not always be done with the students‘ heads down to trace prints. reading is a kind of intentional mediation between the text‘s and one‘s own store of linguistic elements and experiences. this process can benefit from discussion which supports understanding of the written text and language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 118 helps incubate extra ideas for further oral response. it is noticed that only one teacher believes in relating the sns to the writing skill. the gap between the sns and the improvement of the writing skill is even wider than the gap between them and the development of the oral/aural skills. this means that there is still a strong belief that the amount of writing practice prescribed in the main language textbook is sufficient and does not need supplementation by the sns. accordingly, it can be deduced that the main objective of using the sn is to help the students‘ reading skills, with a moderate potential to support their oral/aural abilities. vocabulary development is generally an important objective in language learning and teaching. however, only three teachers believe that the sns used in the secondary schools assist in the achievement of this objective. the majority of the sample _7 teachers_ do not see the sns as helpful in this area. it can be stated that the chosen grades of the sns contain vocabulary items that are far below the students‘ actual knowledge of vocabulary, and could hardly add new words to them. these materials may be suitable to address this objective if the students can read large amounts of them as extensive reading practice. the potential of developing their vocabulary increases with the amount of reading available to them. yet, only a limited number of these sns is possible to bring into the classroom for formal study. hence, there is a pressing need to include some more advanced sns to fill this gap and enlarge the students‘ vocabulary. most interestingly, it is believed, the sns can play an important role in motivating the students to read. the story-line type of material is more appealing than the ordinary materials usually found in the textbook. if motivation is enhanced, many students‘ reading habits will be influenced positively as well as their overall language. therefore, increasing students‘ motivation should be considered an objective in its own right because it can push them toward autonomy by looking for other intriguing materials to read for pleasure. however, four of the teachers do not consider the sns as motivating elements in the teaching-learning process. this may be taken as a negative statement against the content and themes of some of the materials which need rethinking and substitution. investigating students‘ interests and views can assist in the evaluation and selection of the books. nevertheless, it is often hard to guarantee consensus about matters of tastes and dispositions. only three teachers believe the sns can achieve cultural enrichment. this could indicate that the cultural components are either insufficient or they just yield a secondary byproduct that should not be considered as a main objective. relevant to this point is the overall education of the students, which is considered by only one teacher of the sample. cultural enrichment and education of the whole person gain less attention from the teachers who view the pure language objectives as their main concern. this attitude needs to be analyzed, understood and considered in teacher training. language never exists in vacuum and could hardly be envisaged in an abstract state unless in the minds of theoretical linguists and philosophers. as a system of communication, language mixes with ideas, culture and every aspect of life. thus, non-language and general educational objectives are part of the language teachers‘ agenda of objectives. barakat, m.a.m., & bedri, a.m. (2018). examining the simplified novels (sns) as supplementary materials in light of the teachers‘ objectives and teaching techniques. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 115—122. 119 critical abilities and language appreciation almost have no place in the teachers‘ objectives. although the sns are literary-like materials, they cannot help achieve these two objectives. the literary elements in the sns are limited and do not allow for full development of the literary faculties. nevertheless, they can guide the students a step further toward appreciation of style if the objective is set and the appropriate material is chosen. critical abilities need not be of the technical type exercised by specialists. if the students can launch judgments about the characters, their words, utterances and actions, with reference to certain parts of the sns, their general reasoning and thinking abilities can be enhanced. the sns can be exploited to the utmost and the language objectives consolidated if these two objectives are taken into consideration. it might seem strange to regard increasing students‘ marks in the english language as a target to be achieved through the teaching of the sns. this situation has been created by the fact that there is an optional section in the sudan school certificate examination of english which requires the students to answer some questions related to the sns instead of another language section given the quarter of the total mark of the subject (25 marks). the other language section includes some subjective items (letter writing and summary), while the sns section includes objective items (mcqs, true-or-false questions and a 5-items matching question). there is a common belief among teachers and students that answering the questions of the sns guarantees gaining marks, as compared to the language section which the students try to avoid. actually, this finding can neither be reinforced nor refuted from the limited sample included in this small-scale study. the nature of this study permits understanding individual cases rather than launching generalized results. only three teachers of the ten included in this sample believe that the sns can help in scaffolding students‘ achievement in the examinations. it can be said that gaining marks is a rather superficial issue which has been created by an external factor – the examination – and does not relate fundamentally to the sns. the techniques it is beneficial to investigate some of the common techniques used in teaching the sns and relate them to the objectives stated by the teachers. table 2 displays five of them: silent reading, loud reading, home reading, discussion and role play. table 2 the techniques techniques t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 no silent reading  × × × × × × × × × 1 loud reading           10 home reading  × × × × × × × × × 1 discussion     × ×  × × × 5 role play  ×  × × × × × ×  3 language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 120 although the main objective of using the sns is to improve the reading skills, the dominant technique is found to be the loud reading. there is a consensus among the teachers of the sample that loud reading is their practical choice. this practice is part of a prevalent culture that can be traced to the beginnings of the traditional educational systems in the society. it also relates to the roles assigned to the teacher and student, the former being active and the latter recipient. in contrast, using the silent reading technique gains the approval of only one teacher; the majority of them refrain from using it in teaching the sns. there is a complaint that the students cannot be trusted in silent reading as at least some of them will not read. at the same time forcible follow-up activities, which might succeed with some students, can generate reluctance and undesirable attitudes that jeopardize the whole process of language learning. comprehension is affected when the students feel threatened or targeted. another problem is that the teachers feel losing control of the process which they consider as the core of their responsibilities: guiding their students‘ learning. unfortunately, this issue is entwined with a number of complicated psychological factors that need high consideration in teacher education. cultivating the habit of silent reading into the students is a major concern that necessitates working with both parties_ the teachers as well as the students. home reading like silent reading is also absent since it takes place out of the school province. in order to achieve the objective of helping the students to read adequately, the teachers‘ techniques and strategies need to be revisited. the sns can be very useful in reworking this thorny issue. discussion and role play target the oral/aural skills. half of the sample use discussion to teach the sns in the classroom. they integrate reading with listening and speaking. on the other hand, discussions are frequent in the language textbook and may consume a considerable proportion of the classroom time. therefore, the teachers who do not use this technique in teaching the sns try to save time for other classroom activities. nonetheless, the quality of discussion with teaching the sns can vary and make the class period interesting. role play is a familiar technique that is encountered in the textbook. the teacher may also use it and assign different roles emerging from the sns to their students. they can play the roles of the characters according to specific situations and parts of the sns. only three teachers use this technique and underscore its value in supporting their students‘ oral/aural skills. conclusion to sum up, it can be claimed that the quality of the sns does not help achieve the hoped objectives. first, the language content is poor and the amount of vocabulary is limited. second, much of what the sns are expected to address is already covered in the language textbook. the writing activities and discussions in the students‘ textbook are thought to be enough which is why the teachers do not attempt to exploit the sns in this area. however, the teachers‘ adherence to loud reading and disregard of silent reading play their role in this failure. it is necessary to reexamine loud reading and address this problem in teacher training programs. the sns contribute to motivating students which is important in language teaching and learning. non-language objectives are absent and could hardly be related to the sns. this is because the cultural elements in them are barakat, m.a.m., & bedri, a.m. (2018). examining the simplified novels (sns) as supplementary materials in light of the teachers‘ objectives and teaching techniques. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 115—122. 121 limited and the teachers‘ attention to them is secondary. references brownlie, f., feniak, c., & schnellert, l. (2006). student diversity: classroom strategies to meet the learning needs of all students. available at https://www.goodreads.com. cremin, t. (2009). teaching english creatively. 1st ed. available at www.ebookstore. tandf.co.uk. harris, j., & duibhir, p. o. (2011). effective language teaching: a synthesis of research. ncca research report no 13. dublin. available at www.ncca.ie.com littlewood, w. t. (2000). literature in the school foreign-language course. in brumfit, c. j. & carter, r. a. (eds.), literature and language teaching. applied linguistics series: oup. macmillan (2006). using graded readers in the classroom. macmillan readers. available at www.macmillanenglish.com/. oxford graded readers (2013). the „why‟ and „how‟ of using graded readers. rob waring: oup. available at www.oupjapan.co.jp.,viewed. picken, j. d. (2007). literature, metaphor and the foreign language learner: palgrave. macmillan. tsai, c. (2012). students‘ perceptions of using a novel as main material in the efl reading course. english language teaching, 5(8), 103-112. retrieved from http://dxc.doi.org/ 10.5539/elt . vincent, m. (2000). simple text and reading text part 1: some general issues. in brumfit, c. j., & carter, r. a. (eds.). literature and language teaching: oup. zoreda, m. l., & vivaldo-lima, j. (2008). scaffolding linguistic and intercultural goals in efl with simplified novels and their film adaptations. english teaching forum, 3(november), 22-29. http://www.ncca.ie.com/ http://www.macmillanenglish.com/ http://www.oupjapan.co.jp.,viewed/ http://dxc.doi/ language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 183 the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola in toni morrison’s the bluest eye ratna asmarani ratna_asmarani@yahoo.com faculty of humanities, diponegoro university received: 20 august 2015. revised: 1 january 2016. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract the purpose of this paper is to analyse the destructive impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola, the young, poor, black female character, in toni morrison‘s ―the bluest eye.‖ the analysis is done through feminist criticism supported by the concept of the beauty myth and beauty as well as sartrean concept of existentialism. the result shows that the widely spread beauty myth blocks pecola‘s existential freedom on the physical, consciousness, or social life level. all these lead to young pecola‘s ruined existence. key words: beauty myth, existential freedom, sartrean existentialism, feminist criticism how to cite: asmarani, ratna. 2016. the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola in toni morrison‘s the blue eye. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction in practice, not everyone can have or enjoy his/her existential freedom. there are many hindrances to the freedom of existence, one of which is the ideology of the beauty myth. operating mainly in the unconscious level and practised in many forms, beauty myth affects many levels of human existence. all these can be seen in pecola‘s existence. as a young, black, poor girl she is the easy target of the beauty myth as it leads to her ruined existence. there are some concepts used in the analysis. each concept will contribute significantly in analyzing the main topic of the paper. wolf coins the term ‗beauty myth‘ to refer to ―a backlash against feminism that uses an ideology about beauty to keep women down‖ (1992: 3). in its practice, beauty myth takes many forms, such as making women convinced that the concept of beauty is objective and universal instead of a socially constructed concept (wolf, 1992: 12-14). in daily life people unconsciously follow and practice certain beauty criteria as critically examined by abu-laban and mcdaniel: for the female child, to be assessed as ―pretty‖ or ―beautiful‖ is the highest accolade ... to be pretty is to be approved, liked, and rewarded ... beauty norms are both prescriptive and proscriptive ... however, there can be little doubt that standards of beauty are social and historical construct ... the image of beauty that society presents to women is embofied in a female who is not only young and slim but also white mailto:ratna_asmarani@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 184 (or ―whittish‖), heterosexual, and class advantaged. this is a monolithic image of appearance (1995: 107-108, 14). those beauty criteria obviously refer to a certain race (or skin colour), a certain social status, and a certain sexual preference in which those who possess the criteria will be accepted or respected in society. the analysis on this paper is done using feminist criticism in which it ―reads writing and examines its ideology and culture with a woman-centred perspective‖ (humm, 1995: 51). thus, using the perspective of a woman, the black female character will be analysed focussing on the entanglement of beauty myth on her existential freedom. the term ‗existentialism‘ is proposed by sartre in which he divides existence into three modes of being. the first one is ‗being-in-itself, which is the existence without the consciousness. the second one is ‗being-for-itself‘ which is the existence of humans with their consciousness. the third one is ‗being-for-other‘ which is the existence of humans in their social life involving the conflicts to be subject over the others (sartre, 1992: 800). the sartrean modes of being do not include the existence of women, even less the existence of black women. for the sake of analysing the existence of black women, two modes of ‗being‘, namely, ‗being-foritself‘ and ‗being-for-other‘, are modified because those two directly concern the human existence. the result is the ‗blackwoman-being-for-herself‘ which is the existence of a black woman with her critical consciousness as a black woman in the world commonly dominated by white perspective and the ‗black-woman-beingfor-other‘ which focuses on the conflictual social life of a black woman because of her sex, race, social status, etcetera (asmarani, 2010: 51-52). since a woman‘s existence can not be separated from her body, it is necessary to include sartrean categorization of human body. bearing in mind that body and consciousness are one unity, sartre divide the body into three levels. the first is body as a form to be in the world in which the consciousness is not dominant yet. the second is body as seen by other in which the consciousness follows the other‘s evaluation of the body. the third is body as evaluated by other in which the evaluation makes the critical consciousness grow (sartre, 1992: 404-461). methodology the data being analyzed in this paper is focused on a novel entitled the bluest eye written by toni morrison (1931 …), the first black woman to receive the nobel prize in literature 1 . the qualitative analysis is done through library research using printed and electronic references. in analyzing the chosen topic, contextual analysis which is basically an analysis borrowing theories from outside the field of literature and its intrinsic elements is used (http://www.unl. edu/english/sbehrendt/studyquestions/cont extualanalysis.html accessed february 17, 2014). since the topic is concerning the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom on the black female character, feminist criticism is used as the frame of analysis. this frame of analysis is supported with the concepts of existentialism such as sartre‘s modes of being, asmarani‘s black 1 http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/morrison/morriso n_toni-bio.html accessed 6 january 2016 http://www.unl/ asmarani, ratna. 2016. the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola in toni morrison‘s the blue eye. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 185 women‘s modes of being, and sartre‘s concept of human body. wolf‘s concept of beauty myth and abu-laban and mcdaniel‘s beauty concept also integrally support the analysis. beauty myth on pecola’s existential freedom pecola, the young, black female main character in toni morrison‘s the bluest eye, faces a specific problem in having existential freedom. the basic problem is the operation of beauty myth. to analyze the impacts of beauty myth on pecola‘s existential freedom, the discussion is divided into several parts covering the triggers, the supporters, and the impacts of beauty myth, as well as the specific resistance done by pecola. the triggers of the practice of beauty myth in pecola’s existence the beauty myth, with its imposing beauty criteria, operates in and around pecola‘s existence. there are several factors that trigger the operation of beauty myth. those factors can be classified into two parts; namely, the physical characteristic of pecola and the social factors surrounding pecola. pecola breedlove, the twelve-year-old black girl, is portrayed as having specific facial features. these facial features are shared by all the members of the breedlove family. the eyes, the small set of eyes set closely together under narrow foreheads. the low, irregular hairlines, which seemed even more irregular in contrast to the straight, heavy eyebrows which nearly met. keen but crooked noses, with insolent nostrils. they had high cheekbones, and their ears turned forward. shapely lips which called attention not to themselves but to the rest of the face (morrison, 1972: 34). the description indicates that pecola and her family can not be considered as having interesting or beautiful physical appearance. certain facial features which fulfill the beauty criteria; namely shapely lips, ironically make the other facial features already labelled not beautiful look worse. the whole physical appearance of pecola is described by geraldine, a rich, tidy, fair-skinned black woman. saw the dirty torn dress, the plait sticking out on her head, hair matted where the plaits had come undone, the muddy shoes with the wad of gum peeping from between the cheap soles, the soiled socks, one of which had been walked down into the heel of shoe. she saw the safety pin holding the hem of the dress up (morrison, 1972: 75). pecola‘s physical appearance indicates not only poverty, but also indiference, carelessness, and slovenliness. all these characteristics can not be accepted as things that belong to the beauty criteria. the living place of the breedlove family also supports their deviation from the standard of beauty. the four of them— pecola, her parents and brother—are crowded in one room without a partition on the third floor of an abandoned shop. the location of the shop itself is an eyesore to the surroundings: ―it does not recede into its backgound of leaden sky, nor harmonize with the gray frame house and black telephone poles around it. rather, it foists itself on the eye of the passerby in a manner that is both irritating and melancholy‖ language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 186 (morrison, 1972: 30). it is not only poverty that keeps them in the improper place, but also their own belief that they deserve to live improperly because of their physical condition which does not meet the beauty criteria: ―they stayed there because they believed they were ugly‖ (morrison, 1972: 34). so, there are at least three things that serve as the triggering factors for the emergence of the operation of beauty myth in pecola‘s existence; namely, her facial features, her physical appearance, and her living place. those three factors are worsened by the widely spread beauty myth in the community where pecola lives. all imposing representations of beauty myth reflected in ―every billboard, every movie, every glance‖ (morrison, 1972: 34) directly emphasize the ugliness of pecola and her family. the supporters of the ideology of the beauty myth in pecola’s existence the beauty myth as an ideology will not thrive if there are no supporters that practise or spread its beauty criteria. in the case of pecola, the supporters of the beauty myth and its criteria can be grouped into three: her own family, other people around her, and pecola herself. pecola‘s family, especially her mother, pauline, is a blind supporter of the beauty myth. black, poor, uneducated, and having physical defect, pauline adores beauty. she longs for elegance, wealth, and romanticism portrayed in films starring white film stars. pauline absorbs all those non-real white beauties in order to escape from the boring routine of her poor family life. from those films, pauline learns one lesson: ―she was never able, after her education in the movies, to look at a face and not assign it some category in the scale of absolute beauty‖ (morrison, 1972: 97). this indicates that pauline is not only a passive follower, but she also actively applies the beauty standard to the people around her, especially her own daughter, pecola. individuals or small groups of people around pecola are also the practitioners of beauty myth. this is obviously reflected in the school area where pecola studies: ―the ugliness that made her ignored or despised at school, by teachers and classmates alike‖ (morrison, 1972: 39). the fair-skinned black women belonging to the middle class and following the white standard of living, represented by geraldine, do not want to associate with pecola, much less have the dirty black girl in their immaculate house: ――get out,‖ she said, her voice quiet. ―you nasty little black bitch. get out of my house‖‖ (morrison, 1972: 75), because she equates poor, dirty, and ugly black people like pecola with flies: ―like flies they hovered; like flies they settled‖ (morrison, 1972: 75). pecola‘s blackness and dirty appearance also make her invisible in the eyes of the old, white man, the owner of a small candy shop where pecola sometimes comes to buy candies: ―she ... sees the vacuum where curiosity ought to lodge. and something more. the total absence of human recognition—the glazed separateness (morrison, 1972: 42). even geraldine‘s little son, like the mother, also despises blackness and slovenliness as indicated by his bad conduct to pecola who is much older than him. along with those two parties, pecola herself also adores the beauty criteria. as a victim of beauty standard, pecola gradually despises her physical condition and sees no asmarani, ratna. 2016. the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola in toni morrison‘s the blue eye. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 187 hope to avoid it: ―as long as she looked the way she did, as long as she was ugly, she would have to stay with these people. somehow she belonged to them‖ (morrison, 1972: 39). on the other hand, she uses her physical ugliness and her shabbiness as a nest to hide and to save her from the imposing beauty standard that surrounds her: ―she hid behind hers. concealed, veiled, eclipsed‖ (morrison, 1972: 35). the impacts of the beauty myth on pecola’s existential freedom undeniably, the beauty myth has certain impacts on pecola‘s existence, especially her existential freedom. here, the impacts of the beauty myth on pecola‘s existential freedom will be analyzed on three different levels of existence: on her physical freedom, on the freedom of her personal consciousness, and on the freedom of her social life. pecola‘s body suffers certain treatment triggered by the operation of the beauty myth. her male class mates make fun of pecola‘s body and her father‘s habit of sleeping naked: ―a group of boys was circling and holding at bay a victim, pecola breedlove ... they gaily harrassed her‖ (morrison, 1972: 55). actually, there is no ill-feeling or hatred between them. they themselves are black and poor like pecola, and like pecola they are the victims of the beauty myth. they too, like pecola, secretly adore the beauty standard. their action is triggered by their frustration of being excluded from the beauty circle. thus, they just try to find a victim to save them from the inferior feeling as the outcasts. pecola is the perfect target because she looks defeated, hopeless and friendless. this event indicates that because of her physical ugliness, pecola‘s freedom of movement is limited. she is not free to go as she wants. she loses the freedom of her own body. pecola‘s body also suffers mistreatment from her mother, mrs. breedlove. mad at pecola‘s clumsiness that makes her white master‘s kitchen dirty and her white master‘s little child cry, pecola‘s mother hurts pecola‘s body: ―she was on pecola, and with the back of her hand knocked her to the floor. pecola slid in the pie juice, one leg folding under her. mrs. breedlove yanked her up by the arm, slapped her again‖ (morrison, 1972: 86). pecola‘s mother‘s preference to her white master‘s kitchen and child than to her own daughter who is black, dirty, and ugly obviously shows her blind adoration to white life style and white people. for the sake of white beauty standard which she can not meet, pecola‘s mother is willing to put aside her own daughter. she does not care about the part of pecola‘s body that is badly burnt by the hot berry juice. for her, pecola‘s body does not mean anything, it is just a black dirty body that reminds her of her own blackness that she herself despises and tries to avoid. thus, pecola loses the right of her body because her body is not considered valuable in tthe eyes of her own mother. pecola‘s freedom to her body also disappears when she meets geraldine‘s little son, junior. persuaded to have a look at a cat, the lonely pecola becomes trapped in junior‘s house. teasing and frightening her with her mother‘s beloved cat he hates so much, junior throws the cat at pecola, resulting in painful scratches all over her face: ―the clawed face and chest‖ (morrison, 1972: 73). junior, much younger than pecola, dares to do mischievous things to pecola because pecola is friendless and looks hopeles. here, pecola not only loses language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 188 her freedom of movement but also gets hurt as well. thus, it can be said that on the level of physical existence, pecola suffers from unfair and/or painful treatment due to her physical condition and appearance that do not meet the criteria of beauty adored by people around her. besides mistreatment on the physical level, pecola also suffers mistreatment on the consciousness level leading to certain damaging impacts. the first impact is that pecola‘s critical consciousness does not develop. being young, alone, and surrounded by the many representations of the beauty myth, pecola is an easy target for the imposing practice of the beauy myth. she is not mature enough to be able to develop a critical perspective of her own. she also does not have her family‘s support or a friend‘s love to enable her to develop her own opinion. the many layered forms of the beauty myth around her make her unable to escape from its influence. the result is predictable, pecola does not have her own critical consciousness concerning the beauty myth and its imposing criteria, due to her lack of the opportunity. inevitably, pecola is unconsciously influenced to adopt the beauty myth which permeates the community‘s consciousness. she begins to use the community‘s perspective in seeing everything, especially her own condition. despite critisizing the beauty myth, pecola, like others including her own mother, becomes the follower and worshipper. however, she uses her false consciousnes to evaluate herself: ―... she would never know her beauty. she would see only what was there to see the eyes of other people‖ (morrison, 1972: 40). this makes her consider her physical condition as not beautiful and eventually this leads to her despising herself. in her desperation, pecola makes selfdestructing choices concerning her existence. at first, pecola wants to make her unbearable existence disappear: ――please, god,‖ she whispered into the palm of her hand. ―please make me disappear‖ she squeezed her eyes shut. little parts of her body faded away ... only her tight, tight eyes were left ...‖ (morrison, 1972: 39). this effort fails because she can not erase her eyes which represent her perspective as a human being. this indicates that physical existence is easier to destroy but not personal perspective loaded with personal experience. failing to erase her perspective, pecola then tries to strengthen her perspective which follows the community‘s perspective, especially concerning the adoration of everything that belongs to the criteria of beauty. in her naivette and desperation, pecola comes to the conclusion that she will belong to the community which so far has abandoned her, only if she possesses some elements of beauty. she concludes that part of her body which must be beautiful is her eyes: ―if those eyes of hers were different, that is to say, beautiful, she herself would be different ... each night, without fail, she prayed for blue eyes‖ (morrison, 1972: 40). she thinks that having beautiful, blue eyes will lead her to a happy and free life denied from her so far. naively, pecola assumes that beautiful, blue eyes will make her able to see things beautifully, including herself. in other words, beautiful, blue eyes are the solution to becoming beautiful and to belonging to the beautiful world. pecola‘s dream to be beautiful, happy, and loved, is portrayed in her adoration of asmarani, ratna. 2016. the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola in toni morrison‘s the blue eye. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 189 shirley temple, the well-known and adorable white child actress in the era of 1920s. she sees the picture of shirley temple on the mug from which she drinks the milk when she lives temporarily with the macteer family: ―she was a long time with the milk, and gazed fondly at the silhoulette of shirley temple‘s dimpled face‖ (morrison, 1972: 19). the macteer family is a poor, black family who is willing to save her from the prospect of living as a tramp after being abandoned by her own family. since then, pecola‘s dream grows stronger and unshakeable. she dreams to be beautiful through the possession of blue eyes. her effort to realize her dream, however impossible it seems, is carried out in an unsual and shocking way. having no one to consult, pecola dares herself to ask the help of soaphead church, a man who claims the ability to realize dreams. in reality, he is a liar who earns his living by cheating people who believe in his words (morrison, 1972: 131, 136). pecola‘s straightforward but simple statement about her eyes: ――i want them blue‖‖ (morrison, 1972: 137) indicates her strong desire to be a valuable person, meaning a person considered beautiful. it also indicates her desperation to be able to exist, although just in the periphery, in a world which allows beautiful people only in its suffocating embrace. as a liar and manipulative person, soaphead church plan to use pecola for his own benefit. disgusted by the old dog but does not want to do dirty job by himself, he gives pecola a piece of meat, already poisoned, for the dog. he wickedly tells pecola that if the dog shows any reaction after aeating it, it is a sign that her strong wish is granted. blinded by her desperation and supported by the reaction of the poisoned old dog (morrison, 1972: 139), pecola really believes that now she already possesses blue eyes. this false consciousness makes pecola, who is so happy and proud of her imaginary blue eyes, unable to stop admiring and talking about them. having no one to listen to her incessant chatting about her blue eyes, pecola talks with an imaginary friend who emerges as soon as she believes she possesses a pair of beautiful blue eyes: ... no. really. you are my best friend. why did‘t i know you before? you didn‟t need me before. didn‘t need you? i mean ... you were so unhappy before. i guess you didn‟t notice me before. i guess you‘re right. and i was so lonely for friends. and you were right here. right before my eyes. no, honey. right after your eyes. ... (morrison, 1972: 152). the quote indicates how pecola now lives in a world of her own, created by herself, and lived in by herself and the imaginary friend. her false consciousness and how she carries it out in a daily life result in certain impacts on her social life. generally considered insane, the common reaction of the community is to avoid her. she is expelled from school: ―i don‘t know. after that first day at school when i had my blue eyes. well, the next day they had mrs. breedlove come out. now i don‘t go anymore. but i don‘t care‖ (morrison, 1972; 153). the school, its teachers and students, which formerly ignore her and/or ridicule her physical condition and appearance, now completely ban her from their environment. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 190 her deep involvement in her own imaginary world makes her lose contact with the ‗natural‘ social life. she shuts herself out from the outside world, leaving her alone in her own imaginary world. however, in her own created world, pecola is also finally left by her sole imaginary friend. this happens when the imaginary friend finally felt fed up by the only topic of their chatting, namely the imaginary blue eyes of pecola: i‟m not going to play with you anymore. oh. don‘t leave me. yes. i am. why. are you mad at me? yes. because my eyes aren‘t blue enough? because i don‘t have the bluest eyes? no. because you‟re acting silly. ... (morrison, 1972: 158). pecola‘s obsession and its imaginary fulfilment leave her utterly alone in the end. nobody, real or imaginary, wants to be her friend. the final impact of being completely cut off from social life, real or imaginary, is that pecola‘s existence now—the physical level, consciousness level, or social life level—is jumbled confusingly with no more coordination among the three levels: the damage done was total. she spent her days, her tendril, sap-green days, walking up and down, up and down, her head jerking to the beat of a drummer so distant only she could hear. elbows bent, hands on shoulders, she flailed her arms like a bird in an eternal, grotesquely futile effort to fly. beating the air, a winged but grounded bird, intent on the blue void it could not reach—could not even see—but which filled the valleys of the mind (morrison, 1972: 158). like a completely broken, unwanted, thrown away thing, pecola is stranded in the place for such undesirable things, the garbage area. her unnatural physical movement like a bird trying to fly indicates her unconscious effort to transcend her unworthy real existence. the futility of this action represents the futility of her effort to escape from her devastating existence. the sound heard only by herself and made her obsessed shows the confusion in her mind being invaded by the idea of beauty myth that she can not meet but desires so much. pecola’s resistance of the beauty myth on her existence as a human being with emotion and a sense of pain, pecola shows certain resistance to the implication of the beauty myth. however, her resistance falls into one category, namely passive resistance. this can be seen from the following incidents. when pecola is insulted by her schoolfriends on two occasions, she only cries and covers her ears or eyes: ―... crying ... and covered her eyes with her hands ... pulling in of her neck, as though she wanted to cover her ears ...‖ (morrison, 1972: 55, 60). she also cries when entrapped by junior and scratched by the panicked cat: ―the tears came fast, and she held it shut with her hands‖ (morrison, 1972: 74). there is no retaliation or other forms of active reaction. her passive resistance is driven by her situation. feeling inferior to her physical condition and appearance as well as feeling friendless, pecola feels helpless to resist the insults. that is why she just accepts all the unfair treatment although it hurts her, both physically and mentally. when she is ignored by the owner of the candy shop, she is overcome by an intense asmarani, ratna. 2016. the impacts of the beauty myth on the existential freedom of pecola in toni morrison‘s the blue eye. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 191 shame: ―outside, pecola feels the inexplixcable shame ebb‖ ((morrison, 1972: 43). when she is thrown out rudely of geraldine‘s house by geraldine herself, she feels so inferior: ―pecola backed out of the room, ...‖ (morrison, 1972: 76). she does not show any strong reaction or active resistance at all. she keeps her emotional hurt to herself feeling that it is useless to show it. the same resisting reaction is shown by pecola when she is avoided by the community because of her physical ugliness. she just accepts all the humiliation, the gossips, or the avoidance. she becomes apathetic and thinks that her ugliness cannot be avoided forever. and pecola is somewhere in that little brown house she and her mother moved to on the edge of town, where you can see her even now, once in a while. the birdlike gestures are worn away to a mere picking and plucking ... she, however, stepped over into madness, a madness which protected her from us simply because it bored us in the end‖ (morrison, 1072: 159). thus, pecola is the helpless and hopeless victim of the beauty myth. conclusion pecola‘s existential freedom is blocked by the widely spread beauty myth. black, poor, and dirty, pecola is not at all considered beautiful by those worshipping the beauty myth. not beautiful equates not valuable as a human being and not accepted in social situations, while beautiful means having the power to be seen and admired. classified as not beautiful, pecola loses the freedom in her existence. on the physical level, she experiences physical pain, insults, and abandonment. on the consciousness level, she has no chance to develop her critical thinking. on the social level, she suffers social avoidance. the combined impacts of the beauty myth result in pecola‘s totally broken existence which finally lands her together with the other thrown away things in the garbage area outside the community‘s supposedly respectable living place. references abu-laban, sharon mcirvin, and mcdaniel, susan a. 1995. aging women and standards of beauty. in mendel, nancy (ed.). feminist issue. race, class, and sexuality. scarborough, ontario: prentice hall canada inc. pp. 97-122. asmarani, ratna. 2010. kebebasan eksistensial tokoh perempuan kulit hitam dalam tiga novel toni morrison: the bluest eye, sula, dan beloved. dissertation. fib-ui behrendt, stephen c. 2008. contextual analysis. (http://www.unl.edu/english/sbehrendt/ studyquestions/contextualanalysis.html), retrieved 17 february 2014) humm, maggie. 1995. the dictionary of feminist theory. 2 nd edition. columbus: ohio state university press. morrison, toni. 1972. the bluest eye. new york: washington square press publication. sartre, jean-paul. 1992. being and nothingness. a phenomenological essay on ontology. translated by hazel e. barnes. new york: washington sguare press. http://www.unl.edu/english/sbehrendt/ language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 192 wolf, naomi. 1992. the beauty myth. how images of beauty are used against women. new york: anchor books language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018 nisa anggraini batubara universitas sumatera utara, indonesia email: nisaanggraini.batubara@gmail.com deliana universitas sumatera utara, indonesia parlindungan purba universitas sumatera utara, indonesia abstract this research aims to describe the types of illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018, and to find out the type of illocutionary acts which is mostly used by the indonesian athletes. this research used descriptive qualitative method. the source of data is the instagram accounts used by indonesian asian games athletes. the data are in the form of indonesian athletes’ 24 written utterances and categorized into types of illocutionary act based on yule’s theory. based on data analysis, the finding shows there are four types of illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018, namely representatives (14), expressives (7), directives (2), and commissive (1). representative is mostly used by indonesian athlete in instagram caption in asian games 2018. keywords: illocutionary acts, instagram caption, indonesian athletes on. by studying illocutionary act, it can help us to know more knowledge in understanding the speaker utterance in certain situation. since a caption contains utterance, then it is worthy to analyze the illocutionary acts of instagram captions, in this case the instagram captions that used by indonesian athletes in asian games 2018, in order to describe the indonesian athletes intention when they are performing utterances. there are two points to be discussed in this research. first is the types of illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018 and the second is the most dominant type that used by indonesian athletes. theoretically, this research hopefully will enrich the knowledge of the reader about the field of pragmatics, especially about the use of illocutionary act in the instagram caption. practically, this research is expected to provide insight to the readers in learning pragmatic field, especially about speech act. literature review pragmatics yule (1996, p. 3) explains that pragmatics introduction athletes as the social creature do the communication as well as human beings. the communication could be done through social media. as the development of technology, social media becomes famous in this era. the athletes have a role not just to themselves but also they have role as the influencers. in instagram, they post photo with the caption that represents it. the caption contains what they think, they feel, they believe, their achievement, principle and condition. moreover, they were competed in asian games 2018 that attract many eyes of the people. therefore, the caption they wrote not just a caption. it is not only words. as yule (1996, p. 47) said, “in attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances.” then called as illocutionary acts. yule (1996) classified types of illocutionary act into five, they are declarations, representatives, expressives, directives and commissives. in performing illocutionary act, the speaker should utter utterance with intended meaning to the hearer based on the situation and real conditilanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 198 ding it to have an effect. according to austin’s original exposition in “how to do things with words” (1962), an illocutionary act is an act (a) for the performance of which a speaker must make it clear to some other person that the act is performed and (b) the performance of which illocutionary acts have to do with understanding they a involves the production of what austin call “conventional consequences” as e.g., rights, commitments, or obligations. therefore, for example, in order to successfully perform a promise, a speaker must make clear to his or her audience that the promise occurs, and undertake an obligation to do the promised thing, hence, promising is an illocutionary act in the present sense. according to searle (1969, p. 58), the illocutionary act is an act performed in saying something and a force indicating devices for commitment. for example, when a speaker says to a listener “i promise” and “i hereby promise”, there is a strong difference in between them. the sentence “i hereby promise” will have a stronger meaning, and the listener will be more convinced to the speaker’s utterance. many linguists made their own certain classification of illocutionary act based on careful examination. the first linguist who defined the classification was austin. austin (1962) distinguished between five classes by which all performative speech acts could be classified according to what it is that the act of uttering is meant to achieve. so, in essence, austin set limitations as to the number of possible performative utterance types. these utterance types were verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, and expositives. austin suggested these classes with the forewarning that some fresh classification could be implemented in the future since his definitions were troublesome and prone to overlap. searle (1962), one of austin’s students who also studied language, goes further than austin in providing not only the needed general framework for a theory of speech acts but also a richer specification of the detailed structures of speech acts themselves. thus he distinguishes two kinds of felicity conditions: conditions on the performance of a speech act and conditions on its satisfaction (you need to fulfill the first in order to issue a promise and the second in order to keep your promise). conditions on performance are divided still further into preparatory, propositional, sincerity and essential conditions. five classifications of speech act delivered by searle are assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, and declarative. yule (1996, p. 53) also defines five classificoncern with some areas. pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). it has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. the pragmatics analyzes how that language performs an action. how people may interact and keep using the language because there is action after using the language. it means that the language uttered has specific meaning with a particular purpose that the speakers intended to do something after the message delivered. that it is called as speech acts. according to searle, speech act is a basic unit of communication, it suggests that there are a series of an analytic connection between the notion of speech acts, what the speaker means, what the sentence uttered means, what the speaker intends, and what the hearer understands. (searle, 1969 as cited in schiffrin, 1995, p. 90). mey (1993) also puts his opinion about speech act as he says, “simply stated, the central tenet of speech act theory is that the uttering of a sentence is, or is part of, an action within the framework of social institutions and conventions. put in slogan form, saying is (part of) doing, or words are (part of) deeds”. in general, speech acts are acts of communication. to communicate is to express a certain attitude, and the type of speech act is performed corresponds to the type of attitude being expressed. for example, a statement expresses a belief, a request expresses a desire, and an apology expresses a regret. as an act of communication, a speech act succeeds if the audience identifies, in accordance with the speaker’s intention, the attitude being expressed. in relation to the types of speech act, some experts classify them into locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. they are austin (1962, pp. 98-99), searle (1985, p. 11), leech (1983, p. 199), yule (1996, p. 48), mey (1993, pp. 95-96) and levinson (1983, p. 236). yule in his book (1996, p. 48) states that on any occasion, the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts such as: locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. illocutionary acts is an act that performed via communicative force of an utterance. perlocutionary act is an act that simply creates an utterance with a function without intenlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 199 cations of speech act which not too much different from the recent. then, this yule’s own that used in this thesis. the five classifications are declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives. declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. as the examples in (1) illustrate, the speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately. 1. a. priest: i now pronounce you husband and wife. b. referee: you’re out! c. jury foreman: we find the defendant guilty. in using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words. representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions, as illustrated in (2), are all examples of the speaker representing the world as he or she believes it is. 2. a. the earth is flat. b. chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. c. it was a warm sunny day. in using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief). expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. they express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow. as illustrated in (3), they can be caused by something the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience. 3. a. i’m really sorry! b. congratulation! c. oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahh! in using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling). directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something. they express what the speaker wants. they are commands, orders, requests, suggestions, and as illustrated in (4), they can be positive or negative. 4. a. give me a cup of coffee. make it black. b. could you lend me a pen, please? c. do not touch that. in using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the hearer). commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. they express what the speaker intends. they are promises, threats, refusals, pledges, and, as shown in (5), they can be performed by the speaker alone, or by the speaker as a member of a group. 5. a. i will be back. b. i’m going to get it right next time. c. we will not do that. in using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker). according to peccei (1999, p. 56), felicity conditions are sets of necessary conditions for illocution to count. yule (1996, p. 50-51) also explains that there are some conditions on speech acts in people performance. they are general conditions, content conditions, preparatory conditions, sincerity conditions and essential conditions. methodology this research used descriptive qualitative method. the data used in this research are 24 written utterances in indonesian athletes’ instagram captions in the period of asian games 2018 (19 august – 2 september 2018). the source of data in this research is indonesian athletes’ instagram accounts. there are 24 accounts from 24 users who are indonesian athletes in asian games 2018. they represent every sport that wins a medal. they are @dianandach (archery), @ emilianovanv (athletics), @greyspolii (badminton), @sunanagung_ (boxing), @ramlabahar21 (canoeing), @lasuthenky (contract bridge), @ khoifulmukhib52 (cycling), @rifdairfana (gymnastics), @aqsaaswar (jet ski), @zigizaresta (karate), @khasanins (kurash), @hparadigma (paragliding), @hanifan_yk (pencak silat), @ nyimasbungacinta (roller sports), @ginanjaredwin (rowing), @rezki.djaina (sepak takraw), @muhammadtera (shooting), @elbertsie_(soft tennis), @abudzar_firlyazri (sport climbing), @defiarosmaniar (taekwondo), @christorungkat (tennis), @ekopower62 (weightlifting), @ condrodab (volleyball), and @lindswell_k (wushu). data collection can be divided into 4 types: observation, questioner, interview, and study of document (miles, huberman and saldana, 2014, p. 46). in this research, the researcher used the study of document. results and discussion types of illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 200 representatives representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. (yule, 1996). they can be statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions. based on the research results, there are 14 data found as representatives. a sample of utterance that belongs to representatives type use by indonesian athletes in the instagram caption below. data 1 @defiarosmaniar: we made history context: the caption is written on august 23rd, 2018 by defia rosminar, from taekwondo who got a gold medal in women’s individual poomsae in asian games 2018. she stood on the podium and the indonesian president, mr. joko widodo put the medals on her neck, as the picture she posted with the above caption. the data 1 contains representative act. from the utterance “we made history”, the athlete conveys her belief that indonesia made one more history from her achievement that got a gold medal. she showed the gold medal and she tried to convience indonesian people that indonesian made history. she utters it in the statement of assertion. expressives expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. (yule, 1996). they can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow. based on the research results, there are 7 data found as expressives. a sample of utterance that classified as expressives use in the instagram caption written by an indonesian athlete below. data 18 @ginanjaredwin: thank you for the memories! context: the caption was written on august 29th, 2018 by edwin ginanjar rudiana, from rowing who got a silver medal in men’s quadruple sculls in asian games 2018. he and his rowing team took a picture together, wearing the silver medals in their necks, as showed by the picture that he posted with the caption above. the data 18 contains expressives act. from the utterance “thank you for the memories”, the athlete expresses his pleasure, his feeling that he thanks to his team, and also to the chance that he had in asian games 2018, all of them created the memories for his life. the word “thank you” also indicates the caption as expressives type. in writing the utterance, the athlete intends to express gratitude. directives yule (1996) states directives are kind of illocutionary act that attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. based on the research results, there are 2 data found as directives. a sample of utterance that belongs to directives type written by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018 below. data 22 @emilianovanv : trust the process! context: the caption was written on september 7th, 2018 by emilia nova, from athletics who got a silver medal in women’s 100 metres hurdles in asian games 2018. she was in the racing, as showed by the picture that she posted with the caption above. the data 22 contains directives act. from the utterance “trust the process”, the athlete writes the utterance to get the indonesian people to trust the process in their life. she suggests people to always trust the process that the result will be in line with the process that we pass. the typical structure of expression which is usually in imperative structure with the word referring to the imperative “trust” with verb initiating the utterance, also indicates the utterance as the directives type. commissives yule (1996) states commissives are kind of illocutionary act that is commit the speaker to some future course of action. in this research, there is 1 utterance that identified as commissives. data 24 @aqsaaswar: bronze for today, sunday will be better i promise. context: the caption was written on august 24th, 2018 by aqsa sutan aswar, from jet ski who got gold and bronze medals in endurance runabout open and runabout limited in asian games 2018. he posted a flyer of himself from asian games 2018 showing his picture with the information about his wining. the data 24 contains commissive act. from the utterance, the athlete intends to make a promise that could also be indicated by the illocutionary force indicating device “will” and “promise”. he promises to the indonesian supporter that he will get better in the future, not just getting bronze, but silver and gold. the statement “bronze for today” is a supporting statement before the athlete utters the intended act namely commissives acts in his caption. because he got language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 201 a bronze medal, he promised to get the higher one. he commits in the next competition he will achieve the better achievement and automatically it indicates a promising function, which is a written or spoken declaration that one will definitely give or do or not something. the athlete genuinely intends to carry out future action. declarations declarations are said to bring about a change in reality: that is to say, the world is in someway no longer the same after they have been said. in using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words and the speaker has to have a table 1. the types of illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018 illocutionary act types written utterance (caption) representatives (1) @defiarosmaniar: we made history (2) @hanifan_yk: show time to gets our gold medals. (3) @christorungkat: batik is one of indonesia’s heritage that we should preserve. every detail of the motive has the deep meaning. hard work, tenacity, and persistence. this is what i use when practicing and competing for indonesia. (4) @khoifulmukhib52: the process to become the champion indonesia asian games 2018 (5) @rifdairfana: and this is where the story become history. (6) @rezki.djaina: my team… (7) @sunanagung_: hard work easy work (8) @lindswell_k: 18th asian games 2018 medals (9) @zigizaresta: pain is temporary, greatness is forever! (10) @greyspolii: everytime i play in team event. i don’t play for myself but i play for my team, i love my girls (11) @lasuthenky: try out dan training camp menghadapi asian games 18 8 18 (12) @nyimasbungacinta: bismillah today is the day…. (13) @muhammadtera: pround (14) @ekopower62 : slow but sure untuk #asiangames2018 snatch 140 expressives (15) @abudzar_firlyazri: time to back home... mission clear... thanks to allah & all... thanks for everything (16) @khasanins: thank you lin-ning for support for us (17) @hparadigma: alhamdulillah…. allah love me so much… allah still open one of d jannah door for me… i hope i can make them happy (18) @ginanjaredwin: thank you for the memories! (19) @ramlabahar21: alhamdulillah silver medals (20) @dianandach : goodluck (21) elbertsie_: the man who introduce me to soft tennis. thank you mas @ simpatiaji directives (22) @emilianovanv: trust the process! (23) @condrodab: love your passion commisives (24) @aqsaaswar: bronze for today. sunday will be better i promise. declarations language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 202 special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately since it deals with a special authority or institution such as declaring war, naming, and the like. for those reasons, on athlete’s instagram captions, declaration is not used. the analysis of 24 data which have been classified presented in table 1. from the classification of the data table 1, it can be seen that there are four types of illocutionary acts found in indonesian athletes’ instagram caption. they are representatives (14), expressives (7), directives (2) and commissives (1). while there is no declaration found in the data. representatives is the most dominant type used by indonesian atheletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018. this was used since the indonesian athletes utter many statements of facts, information, assertions, and descriptions about asian games 2018 in their captions due to they themselves who experience asian games 2018 directly. they share the moments, the stories and the beliefs that they kept during asian games 2018 to indonesian people. conclusion after analyzing the illocutionary acts used by indonesian athletes in caption of instagram in asian games 2018, the researcher comes to the following conclusion. there are four types of illocutionary acts found in the athletes’ instagram captions in the period of asian games 2018. they are representatives (14), expressives (7), directives (2) and commissives (1). while there is no declaration used by indonesian athletes. from the total of the data above, representatives is the most dominant type that used by indonesian athletes in instagram caption in asian games 2018 since the athletes utter many statements of facts, information, assertions, and descriptions about asian games 2018 in their captions due to they themselves who experience asian games 2018 directly. they share the moments, the stories and the beliefs of asian games 2018 to indonesian people. references austin, j. l. (1962). how to do things with word. oxford: oxford university press. leech, g.n. (1983). principles of pragmatics. london: longman group limited. levinson, s.c. (1983). pragmatics. cambridge: cambridge university press. mey, j.l. (1993). pragmatics an introduction. oxford: oxford university press. miles m.b., huberman, m.a., & saldana, j. (2014). qualitative data analysis. london: sage publication. peccei, j.s. (1999). pragmatics. london: routledge. schiffrin, d. (1995). approaches to discourse. cambridge: blackwell. searle, j.r. (1969). an essay in the philosophy of language. cambridge: cambridge university press. searle, j.r (1962). meaning and speech acts. philosophical review 71 (4):423-432. searle, j.r. (1985). expression and meaning: studies in the theory of speech acts. cambridge: cambridge university press. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 133 motivation in learning indonesian as a foreign language for korean students defina defina@ipb.ac.id bogor agricultural university hanna sundari hanna.sundari@gmail.com indraprasta pgri university received: 24 august 2015. revised: 20 december 2015. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract indonesia is now promoting the internationalization of indonesian through indonesian language program for foreign speakers (bipa). nowadays, many courses and university institutes both domestically and abroad open indonesian program. it is actually caused by the increasing rate of indonesian learners and one of them is people from south korean. in this connection, the purpose of this paper is to identify the motivation they follow bipa program. the method used was a survey with data collection through a questionnaire by adapting attitude motivation test battery (amtb). research conducted at the language center foundation hana (hana language center), jakarta. the respondents were 7 people. the theory used is the theory of integrative orientation and instrumental orientation proposed by gardner. as a result, all learners‘ integrative orientations are wanted to communicate with the people of indonesia, while the instrumental orientation is they all learn indonesian as assigned in indonesia. in conclusion, the orientations of integrative and instrumental orientation are in them all. keywords: motivation, learning, bipa how to cite: devina & hanna sundari. 2016. motivation in learning indonasian as a foreign language for korean students. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction one of the ideals of the indonesian nation is to internationalize indonesian worldwide. these ideals have often discussed in the meeting of experts and observers of indonesian. one of the meetings is the indonesian congress. indonesian x congress held at grand sahid jaya, jakarta, october 28 to 31, with the theme "strengthening indonesian internationally". strengthening indonesian becomes one of the most important languages in the world also influenced by the implementation of the asean economic community (aec or masyarakat ekonomi asean, mea). application of mea on 31 december 2015 is to make the state of indonesia as one of the labor market for citizens of asean member countries. it makes citizens of asean member countries compete to enter indonesia. for that, they are also trying to learn the culture of indonesia, one of which is indonesian. strengthening indonesian can also be seen with organized programs bipa in 19 indonesian embassy and 176 universities/courses in 45 countries around the world across asia, europe, south america, and united states (wiedarti, 2013: 34-35). of the few countries that hold bipa program, in south korea, the government of indonesia through the indonesian embassy mailto:defina@ipb.ac.id mailto:hanna.sundari@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 134 and agencies and university courses has established bipa program. chung (1998, in rivai et al, 2010) stated that in south korea indonesian taught at two universities, hankuk university of foreign languages, and also in pusan foreign language academy. from 1964 to 1991, total students were around 1,150 people from language and culture department indonesian/malay graduates of two korean universities, and each year graduating 43 people. bipa program development would not be separated from the foreigners who learn indonesian. those who learn indonesian necessarily have different motivations as well. so even with the people of south korea are studying indonesian, certainly has motivation. in this connection, this present research is trying to explain the south korean people's motivation to learn indonesian. according to santrock (2008: 510), motivation is a process of encouragement, direction, and persistence of behavior. the behavior itself is behavior that is motivated energetic, purposeful and long-lasting. the same thing also expressed by fredricks, blumenfeld, and paris (2004), maehr and meyer (2004) and reeve (2006) in ormrod (no year: 58), they wrote that motivation is something that animate (energize), directing and maintaining behavior. furthermore, motivation is to make the student move, adjust him in a particular direction, and keep them moving. of the two definitions above, we can conclude two things: the first is the motivation makes people move because he always has the energy for it. that is, the driving motivation of a person doing the activity. second is the activity last long. moreover, mukalel (2003: 68) said that the function of motivation is for driving the activity. intelligence, creativity, and reasoning power, and will not run and not be created if there is no motivation as a pusher. motivation is one of the aspects that affect second language learning. this is in accordance with the opinion of brown. according to him (2000: 72), the motivation is one of the elements that must be considered in language learning. "motivation is the extent to which you the make choices about (a) goals to purse and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit‖. furthermore, it is also said that the theory of motivation can be seen from the three approaches or perspectives, namely behavioristic, cognitive, and constructivist. behavioristic perspective views of motivation in the sense that the motivation arises because of the desire to get the rewards. in the cognitive perspective, the motivation appears as a basic human need. motivation is seen as the decisions made by the individual for the sake of certain goals that he wanted to achieve. instead, constructive perspective views motivation as a result of social construction in the community, the results of individual interactions with the surrounding environment, and also acts as a social status. during this time, the theory of motivation can never be separated from the theory of motivation that is proposed by gardner. motivation to learn foreign languages initiated by gardner was quoted by steinberg et al. here are the excerpt. a number of factors which affect second-language learning operate only in certain types of situations. the question of motivation for learning of a second language for instance, is not likely to arise in a natural type of setting such as with a young child. the goal of wanting to learn a language for devina & hanna sundari. 2016. motivation in learning indonasian as a foreign language for korean students. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 135 the purpose of integrating and identifying oneself with the second-language people and culture (integrative motivation) has been thought by some theorists (gardner & lambert, 1972) to be better than learning for the purpose of using the language for some end such as getting a job (instrumental motivation) (steinberg et al, 2013: 186) however, the gardner viewed motivation is more appropriately called the orientation rather than. it can be seen from brown (brown, 2000: 15) in following opinion the research by gardner and his colleagues center on a dichotomy of orientation, not motivation. orientation means a context or purpose for learning; motivation refers to the intensity of one's impetus to learn. an integrative orientation simply means the learner is pursuing a second language for social and/or cultural purposes, and within that purpose, a learner could to driven by the high level of motivation or a law level. likewise, in an instrumental orientation, learners are studying a language in order to further a career or academic goals. the intensity or motivation of a learner to attain that goal could be high or low. second, integrative and instrumental orientations are not to be confused with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation! they are separate issues. dornyei (2003: 70) also said that the division of motivation expressed by gardner and lambert as motivation is not really the type of motivation, but more appropriately called the orientation. orientation is what will cause the motivation to self-learner. this orientation may be related to academic or career interests (instrumental), or social or cultural oriented (integrative). from the quotations above, it can be concluded that gardner's motivation more appropriately called orientation. the orientation can be classified into two, namely the integrative orientation and instrumental orientation. interrogative orientation more emphasizes on foreigners‘ learning objectives to interact with the public speakers, better understand their culture and their society such as the arts and literature. instead, instrumental orientation of language learning objectives is for the future purposes, for example: school, work, and a better life. nonetheless, the concept of motivation proposed by gardner is what will be used in this study, namely integrative and instrumental orientation. furthermore, brown (2000: 75), dornyei (2003: 70), and williams and burder (2007: 116) said that gardner developed a measuring tool to motivate students to learn foreign languages. the tool is called the attitude/motivation test battery (amtb). amtb is focused to examine some of the affective components that affect language learning a second or foreign language. amtb assess language learning into three parts, namely the behavior, motivation and class anxiety; motivational intensity; and teachers and curriculum. dornyei (2003: 70) also said that "the attitude/motivation test battery (amtb; reprinted in the appendix of gardner, 1995) is multi-componential motivation questionnaire made up of over 130 items." of the 130 materials (items), there are 4 materials for integrative orientation and 4 materials also for instrumental orientation. each material is as follows. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 136 table 1 statements for integrative and instrumental orientations integrative orientation instrumental orientation 1. studying french can be important for me because it will allow me to be more at ease with fellow canadians who speak french. 2. studying french can be important for me because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people. 3. studying french can be important for me because it will allow me to better understand and appreciate the french canadian art and literature. 4. studying french can be important for me because i will be more freely to participate in the activities of other cultural groups. 1. studying french can be important for me only because i will need it for my future. 2. studying french can be important for me because it will make me a more knowledgeable person. 3. studying french can be important for me because i think it will someday be useful in getting a good job. 4. studying french can be important for me because other people will respect me more if i have a knowledge of a foreign language. motivation to learn a foreign language or a second language (b2) has been studied by a lot of researchers. in particular, the motivation to learn english as a second language, one study on english learning motivation is research by sary (2010: 69-80) who surveyed college-students in institute manajemen telkom to find out the relationship between motivation and anxiety in learning english. according to her, the average level of motivation is high enough. the respondents indicated the dominance of the type of motivation that is instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. learners are more motivated by instrumental rather than integrative. furthermore, comparison of the motivation to learn indonesian and english was made by budiawan (2008: xii). research resulted that in terms of motivation students have the motivation to learn low against indonesian and english. however, when compared to their motivation to learn the language of both the two subjects, they tend to be more interested in english than indonesian. meanwhile, research on learner‘s motivation to learn indonesian has not been found yet. for that purpose, this present study aims to get a deep understanding about the motivation in learning indonesian particularly for people from south korea. methodology this study is a survey research. the respondents of research were 7 learners of indonesian for foreign speakers (bipa) in the foundations language center hana (hana language center) jakarta. this institution was chosen because the learners are the people of south korea. data collection was through questionnaires. results of the questionnaire will be analyzed quantitatively and descriptively. the statements in the questionnaire are an adaptation of attitude motivation test battery (amtb). the questionnaire consists of 13 statements consisting of integrative devina & hanna sundari. 2016. motivation in learning indonasian as a foreign language for korean students. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 137 orientation (6 statements) and instrumental orientation (7 statements). data processing techniques is data that has been collected, processed, classified, analyzed and described quantitatively. measurements used a likert scale. according sugiyono, likert scale used to measure attitudes, opinions, and perceptions of a person or social group of social phenomenon, ie, strongly disagree (sts), disagree (ts), agree (s) and strongly agree (ss) (sugiyono, 2014: 93). results and discussion this present study aims to describe motivation on learners indonesia for foreign speakers (bipa) particularly people from south korea. the respondents in this research were 7 people (3 male and 4 female) from south korea aged from 21 to 62 years old (see table 1). based on educational background, all respondents got at least bachelor degree, even 2 of them has master degree. all respondents work as volunteers in indonesia and have been living for about 1-2 months. 3 out of the respondents have learnt indonesian for 2 months, the rests only one month. all are in grade a1 in bipa level; it indicates that in learning indonesia they are beginners. from data analysis, learners‘ integrative orientations primarily are due to their needs to communicate with the people of indonesia. all respondents (7) stated strongly agree that they would like to learn indonesian language in order to communicate with the people of indonesia. this statement is closely linked with the statement that they learn indonesian language because they want to live in indonesia and have a friend of indonesia. 57% of the respondents chose strongly agreed and 42.9% agreed. (see table 3). 1 2 3 4 42.9% 28.6% 14.3% 14.3 language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 138 table 2 percentage of integrative orientation no statement respons (%) total sts ts s ss (%) 1 learning indonesian language is important 0 0 42.9 57.1 100 because it will facilitate me in understanding and appreciating indonesian cultures. 2 learning indonesian language is important 0 0 42.9 57.1 100 because i want to live inindonesia. 3 i want to be able to speak indonesian fluently 0 0 0 100 100 so that it is easier for me to talk to indonesian people 4 i want very much to understand and appreciate 0 71.4 0 28.6 100 indonesian arats and literature 5 i want to have as many indonesian friends 0 0 57.1 42.9 100 as possible. 6 i want to study the local cultures in indonesia 0 42.9 28.6 28.6 100.1 for example, javanese, bataknese, madurese, minangese, sundanese. although they agree and strongly agree to live and have a friend in indonesia, they quite disagree to learn indonesian language to understand the art and literature of indonesia. more than half of respondents (71.4%) disagree that the purpose of studying indonesia to understand the art and literature. however, for the purpose of studying indonesian is willing to study the tribes in indonesia, more than half (57.2%) of respondents agreed and strongly agreed respectively 28.6% furthermore, the instrumental orientation of south korean people for learning indonesian is as almost the same as the integrative orientation, to communicate. however, communication in the instrumental orientation refers to communicate in the world of work or in the workplace; in the fact that 71.4% respondents stated strongly agree. it is meant that they think learning indonesian to get ease at work particularly in communication. all respondents strongly agree that they are studying indonesian as they are assigned in indonesia. thus, no respondents who studied indonesian to continue studies (all respondents had a bachelor, and two of them had master) or looking for work. (see table 3). devina & hanna sundari. 2016. motivation in learning indonasian as a foreign language for korean students. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 139 table 3 percentage of instrumental orientation no statements respons (%) total sts ts s ss (%) 1 saya belajar bahasa indonesia agar jabatan saya di tempat kerja tinggi. 71.4 28.6 0 0 100 2 saya belajar bahasa indonesia agar penghasilan saya bertambah (gaji naik) 71.4 28.6 0 0 100 3 saya menginginkan agar dapat berkomunikasi dalam dunia kerja dengan berbahasa indonesia 0 0 28.6 71.4 100 4 belajar bahasa indonesia penting karena saya ingin mencari pekerjaan di indonesia. 57.1 42.9 0 0 100 5 belajar bahasa indonesia penting karena saya ingin melanjutkan studi di indonesia. 42.9 42.9 14.3 0 100. 1 6 belajar bahasa indonesia penting karena saya akan menulis tentang indonesia. 57.1 14.3 14.3 14.3 100 7 belajar bahasa indonesia adalah penting sebab saya ditugaskan di indonesia 0 0 0 100 100 all respondents are working as the volunteers (based on the questionnaire) in indonesia, yet they stated strongly disagree (71.4%) and disagree (28.6%) that the purposes of learning indonesian are to obtain higher positions in the workplace and to get higher salary. conclusion there are several important things that can be summarized in this paper; firstly, all respondents are adult learners and they have all had a bachelor degree. they've been working as a volunteer in indonesia. secondly, the orientations of all respondents learn bipa is to facilitate them in communication with indonesia; it can be categorized as integrative orientation. as a result, even with the instrumental orientation, bipa learners particularly from south korea learn indonesian because of the demands of the job, which is assigned in indonesia. at last, all respondents have both integrative orientation and instrumental orientation. references brown, h. dauglas. 2000. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy, 2 nd ed. london: longman. budiawan. 2008. pengaruh sikap bahasa dan motivasi belajar bahasa terhadap prestasi pada mata pelajaran bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris, thesis university of indonesia. dornyei, zoltan. 2005. the psychology of the language learner: individual differences in second language acquisition. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 140 gardner, r.c. et al. 1985. the attitude/motivasi test battery: technical report. research bulletin, no 10: the language research group, department of psychology, university of western ontario, 2004. http://hyxy.nankai.edu.cn (retrieved 26 june 2015). mukalel, joseph c. 2003. psychology of language learning. new delhi: discovery publishing house. ormrod, jeanne ellis. psikologi pendidikan: membantu siswa tumbuh dan berkembang. jilid ke-2. edisi ke-6. amirya kumara, penerjemah. jakarta: erlangga.translated from: educational psychology. rivai, ovi soviaty et al. 2010. pemetaan pengajaran bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing (bipa) di asia. research report. jakarta: badan pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, kemdibud, http://ristek.go.id (retrieved 18 juni 2015). santrock, john w. 2008. psikologi pendidikan, 2 nd ed. tri wibowo (translator). educational psychology. jakarta: kencana prenada media group sary, fetty poerwita. 2010. hubungan antara motivasi dan kecemasan belajar bahasa inggris mahasiswa institut manajemen telkom. jurnal telkom. vol. 10(2): 69-80. http://telkomuniversity.ac.id (retrieved 18 juni 2015). steinberg, danny d. et al. 2013. psycholinguistics: language, mind and world, 2 nd ed. london: routledge. sugiyono. 2014. metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d., 20 th printing. bandung: alfabeta. wiedarti, pangesti. 2013. pembelajaran bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing: hendak ke mana? kumpulan makalah kongres bahasa indonesia x. jakarta: badan pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, kemdikbud, williams, marion dan robert l. burden. 2007. psychology for language teacher: a social constructivist approach, 12 th printing. cambridge: cambridge university press,. http://hyxy.nankai.edu.cn/ http://ristek.go.id/ http://telkomuniversity.ac.id/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab3c999124e • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 75 evaluating the assessment rubrics of an english course rama dwika herdiawan s1 english language education majalengka university, west java e-mail: rama_dwika@yahoo.co.id received: 20 july 2017. revised: 25 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract evaluation needs to be conducted regularly in order to assist the institution enhance its own performance management. thus, this study is focused on evaluating the assessment of questionnaire rubrics used by national english course (nec) based on the evaluation rubrics proposed by marshall (2014) which were concerned with the four-rating scales and the six domains covering the whole aspects of lecturers‘ performances. they are planning and preparation for learning, classroom management, delivery of instruction, monitoring, assessment, and follow-up, and professional responsibilities. the data gained from the lecturers‘ interview revealed that the nec lecturers used some domains which contained aspects of lecturer‘s performance but not all aspects used in reality. basically, they had considered the five domains of the rubric. however, few aspects were used in each domain, for example: in domain of planning and preparation; they only used aspects of knowledge, lessons, and also engagement. it needs further revision dealing with the assessment or evaluation on teacher‘s performance, materials, and so on. meanwhile, the data gained from document observation revealed that the content of questionnaire did not cover all the aspects for the whole domains. it only covers some domains such as planning and preparation for learning, and classroom management. this study indicated that providing the relevant aspects as well as the rating scale in the questionnaire is needed to be used in terms of teacher‘s evaluation rubric. keywords: assessment rubrics, questionnaire how to cite: rama dwika herdiawan. 2017. evaluating the assessment rubrics of an english course. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 75—82. __________________________________________________________________________________ introduction assessing a course needs to be conducted annually in order to not only help the institution enhance its effectiveness in running it but also the students assess their own progresses during the instructional process, it is also defined as ―a systematic process for gathering data about students‘ achievement,‖ is an essential component of teaching (dhindsa, omar, & waldrip, 2007:1261). thus, there must be the related integration among the parties in the institution, and also approaches to the assessment itself. it is also mentioned by robert, m. d (2008) that in the design process you should have stated all major mailto:rama_dwika@yahoo.co.id language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 76 instructional outcomes for your course and for each instructional unit within it. you can now begin work simultaneously in two areas: the selection and design of the evaluation procedures and instruments that are necessary, and the design and production of the instructional units themselves. in addition, brookhart (1997) states that classroom assessment is important because it has a strong impact on learning. the way an instructor approaches assessment influences the way students perceive the class, the material for study, and their own work. it is also supported by doyle (1983) that assessment practices influence students by directing their attention to particular aspects of course content and by specifying ways of processing information. it is clear that what we need to consider is creating the main instructional outcomes which are relevant with the course unit as well as integrating the selection and design of the evaluation procedures and instruments which are also necessary to be done based on the overall effectiveness of the instruction. therefore, this study is focused on evaluating the assessment rubric especially the questionnaire which is given to the students for the sake of evaluating the teachers‘ performances, the materials, and the classroom management strategies. it is aimed to assess the national english course (nec) in providing the assessment rubric which reflects the instructional aspects. national english course is an informal institution which conduct a course to enhance the students‘ english proficiency in terms of english for specific purposes, and it focuses on having the corporation with the nursing and midwifery colleges. in line with this, some findings revealed that the assessment conducted by national english course seemed to be irrelevant with the instructional goals and also outcomes such as the content of the questionnaire did not state the whole points related to the instructional process, and also did not represent the design of evaluation procedures and instruments. not only that, there was not any exact instrument that used to measure the students‘ performances. as we know, the success of a course is mostly determined by the performances of the students. this one is considered to be the key point in terms of assessment or evaluation procedures. regarding the related problems mentioned, this study is carried out to redesign the form of the questionnaire which represents the whole aspects of instructional process, the appropriate numerical and alphabetical labeling system, and procedures of using it as the assessment rubric. the format and mechanism of the questionnaire are designed to provide the accurate feedback in revising the weaknesses related to the services of the english course. the questionnaire format is adopted by marshall (2014), as he mentions that the rubrics have six domains covering all aspects of a teacher‘s job performance: planning and preparation for learning, classroom management, delivery of instruction, monitoring, assessment, and follow-up, family and community outreach, and professional responsibilities. meanwhile, the rubrics use a four-level rating scale: (4) highly effective means master teacher performance that meets very demanding criteria, (3) effective means solid, expected professional performance; teachers should feel good about scoring at this level, (2) improvement necessary means performance is mediocre; no teacher should be content to remain at this level, (1) does not meet standards means unacceptable performance rama dwika herdiawan. 2017. evaluating the assessment rubrics of an english course. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 75—82. 77 leading to an improvement plan, intensive support and, if improvement isn‘t made within a reasonable amount of time, dismissal. in terms of the rubrics, the study is focused on five domains on the aspects of a teacher‘s job performance including planning and preparation for learning, classroom management, delivery of instruction, monitoring, assessment, and follow-up, and professional responsibilities. and also applies the four-level rating scale. regarding the statements mentioned above, there must be an integrated evaluation or assessment in order to increase the students‘ performances as well as embody the teaching success. the reason why the researcher is eager to conduct the research which is focused on evaluating or assessing the whole elements in line with the instructional process as well as the instruments used in terms of assessing a course are first, this study is considered to be the new breakthrough in line with assessing the questionnaire as the assessment rubric. second, this can be the assessment guidance which is concerned with evaluating the instructional aspects. this research is aimed to evaluate and design the content of questionnaire used in esp class. it is also conducted to answer the following research questions: what is the appropriate content of questionnaire used to evaluate the instructional process national english course? methodology the study deals with descriptive qualitative method which focuses on gathering the data in words rather than numbers. as stated by merrian, b. (2009) also states ―it is a descriptive study because words are used in order to express what the researcher learned about the phenomenon, besides it is likely to have descriptions of the context and the participants‖. in addition, according to wallace (1998) ―qualitative is used to describe data which are not amenable to being counted or measured in an objective way, and therefore subjective‖. this study is closely related to document analysis as the design. therefore, it focuses on evaluating the assessment rubrics of the questionnaire. the source of data is taken from the questionnaire used by national english course which is concerned with evaluating the lecturers‘ performances during instructional process. in collecting the data, the researcher interviews the lecturer who is in charge of teaching the material as well as observes the format of the questionnaire in order to find out the strengths and weaknesses of it. regarding the interview, there are ten related questions which are concerned with the assessment rubrics used in the questionnaire. it is also a part of surveys in line with this study because there are interviews which involve not only the lecturers but also the course coordinator in order to obtain the data which were relevant to design the rubric. in terms of analyzing the data, the researcher transcribe the interview script in order that the data are interpreted based on the questions given. after finding out the weaknesses related to the content of questionnaire, the next step is interpreting it with the whole findings found during the observation. results and discussion document observation and also lecturer‘s interview are employed to describe the content as well as form of the questionnaire used in national english course. the evaluation rubrics are adopted from marshall (2014). thus, the study emphasizes on language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 78 describing the findings based on the six domains covering the whole aspects of lecturers‘ performances. they are planning and preparation for learning, classroom management, delivery of instruction, monitoring, assessment, and follow-up, and professional responsibilities. besides this, the evaluation is concerned with the four-rating scale also proposed by marshall (2014). the content of the questionnaire used in national english course are as follows. planning and preparation for learning. based on the data gained from the lecturers‘ interview, it revealed that every lecturer made sure the condition of class before teaching the students, and also prepared the materials which were in the form of handout containing the related ones based on the students‘ necessities in line with nursery and midwifery content. the lecturers also designed the lesson or materials which were focused on achievable outcome related to the goals. regarding the previous statement, it is clear that the lecturers created the lessons which were appropriate with the teaching goals. furthermore, they also designed the motivating lesson which is likely to engage most students. in this case, the lecturers always motivated the students to study better, engage the students in the whole activities. not only that, the lecturers were competent in teaching english for specific purposes because they were trained for ten days before they were ready to teach the students the materials. regarding the document observation, there were only three aspects that covered the teachers‘ performances based on marshall‘s rubrics, they were knowledge, lessons, and also engagement found. as stated by marshall (2014), at least there must be ten aspects on the lecturer‘s evaluation rubric: knowledge, standards, units, assessments, anticipation, lessons, engagement, materials, differentiation, and environment. thus, the questionnaire only covers three aspects which are concerned with knowledge of the lecturer, the lessons, and also engagement. that‘s why the questionnaire needs to be redesigned by adding the related rubric points proposed by marshall (2014). classroom managements in line with the classroom managements, the lecturers managed the class by making the seating arrangement in a group discussion, encouraging the students discipline and to be responsible for their own actions, and showing their caring, respect, and fairness for all students to build strong relationships. at least the lecturers were aware of the importance of employing good classroom management, for example: they embodied the importance of being discipline by coming to the class in time, they gave the feedback for the materials explained as well as the exercises given, and also they urged the students to provide the reasons when answering the questions (obtained from the lecturers‘ interview). based on the document observation, it revealed that the questionnaire provided the aspects of responsibility, and also relationship. point 9 and 2 from the questionnaire represents the aspects of responsibility and relationship. it is also supported by marshall (2014) that evaluating classroom managements require at least ten aspects such as expectations, relationship, respect, social emotional, routines, responsibility, repertoire, efficiency, prevention, and incentives. therefore, the questionnaire made by national english course is necessary to be developed by using the aspects mentioned in order to obtain the rama dwika herdiawan. 2017. evaluating the assessment rubrics of an english course. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 75—82. 79 exact feedback for the students and also the institution. delivery of instructions in this point, the data are found based on the interview and document observation. the data are closely related to the way the lecturers teach the students. based on the lecturers‘ interview, it revealed that the lecturers employed a clear explanation while teaching the materials, and they also asked the students to think actively during the discussion as well as explore their ideas in it, in addition, they summed up the materials taught at the end of the activity. those represent how the lecturers provide the instructions to the students in order to make them fully understand it. meanwhile, the data gained from the document observation revealed that the questionnaire contained aspects of clarity (mentioned in point 4), engagement (mentioned in point 6, 7, and 8). thus, the questionnaire has attached two aspects in line with teacher‘s evaluation rubric. however, it should be expanded in terms of the content in order that it is very essential to evaluate the overall aspects of teachers‘ performances. monitoring, assessment, and follow-up regarding the domain of the rubric, it was found that the lecturers were responsible for the students‘ misconception toward the material given by giving some extra lessons outside the instructional process (it belongs to ―tenacity‖, marshall, 2014). they also provided the assessment related to the students‘ learning outcomes, concluded what they analyzed, and shared it to the coordinator (it belongs to ―analysis‖, marshall, 2014). based on the document observation, the questionnaire did not provide the aspects mentioned by the lecturers from the interview. therefore, there are a number of plans in the study which is concerned with evaluating and also redesigning the questionnaire rubrics. in this point, the questionnaire should also describe the important aspects proposed by marshall (2014) such as criteria, diagnosis, on-the-spot, self-assessment, recognition, interims, tenacity, support, analysis, and reflection. a good questionnaire needs to cover the whole aspects to achieve the goal of embodying an exact evaluation in line with the instructional process. professional responsibilities in this domain, there is an illustration regarding the data obtained from interview and also document observation. this one is also related to the second domain (classroom managements). from the interview, it is mentioned that most lecturers were categorized as the professional because they attended the class without permission or absence (aspect of attendance proposed by marshall, 2014). on the other hand, they had near-perfect attendances. in addition, they also maintained the relationships with the other colleagues in terms of planning the units, sharing teaching ideas, and also revising the students‘ works (aspect of collaboration proposed by marshall, 2014). from the document observation, there was no aspect used in the questionnaire as proposed by marshall (2014). those aspects are also crucial to be used in the teacher‘s evaluation rubric because it can be the reflection of the teacher‘s activities during the teaching and learning process. a four-level rating scale of rubric regarding this part, it was found from the document observation that the questionnaire did not use a level rating scale within the language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 80 categories such as highly effective, effective, improvement necessary, does not meet the standards. it only provided the scores for each point without the exact categories. this can lead to the students‘ misunderstanding to fill in the questionnaire properly. as stated by marshall (2014) that there are four-level rating scales of a rubric in terms of teacher‘s evaluation rubric, they are highly effective with score (4) means master teacher performance that meets very demanding criteria, effective with score (3) means solid, expected professional performance; teachers should feel good about scoring at this level, improvement necessary with the score (2) means performance is mediocre; no teacher should be content to remain at this level, does not meet standards with the score (1) means unacceptable performance leading to an improvement plan, intensive support and, if improvement isn‘t made within a reasonable amount of time, dismissal. based on the rating scale of a rubric above, it is very important to provide the clear category as well as scoring in line with the questionnaire given to the students. in line with the statements above, the appropriate content of questionnaire should cover at least 5 evaluation components as well as the four-rating scale that can be applied to assess the lecturers‘ performances properly. in addition, the institution should pay attention at creating the assessment rubrics which are relevant with the goals as well as instructional process. the strengths of nec questionnaire are considering the instructional aspects such as the students‘ needs, lecturers‘ feedback, and teaching media. in addition, the assessment is held twice a year to obtain the exact data which reflect the lecturers‘ performances. meanwhile, the weaknesses are related to the content of the questionnaire as the assessment rubric which still has lack of instructional components and also the format needs to be developed by adding the fourrating scale proposed by marshall (2014) such highly effective, effective, improvement necessary, and does not meet standards. conclusion this study indicated that providing the relevant aspects as well as the rating scale in the questionnaire is needed to be used in terms of teacher‘s evaluation rubric. the data gained from the lecturers‘ interview revealed that the nec lecturers already used some domains which contained aspects of lecturer‘s performance but not all aspects used in reality. basically, they had considered the domains of the rubric such as planning and preparation for learning, classroom management, delivery of instruction, monitoring, assessment, and follow-up, and professional responsibilities. however, few aspects were used in each domain for example in domain of planning and preparation; they only used aspects of knowledge, lessons, and also engagement. it needs further revision dealing with the assessment or evaluation on teacher‘s performance, materials, and curriculum. meanwhile, the data gained from document observation revealed that the content of questionnaire did cover all the aspects for the whole domains, moreover, it only covers three domains such as planning and preparation for learning, classroom management, delivery of instruction. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 81 references brookhart, s. m. (1997). the relationship of classroom assessment to student effort and achievement in the college classroom: pilot study technical report. american educational research association conference proceedings: chicago. doyle, w. (1983). academic work. review of educational research 53(2), 159–199. dhindsa, h. et al. (2007). upper secondary bruneian science students' perceptions of assessment. international journal of science education, 29(10), 1281-1280. merriam, s. b. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education. josseybass publisher. marshall, k. (2014). teacher evaluation rubric. internet download accessed at http://www.marshallmemo.com/articles/teacher%20rubrics%20jan%202014.pdf. wallace. (1998). action research for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press apppendix the questionnaire learner’s course evaluation level & class: date : teacher : branch : the following statements are related to the assessment rubrics of english class held by nec teachers. circle the mark for each statement from 10 up to 1 based on your opinions. high low 1. the given material is appropriate with the students‘ needs : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2. the class condition created truly supported the students in learning english : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 3. the handout is very beneficial to enhance the students‘ english proficiencies : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 4. the teachers‘ explanations are easy to understand : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 5. the teachers are cooperative when the students face the difficulties in learning : http://www.marshallmemo.com/articles/teacher%20rubrics%20jan%202014.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 82 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 6. the teachers always use the instructional media : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 7. the teachers motivate the students a lot: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8. the teachers always encourage the students to speak english a lot : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9. the teachers always come in time : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 10. the teachers always dress up well : 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 general opinion: 1) the english class is generally : a) excellent b) good c) does not meet the standard 2) the teachers are generally : a) excellent b) good c) does not meet the standard 3) in terms of the institution improvement, write out your suggestions regarding our services: ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 215 needs analysis research in the arab world (2000 – 2019): contexts and data collection instruments and sources triangulation abuelgasim sabah elsaid mohammed, department of english language, college of science & humanities, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, saudi arabia ab.ibrahim@psau.edu.sa abstract this study aimed at reporting the contexts of interest in needs analysis research (nar) in the arab world (2000 – 2019) and describing the adoption of triangulation in data collection instruments and data sources. a purposive sample of 48 published nar was subjected to content analysis. results revealed that needs analysis studies (nass) in the arab world (2000 – 2019) are interested in eap context more than other contexts such as english for medical purposes (emp) and english for occupational purposes (eop). in addition, most of the nass adopted one data collection tool and consulted outsiders as sources of data. in addition, the study found that there is lack of method and/or source interaction. in general, nar in the arab world suffers from several shortcomings. based on these results, the study recommended that na researchers in the arab world should pay more attention to other esp contexts. in addition, they need to address issues related to triangulation to lend reliability to their data. keywords: data collection methods, data sources, eap, esp, needs analysis, triangulation introduction needs analysis (na) is of paramount importance to general english (ge) and english for specific purposes (esp), but esp pays more attention to na than ge (hutchinson & waters 1987). according to researchers (e.g., hutchinson and waters 1987; nunan 1988; brindley 1989; robinson 1991; brown 1995; seedhouse 1995; west 1997; graves 2000; richards 2001; long 2005, brown 2009; and kumar 2020), this importance originates from the role na plays in esp course design. consequently, na is a main characteristic of esp to the degree that it can be part of teacher’s job (graves 2000; belcher 2006). ali (2011) suggests that na is profitable in producing a concentrated esp course. na data can serve a variety of purposes that include assessing a course, setting objectives, planning tests, offering required data about a course to interested bodies (richards 2001) and selecting course materials and activities (astika 1999; diana 2020; basri, ampa and ramadayani 2020). this situation is similar in the arab world where researchers conducted several na studies (nass) to investigate esp learners’ needs. therefore, careful design is deemed necessary for nass to reveal the desired and accurate information, which effectively acts as the base of course design. despite the central role that na plays, little is known about how na researchers conduct their research in the arab world. this is because only few studies have been conducted to review nass’ quality in the arab world. therefore, the purpose of the current study is to achieve two objectives: first, to examine contexts in which nass in the arab world are interested, and second to explore triangulation of data collection methods and data sources in na research in the arab world (2000 – 2019). accordingly, this study attempts to answer the following questions: 1. what are the contexts of interest to nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019)? 2. what is the status of data collection methods and sources triangulation in nass in the arab world (20002019)? literature review http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:ab.ibrahim@psau.edu.sa language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 216 there is a plethora of definitions for esp. hutchinson and waters (1987) declare that esp is an ‘approach’ not a ‘product’. this is an implication that esp does not represent a particular sort of language, method or content to be taught. corresponding to munby (1978), hutchinson and waters (1987) mention that an esp course begins by discovering the reasons why individuals want to learn a foreign language. the response to this question bonds students, the language, and the educational environment. hutchinson and waters (1987) propose that esp is a method to teach the language ensuring that all the materials and methods of instruction meet students’ needs for learning english language. another definition considers esp in terms of two types of characteristics as (dudley-evans and st john 1998) suggest. first, absolute characteristics comprise some factors that include esp focus on learners’ needs. another determinant is the employment of methodology and activities related to the specialization it serves. in addition, it concentrates on the grammar, vocabulary, discourse, and genre appropriate for these activities. the second set of characteristics incorporate factors such as the design of esp for a certain field at university or specialists in a specific profession; however, we can teach it to students in lower educational levels. another determinant is that esp is intended for proficient learners as it requires understanding of basic language, yet it could still be offered to beginners (dudly-evans and st john 1998). furthermore, it might use a distinct methodology from that of ge. finally, it is planned for mature students at tertiary education. esp has been classified into several branches. for example, belcher (2009) groups esp in relation to students’ present needs and future tasks, which they will perform in their jobs. dudleyevans and st john (1998) provide a tree diagram that classifies esp into two main types. see figure 1. from: dudley-evans and st. john (1998: 6) figure 1. esp classification the diagram above divides esp into two main classes: eap and eop. eap has four branches. est has been the main branch; however, emp and elp have always had their place. english for management, finance, and economics (emfe) is a recent branch, which has increasingly become important to master of business administration (mba) courses, but no specific acronym has been established for it (dudleyevans and st john 1998). eop branches into english for professional purposes (epp) and english for vocational purposes (evp). the former aimed for professionals such as doctors, and businessmen. esp english for academic purposes (eap) english for (academic) science and technolog y (east) english for (academ ic) medical purposes (emp) english for (academi c) legal purposes (elp) english for manageme nt, finance and economics english for occupational purposes (eop) english for professional purposes english for medical purpose s (emp) english for busines s purpose s (ebp) english for vocational purpses (evp) pre vocation al english vocationa l english http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 217 the latter is divided into two branches: pre vocational english (pre ve), which focuses on jobhunting skills such as writing a cv, taking an interview among other skills needed to find a job. the other branch of evp is vocational english (ve), which is concerned with the language of specific jobs (dudleyevans and st john 1998). definition of na it is mentioned that esp pays more attention to na than ge. accordingly, esp specialists have defined na in several ways. widdowson (1978 a & b) defines the term ‘learner needs’ in two ways. according to widdowson (1978a: 192) the first concentrates on what students “need to do with the language when he or she has learned it”. widdowson (1978) maintains that this is a goaloriented meaning of needs since it states the final behaviour in the target situation. the second definition of learner’s needs considers language learning requirements on the part of the learners; what they need in order to learn the language (learning needs). he calls this process oriented definition that attempts to disclose “transitional behaviour” or ways of learning. in widdowson’s words, “it is the first of these [two] interpretations which is favoured in esp work” (widdowson 1978: 192). the goal-oriented definition is related to aims while the processoriented one refers to educational objectives. focusing on students’ needs in the first meaning, on one hand, assists in identifying the language, which should be taught in the course. needs in the second meaning, on the other hand, is the focus of the methodological aspects of the course (widdowson 1983). na refers to strategies we employ to collect data to plan a language programme (nunan 1988). nunan (1988) provides two categories of needs. the first is students’ assessment, which aims to collect data about students’ reasons for learning english. this entails ‘objective and subjective’ data. objective information covers students’ age, nationality, and mother tongue (nunan 1988). for berwick (1989), objective needs could be disclosed through a variety of actual information about learners, their use of language in real life situations besides their language ability and difficulties facing them in learning it. subjective needs, according to nunan (1988), encompasses information about leaners’ opinion on english, purposes for learning english, and their prime concerns in learning the language. beriwck (1989) believes that subjective needs is responsible for students’ intellectual and psychological needs in the educational context. brown (1995: 36) provides, in his words, “a working definition” of na. he defines it as the systematic collection and analysis of all subjective and objective information necessary to define and validate defensible curriculum purposes that satisfy the language learning requirements of students within the context of particular institutions that influence the learning and teaching situation. richards (2001) and brown (2009) refer to na as the process used to gather information about learners’ needs. brown (2009) states that na concentrates on students’ needs that should be interpreted into learning outcomes forming the base of teaching materials, learning tasks, testing, and course assessment. needs is a complex term since it is used to mean “wants, desires, demands, expectation, motivations, lacks, constraints, and requirements” (brindley 1984: 54). similarly, hyland (2006) states that needs is an “umbrella term,” which encompasses several facets such as, “learners’ goals and backgrounds, their language proficiencies, their teaching and learning preferences, and the situation they will need to communicate in” (hyland 2006: 73). this information is appropriate for course development. it is the way to establish the how and what of a language course (hyland 2006 and flowerde 2013). according to hyland (2006), needs can mean various things to various people, and it can be more effective when it combines both teachers and students’ views. hyland (2007) refines his definition by providing a detailed one. he points out that na is the organized employment of ways to identify the particular set of skills, texts, language patterns, and communicative practices, which a specific group of learners must acquire. this can inform the esp course and support its practical relation to academic and professional contexts. methodological issues in na data collection methods http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 218 na employs numerous methods for data collection. for instance, basturkmen (2010), brown (2009 & 1995), long (2005), hyland (2006), richards (2001), graves (2000), dudley-evans and st john (1998), and west (1997) assert that na data may be administered adopting questionnaires, participants and nonparticipants observations, structured and unstructured interviews, various types of tests, and analysis of authentic spoken and written texts. sources of data researchers can collect data for na from several sources. brown (1995) suggests four classes of na data sources. firstly, there is the target group, which includes learners, instructors, and managers. secondly, the audience, which means individuals responsible for using the na results. audience members can be programme administrators, inspectors, or other authorities above the language programme. thirdly, the resource group can contribute pertinent data. this group includes parents, funders, expected employers, or field instructors. finally, needs analysts, who are experts external to the company or internal specialists (robinson 1991). long (2005) provides a comprehensive list of na sources including domain experts that he considers as important source of data for needs analysis. this can be attributed to their ability to provide accurate description of the target tasks that students will perform in their future jobs. triangulation triangulation means employing multiple methods of data collection and data sources (west 1997; richards 2001; nugraha 2002; long 2005; brown 2009; and flick 2007 & 2018). this, as long (2005: 28) suggests, strengthens “credibility of…. [and] interpretations of data”. denzin (1970, 2009, & 2017) suggests that triangulation can take several forms. the first one is data triangulation that refers to utilizing diverse data sources as dissimilar from employing various methods in producing data. denzin proposes investigating the same topic at distinct times, in different places and with different respondents. the second form of triangulation is investigator triangulation. this form means employment of various or multiple researchers to reduce inclination resulting from single investigator. theory triangulation, the third form, is examining a topic of interest with numerous theories, views, or hypotheses. finally, methods triangulation refers to two types the first of which is within methods that utilizes various subsections in a survey to address the same topic. the second is between methods triangulation means combining two methods to avoid limitations of using one tool. similarly, brown (2009) proposes seven types of triangulation. first, data triangulation involves using multiple kinds of procedures. second, investigator triangulation refers to multiple needs analysts. third, theory triangulation means multiple theoretical accounts. fourth, methodological triangulation is to use multiple data collection methods. fifth, interdisciplinary triangulation involves using views of multiple disciplines. sixth, time triangulation is the use of multiple data collection occasions. finally, location triangulation refers to collecting data from multiple locations. richards (2001) notes that adoption of numerous data collection methods supplements each other. for instance, survey forms, in one hand, are characterized by small return rate, and once they are dispensed, we cannot modify their items. additionally, they are not able to reflect respondents’ emotions. on the other hand, interviews can fill in this gap through supplying a full and comprehensive reportage on the questions because of the investigator attendance. long (2005), hastings (2012) and fielding (2012) suggest that triangulation could be beneficial for na in several ways. first, it ensures the results of the study by contributing to minimizing errors. second, it broadens our comprehension of the research problem and questions. third, it allows for investigating many realities. finally, it reduces nepotism. gilabert (2005), jassoaguilar (2005, 1999) and tonic (2010) evaluated the effectiveness of triangulating data collection methods and sources in conducting na. they concluded that triangulated data collection instruments and sources proved to be influential and useful in producing information regarding participants’ needs for language. they agree that triangulation improved their studies validity. in addition, it yielded concise and dependable data about http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 219 language needs. moreover, variation in methods of data collection paved the way for discovering and collecting data that would not be possible through adopting one instrument. previous studies serafini, lake and long (2015) investigated 33 nass conducted during the period 1984-2014 to survey the design, methods, procedures and triangulation. the study found that, during 19841999, all the studies resorted to filed specialists as data source. they also found that four papers interrogated esp teachers and applied linguists. nine studies out of 10 collected data from students. in terms of tools for data collection, six studies adopted questionnaires and seven used interviews. regarding triangulation, the study revealed that seven studies triangulated participants using the same data collection instrument while six of them employed multiple data collection methods with one source of data. regarding the period from 2000 to 2014, 23 research papers were reviewed. the study also found that all the studies recruited specialization experts as data sources, 10 studies employed mixture of data source, students participated in 21 studies, 12 studies triangulated data sources, and 17 papers used multiple methods for data collection. the study concluded that there is a noticeable improvement in na studies; however, a methodical vent was conspicuous. the good part was the inclusion of field specialists and persistent triangulation of data sources and data collection instruments. nevertheless, fewer than 50% of the research triangulated data from multiple participants adopting more than one method for collecting data. veerappan (2012) reviewed 14 nass to report their methods. he noted several shortcomings. he also found that more focus was placed on eap and eop contexts for na research. most studies frequently employed participants’ observation, structured and unstructured interviews and questionnaires as methods for data collection. veerappan concluded that there was lack in triangulation of both instruments and data sources. nugraha (2002) reviewed nass in asia and indonesia to reveal the research context, triangulation of data collection methods and sources. he found that varieties of contexts were covered by the studies in asia including eap, eba (english for business administration), emp and eop. he also found that three studies out of five used triangulation in both data collection methods and data sources. in indonesia, only two studies out of six adopted triangulation in data sources in one study and both data collection methods and sources in the other. veerappan (2012) and nugraha’s (2002) studies examined very few number of nass. in addition, they did not provide a careful description of their methodology. methodology design this study adopted the mixed method approach since it relies on content analysis that, according to mayring (2014), starts, in its qualitative phase, with assigning categories to contents, operating via subject matters and analysing frequencies of genres in the quantitative phase. selvi (2020) points out that content analysis is used as a strong systematic method for intuitive construction of material of both qualitative (categories) and quantitative (percentages of categories) in standardized and situation-reliant way. data collection data sources in this study constitutes purposive sample of na research published in various peer reviewed journals. to locate studies for this paper, some databases such as eric, google scholars, and the saudi digital library (sdl) were used. the key words utilized in the search included ‘esp needs analysis’, ‘needs assessment’, and ‘needs analysis in the arab world’. the focus of the search was on needs analysis studies published in peer-reviewed journals. this is because most journals follow open access policymaking studies more accessible than other sources of research. to be included, studies should: • be about needs analysis, • have a method section, • be written by arab researchers, • be published in a peer reviewed journal, and • be published during 2000 – 2019. these criteria resulted in research papers published in various local arab journals such as arab world english journal (awej), international arab journal of english for specific purposes and in http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 220 international journals such as international journal of instruction, how journal, and international journal of educational investigations, among others. all these journals are indexed in either scopus or web of science databases. the total number of the articles was 62, out of which 48 were included in this study as they met the inclusion criteria, and they were subjected to the content analysis. data analysis the analysis focused on the contexts of the nass, data collection methods, and data sources to examine their triangulation. each of these 48 nass (data sources) was assigned a number (148) to refer to them in the analysis, table 1. the sample studies were arranged in table 1 according to their publication date. each of the 48 nass was examined to identify its context, data collection tool(s), data source(s), and their triangulation. to discover the context of each study, the title, abstract were used. the method section was thoroughly scrutinized to discern data collection instrument(s), data source(s) and their triangulation. the data were coded and entered in the spss that was used in the analysis. reliability reliability is used to measure data coverage, correctness, and comprehensibility (tavakoli 2012 and brown 2004). according to tavakoli (2012), reliability is measured through interrater reliability. to decide on the reliability in this study, the sample studies were handled to a colleague at the department of english language to rate them. the interrater reliability was 0.96, showing an almost perfect agreement according to landis & koch (1977) cited in stemler (2001). results and discussion table 1 shows data sources, contexts, instruments, data sources and triangulation of instruments and/or data sources of na studies in the arab world (2000 – 2019). data sources coded 1-48 were referred to as appropriate. contexts of interest to nass in the arab world (20002019) from table 1, it is obvious that nass in the arab world (20002019) covered a variety of esp contexts. eap received more attention than other contexts since 23 (47.9%) of the studies focused on it. eight studies (16.7%) of the total research were about ebe/eba and six (12.5%) of them covered emp and eop. very little attention was paid to evp and emilp. this is an indication that eap occupies a space in na research in the arab world. this focus on eap seems to be natural as it aims at preparing students for academic study at universities. most universities in the arab world offer eap courses to their undergraduates, which necessitates analyzing students’ needs to prepare appropriate courses. nevertheless, the findings imply that nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019) pay little attention to other esp branches compared to eap. this could be attributed this to the absence of english language outside academic settings, i.e., it is not extensively used on daily basis in everyday life. these results contradict with what serafini et al. (2015) found. they revealed that only two studies from those they reviewed focused on eap context. this study’s findings are consistent with those of veerappan (2012) and nugraha (2002) who disclosed that eap is a context of interest to most of the studies they investigated. instrument triangulation it is apparent from table 1 that more than half 25 (52.1%) of the nas in the arab world (2000 – 2019) adopted one data collection instrument, a questionnaire, to be precise. two studies (4.2%) employed four data collection methods. these are data source 7 that used participants’ observation; two semi-structured interviews; structured interview and a questionnaire and data source 8, which adopted two questionnaires and two semi-structured interviews. it is also obvious that 13 (27.1%) of the studies utilized two data collection tools. for example, data source 3 used an interview and a questionnaire while data source 30 employed semi-structured interview and document analysis. moreover, three tools appeared in eight (16.7%) of the nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019). these occurred, for instance, in data sources 11, 22, and 39. these results imply that adoption of one data collection tool, i.e., questionnaire, dominated nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019). this may jeopardize na research validity and reliability because triangulating data collection method lends credibility, validity and reliability to data (long, 2005 and jasso-aguilar, 2005). it may also affect http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 221 data quality due to questionnaire limitations. the results accord with that of veerappan (2012) who found that nass frequently adopted questionnaires in data collection. nevertheless, the current study’s findings are in contrast with what serafini et al. (2015) found. they concluded that only six studies adopted questionnaires as data collection tool compared to 25 in the present study. less than 50% of the total nass in the arab world employed two or more methods for data collection. although the number of these studies is small, this implies that these studies pay attention to their data reliability. moreover, this leads to varied data that provides more apprehension to participants’ needs. consequently, this contributes to accurate na investigation. nevertheless, methods triangulation occurred in 47.9% of the nass in the arab world. we can view this as a weakness, and it implies that nass in the arab world mainly adopted one data collection method. this may be because using two or more methods in collecting data is time consuming and needs more effort. the findings suggest that less than 50% of the na research in the arab world relied on valid and reliable data due to lack of methods triangulation. this may be justified by what long (2005), hastings (2012), and fielding (2012) postulate; they believe that data collection method triangulation lends credibility and reliability to dat http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 222 table 1. na studies in the arab world (2000 – 2019) methodology data source no. year context instrument(s) data source(s) triangulation of methods and/or sources 1 2003 emp 1. questionnaire 1. nurses 2 2008 eop 1. questionnaire 1. police officers 3 2009 eop 1. interview 2. questionnaire 1. employers 2. employees 1. interview x employers 2. questionnaire x employees 3. observation x employees 4 2010 eep/eap 1. questionnaire 1. students 5 2010 eop 1. questionnaire 2. employees 6 2010 est 1. questionnaire 1. students 7 2011 emp 1. participants’ observation 2. structured semi-openended interview/students 3. structured semi-open-ended interview/ staff 4. questionnaire 1. medicine students 2. medicine teachers 3. medicine classroom 1. interview x faculty members 2. interview x students 3. observation x students 8 2011 ebe 1. students’ questionnaire 2. teachers’ questionnaire 3. semi-structured interview/students 4. semi-structured interview/teachers 1. business teaching staff 2. business students 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x business instructors 3. semi-structured interview x students 4. semi-structured interview x business instructors 9 2011 eop 1. questionnaire 1. police officers 10 2011 eap 1. students’ questionnaire 2. teachers’ questionnaire 1. students 2. efl teachers 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x efl teachers 11 2012 emp 1. interview 2. participants’ observation 3. questionnaire 1. nursing students 2. programme directors interview x nursing programme directors observation x nursing students questionnaire x nursing ss. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 223 12 2012 ebe 1. questionnaire 1. esp teachers 13 2012 ebe 1. questionnaire 1. students 14 2012 eap 1. questionnaire 1. students 15 2013 eap 1. questionnaire 1. efl teachers 16 2013 eop 1. questionnaire 1. cadet students 17 2013 evp 1. questionnaire 1. 1. hotel students 2. efl teachers 3. hotel employees 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x efl teachers 3. questionnaire x hotel employees 18 2013 eap 1. questionnaire 1. science students 19 2013 eop 1. questionnaire 2. proficiency test 3. unstructured interview 1. directors, supervisors & head of departments 2. tour guides 1. questionnaire x hajj guides 2. proficiency test x haj guides 3. unstructured interview x administrators 20 2013 emp 1. questionnaire 1. students 21 2014 ebe 1. questionnaire 1. businesswomen 22 2014 eap 1. questionnaire 2. interview 3. observation 1. science instructors 1. interview x science instructors 2. questionnaire x science instructors 3. observation x science instructors 23 2015 eap 1. questionnaire 2. semi-structured interview 1. students 1. questionnaire x students 2. semi-structured interview x students 24 2015 ebe 1. questionnaire 1. esp instructors 25 2015 eap 1. questionnaire 1. students 26 2015 ebe 1. documents analysis 2. interview 3. questionnaire 1. students 2. graduates 3. employers 27 2015 ebe 1. questionnaire 2. interview 3. participants’ observation 1. students 2. esp teachers 28 2015 eap 1. students’ questionnaire 2. teachers’ questionnaire 1. students 2. college staff 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x professors http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 224 3. esp teachers 29 2016 emp 1. questionnaire 1. medicine students 2. practicing doctors 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x doctors 30 2016 eap 1. semi-structured interview 2. document analysis 1. head of departments 31 2016 eap 3. questionnaire 2. students 32 2016 eap 1. questionnaire 2. proficiency test 3. structured interview 1. students 2. programme coordinators 1. questionnaire x students 2. proficiency test x students 3. interview x coordinators 33 2016 eap 1. questionnaire 2. textbook analysis 1. esp teachers 34 2016 eap/eit (info tech) 1. questionnaire 2. semi-structured interview 1. students 2. esp teachers 35 2017 emp (military) 1. questionnaire 2. interview 1. students 1. questionnaire x students 2. interview x students 36 2017 eap/eit 1. questionnaire 1. students 37 2017 eap 1. questionnaire 2. structured interview 1. professors 2. programme coordinators 1. questionnaire x professors 2. interview x professors 38 2017 eap 1. students’ questionnaire 2. efl teachers’ questionnaire 3. semi-structured interview 1. master’s students 2. efl teachers 3. subject specialists 4. administrators 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x subject specialists 3. semi-. structured interview x subject specialists 4. semi-structured interview x administrators 39 2017 eap 1. classroom observation protocol 2. questionnaire 3. semi-structured interview 1. esp teachers 2. civil engineering teachers 3. civil engineering students 1. questionnaire x students 2. structured interview x subject teachers 3. structured interview x esp teachers 4. observation x students http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 225 40 2018 eap 1. questionnaire 2. proficiency test 1. teaching assistants 1. questionnaire x teaching assistants 2. proficiency test x teaching assistants 41 2018 emp 1. questionnaire 2. structured interview 1. students 2. medicine instructors 42 2019 est 1. questionnaire 1. students 43 2019 esp 1. questionnaire 1. students 44 2019 eap 1. questionnaire 2. interview 1. students 2. content subject teachers 45 2019 emp 1. semi-structured interview 1. dentistry students 46 2019 eap (computer engineering) 1. questionnaire 1. students 47 2019 ebe 1. questionnaire 2. semi-structured interview 1. business students 2. language teachers 3. business lecturers 1. questionnaire x students 2. questionnaire x efl teachers 3. semi-structured interview x students 4. semi-structured interview x business teachers 48 2019 eap 1. questionnaire 1. ma students emp: english for medical purposes, eop english for occupational purposes, eap english for academic purposes, est english for science & technology, ebe english for business & economy, english for business administration, evp english for vocational purposes, emp english for military purposes http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 226 as for data sources, table 1 presents that 30 (62.5%) of the nass in the arab world recruited one data source, which is mostly students, specialization teaching staff or esp/efl instructors. for instance, data source 4 used engineering students, data source 12 elicited data from esp teachers and data source 22 recruited science professors as sources of data. the situation of data sources triangulation shows that only one study, data source 38, employed four groups of participants. two and three sources of data occurred in 11 (22.9%) and six studies (12.5%), respectively. for example, the participants in data source 7 were medicine students, medicine instructors and medicine classroom. similarly, data source 47 employed business students, efl instructors and business lecturers. data sources 27, 29, and 37, applied two data sources including students, esp instructors, specialization professors and programme coordinators. the results suggest that data collected are single facet. consequently, they are not varied to provide insights into learners’ needs. this may affect the quality of data, which may produce inaccurate results. accordingly, a feeble needs profile is presented. the sources of na consulted in the 30 studies, which resorted to one data source, were mainly students, specialization teaching staff or esp/efl instructors. this can be another shortcoming in na research in the arab world. this is because these groups of informants are not well informed about target needs and they do not know the tasks students need to perform in future (gilabert 2005 and jasso-aguilar 2005). they can better reflect on students’ present needs, wants, and lacks. likewise, according to long (2005), specialization teaching staff cannot provide a complete idea on students’ future needs; they can only inform about participants’ present needs not target needs. as for esp/efl instructors, we can regard them beneficial in analysing language related to specific target tasks. it is noticeable that nass in the arab world (20002019) ignored insiders’, domain experts’ views, since 62% of these studies did not consult them. domain experts include on the job participants or employees in a certain field. as jasso-aguilar (2005) states they can provide in depth views on tasks that students will perform in future, target needs, and they are the most helpful data sources. nass reliance on students, specialization teaching staff or esp/efl instructors may be due to their focus on eap context. these findings are in line with what gilabert (2005) points out. he suggests that most na research depends on outsiders’ opinion (students, /efl teachers) instead of relying on insiders’ opinions (domain experts). these results are not compatible with what serafini et al. (2015) manifested. they exhibited that almost all the studies they reviewed collected data from domain experts. methods and/ or sources interaction table 1 displays that out of 48 of the nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019), only seven (14.6%) studies showed tool and source interaction, using one instrument with multiple data sources. for example, data source 7 collected data from its sources employing interviews with faculty members and students. similarly, data source 8 used questionnaires with two groups of participants who were students and business instructors and two semistructured interviews with the same groups of data sources. data source 17 utilized a questionnaire with students, efl instructors and hotel employees. as for data sources and data collection instruments interaction, 13 (27%) of the studies triangulated sources and instruments, collecting data using two instruments with the same respondents. the outcomes of this study imply that nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019) did not pay attention to methods and /or sources interaction. this indicates that data collected in these studies produced inattentive results that do not show participants’ real needs for english language. they also suggest that researchers may not be aware of the value of crosschecking their data through methods and/or sources interaction. this result is in line with what long (2005) states; he points out that triangulation by methods and/or sources is ignored by na researchers, which is the case in the current study. this prohibits na research in the arab world from discovering conflict in respondents’ needs, who, in certain cases, prefer to express immediate needs and neglect future needs. moreover, this results in separating na research from reality, which is dynamic and multidimensional. another weakness caused by lack of method and /or source interaction is low data http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _____________________________________________________________________ 227 quality that may affect na outcomes. this methodical shortage can be ascribed to time and access restrains (serafini et al. 2015). researchers may conduct their studies in short time span not permitting them to multiply their source and/ or method. furthermore, they may not have access to participant groups for triangulation. ultimately, na research is negatively affected because of this shortage. these findings are consistent with those of veerappan (2012) and nugraha (2002) who revealed lack of method and /or source interaction in their sample studies. nevertheless, the results are not compatible with what serafini et al. (2015) found. they revealed existence of method and/or source interaction in less than 50% of their studies higher than what is found in the present study. conclusion this study found that eap is the most common context in nass in the arab world. this is an indication that eap occupies a space in na research in the arab world. as for data collection instrument, one data collection dominated nass in the arab world. it was found that 62.5% of na research in the arab world adopted one data source which indicates absence of data source triangulation in na research in the arab world. the study revealed that 14.6% of the nass in the arab world showed data collection tool and data sources interaction, while 27.00% of them employed data sources and data collection tools interaction. needs analysis research in the arab world (2000 – 2019) suffers from several drawbacks. first, it focuses on eap more than other esp contexts. more interest in arab efl learners’ needs for english language is required in other esp branches to complement knowledge about them. second, it lacks triangulation in data collection methods and/or data sources. this resulted in superficial results not reflecting learners’ real needs. thus, na researchers in the arab world should pay more attention to methods and/or sources triangulation to validate their studies and make them reliable. third, nass in the arab world suffer from shortage in method and/or source interaction. this caused data to be less accurate, so to collect correct data, needs analysts in the arab world should seek data collection instruments and/ or data sources interaction. these drawbacks are persistent since 2000 until 2019, and they negatively affected the validity and reliability of these studies. na researchers in the arab world must address these factors to assure the quality of their research outcomes to enable them to reflect accurate and real needs to inform na purpose(s). the current study has its own limitations. it employed a relatively small number of nass in the arab world (2000 – 2019). increasing the sample number would provide more insights to the topic of triangulation. this could be achieved through increasing the time span covered by the current study. in addition, the present study did not cater for to methodical description. it did not cater for description of data collection methods, participants and reporting of validity and reliability. moreover, the issue of sampling in nass in the arab world was not of interest to this study. sampling technique employed in na research plays an integral role in na research as it guarantees reflection of accurate learner needs. references ali, alfadil ali. 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(1983). learning purpose and language use. oxford: oxford university press http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 132 interview as a learning technique in speaking subject: students’ perspective hasriani g universitas negeri makassar, indonesia email: anhiehasriani@gmail.com abstract speaking is one of the important skills of language. in teaching speaking, there are some techniques that can be used by the lecturers. one of the is interview technique. interview is a communication process that uses questions and answers in response. interview is effectively used in learning speaking because it can stimulate the brain to think. in the interview process, the interviewer reveals the question and the interviewee listens then responds to the question. this study aims to determine the perspective of students about interview as a learning technique on speaking subject applied by the lecturers. this is a qualitative descriptive study. data were collected through questionnaires and interviews on research subjects. the data collected were analysed qualitatively by describing the phenomena occurring in the field during the course of the study. the subjects of this research were sixth semester students majoring in english education, faculty of languages and literature, universitas negeri makassar, who have passed the speaking subject. based on the results of the study, interview is a good technique in learning speaking. some students argued that through interview technique, speaking skill of the students would increase. in addition, through interview technique, someone could socialize with others because of the interaction. this technique was also believed to increase students' confidence in speaking. through this technique, students would be trained in the use of english in everyday life, for example when applying for a job. key words: interview, speaking, perspective introduction language teaching is inseparable from the teaching of language skills (language skills) which include listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. sometimes students find obstacles in speaking foreign languages, for example english. as one of the productive skills, speaking is a course that plays an important role in helping students to improve their communication skills in english. in order to increase the students speaking skills in english, the learning techniques used by lecturers must fulfill the demands of learning objectives. by that, the researcher considers it important to conduct research on the learning techniques applied by lecturers in teaching speaking courses based on student perspectives. according to kemp (riyanah, 2012) learning techniques is a learning activity that must be done by teachers and students in order to achieve learning objectives effectively and efficiently. meanwhile according to dick & carey (riyanah, 2012) learning techniques are sets of material or learning procedures that are used together to generate learning outcomes of students. from the two meanings, it can be concluded that learning techniques are learning activities or procedures that must be used together, both teachers or lecturers and students so that effective and efficient learning mailto:anhiehasriani@gmail.com language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x can be achieved. by that learning techniques can be a determinant of learning success. meanwhile, hatima stated that learning techniques can be interpreted as ways that someone does in implementing a method specifically. for example, the use of lecture methods in classes with a relatively large number of students requires its own techniques, which of course will be technically different from the use of lecture methods in classes with a limited number of students. similarly, with the use of the discussion method, different techniques need to be used in the class where students are active with classes that are classified as passive. in this case, the teacher can switch techniques even though in the same method corridor. so, learning techniques are a translation of learning methods. as one of the language skills, according to chaney, speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in various contexts (amir, 2015). speaking is an important part of the process of learning and teaching english as a foreign language. at present it is required that the purpose of teaching speaking must improve the communicative abilities of students because only in that way students can express themselves and learn how to follow the appropriate social and cultural rules in each communication. speaking is related to oral communication where speaker and listener exchange information and convey the message. therefore, in communication we do not only state a statement, but also reach the communicative goals of communication. richards and renandya in wulandari (2017) stated that effective oral communication requires the ability to use the language appropriately in social interactions that involves verbal communication and paralinguistic elements of speech such as pitch, stress, and intonation. thus, in doing oral communication, we need to be able to use the language properly that includes both verbal communication and paralinguistic elements. since english is a foreign language in indonesia, it is quite difficult for students who learn english to communicate orally. english is not part of their daily communication and also english is not their mother language. therefore, the teachers or lecturers should create an active speaking class atmosphere to stimulate the students’ motivation, likeness, curiosity, and develop students’ acquisitions in learning english, as well as be creative enough to implement appropriate technique to make the students enjoy and comfortable with the activity in learning process. heaton in wulandari (2017) proposed that learners must master three components of speaking: fluency, accuracy, and comprehensibility. there must be some efforts to select the effective techniques in teaching speaking and willingness to create and design interesting instructional materials that facilitate the achievement of the three speaking components. good speaking activities should be extremely engaging for the students. as the result, they can enjoy themselves in a process of learning by being involved in activities. however, it is not easy for students to master speaking skills. as a result, many students cannot speak english properly even though it already taught by their teachers at school. according to syakur in wulandari (2017), speaking is a complex skill because at least it is concerned with components of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency. in teaching speaking, there are several techniques that can be used by a lecturer in his teaching. for this reason the lecturers must create a classroom environment where students can communicate like real life, authentic activities, and meaningful assignments that enhance skills speak in english. collaboration between students is needed to achieve an indicator or complete a task. one of the speaking's learning technique language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 134 commonly used by lecturers is an interview. in this technique, the lecturer can determine what topics will be used as interview material by students then students make questions based on topics determined by the lecturer. this technique provides opportunities for students to gather information from other people so that they are trained to be able to practice it outside the classroom so that they improve their social skills. according to fabelia (2017) interview is a communication process that uses questions and answers in response. effective interview is used in speaking learning because it can stimulate the brain to think. in the interview process, interviewers reveal questions and interviewers listen and then respond to questions. each receives then examines the message for later compared to the knowledge they have. this can make communication more dynamic and weighty. based on the above view, the researcher was interested in conducting research on how students' perspectives regarding the technique of interview learning in speaking subject. methodology this research is a qualitative descriptive study. data was collected through questionnaires and interviews with research subjects. the collected data was analyzed qualitatively by describing the phenomena that occurred in the field during the implementation of the research. first of all, researchers analyzed data obtained through questionnaires. after that, data analysis was carried out on the results of interviews to complete the information obtained from the questionnaire. from these data, students' perspectives can be obtained regarding the technique of interview learning applied by lecturers in teaching speaking courses. the subjects of this study were 6th semester students of the english education study program, the faculty of languages and literature, universitas negeri makassar, which consisted of classes a, b and c, which had attended the speaking course. the researchers randomly selected five students from each class so that 15 students were selected as research subjects. findings and discussion in order to increase the students speaking skills in english, the learning techniques used by lecturers must fulfill the demands of learning objectives. in this study, the reseracher focused on the students perspectives toward interview technique in learning speaking subject. the aim of interview technique is to gather students in a conversation and to encourage students to speak. this technique will facilitate students to develop their speaking skills because they have pair to talk or to discuss about some topics so they will be motivated to speak and be active in speaking. therefore, interview is one of the effective techniques to encourage the students speaking ability (wulandari, 2017). wrench, richmond, and joan in sudirman (2013) stated that asking questions and responses is good way keeping the student to talk. furthermore they suggest that buzz group, small group and do questions and responses among them allow the students to express their idea freely. based on the data obtained, some students argue that the interview techniques applied by lecturers usually vary. according to the results of the study, one form of interview techniques is that students are asked to interview certain people, including classmates. in the initial semester, interviews are usually conducted in class only where students are asked to interview their own classmates. while in the advanced semester of the speaking course, students are usually asked to interview people outside the classroom, including native speakers. the data gained by interviewing a student can be seen as follow. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x “interview is just like in the general, mam. we are usually asked by lecturer to interview our friends, but it’s usually in the first semester, yeah first or second semester. in advanced speaking it is usually more challenging for a little, mam. " another opinion about interview technique in speaking subject was stated by a student as can be seen in the following data. "...... with the interview method we can directly use the language (talking) and this will greatly train the smooth communication with someone". based on the data above, a student stated that interview tecnique ca train someone to directly use the language or talking and it can train someone to communicate with the others. through interview techniques, someone's oral language skills would be trained because of the interaction between one person and another. a similar thing was expressed by one student who argued that through interview technique, someone would be trained to provide and answer other people's questions directly. besides that, interview technique can train someone to think quickly and practically because we have to try to respond or answer someone question at that time he asks a question. another opinion about interview technique is that through this technique, students not only provide questions or answer questions in an interview but also learn other additional skills such as how to ask questions and answer other people's questions politely, how to choose good questions and how to think quickly and accurately. the interview technique will also help to broaden horizons and socialize with others because there must be an interaction between two or more people in interview process. it is based on the result of interview toward a student as follow. "... with interview techniques, this makes us able to not only be able to give questions or answer other people's questions in the interview, but also contain other aspects such as how to ask questions and answer questions politely, how to choose good questions, and others other. also makes us able to think and answer in a short time. this technique really helps us in various ways, add insight, and the ability to speak and socialize. " some students also thought that the interview technique was very impressive for them because in speaking subjects, they were assigned to interview native speakers. they said that they learned many things from the native speakers especially about speaking. “..... because the task is in the form of interview, where the speaking lecturer told us to interview tourists about difficulties in english, especially speaking. from there i learned many things after successfully conducting interviews with tourists because there were many messages and advice given to me in english, especially for speaking." interviewing the native speaker was also impressive for the students because they got new experiences and new information about education in another country. it might be importan for them especially for those who want to continue their study in abroad. nation in sudirman (2013) stated that when a person wants to study in abroad, he often has to be interviewed, so that people can see if he is good english and he will be a good student. furthermore, he explains that when interview are used as ways of practicing conversation into groups of three, one person interviews another and the other answers the question. "... and it was the first time for me to tell stories with foreigners to know about their opinions about education in their country. get a new experience.” language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 136 when practicing with a native speaker, the students have to try to balance their listening and speaking. they used to prepare questions in advance so that the conversation would flow back and forth. when the native speaker as a conversation partner asked them a question and they answered at length, they could turn the question back to the native speaker by asking, “what do you think?” or ‚what about you?”. one of the students said that through interview technique, not only the ability to speak to be trained but also the ability to listen. “we are assigned to look for foreigners and talk to them besides practicing speaking, our listening is also trained, and can respond directly from native speakers." other students also argued that through interview technique, they will be trained in the use of english in their daily lives, for example when applying for jobs. if they are accustomed to conducting interviews in english, it will help in dealing with certain situations, including in interviews when applying for jobs. nation in sudirman (2013) states that in interview usually two people or two groups of people meet and ask the questions. when the person wants a job he usually is interviewed by someone to see if he is right for the job. "... by always practicing interviews in class we will not feel stiff when conducting interviews in formal situations for example when applying for work." in addition to some of the opinions above, the interview technique applied by lecturers in interviewing native speakers is also considered to foster a person's confidence in using english. in addition, through this task, students can learn the pronunciation of some vocabulary correctly which is spoken by a native speaker. they say that through this technique, a person's speaking skills will increase. besides that, a person can socialize with other people because of interaction. this technique is also believed to increase students' confidence in speaking. through this technique, students will also be trained in the use of english in their daily lives. in addition, they also learned about the way to pronounce some english words with the correct pronunciation directly from the native speakers. not only that, the also learned some new vocabulary from the interview process. “this technique was used by one of the speaking lecturers. the lecturer concerned giving us the task of interviewing foreign people. during the process, there were so many lessons that i could take, one of them is being brave enough to speak english to someone whose mother tongue was english. in addition, i can learn some vocabulary and how to pronounce it based on the recording of the interviews i took. " based on the findings described above, overall the interview technique is effective and interesting to be applied in teaching and learning speaking subject. since speaking is very importan skill in learning english, appropriate technique should be a main consideration before teaching in the classroom. the researcher has cosidered that interview is a good learning technique in teaching speaking subject. through this technique a person's speaking skills will increase. besides, a person can socialize with other people because of interaction. this technique is also believed to increase students' confidence in speaking. according to wulandari (2017), by using interview technique, the students can develop their confidence because they have to speak in front of their friends and teacher. in addition, it also gives good impact to their fluency. this technique also becomes a good practice for specific lesson. at last, it is an interesting technique for students because the teaching and learning process should be attractive and interesting in order to develop students’ speaking ability in the classroom. as with the role play technique, through this technique, students will also be trained in language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x the use of english in their daily lives, for example when applying for jobs. according to fabelia (2017) interview is a communication process that uses questions and answers in response. effective interviewing is used in speaking learning because it can stimulate the brain to think. in the interview process, interviewers reveal questions and interviewers listen and then respond to questions. each of them then receives a message to compare it with the knowledge they have. this can make communication more dynamic and weighty. sudirman (2013) concluded that the three types of interview technique are effective to stimulate the students to speak actively in the class. the students were very active and have good progress in speaking english through interview techniques. these techniques stimulated the students to be enthusiastic in speaking english in the class. the students feel happy and free in involving their speaking during the class. their speaking becomes more fluent through the interview techniques during the study. furthermore, cohen, monion, and morrison in sudirman (2013) stated that interview is the best understood theory of stimulation and motivation studying about human behavior, like emotion, unconscious need, and interpersonal influence. while labov as citedn in sudirman (2013) stated that interview in term of contextual style is effective in standardizing the relative shifts of language behavior which occur in our daily activities. conclusion speaking is related to oral communication where speaker and listener exchange information and convey the message. therefore, in communication we do not only state a statement, but also reach the communicative goals of communication. since english is a foreign language in indonesia, it is quite difficult for students who learn english to communicate orally. english is not part of their daily communication and also english is not their mother language. therefore, the teachers or lecturers should create an active speaking class atmosphere trough the technique they use in teaching speaking subject. one of the speaking learning techniques commonly used by lecturers is interview. interview is a communication process that uses questions and answers in response. interview is effectively used in learning speaking because it can stimulate the brain to think. based on the results of the study, interview is a good technique in learning speaking. some students argued that through interview technique, speaking skill of the students would increase. in addition, through interview technique, someone could socialize with others because of the interaction. this technique was also believed to increase students' confidence in speaking. through this technique, students would be trained in the use of english in everyday life, for example when applying for a job. references amir. (2015). 10 teknik mengajar speaking dalam bahasa inggris yang efektif. http://www.sekolahbahasainggris.com/10-teknik-mengajar-speaking-dalam-bahasa-inggrisyang-efektif/ anonymous. pengertian perspektif dan pergaulan menurut para ahli. http://seputarpendidikan003.blogspot.co.id/2015/12/pengertian-perspektif-dan-pergaulan.html erna. (2011). teknik pengajaran berbicara. http://duniayeniernawati.blogspot.co.id/2011/05/teknikpengajaran-berbicara.html http://www.sekolahbahasainggris.com/10-teknik-mengajar-speaking-dalam-bahasa-inggris-yang-efektif/ http://www.sekolahbahasainggris.com/10-teknik-mengajar-speaking-dalam-bahasa-inggris-yang-efektif/ http://seputarpendidikan003.blogspot.co.id/2015/12/pengertian-perspektif-dan-pergaulan.html http://duniayeniernawati.blogspot.co.id/2011/05/teknik-pengajaran-berbicara.html http://duniayeniernawati.blogspot.co.id/2011/05/teknik-pengajaran-berbicara.html language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 138 fabelia. (2017). 2 metode belajar speaking yang paling efektif. http://www.fabelia.com/metode-belajarspeaking/ harmer, j. (1991). the practice of english language teaching. new york : longman. hatimah, ihat. pengertian pendekatan, teknik, metode, taktik. http://file.upi.edu/direktori/fip/jur._pend._luar_sekolah/195404021980112001 mulyasa, e. (2009). standar kompetensi dan sertifikasi guru. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. mushlihin. (2013). perbedaan pendekatan, teknik, metode, teknik, taktik, dan model pembelajaran. http://www.mushlihin.com/2013/10/education/perbedaan-pendekatan-teknik-metode-tekniktaktik-dan-model-pembelajaran-php. riyanah, y. (2012). teknik pembelajaran. http://artibelajar.blogspot.com/2012/11/teknikpembelajaran.html?m=1 siswoyo, d. (2012). pengertian teknik pembelajaran. http://dedi26.blogspot.com/2012/06/pengertianteknik pembelajaran.html" sudirman. (2013). stimulating students to speak english through interview techniques. a thesis. post graduate program of hasanuddin university. wulandari, s. (2017). using three steps interview technique to improve speaking ability of senior high school students. http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/jelt/article/view/8531/6551 http://www.fabelia.com/metode-belajar-speaking/ http://www.fabelia.com/metode-belajar-speaking/ http://file.upi.edu/direktori/fip/jur._pend._luar_sekolah/195404021980112001http://www.mushlihin.com/2013/10/education/perbedaan-pendekatan-strategi-metode-teknik-taktik-dan-model-pembelajaran-php http://www.mushlihin.com/2013/10/education/perbedaan-pendekatan-strategi-metode-teknik-taktik-dan-model-pembelajaran-php http://artibelajar.blogspot.com/2012/11/strategi-pembelajaran.html?m=1 http://artibelajar.blogspot.com/2012/11/strategi-pembelajaran.html?m=1 http://dedi26.blogspot.com/2012/06/pengertian-teknik%20pembelajaran.html http://dedi26.blogspot.com/2012/06/pengertian-teknik%20pembelajaran.html http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/jelt/article/view/8531/6551 language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa9c97c10bc • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _________________________________________________________________________________________ 13 english verb-markers serving as an accurate predictor of english pronunciation: the case of a verbmarker ‘-fy’ alim sukrisno sukrisnoalim@yahoo.com english department, semarang state university, indonesia received: 12 june 2015. revised: 15 july 2015. accepted: 1 august 2015 __________________________________________________________________________________ abstract this article deals with english spelling in relation with its segmental and suprasegmental realizations.the reciprocal relationship between english spelling and its pronunciation is mostly arbitrary, and thus unpredictable. however, a closer observation on certain verbal markers, one of which is a verb-marker ‗-fy‟ indicates that to some greater extent itssegmental and suprasegmental realizations are highly predictable.firstly, english verbs ending in „-fy‟must be segmentally realized as [-fai]. secondly, english verbs ending in „-fy‟ must be stressed on the antepenultimate syllable.a minor exception exists, but a high degree of accuracy is recorded. owing to the high degree of predictability of its segmental and suprasegmental realizations, the verb-marker ‗-fy‘lends itself to be a predictor of accurate pronunciation. therefore, teachers as well as students of english as an sl or fl can improve their pronunciation by relying on this observation findings. key words: segmental, suprasegmental, realization, pronunciation, stress, accuracy, and predictor how to cite: alim sukrisno. 2015. english verb-markers serving as an accurate predictor of english pronunciation: the case of a verbmarker „-fy‟. language circle: journal of language and literature x/1. __________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction a lot of non-native speakers of english, i.e. indonesians, demonstrate fluency whenever they speak english. in order to be able to do this, they have to articulate english sounds properly. in other words, they have to master the pronunciation of english. for native speakers, english pronunciation poses no problem at all. however, for learners of english, pronunciation is a burden. a question arises ‗why do english learners find english pronunciation problematic? one of the reasons is that pronunciation is one of the components of english which is the most neglected. the skill of pronunciation is not well-groomed in the classroom. another question appears, that is ‗why is english pronunciation neglected in english classes? one of the asnwers of this question is that english teachers who are supposed to be the agents or the guardians of instilling good pronunciation are themselves not good in pronunciation. this is proved from what always happen in-servicetrainings for english teachers or pendidikan dan latihan profesi guru (plpg). the participants are teachers of english who undergo the certification program. mailto:sukrisnoalim@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 14 during every peer-teaching activity in every batch, their weakness in pronunciation is exposed and brought to notice. they make mistakes in pronouncing common words which they always use in their everyday teaching. their mistakes cover not only segmental but also suprasegmental realizations. in segmental pronunciation, for example, they pronounced the word giraffe as [dʒirʌpi] instead of [dʒəra:f ] be or [dʒəræf] ae. in suprasegmental pronunciation, for example, they stressed the word ‗classify‘, ‗realize,‘ and ‗demonstrate‘ wrongly. their mistakes are that those words are wrongly stressed: ‗classi'fy,‟ „re'alize‟, and „de'monstrate. ‘why do our fellow english teachers make such pronunciation mistakes?one of the answers is that most of them lack the knowledge of the characteristics of spellings of english words vis a vis its pronunciation. there are more mistakes than what had been documented in the above paragraph. however, in this article i intend to limit my discussion tojust the pronunciation mistakes of the words ending in a verbal marker ‗-fy.‘ the above word groupis some of the collections of ‗english cyclic word groups‘ (sukrisno, 2015). as a matter of fact, the above mistakes in pronouncing words having this verbal marker could have been avoided if learners of english know how the words containing this verbal morpheme behaves in their phonological realizations. in fact, under close scrutiny this cyclic english word group demonstrates characteristics which help english learners as a second/foreign language to find ease in pronouncing this particular group of english words. the ‗-fy‘ ending of the above-mentioned english word group can serve asan accurate predictor in pronunciation both segmentally and suprasegmentally. by being capable of recognizing what prediction is in store for this verbal marker, one will be able to reduce the possibility of making unnecessary pronunciation mistakes and thus subsequently able to improve his/her segmental and suprasegmental pronunciation on the cyclic words ending in „-fy.‘ to show readers, how any predictor of pronunciation helpsthem to pronounce, we can take one word randomly from another cyclic word, for example the word group ending in ‗-ize‘; let say the word ‗eternalize.‘ the verb-marker ‗-ize‘ in this word means a lot in our determination in how to pronounce the word. segmentally pronounced, the ‗-ize‘ must always be pronounced as [-aiz], thus ‗eternal[aiz]. suprasegmentally pronounced, we can predict that this word must be strongly stressed on the ‗antepenultimate‘ syllable (or third syllable of the word counted backwards) (sukrisno, 2015); thus ‗e'ternalize.‟ this stress pattern will generate another pattern or it will serve as another predictor in segmental realization. the mute letter ‗-r‘ in the second syllable can be a predictor that this particular syllable must be pronounced with a certain length; thus ‗e'[tə:]nal[aiz].‘ the segmental pronunciation of [-aiz] and the antepenultimate stress pattern hold true for any words ending in the verbal marker „– ize.‟ therefore, someone encountering any word of this type, will be able to accurately pronounce it not only segmentally but also suprasegmentally. such characteristic is also possessed by the verb-marker „-fy.‟ alim sukrisno. english verb-markers serving as an accurate predictor of english pronunciation: the case of a verbmarker „-fy‟ __________________________________________________________________________________________ 15 in brief, by studying the characteristics of ‗-fy‘ verbal marker, we will be able to learnthat it can act as a good predictor of pronunciation. the result of knowing the characteristics of this verbal marker enables us to predict the pronunciation of this particular cyclic english words. the explanation above serves as an introductory bakground to the presentation of this article. in order to talk about the topic of the discussion which is elaborated in the title of this article, there are a number essestial issues underlining the development of this paper. these issues are concerned with the concept of pronunciation and the concept of the relationship between spelling and its pronunciation. these important issues will be discussed in the following sub-chapters. english pronunciation amep research centre (2002: 1) defines pronunciation as follows. pronunciation refers to the production of sounds what we use to make meaning. it includes attention to the particular sounds of a language (segments), aspects of speech beyond the level of individual sound, such as intonation, phrasing, stress, timing, rhythm (suprasegmental aspects), how the voice is projected (voice quality) and, in its broadest definition, attention to gestures and expressions that are closely related to the way we speak a language. from the above definition, essentially pronunciation, especially english ponunciation, materializes itself in two phonetic features; segmental features and suprasegmental features. segmental phonemes refer to features ‗consisting of sound segments; hence, the vowel, consonant, and semivowel sounds of a language‘(webster's new world college dictionary, 2010). meanwhile, merriamwebster dictionary (2003) offers the definition of segmental phonemes as ‗one of the phonemes ) as \k, a, t\ in cat, tack, act) of a language that can be assigned to a relative sequential order of minimal segments.‘ segmental features involve three kinds of phoneme; vowels, diphthongs and consonants. suprasegmental features comprise several noticeable phonemes, such as stress, pitch, intonation, pause, length, etc. this definition complies with that of oaldce‘s (oxford advanced learner‘s dictionary of current english), which refers segmental features as ‗relating to features of speech such as stress and intonationas opposed to individual speech sounds‘ (oaldce, 2010).talking about english pronunciation cannot be separated from talking about suprasegmental features as a whole. however, for this particular discussion, what is meant by suprasegmental phonemes is limited to one kind of phoneme, that is stress.no other suprasegmental features will be highlighted here. stress here is limited to strong or dominant stress. in verbal communication, stress conveys a certain degree of importance, amep (2002) underlines the importance of stress at three distinguishable levels:  word level---multisyllable words have one or more syllable s that are stressed,  sentence level---the most important words tend to be stressed, and  contrastive stress---the most important words carry greater stress. inspite of the presence of those three levels of stress, this article is only concerned http://www.yourdictionary.com/dictionary-definitions/ http://www.yourdictionary.com/dictionary-definitions/ language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 16 with word level. the reason is that talking about point 2 and 3 must consider the intention of the speaker which is beyond the scope of this article to discuss. weanwhile, stress itself is categorized into three degrees, strong, medium and weak stress. in this article, the type of stress being discussed is the strong or dominant stress. following, hornby (2010) the way of marking stress in orthography is by assigning the sign [-']before the suspected strong syllable; for example,  en'danger,  'phantom,  exami'nee, etc. there are other ways of marking dominant stress in writing, one of which is by giving a slanting sign inclining to the right direction, i.e. [-á-],on top of the vowel or diphthong of the stressed syllable (ramelan, 2005). however, this paper adopts the stress symbolization for strong stress which is recommended by bothhornby (2010) and cambridge advanced learner‘s dictionary (cald) (2013). english spelling and its pronunciation in the english language, the concept of pronunciation represented by segmental and suprasegmental phonemes, cannot be separated from the concept of its spelling or orthography which is defined in the following way: the word ‗orthography refers to the rules for writing a language, such as conventions of spelling and punctuation. in an alphabetic script, such as english, this definition also includes its graphemephoneme (letter-sound) conrrespondences‘ (my english language, 2014). the function of spelling or orthography is to represent sounds. unfortunately, in english, there is no one-to-one correspondence between the spelling of a word and its sound realizations. in other words, we can say that the pronunciation of english words is mostly arbitrary. for this, upward and davidson (2011) remark as follows: ‗... modern english sound-spelling relationships are unsystematic and unpredictable, and in some cases seem to be almost beyond comprehension.‘ there seems to be a ground of truth in this statement. however, at a closer look, if we refer to hill (1974), sukrisno (2012a; 2012b; and 2012c), and sukrisno (2015), out of this massive amount of unpredictability, there is a certain english spelling or at least the spelling of part of a word whose sound representation is regular and very much consistent. this can be proved in the verbal marker selected in this article;that is the verbal marker „-fy.‟ associated to its phonological realizations, the above verbal marker has particular characteristics. in turn, these characteristics can act as a prediction agent as to how the word ending in each word belonging to ‗-fy‘ cyclic word group should be segmentally and suprasegmentally pronounced. in order to prove the truth of the above statement, the characteristics of the above verb marker as an accurate predictor ofenglish pronunciation will be elaborated in the following section. verb-marker ‘-fy’ as an accurate predictor of pronunciation if we take a look at the relationship between english spelling vis a vis its phonological realization, we have to refer to the most alim sukrisno. english verb-markers serving as an accurate predictor of english pronunciation: the case of a verbmarker „-fy‟ __________________________________________________________________________________________ 17 recent work carried out by sukrisno (2015). some of the phonetic phenomena dealt with in this work are concerned with the behaviour of 20 cyclic word groups; one of which is the cyclic word group ending in ‗fy.‘ this cyclic word group offers a number of interesting phenomena worth discussing. first, in terms of number, oaldce (hornby, 2005) exhaustively lists words belonging to this cyclic word group amounting to 85 words. the list begins with the word „acidify’ and ends in the word ‗yuppify.‘ all of these 85 words are multisyllabic, except for one word, i.e. „defy.‟ (sukrisno, 2015: 132). second, in terms of its segmental realization, the pronunciation of the ending ‗-fy‘ is absolutely predictable. it must be pronounced as [-fai] with the degree of accuracy of 100%. this pronunciation does not change even if the word ending in this morpheme takes another morpheme, e.g.thepresent participial morpheme ‗-ing,‘ the past form morpheme ‗-ed,‘ and the inflectional morpheme ‗-s/-es‘. let‘s take one word randomly as an example, i.e. ‗justify‘ [dʒʌstifai]. it becomes ‗justifying‘ [dʒʌstifaiiŋ]; ‗justified‘ [dʒʌstifaid];and ‗justifies‘ [dʒʌstifaiz]. the pronunciation of[-fai] remains intact whether the word functions as an infinitive, present participial, past form or as a third person singular. however, if the word ending in‗-fy‘ takes a noun marker ‗-tion‘, it becomes a noun and its segmental realization changes. for example, the word ‗justification‘ is pronounced as [dʒʌstifikeiʃn] instead of [dʒʌstifaikeiʃn]. from this discussion, it can be concluded that the ‗-fy‘ of any word belonging to ‗-fy‘ cyclic word group must be pronounced as [-fai] when it functions as a verb-marker. this means that the verbmarker ‗-fy‘ can act as a veryaccurate predictor of segmental pronunciation. third, in terms of suprasegmental realizations---in this case strong stress, all of the 85 words, save the word ‗defy‘receive the prominent stress on the ‗antepenultimate‘ (sukrisno, 2015: 132) syllable or the third syllable by being counted backward. lets take the word ‗electrify,‘ ‗simplify‘ and ‗declassify‘ as random examples. these words must be stressed on the antepenultimate syllable; thus ‗e'lectrify,‘ ‗'simplify‘ and ‗de'classify.‘ the last example indicates whenever the word ending in ‗-fy‘ is prefixed, this prefixation does not change the stress pattern. the accuracy of this prediction gains 98.82%. if the word ‗defy‘ is removed from the list, the suprasegmental prediction accuracy becomes optimum, 100%. as noted earlier the word ‗defy‘ is bisyllabic so that it stands to reason that the rule does not apply to this word. in adition, this suprasegmental pronunciation rule applies when the „-fy‟ serves as a verb-marker, no matter whether it serves as a present participial or past form marker or as a third person singular marker. based on the discussion in this paragraph, the verbal marker „-fy‟ can also accurately serve as a predictor of suprasegmental pronunciation. conclusion on the basis of what has been discussed in the previous paragraphs concerning the behaviour of the verbal marker of ‗-fy‘, two conclusions are available. first, whenever someone encounters any word ending in ‗fy‘, this spelling must be pronounced as [fai]. second, whenever someone language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 18 pronounces any word ending in „-fy‟, he/she must assign the strong stress on the antepenultimate syllable of the word. by referring to the first and second conclusions, one can derive a third conclusion, that is the verb-marker ‗-fy‘ is definitely an accurate predictor of english pronunciation. anyone abiding by the above two rules will certainly be facilitated in pronouncing english words, especially the pronunciation of the ‗-fy‘ cyclic word group. references amep research centre. 2002. fact sheet---what is pronunciation? (on line: http://http.www.nceltr.mq.edu.au.pdamep). downloaded on 11 th august 2013 cambridge advanced learner‘s dictionary. 2013. cambridge: cambridge university press. hill, archibald. a. 1974. word stress and the suffix –ic. journal of english linguistics, vol. 8: 6. hornby, a.s. 2005. oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary of current english(oaldce). oxford: oxford university press. hornby, a.s.. 2010. oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary of current english (oaldce), 8th edition. 2010. oxford: oxford university press. merriam-webster dictionary. 2003. (on line: http://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/supraseg-ental%20phoneme). downloaded on 17 september, 2013. my english language. 2014. (on line: http://www.myenglishlanguage.com/ languageguide/english-orthography/). downloaded on 10 th august 2013. ramelan. 2005. english phonetics. semarang: unnes press. sukrisno, a. 2012a. alphophononetic [ælfoʊfᴐnǝ'nεtik] technique: a technique of obtaining and preserving more accurate english pronunciation. proceeding of an international seminar „enhancing academic literacy to foster conservation values in character education.‟ post graduate program, semarang state university. sukrisno, a. 2012b.the pronunciation of the english words ending in ‗-ate‘ in the light of spellophononetic technique. an international proceedings: english languages, teaching, and literature in relation to culture. semarang: faculty of of language and arts, semarang state university. sukrisno, a. 2012c.obama and natasha: how the last letters of their names are pronounced.language circle: journal of language and literature. volume vi/2 april. sukrisno, a. 2015. cyclic spelling patterns of english word groups spellophono-netically enabling english learners to determine segmental and supra-segmental realizations in pronun-ciation. unpublished dissertation draft. postgraduate programme. semarang state university. upward, ch. & davidson, g. 2011. the history of english spelling. oxford: wileyblackwell. http://http.www/ http://www.merriam-webster.com/%20dictionary/supraseg-ental%20phoneme http://www.merriam-webster.com/%20dictionary/supraseg-ental%20phoneme http://www.myenglishlanguage.com/%20language-guide/english-orthography/ http://www.myenglishlanguage.com/%20language-guide/english-orthography/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７４ ７４ construction of gender in visual signs in selected kenyan secondary school english textbooks fellis mutune department of linguistics and languages machakos university geoffrey mokua maroko department of linguistics and languages machakos university alice wanjira kiai department of english and creative writing centre for language and communication studies the technical university of kenya. abstract textbooks are a powerful tool for the construction of social identities. consequently, the manner in which gender is portrayed in visuals in textbooks can greatly affect the images of males and females in the society that learners develop. if gender bias in textbooks is addressed, it would be a great accomplishment towards achieving equality in education: a fundamental goal of both education for all (efa) and sustainable development goals (sdgs). in the kenyan context, the national policy on gender and development (npgad) was developed to address disparities in the visibility, status, and perceived potential of males and females portrayed in textbooks. however, reviews on kenyan textbooks suggest that subtle issues around gender representation imbalance are evident. with this mismatch between policy and practice, this paper analyses gender construction in selected visuals in kenyan secondary schools english s from a socio-semiotic perspective. the findings revealed that males’ images transcended the females’ in selected textbooks. the study also revealed that males were assigned the actor role and were more involved in both non-transactional and transactional actional processes than females. further, males were found to make direct gazes at the reader than females. the paper concludes that disproportionate representation of gender is evident in the selected textbooks where males are implicitly or explicitly presented as superior to females. the study recommends that gender representation be considered in the design and selection of visuals to be included in english textbooks. for those textbooks which are already in use, the kenya institute of curriculum development (kicd) could initiate review activities to improve gender parity in the visuals. keywords: socio-semiotics, textbooks, gender construction, visuals introduction textbooks are instrumental in a formal language teaching and learning set-up. richards (2001) notes that textbooks are essential components in many language programs since they provide the primary language input that learners receive and practice in the classrooms. brugeilles and cromer (2009) further note that textbooks play a crucial function in society by modelling the required values, social behavior and norms. similar sentiments are raised by lee (2011) who acknowledges that educational materials are a key mechanism of socialization that instills values and attitudes in young people, including differentiated gender roles. it therefore means that textbooks are a powerful tool for the construction of social identities. consequently, the manner in which male and female genders are portrayed in visual images in textbooks can greatly affect the images that learners develop of males and females in the society. according to tahririan & sadri (2013), the way images are http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７５ ７５ represented in textbooks may directly affect students. dijk (1995) makes similar views when he notes that images could inadvertently or advertently predispose learners to specific philosophies as ideologies can be transmitted not only by the verbal signs, but also by the visual semiotic modes. textbooks in kenya have been given prominence through an initiative dubbed secondary education quality improvement project (seqip) which aims to improve student learning and transition from primary to secondary education, and also to improve retention of learners in school. one of the components of seqip is to improve the quality of teaching by ensuring that textbooks used in kenyan secondary schools are available to learners. under seqip, more textbooks are being made available in the four learning levels in secondary school. the selected textbooks were based on a reevaluation sanctioned by the ministry of education since january 2018. the re-evaluation needed to address gender representation disparities as stipulated in relevant gender policies in kenya. addressing gender disparity in textbooks and; consequently, the curriculum, is an important avenue towards achieving equality in education as envisioned in both education for all (efa) and sustainable development goals (sdgs) blueprints. the national policy on gender and development (npgad) was established in 2018 in line with article 27(3-8) of the constitution of kenya (2010) which lays emphasis on gender equality and freedom from discrimination. although the policy sought to enhance equal participation among men, women, girls and boys in education and other thematic areas, textbook reviews have suggested that while representation of women has increased and overt sexism has been reduced, more subtle issues around gender roles and representations are evident. gender imbalances and stereotypes continue to be prevalent in the textbooks used in educational systems throughout the world in general and kenya in particular. there is a mismatch between gender parity policies and the gender identity representations on the ground. subtle gender imbalance as expressed in visual images in textbooks could entrench similar imbalances in real-life situations. thus, there is a need a study of these images to uncover the inherent gender imbalance patterns to help raise teachers and students awareness in english learning situations. owing to the centrality of the textbook in the teaching and learning english, and in realization that gendered images are a central mode in them, this paper explores the representation of gender identity in the visuals in selected english textbooks used in secondary schools in kenya from a socio-semiotic perspective. literature review one of the aspects of gender-based studies on textbooks focuses visual images. such studies are anchored on the framework by kress and van leeuwen (1996; 2006) that advances the view that all visual codes serve several communication functions including representational, interactive and compositional. the representational metafunction is concerned with images that represent the inter-relationships between things, people and places. on the representational metafunction, the visual is encoded by narrative and conceptual elements. in their theory, the grammar of visual design, they emphasise that both visual and verbal structures can be utilized to express meanings from common cultural sources. in their view, visual structures are representative of particular interpretations of experience and forms of social interactions. kress and van leeuwen (2006) further highlight four narrative roles that participants may play: the actor role where the participants perform an action to another person; the goal role in which the participants receive an action from another participant; or the behaver’s role where participants are seen as responding to the effect of the concrete or verbal actions of an actor. in the fourth role, a participant can be a reactor to a receiver of an action or a given situation. the authors note that the gender that takes the actor’s position is regarded as more important than the one who occupies the goal position. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７６ ７６ according to kress and van leeuwen (2006), a text comprises of three interactive elements: the image act, social distance and the point of view. the image act is concerned with the gaze direction participants involved. when the gaze focuses on the viewer it denotes a demand but when trained away from the viewer it suggests an offer. demands have the potential to establish an imaginary relationship with participants (stoian, 2015) and may either inform the viewers on something or order for attention from the viewers. however, in a visual that makes an offer, the participant is expressed looking away from the viewer. the image act that is chosen can imply relations of engagement or of detachment between the participants. again, if all the participants are gazing at the same thing, this implies that they have common goal. further, the unaccompanied participants in a visual are interpreted as being more powerful than those in the company of other participants. that is, how representational and interactive processes interact to come up with a purposeful whole (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). borrowing from this view, the current study utilized the aspects on framing and positions of the elements of the compositional mode to analyse how gender is represented through visuals in selected english textbooks. previous studies focusing on gender stereotypes in images found in language and literature textbooks revealed gender bias (magno & silova, 2007; luengo & blazquez, 2004; soda & murkowski, 2007). the textbooks displayed gender stereotypes and gendered roles. it is, however, notable that topical issues on the position of women in relation to gender in textbooks are gaining momentum in europe (luengo & blazquez, 2004; soda & murkowski, 2007; magno & silova, 2007). the visual aspect of gender representation in course books has attracted a spate of interest among researchers (dewi, 2019; dabbagh, 2016; yasin, 2012; marefat & marzban, 2014; ena, 2014; damayanti, 2014). the studies have delved into pedagogical representation of visual images in efl textbooks within the framework of kress and van leeuwen (2006) revealing misrepresentation in the visual images in textbooks in terms of authorship, visibility of characters and firstness in occurrence of characters. these studies have also shown that men were over-represented in the textbooks. further, in visual representation, images of male participants were more than the females’. also, image analysis revealed gender stereotypes in sharing of roles where females are depicted as house wives and executing such roles as taking care of young ones and undertaking household chores. in contrast, men are portrayed undertaking outdoor activities. further, the studies show that the visual mode complements the verbal discourse in underrepresenting the females and limiting their visibility, and that females are more dependent than males, and are admirers of action carried out by the males. in other studies on visual images in textbooks, (chipoda & wassermann, 2015; nunoo, mensah, boahen & nunoo, 2017), women were underrepresented and were confined to domestic roles while males were assigned more occupational roles. a study by gray (2007) revealed that images such as guns, fast cars, outdoor activities, and expensive suits are associated with males. the same study also indicated that the images that contain females are softer and surrounded by music, make-up or pretty dresses. gray concludes that such disappropriate representation of women is generally understood as discrimination against women based on gender. the same pattern emerges in a text titled ‘connections’ in which majority of the fictitious characters are overwhelmingly male (igavie, 2009 & gray, 2007). other studies investigating the gender representation in course books include kobia (2009) and mathuvi, ireri, mukuni, njagi & karugu (2012). in the studies, stark gender imbalances emerge in such aspects as authorship, editorship, and photographs that were mostly male-oriented. it is evident from the exiting literature that gender representation in learning materials has attracted a spate of interest among researchers from different disciplines. since the kenya constitution (2010) advocates for gender balance in all spheres and given the national policy on gender and development (npgad) was established in 2018, it would be of interest to stakeholders in the education sector to http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７７ ７７ determine how approved textbooks of english represent gender. methodology the study applied the explanatory sequential research design (creswell & plano clark, 2011). in this study, we first analysed gender representation in visual signs quantitatively and then built on these findings by qualitative explanations. the design is considered explanatory because the initial quantitative data results are explained further with the qualitative data while the design is regarded sequential because the inceptive quantitative stage is superseded by the qualitative stage. according to edmonds and kennedy (2017), the design is used when the researcher is interested in following up the quantitative results with qualitative data. by fusing the two paradigms, qualitative data subsequently interprets and clarifies results from quantitative data analysis in a complementary relationship which serves to not only broaden but deepen the study (maroko et al. 2019; maroko, 2021). due to space constraints, part of our study which is reported in this paper covers the quantitative strand while the excluded part deals with the qualitative part. our objects of study were english textbooks approved by the kenya institute of curriculum development (kicd) for use kenyan secondary schools. in the kenyan basic education system, approved textbooks are the main materials for use by both teachers and students in teaching and assessment. it was of interest to us to analyse visuals in these texts to uncover patterns of gender representation that could implicitly or explicitly be picked by primary users of these texts. the target population consisted of all four english textbooks used in secondary schools under the secondary education quality improvement project (seqip). the purposive sampling method informed by such inclusion variables as approval by kicd, use in secondary schools, and use in the teaching of english yielded the following texts as sources of visuals for study. 1) secondary english: an integrated approach students’ book 1 (third edition)’, published by kenya literature bureau (klb) 2) secondary english: an integrated approach students’ book 2 published by kenya literature bureau (klb) 3) secondary english: an integrated approach students’ book 3 published by kenya literature bureau (klb) 4) new horizons in english: a course for secondary schools students book 4’ published by east african educational publishers ltd. a document analysis guide derived from the model for analyzing visual images by kress and van leeuwen (2006) was employed in the analysis of quantitative data from the visual images in the four textbooks. the document analysis guide was constructed around such variables as the number of visuals with male characters only, those with female characters only, visuals with both males and females, aggregate number of males in visuals with both males and females, and aggregate number of females in the same mixed gender visuals. quantitative data on portrayal of either gender were generated and grouped into representational, interactive and compositional metafunctions (van leeuwen, 2005). statistical data arising from the document analysis process were summarized into frequency tables, interpreted and explained with the help of the guiding theory and other related literature. it is this quantitative analysis which in our study was followed up by qualitative to inject meaning to the figures in line with the dictates of the explanatory sequential design. in other words, the quantitative data arising from document analysis provided the contextualization needed for qualitative explanation (maroko, 2021). results and discussion quantitative analysis of visuals guided by the framework for analyzing visuals by kress and van leeuwen (2006), our first focus was the determination of patterns of occurrence of male and female characters in the selected textbooks. occurrence patterns are identified as visibility (stokade, 2006, birjandi 2012) which shows the exclusion of one gender http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７８ ７８ or the other. visibility data was summarized in table 4.1. table 4.1 quantitative analysis of visuals form gender representation in the visuals number of males number of females male only visuals mixed gender visuals female only visuals mixed gender visuals one 10 83 2 46 two 5 79 5 38 three 9 107 1 87 four 9 101 4 40 total 33 370 12 211 % 73.33 63.68 26.70 36.32 single gender (n) – 45 mixed gender (n) 581 visibility patterns in table 4.1 demonstrates that visuals involving males only were 33 (73.33%) out of 45 while visuals with females only were less than half at 12 (26.70%). still under visuals involving the mixed gender, there were more males at 370 (63.68%) than females at 211 (36.32%). from these numbers, males are the more dominant gender in the selected english textbooks used at the four levels of kenyan secondary schools. such representational imbalance suggests that males are considered more superior than females. porreca (1984 avers that when men appear more than women in a text then women are not as important as men, or that their accomplishments are not worthwhile to mention. a study by barton & sakwa (2012) focusing on textbooks also found that females were underrepresented in the illustrations at 20.7% compared to males at 79.3%. an aspect of sexism in terms of female and male visibility is therefore imminent. according to fatemi, pishghadam, & heidarian, 2011 & giaschi, 2000), one of the elements in textbooks which has gained attention and has been found to contribute to gender bias and stereotypes is the visual element which projects what sunderland (2000) calls exclusion of the female gender. the results in table 4.1 are in line with huang’s (2009) study where there was gender imbalance in the illustrations of the junior high school english textbooks in taiwan that favored males. a study of the ili textbook by marefat & marzbarn (2014) also indicated males are more visible, depicted as new information and focus of attention and active doers while female is invisible and underrepresented. this contrasts with yang’s (2011) study, which showed that primary school textbooks did not manifest substantial prejudicial stance towards males or females. in yang’s study, females were as visible as males, with more female characters appearing in illustrations and more utterances spoken by females. another study that gives contradictory findings to the current study’s interpretation is nagatomo’s (2010) study on conversation topics for japanese university students where female characters were more visible and seemed to play more active roles than male characters. they had a visual majority by appearing in 62% of the illustrations that included people unlike this study where their appearance was only 28.4%. this suggests contextual differences in the manner in which males and females are viewed. representational metafunction according to kress & van leeuwen (2006), the representational metafunction comprises the attributes of gaze and social distance. beginning with gaze, the eye direction of participants matters within kress & van leeuwen’s socio-semiotics theory. it determines the ideology behind gender presentation in text images is. accordingly, the participants may look at the viewer; look away from the viewer or gaze neither at the viewer http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７９ ７９ nor to each other. using these attributes, trends on the gaze by male and female participants in the selected textbooks were elicited and summarized in table 4.2. table 4.2: the gaze of female and male participants description of gaze males females # of occurrences % # of occurrences % form 1 toward the viewer 10 1.86 1 1.19 towards each other 25 4.64 18 3.34 neither to the viewer nor to each other 25 4.64 11 2.04 form 2 toward the viewer 12 2.23 4 0.74 towards each other 20 3.71 8 1.48 neither to the viewer nor to each other 51 9.46 33 6.12 form 3 toward the viewer 11 2.04 9 1.67 towards each other 67 12.43 54 10.02 neither to the viewer nor to each other 29 5.38 21 3.90 form 4 toward the viewer 2 0.37 0 0.0 towards each other 66 12.24 17 3.15 neither to the viewer nor to each other 23 4.27 22 4.08 σ 341 63.27 198 37.73 n 539 in terms of the cumulative number of gazes, males made 341 gazes representing 63.27% while females made 198 gazes translating to 37.73%. specifically, males made 35 cumulative gazes to the viewer while females made less than half gazes to the viewer at 14. according to gazes at each other, 178 cumulative gazes involving males were made in the visuals compared to 97 among females. gazing at each other is called the direct gaze which according to hietanen et al., (2008) elicits higher levels of autonomic arousal than averted gaze. where gazes were neither directed at the viewer nor at each other (also called the averted gaze), 128 cumulative cases were identified among males compared to 87 among females. while the incidence of gazes among females was generally lower among females than among males, majority of the females’ gazes were in the category where they looked at each other at 97 and where they neither gazed at the viewer nor at each other at a frequency count of 87. among the males, the same pattern emerged with 178 and 128 gazes respectively. gaze is an important aspect in social cognition. in a study by dyler (1992), males in secondary english books gazed at the viewer more as compared to females. in dyler’s study, men generally do not like the femininity of gazing at the viewer as it is considered a passive action that suggests their weakness. dyler (1992) notes that women may be projected as more passive objects of an active gaze than men may. according to kress & van http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８０ ８０ leeuwen (2006), when participants in a visual look at the viewers, they are making a demand and they want something from us. since men, in the current study, more active in terms of gaze towards the viewer as compared to women, they can be seen as people who make demands from their viewers as opposed to females. turning to social distance, macken-horarik, (2004. p. 14) points out that it is the distance from which people, places and things are shown and creates a visual correlate of physical proximity in everyday interactions. kress and van leeuwen (1996) note that social distance is indicated by different sizes of frame namely: very close, close shot, medium close, medium shot and medium long. at very close shot, only the head or face can be seen while at close shot, heads and shoulders are included. at medium close, participants are shown from waist up but at medium shot participants can be seen from knee up. at medium long, the whole figure is shown and at long shot, the whole figure with the space around can be seen. kress & van leeuwen (2006) point out that extreme close shots create a sense of intimacy between the viewer and the represented participant, ensuring the participant is portrayed as if they were our lover or close friend, while long shots are impersonal, portraying participants as if they were strangers we might pass on the street. they observe, further, that the choice of distance between the situation of the image and the participants represented in the image can affect the social distance between the viewer and the participants. the findings on social distance in the current study are shown in table 4.3. table 4.3. social distance among male and female participants s/d form 1 form 2 form 3 form 4 σ % males females males females males females males females v/c 6 5 2 1 2 5 2 2 25 4.69 c/s 1 0 10 11 12 2 4 0 40 7.50 m/c 6 4 24 14 16 15 16 6 101 18.95 m/s 11 8 8 6 10 9 12 2 66 12.38 m/l 20 11 24 9 11 18 42 23 158 29.64 l/s 19 9 13 8 47 25 14 8 143 26.83 σ 63 37 81 49 98 74 90 41 533 100 % 11.82 6.94 15.20 9.19 18.39 13.88 16.89 7.69 100 s/d social distance v/c – very close c/s close shot m/c – medium close m/s medium shot m/l – medium long l/s – long shot n = 533 table 4.3 indicates that medium close recorded the highest incidence at 158 (29.64%) followed by long shot at 143 occurrences representing 26.83% and medium close at a frequency of 101 (18.95%) in that order. it also notable that the variables very close and close shot recorded the lowest and second lowest occurrences at 25 (4.69%) and 40 (7.50%) respectively. in terms male-female differentiation, males recorded higher frequencies than females in most of the types of social distance. the fact that medium long and long shot recorded the highest incidence at a combined total of 56.47% suggests that both males and females are attracted to engagements which are more formal than informal. it was however interesting to note that medium close which tends towards the more intimate end recorded relatively higher occurrences than the neighbouring medium shot and close shot, making it to appear like an outlier. some work on the relationship between social distance and gender reveal how imbalance is subtly expressed in texts. for instance, chandler (1998) notes that zooming into a close-up from a semiotic perspective can enhance the importance of a person. thus, by giving males more close-up images than the females appears to render them more powerful than the other gender. the images in the selected texts showed a more socially http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８１ ８１ important face of men in comparison with women who appeared more in medium and long shots. kress and van leeuwen (2006) identify three levels of formality style. these are personal style, the language is implicit and context dependent; social style, whose language is more standard in terms of syntax and lexis; and public style where language is articulated more formally and consciously. the three levels of formality also describe the gender identities of males and females in the selected textbooks. compositional metafunction/place of positioning another aspect of visuals in our study was compositional metafunction or place of positioning. compositional metafunction is, how representational and interactive processes interact to come up with a purposeful whole (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). our study focused on framing and position of the elements of the compositional mode to analyse how gender is represented in the visuals. kress & van leeuwen (2006) note that items to the left side of depicted images are perceived as old information while those put on the right side are considered as new information. the elements at the top are considered as either ideal or offering a promise as those to the bottom are considered as real or facts. table 4.4 summarises trends on positioning of elements in the selected visuals. table 4.4: compositional metafunction/ place of positioning positioning males females # of occurrences % # of occurrences % form 1 right side 33 6.29 19 3.62 left side 15 2.86 14 2.67 bottom 3 0.57 2 0.38 top 9 1.71 1 0.19 form 2 right side 27 5.14 19 3.62 left side 31 5.90 8 1.52 bottom 11 2.10 6 1.14 top 9 1.71 6 1.14 form 3 right side 31 5.90 24 4.57 left side 31 5.90 25 4.76 bottom 12 2.29 14 2.67 top 24 4.57 17 3.24 form 4 right side 33 6.29 18 3.43 left side 42 8.00 15 2.86 bottom 10 1.90 4 0.76 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８２ ８２ top 7 1.33 5 0.95 σ 328 62.48 197 37.52 n = 525 patterns in table 4.4 show that males assumed more positions at 328 (62.48%) than females at 197 (37.52%). it is notable that males registered more occurrences in each of the four positions than females. accordingly, there were more male images on the right side at a cumulative total of 124 (23.62) against 80 (15.24) among females. on the left side, there were 119 (22.66%) male images against 62 (9.81%) females. similar trends are noted on the bottom side with male images occurring 36 (6.86%) times compared to females at 26 (4.95%) times. the top side displays similar results with male images recording a frequency of 49 (9.32%) compared to females at 29 (5.52%). the positioning of the elements against each other gives crucial details about the images. the elements on the left side of images are perceived as old information while those put on the right side are considered as new information. the elements at the top are considered as either ideal or offering a promise. the depicted elements at the bottom are considered as real or facts. all these attributes seem to favour the male gender more compared to the female gender. actional processes of the visuals we also examined the actional processes of the visuals in the selected textbooks. following, kress & van leeuwen (2006) four roles of actor, goal, behaver and reactor were used to stratify actional processes in the selected visuals. an actor is a participant who is represented as doing something to another participant (in this case, a goal) while a goal is a recipient of an action by an actor. a behaver performs a nontransitive action such as smiling or running in response to an action by another participant while a reactor is a participant who responds by the direction of a gaze to a model, object, or situation. the results from the selected textbooks are illustrated in table 4.5. table 4.5: actional processes of the visuals functional role males females # of occurrences % # of occurrences % form 1 actor 22 3.83 5 0.87 goal 20 3.48 13 2.26 behaver 13 2.26 11 1.92 reactor 14 2.44 1 0.17 form 2 actor 11 1.92 9 1.57 goal 31 5.40 11 1.92 behaver 34 5.92 20 3.48 reactor 5 0.87 1 0.17 form 3 actor 30 5.23 14 2.44 goal 49 8.54 52 9.06 behaver 27 4.70 19 3.31 reactor 21 3.66 0 0.00 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８３ ８３ form 4 actor 31 5.40 8 1.39 goal 41 7.14 15 2.61 behaver 29 5.05 14 2.44 reactor 1 0.17 2 0.35 σ 379 66.03 195 33.97 n = 574 table 4.5 shows roles assigned to males in the sampled images were twice as many as those assigned to females at 379 (66.03%) and 195 (33.97%) respectively. it is also notable that the frequency of each of the four roles was higher among males in the selected images than females. in particular, there were 94 (16.38%) males assigned the actor role compared to 36 (6.27%) females assigned the same role. similarly, there were 141 (24.56%) goal roles assigned to males compared to 91 (15.85%) females given the same role. the same trend is reflected in the behaver role with males having a frequency of 103 (17.93%) compared to females at 64 (11.15%). lastly, in the reactor role, male images played the role 69 (7.14%) times against females images at 4 (0.69%). the higher frequency of actor roles assigned to the male gender in this study corroborates with marefat & marzban (2014) finding that males assign themselves the role of actor. in another research, danova (2006) showed that female images had a higher frequency of goal roles than male images to indicate that females always take the submissive role in the society. in our study, it was interesting to note that more male images were assigned the goal role than female images. our findings also differ from berger’s (1979) study which found that women appeared as reactors while men were the actors in images and that women are the passive participants of the society performing executive roles. this is in contrast to our study which shows that although reactor role registered the lowest incidence in the study data, more males were assigned the role than females at 69 (7.14%) and 4 (0.69%) respectively. there is therefore need to extend research in this area to hear the current thinking of the material developers about the apparent reversal of roles. realization of vectors in visuals in the study of visuals, vectors are an important aspect as they define social relations. according to van leeuwen (2005) and kress & van leeuwen (2006), vectors can determine four types of relationships namely nontransactional, transactional, unidirectional and bi-directional. a non-transactional relationship occurs when a participant is presented as doing things alone in visuals while a transactional relation occurs when a participant is doing something to a goal or another participant. a unidirectional relation occurs when only one participant does something to another without reciprocation while a bi-directional relation presents when a two-way vector links two or more people. according to kress & van leeuwen (2006, p.59), “when participants are connected by a vector, they are represented as doing something to or for each other.” the representation of vectors in the study data is summarized in table 4.6. table 4.6: representation of vectors in visuals type of vector males females # of occurrences % # of occurrences % form 1 non-transactional 10 3.60 8 2.88 transactional 3 1.08 0 0.00 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８４ ８４ unidirectional transactional 11 3.96 7 2.52 bidirectional transactional 6 2.16 0 0.00 form 2 non-transactional 26 9.35 13 4.68 transactional 4 1.44 1 0.36 unidirectional transactional 9 3.24 4 1.44 bidirectional transactional 16 5.76 7 2.52 form 3 non-transactional 16 5.76 6 2.16 transactional 15 5.40 9 3.24 unidirectional transactional 5 1.80 4 1.44 bidirectional transactional 9 3.24 8 2.88 form 4 non-transactional 11 3.96 15 5.40 transactional 21 7.55 4 1.44 unidirectional transactional 5 1.80 3 1.08 bidirectional transactional 11 3.96 11 3.96 σ 178 64.03 100 35.97 n = 278 patterns in table 4.6 reveal that cumulatively males had more transactional relationships at 178 (64.03%) compared to females at 100 (35.97%). the incidence in each of the four types of relations was higher in male images than female images. specifically in the non-transactional type, male images had a representation of 63 (22.66%) while female images had 42 (15.12%). a nontransactional relation occurs when action has no goal and "is not 'done to' or 'aimed at' anyone or anything"(kress& van leeuwen, 2006, p.63). in the transactional category, males had 43 (15.47%) occurrences against 14 (5.04%) among females. the unidirectional relation displayed 30 (12.96%) and 18 (6.48%) occurrences for male and female images respectively. the same trend emerged in the bi-directional relation with 42 (15.12%) and 26 (9.36%) for male and female images respectively. from the cumulative scores, it is clear that males are more prone to doing something for the other gender than females. berger (1972) notes that in traditional societies, males and females have different types of social orientation. berger further notes that males are perceived as great and this is pegged on the degree of power they provide. the power is normally in moral, physical and economic forms. several years after berger’s work, it appears that the same gender imbalance characterizes the representation of visuals in textbooks. perhaps with feminist movements working at narrowing the male-female gap in various aspects of life, the presence of females could conceivably be displayed more equally over time. conclusion and recommendations in conclusion, the current study’s findings affirms other many preceding research on gender portrayal in textbooks and other curricular materials. these results reveal that notable gender disparities are still immense and prevalent. typical, prototypical, and prejudicial visuals and understanding of gender recognition is still rife in these textbooks. female characters are underrepresented in these textbooks. further an ideology of gender identity and superiority is imminent in the english textbooks in this study. the findings of this study have uncovered the subtle gender imbalance ideologies expressed through textbooks. this knowledge is good for raising the consciousness of teachers and students who use these texts by exposing the subtleties. it will be possible for teachers and students to resist http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８５ ８５ the temptation of projecting these gender stereotypes in real life situations. further, arising from the outcome of this study, authors, designers and illustrators should continually and consciously address gender bias in the english textbooks to ensure fair gender representation. the findings of this study could also be of use to the kenya institute of curriculum development (kicd) in improving the textbooks evaluation matrix by basing it on gender parity paradigms. the improved evaluation matrix could be used to revise textbooks currently in use and guide in the development of new ones. references abdellay, b., & benhaddouche, w. (2015). gender stereotyping through textbook illustrations: a case study of algerian middle school textbookspotlight on english. mediterranean journal of social sciences 6(5), 435-440. aggarwalo, d. (1988). better sampling concepts techniques evaluation. new delhi: sterling publishers private limited. amanda, b., & sakwa, l. n. (2012). the representation of gender in english textbooks in uganda. pedagogy, culture & society, 20:2, 173-190. aydnoĝlu, k. (2014). gender in english language teaching course books in procedia. in social and behavioural sciences, 233-239 baltimore: the john hopkin. chipoda, a., & wassermen, j. (2015). an analysis of the visual portrayal of women in junior secondary malawian school history textbooks. y&t, 14, 208-237. creswell, j. w., plano clark, v. l. (2011). designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). sage. damayanti, i. l. (2014). gender construction in visual images in textbooks for primary school students. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 3(2), 100-116. dewi, s. (2019). pedagogical representation of visual images in efl textbooks: a multimodal perspective. pedagogy, culture and society, 27 (3) 1-16. edmonds, w.a & kennedy d.t. (2017). explanatory-sequential approach. in an applied guide to research designs: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. sage publications, inc ena, o. t. (2014). gender roles representation in indonesian school textbooks: visual content analysis. south carolina: createspace. hietanen, j. k., leppänen, j. m., peltola, m. j., linna-aho, k., & ruuhiala, h. j. (2008). seeingdirect and averted gaze activates the approach-avoidance motivational brain systems. neuropsychologia, 46, 24232430. jannati, s. (2015). gender representation in efl textbooks: a case of ili pre-intermediate series. journal of applied linguistics and language research. 2(3), 211-222. johnson, l. (2000). challenging times: implementing the national curriculum in geography. london: cambridge publishing services. kiai, a. w. (2012). biography of an english language textbook in kenya: a journey from conceptualization to the classroom. downloaded from university of warwick institutional . http://gowarwick.ac.uk/uk/wrap/49465 kobia, j. m. (2009). femininity and masculinity in english primary school textbooks in kenya. the international journal of language society and culture, 28: 57 – 71. kress, g., & van leeuwen, t. (1996). reading images: the grammar of visual design. london, routledge. kress, g., & van leeuwen, t. (2006). reading images: the grammar of visual design. london: routledge. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://gowarwick.ac.uk/uk/wrap/49465 language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８６ ８６ kress, g. (2009). multimodality. a social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. london: routledge. marefat, f., and marzbarn, s (2014). multimodal analysis of gender representation in elt textbooks: reader's perceptions. international conference on current trends in elt putting the learner in the spotlight at: urmia, iran maroko, g.m. (2021). abagusii traditional environmental knowledge and hiv/aids management: implications for english language teaching. language & ecology, 123. maroko, g.m., mokua, g.n., nyakundi, a.o. & onyambu, m.o. (2019). partner notification services in kisii county: evaluating behaviour change communication strategies. journal of development communication, volume 30 (2): 45-59. mathuvi, p. n., ireri, a. m., mukuni, d. m., njagi, a. m., & karugu, n. i. (2012). analysis of gender displays in selected children’s books in kenya. international journal of arts, 2(5), 31-38. nunno f, mensah, d, boahen, e amd nunno e (2017). analysis of gender representation in basic level english textbooks in ghana. journal of science and technology, 37(2). okeefee, l. (2013). a framework for textbook analysis. international review of contemporary learning, 2(1), 1 – 14. republic of kenya. (2010). the constitution of kenya, 2010. nairobi: cambridge university press. tomlinson, b. (2010). acquisitions research and teaching materials. in b. tomlinson (ed.), english language learning materials: a critical review (pp. 3-13). london: continuum. van dijk, t. a. (2001). critical discourse analysis. in d. tannen, d. schiffrin, & h. hamilton (eds.), handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 352-371). oxford: blackwell. van leeuwen, t. (2005). introducing social semiotics. london/ new york: routledge. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaa0c1410d5 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab1687611ab • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 the pedigree of 19th century american natural literature: origin and development mei xiaohan fu dan university, shanghai, china email: meijinuo@163.com abstract to study the characteristics and significance of american natural literature in the 19 th century, the american natural literature writers in 19th century can be analysed consistently. in the following three fields: prose, poetry and novels, several representative writers were selected. their natural literary creation tendencies and the representative works of natural literature were compared in detail, and the features and meanings of 19th century american natural literature were analysed. the results showed that the american natural literature in the 19th century can promote the progress of american literature, and at the same time, it can enlighten the american people’s way of getting along with nature in the 19th century. by comparing with chinese natural literature, it was also concluded that the ecological problem was a universal global problem. its solution can’t be separated from the support of people all over the world. natural literary writers also hoped that humans can share the earth’s ecosystem with nature in a friendly and harmonious manner. keywords: 19th century american literature; human and nature; oriental philosophy; natural poetics introduction the history of american literature is more than two hundred years from the founding of the united states in 1776, and less than four hundred years from the first batch of english settlers in 1607 to the establishment of the first permanent settlement in present-day virginia. historians often regard 1607 as the beginning of the history of american literature, which shows that the history of american literature can’t be compared with the history of britain, france, germany and other european countries. therefore, the development of natural literature in the united states can be traced back to 1607 when the first european settlers arrived in the new world. early immigrants migrated for the purpose of gaining wealth, and some were trying to escape domestic political or religious persecution, such as the puritans in britain. they immigrated for different purposes, but with beautiful ideals, all for better survival in the new world and establishing a new country in the uncivilized land. in the face of such fertile and strange land, they wanted to turn nature into wealth and paradise. in 1620, a group of puritans who took the ‚mayflower‛ set up a strict religious creed in order to establish their ideal ‚eden‛. this harsh religious atmosphere and the resulting morality, laws, and customs had greatly hampered people’s nature and emotions. people turned to the spiritual sanctuary of nature. at the same time, the tough living environment in the americas allowed the puritans to understand the difficulties and obstacles in front of them. they must face reality and be down-to-earth, not just living in fantasy. therefore, the immigrants then wrote about their own land in the essays of diaries and epistles, which can be regarded as the mailto:meijinuo@163.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 earliest form of natural literature in the history of american literature. the american naturalistic literary trend occurred and inherited with the industrialization of the united states and the formation of the post-industrial society, which played an important role in the history of american literature. with the continuous deepening of the industrialization process in the united states, the original calm and harmonious agricultural civilization was broken, and the memories of the ‚distant mountain village‛ began to transform into the helplessness and lament of the rural life; the idyllic and idealized ‚rural gold-plated‛ values were gradually replaced by the indifferent and terrified ‚natural evil theory‛, and gradually led to the determinism and pessimism of later naturalistic literature. especially after the middle of the 19th century, the spiritual crisis of american society was highlighted. the reform movement sweeping the whole country was an attempt to deal with this crisis in the aspects of social production, racial discrimination, gender difference, personal living habits, and the impoverishment and urbanization. in these vigorous reform movements, various kinds of ‚social reform literature‛ emerged, which recorded people’s hard pursuit in the face of various perplexities of industrialization. the failure of most reforms led to the complete destruction of epistemology and values through reform and improvement of society, and ultimately led to the literary transformation of naturalistic survival and violence theory at the end of the 19th century. therefore, the natural literature in 19th century american cannot be simplified as the depiction of the natural world, but also should be taken as a manifestation of the whole system of the relationship between human, community, city and the nature. at the same time, the emerge of the american natural writings also contains american writers’ will to create a unique american literature and their effort to seek for the independence of the american from the european literary tradition. the pedigree of american natural writings: from emerson to mark twain the 19th century american natural literature writers were analysed in individual cases. in the fields of prose and novel, several representative writers were selected, and their natural literary creation tendencies and representative works of natural literature were discussed in detail. ‚nature‛ sets the greatness of emerson’s transcendentalism and marked the beginning of the transcendentalist movement. in his transcendentalism, an important part was his view of nature. firstly, emerson’s observation of nature was an independent and fresh look at nature. secondly, in the relationship between man and nature, he emphasized the harmony between man and nature. in emerson’s opinion, nature is respectable and worthy of praise. in the tranquillity of nature, people can discover the true self. emerson advocated transcendentalism, which was the negation of materialism and money worship in the rising period of american capitalism. under the influence of his view of nature, praising nature, returning to nature and getting creative inspiration from nature became a fashion in literary creation at that time. emerson usually observes the nature world from a subjective view, like what he writes in ‚nature‛: ‚standing on the bare ground, --my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, --all mean egotism vanishes. i become a transparent eye-ball; i am nothing; i see all; the currents of the universal being circulate through me; i am part or particle of god.‛ (emerson, 2004:12) this is the famous saying of emerson’s transcendentalist view, in addition, since it uses the subjective view in order to emphasize the importance of the objective natural world from an individual’s language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 perspective view, so as to emphasize the crucial role played by people when recording the view of nature world. it is also the subject of emerson's romantic thought and the key to the interpretation of ‚nature‛, because ‚nature is the symbol of spirit.‛ (emerson, 2004:30) here, the phase ‚symbol of spirit‛ is worth discussing not only because emerson advocates transcendentalism, which is a negation of materialism and money worship in the rising period of american capitalism, and emphasize the importance of people in the society. at the same time, it also has a close link to the natural theology from which ‚from which emerson’s thinking about nature emerged, finding the roots of his interest in ‘natural law’ and in ‘the union of ‘moral science’ and physical science.’‛ (robinson, 2000:4) therefore, we cannot neglect emerson’s relationship with the natural theology in 19th century america. actually, the theology can be divided into several different genres including ‚natural theology, biblical theology, historical theology, systematic theology, and occasional theology (dealing with a specific topic),‛ (anderson, 2014:40) in which the natural theology undoubtedly affects ‚the traditional proofs for god’s existence,‛ (anderson, 2014:41) when the way the god regulate the world was also changed by it. because of the fact that early american philosophy was affected by the metaphysical system of john locke, his ‚stronger statements about the solidity of natural theology‛ (forde, 2001:400) and his choice of making his morality ‚dependent upon natural theology‛ (forde, 2001:400) may also affect emerson’s view of the ternary relationship between human, the natural world and the god, since his epistemology and moral view are largely affected by the natural theology. therefore, under the influence of emerson’s view of nature along with the affecting of the whole transcendentalism in 19th century america, praising nature, returning to nature and getting creative inspiration from nature became a fashion in literary creation at that time. the person who truly puts emerson’s theory into practice is henry david thoreau, an american empiricist thinker and essayist. thoreau praised everything in nature with a poet’s vision, and the mountains and rivers became the object of his description. this was from a romantic worship of nature. thoreau advocated that man must return to the true state of life in nature. in the relationship between man and nature, thoreau believed that nature is life and life is equal. in a week on the concord and merrimack rivers, thoreau described his close contact with freshwater sunfish: ‚i have thus stood over them half an hour at a time, and stroked them familiarly without frightening them, suffering them to nibble my fingers harmlessly, and seen them erect their dorsal fins in anger when my hand approached their ova, and have even taken them gently out of the water with my hand.‛ (thoreau, 2003: 20) in thoreau's view, man is an integral part of nature and inseparable. therefore, human beings must be intimate and harmonious with nature. emerson and thoreau were both 19th century transcendental thinkers and writers in the united states. both of them expressed their love for nature in their own prose works. they all regarded nature as a symbol of spirit and emphasized the communication between human and nature. their transcendentalism theory showed the ecological consciousness of american writers in the 19th century. according to emerson and thoreau’s strive along with the effort of the whole concord school, the american literary writings began to diverge from the faithfully depiction of the natural world, and began to combine the philosophical rumination with the objective natural world. after emerson and thoreau, the creation of melville and mark twain should also be taken into the consideration of the pedigree of the 19th century american natural poetic, since they represent two different tracks of the american natural literature: melville’s language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 description of the conflict between human’s secularity and nature’s divinity and mark twain’s depiction of the natural world along with the spatialized world. though these two different roots should be considered as heterogeneous ways of portraying and forming the natural world, they also have some similarities. herman melville’s first publication of moby dick in london was a sign of his artistic creation. this novel inherits the theme of descripting the natural world from his early works including typee, omoo and mardi. the novel was named after a white whale because it was the central event of the novel, and the whale and other sea creatures represented by it, along with the setting background of the sea and the relationship between human and natural creatures, compose the natural images in the novel. melville’s cetaceans were endowed with human spirit and thinking, and full of divinity. according to the scrutinize of different images of whales in the history of european literature, melville intentionally split the cetaceans from the pure natural world, and put it into the neutral space of the fiction and the real natural world. meanwhile, his works also inherit the trait of the american ocean literature (both from the oral tradition and writing tradition), and largely extended the theme and the aesthetic value of american natural literature. however, melville did not narrow his view on the description on the scene of the natural world, but also dealt with one of the crucial themes of american natural literature: the image of nature in the main character’s subjective vision. therefore, even melville experienced the phase of the antiempiricism, which is represented by the movement of transcendentalism; melville provided a possibility of reflecting and describing the objective world. actually, just decades before melville, the creation of romance novels, the most distinct literary genre, has also been promoted by edgar ellen poe and nathaniel hawthorne. hawthorne’s pursue of the ‚neutral territory,‛ which should be taken as ‚somewhere between the real world and fairy-land, where the actual and the imaginary may meet, and each imbue itself with the nature of the other.‛ (hawthorne, 1983:149) the concept of ‚neutral territory‛ provided another realm, the fence-sitter stance between the depiction of the real world and the fantastic world, for natural literature, and extended the tension of it. therefore, the natural literature of the united states in the 19th century inherited the content and form of european romantic literature, and was endowed with much american character, such as the description of the american colony, and its unique thinking of the relationship between human and nature (it will be discussed in the following part). under the influence of this trend of thought, american literature in the 19th century portrayed a lot of american natural scenery. therefore, early american romantic literature was also based on european literature to a large extent. the tradition of recording the nature during the main character’s tour, which was created by washington irving’s the sketch book of geoffrey crayon, gent, along with melville’s early long novels, and then largely affected mark twain’s creation of the picaresque novel. the adventures of huckleberry finn is the representative work of mark twain. in the novel, the mississippi river run through the plot, it was the river where huck and jim got freedom and experienced adventure, and also the creative carrier of mark twain’s theme. mark twain’s mississippi river was endowed with a unique meaning: an ugly mirror of real life, the place of freedom and ideal spirit. in the mississippi river, all people are equal and free. therefore, the river, one of the most typical images of nature which had already been scrutinized by thoreau and flattered by hawthorne in his work our old home, who was also described negatively by mark twain, which means that the empirical reflection of the nature world cannot keep pace with the language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 forever-changing world anymore, and may not fulfill mark twain’s intention to eject the spirit of society on the nature world. since the culmination of mark twain’s creation was at the end of the 19th century and even entered the 20th century, mark twain faced the fierce change of the american society, and even witness the beginning of the modern age, it is reasonable to deduce that his creation based on the natural world contains some new spirit of the time, which makes him looks like independent from his literary predecessors. therefore, the description and the view of the nature world in mark twain’s work should be accompanied with the variety of the human society. this logic of creation will help us understand the flecked world in the esquimau maiden's romance, in which the pristine world of eskimos is polluted by the commercial world. therefore, the nature finally experienced a kind of inter-wind with the human society. as can be seen from the scrutiny of the 19th century american natural writings above, there are historical, geographical, political and cultural reasons for the emergence of the individualism tradition in early american literature. in different literary works, individualism presents different forms and contents. emerson, the representative of transcendentalism, advocated the freedom and independence of thought, and demanded to get rid of the shackles of tradition and authority to understand the truth. his individualism was characterized by individual freedom and emancipation of the mind to realize self, which promoted the development of the renaissance movement in new england. emerson’s thoughts, especially his article ‚history‛, provided a valuable normative framework for the analysis of history teaching objectives in public schools. emerson declared in ‚nature‛ that ‚the whole of nature is a metaphor, of the human mind‛ (emerson, 2004:15), praising the natural state of human beings. in addition to praising nature, walt whitman also wrote poems emphasizing him. he believed that his destiny was determined by himself and discovering himself and exploring himself was to discover america and understand america. the poet believed that everyone is entitled to something beautiful and radiant. thoreau’s haunting reminder: ‚the universe is not a room that reflects my mirror. it makes people further think about the significance of this tension between the self and the natural world.‛ (boyes, 2017:98-99). the source and the significance of the 19th century american natural literature as a pedigree when it comes to the discussion of the root and the origin of the 19th century american natural literary creation, the literary origin from the european should be treated as an indispensable part. the theme and style of natural literature produced in the 17th and 18th centuries laid the foundation for the creation of natural literature in the 19th century. the 17th and 18th centuries were a period in american history when colonies were established successively and plantation economy developed rapidly. the new world was a wild and hopeful land. this made immigrants realize that to survive and develop in such an environment, it is necessary to recognize the natural environment. at the same time, the literary world in american colony had also experienced a phase turning from the traditional oral literary tradition to the writing literary tradition, which also helped early american writers modify the genre of natural literature. in the 17th century literature, the natural world of the new world was described from a purely objective perspective. the natural literary writers of the 17th and 18th centuries turned the literary point of view to describe the new world, and more specifically, the natural landscape of the americas. this played a pioneering role in the creation of later natural language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 116 literature, including writers in 19th century. as far as the style was concerned, the natural literature of the 17th and 18th centuries provided a reference for the creation of natural literature in the 19th century, and promoted the maturity of the natural literature in the 19th century. of course, in the 19th century, in addition to prose, writers also created poetry, fiction and other styles. however, in terms of natural literature, the writers in the 17th and 18th centuries were the first to introduce prose into the creation of natural literature, which laid a foundation for the natural literature in the 19th century, including the later period, and played a pioneering role in the development of the writing style of natural literature. at the same time, we cannot neglect the influence from the european natural writings. politically, the united states emerged as a vassal and colony of the european puritans at the very beginning. therefore, even though it remained a robust trend of natural writing in literary works before the american revolution, american writers paid more attentions to the political writings, gothic novels and realistic novels. however, things changed after the american revolution, based on the fact that one of the most important features and the literary trend of the development of the united states after the american revolutionary war, romanticism, originated in the european continent and didn’t reach the united states until the early 19th century. early american romantic literature inherited the content and form of european romantic literature. writers of american romanticism such as washington irving, cooper, emerson, longfellow, thoreau, whitman, hawthorne, etc., more or less showed the tendency to love nature and praise nature. as can be seen from the discussion above, the main contribution to the american natural writings and the philosophical trends are provided be these writers and thinkers. the discussion of ‚human and nature‛ in american natural literature in the 19th century actually contains the intention of comparison and reference. it is understood that whitman, thoreau and others have been influenced by eastern religion and philosophy. more and more western scholars recognize that the environmental ideas contained in the oriental cultural tradition have very important modern values. in fact, modern western ecological philosophy and ecological ethics have absorbed some of the ecological wisdom in the oriental cultural tradition at the time of theoretical construction. there is no doubt that both emerson and thoreau accept the oriental philosophy in the same era, because of the existence of the personal relationship between emerson and thoreau, and their contribution to the dial, even though he had already read some chinese classical works when he was still in university. emerson and thoreau accepted the confucianism nearly in the same era. they first read the works of confucius by joshua marshman and phoenix by an unknown author. then they both read david collie’s the chinese classical works (commonly called the four books) in 1943. lately, after thoreau’s demise, emerson also read philippe couplet’s work, confucius sinarum philosophus [confucius, philosopher of the chinese]. hence, there is no doubt that both emerson and thoreau accept the oriental thought which may have a great effect on their creation. ancient chinese cultural traditions, especially taoist philosophy, contain rich ecological thought and ethics. it is in the interpretation of the relationship between nature and human beings that some ancient chinese thinkers put forward a series of ideas about respecting life and protecting the environment. although these ideas have some kind of simple intuitive or epiphany, they are all important components of human ecological ethics. the taoist philosophy represented by laozi and zhuangzi advocates that everything in earth is a whole. man is a part of everything in heaven and earth. ‚tao‛ is the root and language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 foundation of all things in earth. laozi believed that people should conform to nature and oppose the addition of manpower to nature. zhuangzi believed that nature is originally harmonious and happy, but human behaviour has destroyed the harmony of nature, he advocated that mankind should return to nature. carl j. dull once pointed out that ‚the centrality of nature in the thought of both thinkers, the idea of wandering also plays a central role, and becomes a proscriptive ideal on how to engage a variety of problems,‛ (dull, 2012:222) which means that thoreau and zhuangzi not only focus on similar topics, but also use the analogical rhetoric to represent this problem. meanwhile, we still need to notice the difference of the time between the origination of the confucianism and the taoism. during the era of ‚the pre-qin period *xian qin+‛, the battle between the different kingdoms made the political and the living of individuals become the major problem of that era. however, when emerson and thoreau accept the thought of confucianism, the spirit of their time was totally different compared with the era of ‚the pre-qin period.‛ after entering the modern society and the independence from united kingdom, the new-england countries eager to change their cultural current and reinforce their cultural identity. at the same time, with the development of the modern technology, the development of the capitalism and expansion of the city (the latter two are the reasons why thoreau chooses to live away from the city). new englanders introduce a large number of european ideological cultures, sciences and technologies into their own land, and then intentionally cut down the intense link between them and their father land, and try to renew their own cultural constructions. hence, it means that during this phase of cutting down the relationship between themselves and their fatherland, they also face more severe problems of environmental degradation than before, how to make the precious spiritual wealth left by their ancestors shine with new splendour accompanied with a kind of nostalgia since their living environment and their link to their ancestors had already changed. this social background makes their seeking to the oriental philosophy become more reasonable, since the thought of the coherence between individuals and the natural world will help them to find out a new way the vary different two origins of the 19th century american natural literary force us to think about the following question: why should we pay so much attention to the pedigree of 19th century american natural literature, especially the four writers mentioned above? the answer is that, if we put these writers into separate statuses and treat them as totally different individuals, we may not find out a coherent system of the importance owned by 19th century american natural writings. however, if we put them into a consistent system in the linear time, we will have chance to check the importance of the whole system. there is no doubt that the 19th century american natural literature played an important role in promoting the establishment of american national literature based on the tension among the breakage of the american from the european literature. the identity of the original colonies and vassals of the united states seems to determine that the american literary pedigree must be derived from british literature to a certain extent, and will always be ruined by the european tradition. it is true that when we check the natural literature of the america in the 19th century, the influence of british literature can be discovered. under the influence we discussed above, james fenimore cooper presented a vast and vivid picture of the american west, even though it may not be the main part he wanted to express in his work, in the form of romance novel. cooper brilliantly described the primitive natural environment of the western america. based on the native language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 118 american culture and literary tradition, cooper endowed the protagonist of the novel with the noble qualities shared by the american people who love freedom, adhere to justice and are industrious and brave. this image became the model and example for americans, and cooper thus shaped the first literary image that truly belongs to the american nation. in the literary history of the america after cooper, emerson enjoyed the nicknames of ‚the father of pragmatism philosophy‛ and ‚the prophet of the american spirit‛. his thought also marked the independence of american culture and the american spirit. under the advocacy of naturalism, he attached great importance to the combination of spirit and nature, eulogized nature, the beautiful scenery in nature, and the ‚noble savage‛ who lived in harmony with nature, abandoned the urban civilization, and returned to the nature to obtain the inspiration and inspiration of nature, which became one of the fashions of literary creation at that time. therefore, even though cooper created the image of the first pure american protagonist in the american literary history, this article still not pays too much attention to his creation, since emerson integrated the philosophical though coherently with his depiction of the natural view. emerson called the american writers who rooted in the american tradition, or to be more precise, the new england tradition, to look at the american landscape with a new angle. after emerson, american literature in the 19th century developed vigorously and produced many fine works, which was known as the ‚renaissance era of america‛. while describing a lot of nature, it was gradually establishing its own local literature. in addition to cooper and emerson, writers such as hawthorne, melville, and mark twain were also creating their own literature in the process of creating natural literature, or add different natural factors into their own works. even though these factors may not play the main role in these works, we cannot deny the fact that american writers cannot get rid of the natural factors in their works. with the advance of the industrial revolution in the 19th century and the deepening of environmental pollution, the romantics images once derived from natural views began to reflect on the reality of the humanities. they no longer accepted the mechanical world view advocated by the philosophers in the 18th century. in the 19th century, the creation of natural literature in the america changed the predecessor’s fear of nature, and turned to seek inspiration in nature. as mentioned above, the creation of natural literature in the america in the 19th century showed a double contradiction: the love and fear of nature were intertwined, and the pursuit of material civilization contradicted the longing for maintaining the pure land. in short, 19th century american natural literature called for humanity to reject the anthropocentric way of thinking and to live in the earth’s ecosystem with nature in a friendly and harmonious manner. in the 19th century, the pace of america’s conquest of nature continued to accelerate. in particular, the rapid development of the western frontier, the marine whaling industry, mechanization, industrialization caused the extreme destruction of nature, and the relationship between man and nature became more and more urgent. the invention and use of steam engines and textile machines brought mankind into the industrial society. at this time, the view of nature dominated by the theory of conquest, anthropocentrism was fully developed, and the relationship between man and nature was in serious conflict. nature restricted and acted on human activities and social development with the limitation of its resources. every unreasonable use of human beings in nature led to a retaliatory response from nature. in the 19th century, american natural literature was inherited from the past, language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 119 its european literature ancestors, and raised questions for the later creation of natural literature, not only about how to depict the nature, but also about how to observe the nature from individuals’ perspective and how treat the relationship between human and nature, which inspired all human beings, including americans, for a long period. conclusion in this study, american representative nature literature writers in the 19th century were analysed as a coherent system. it was wildly believed that the 19th century american natural literature inherited and developed the theme and style of natural literature in the 17th and 18th centuries, and it was deeply influenced by european culture, especially british literature. however, since the 19th century should be taken as the era of american renaissance and the localization of native american literature, the difference between the european natural writings and the american natural literature should be checked prudently. we should keep us eyes open to the fact that america and europe face different historical background when they are going to write about the nature, and the united states faced more serious problems and more drastic social changes during the origination of its natural literature. with the advancement of the industrial revolution in the 19th century and the deepening of environmental pollution, the american romance novels began to reflect on the reality of the human condition in the society and began to think about the relationship between human and nature. in the 19th century, american natural literature was inherited from the past, and it raised questions for the later creation of natural literature. at the same time, it also inspired all human beings, including americans. therefore, the american natural literature can be seen as a well-rounded metaphysical system of the expression of the unique american condition from the beginning of the 19th century (emerson and thoreau) to the beginning of the 20th century (mark twain), and every american in this period could find their own sites in this long spectrum. and what should be mentioned at the end of the research is that, the writers of american natural literature chose to incorporate eastern natural philosophy with their literary creation, which left much more aesthetic space to the american natural literary creation. it was hoped that in this tide of construction and development, the cost of destroying the natural environment and the severe environmental situation faced by mankind can cause enough attention and vigilance for all people in the country. references [1] anderson, o. (2014). reason and faith in the theology of charles hodge: american common sense realism. new york: st. martin’s press llc. [2] shepard, p.b.k. (2017). man in the landscape: a historic view of the aesthetics of nature (review). western american literature, 28(3), 98-99. [3] austin, b. (2018). ‚man himself is a sign‛: emerson, c.s. peirce, and the semiosis of mind. esq: a journal of nineteenth-century american literature and culture, 64(4), 680-714. [4] dull, c., zhuangzi, j., & thoreau. (2012). wandering, nature, and freedom. journal of chinese philosophy, 39(2), 222–239. [5] emerson, r.w. (2004). essays and poems by ralph waldo emerson. new york: barnes & noble books. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 [6] forde, s. (2001). natural law, theology, and morality in locke. american journal of political science, 45(2), 396-409. [7] hawthorne, n. (1983). nathaniel hawthorne: collected novels. new york: literary classics of the united states, [8] lester emile. (2016). ralph waldo emerson and teaching about religion in american history. religion & education, 43(3), 271-284. [9] robbins, t. (2015). emma goldman reading walt whitman: aesthetics, agitation, and the anarchist ideal. texas studies in literature and language, 57(1), 80-105. [10] robinson, d.m. (2000). emerson, thoreau, fuller, and transcendentalism. american literary scholarship, pp. 3-27. [11] thoreau, h.d. (2003). a week on the concord and merrimack rivers. park: pennsylvania state univ. press, [12] whitley e. (2015). the first white aboriginal: walt whitman and john rollin ridge. esq a journal of the american renaissance, 52(4), 66-100. [13] plotica l p. (2018). emerson and self-reliance: individualism amidst the market. nineteenth-century individualism and the market economy. palgrave macmillan, cham, pp. 71-124. [14] spencer a. (2017). ‚a fiction of law and custom‛: mark twain's interrogation of white privilege in adventures of huckleberry finn. the mark twain annual, 15(1), 126-144. language circle october 2010.pdf les elements du roman policier dans l’aiguille creuse par maurice leblanc vinda putri purnasari diah vitri widayanti suluh edhi wibowo semarang state university abstract le roman policier est un roman lié à la criminalité dont le personnage est un agent de police ou un détective ayant du type protagoniste dont la mission révèle le crime. quatre éléments construisent le roman policier, ce sont ; l’élément du crime, l’élément du mystère, l’élément du détective et l’élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin d’histoire. la particularité du roman réalisé par maurice leblanc est que le personnage principal est un voleur, ce n’est donc pas un détective. c’est la raison pour laquelle je voudrais évaluer si les éléments de ce roman policier suivent les normes, c'est-à-dire il a les mêmes éléments que les autres romans policiers. cette recherche utilise la méthode descriptive qualitative pour analyser les données (les éléments construisant le roman, perçus dans les phrases du roman l’aiguille creuse. la recherche montre que tous les éléments sont présents : le crime, le mystère, le détective et la résolution inattendue à la fin d’histoire, y compris le génie de lupin en tant que personnage principal de manifester son victoire contre les trois détectives. a part cela, l’histoire d’amour et le piège se trouvent au début et au cours de l’enquête. mots clé : les éléments du roman détective l’introduction le roman policier est né premièrement au xixe siècle. il est un genre relativement nouveau, qui n’a même pas 200 ans, et raconte un détective qui révèle un crime. cependant, ses racines a été prises de la tragédie grecque. alors, certains historiens de ce genre considèrent « oedipe-roi » de sophocle comme le premier roman policier de la culture européenne. l’expression de « roman policier » a apparu en france environ en 1890. son équivalent anglo-saxon, le detective story, n’a pas été connu avant 1897. c’était une époque où les grandes villes, par leur expansion, devenaient de plus en plus dangereuses, où les valeurs traditionnelles commençaient à être affaiblies. les polices organisées se développaient en europe (création du department detective of scotland yard) : il représentait les peurs de son temps. en france, le chef de la sûreté de paris, françois eugène vidocq, était un pionnier de ce genre avec ses mémoires (1828). le roman policier est un roman qui est lié à la criminalité. dans ce roman le personnage étant un agent de police est protagoniste dont la mission révèle le crime. selon webster’s new international dictionary dans baribin (2003 :102) le mot detect (verbe) a plusieurs sens comme : (1) découvrir, ouvrir un camouflage, révéler un secret, montrer une sincérité, soulever un rideau ; (2) découvrir un secret ; (3) et trouver une réalité qui est obscure, par exemple révéler des crimes. le mot détective indique une personne qui recherche et poursuit le malfaiteur. alors, on peut conclure que le roman policier est une histoire qui évoque la recherche et la poursuit du crime. au cours du xxe siècle, le roman policier a évolué. cette évolution est notamment dans la caractérisation des personnages: le caractère du détective intelligent, droit et honnête, est remplacé par des personnages moins recommandables, à savoir les « méchants », voleurs ou assassins, qui deviennent le personnage principal. en france, le détective avait été remplacé par le criminel comme arsène lupin de maurice leblanc (1905) qui a apparu comme un cambrioleur gentleman et à la fois justicier. il est le protagoniste dans ce roman bien qu’il soit un bandit car leblanc a crée un type d’aventurier qui est totalement différente que l’autre. or, selon baribin (2003 :103) le détective est le personnage principal dans un roman policier, parce qu’il est décrit comme le personnage le plus intelligent. roman policier de l’aiguille creuse par maurice leblanc est un roman qui raconte une intrigue historique et une légende parce qu’il garde le secret de la fortune des rois de france. en outre, l’aiguille creuse d étretat existe, il se trouve à normandie et à 5 km d'etretat. leblanc a donné le même nom au titre du roman. dans ce roman, lupin rencontre non seulement isodore beautrelet d’un jeune étudiant, ganimard son adversaire, mais aussi herlock sholmés un détective privé connu en angleterre. ce qui éveille l’intérêt de lecteur est la poursuite entre ces trois détectives et lupin; pour découvrir le personnage le plus dominant. les avantages pratiques d’analyser les éléments de roman policier est pour donner la connaissance de roman policier aux étudiants de littératurefrançaise. le but principal de cette analyse est d’évaluer si ce roman a les éléments de roman policier et décrit les éléments qui construisent le roman policier de l’aiguille creuse par maurice leblanc. les elements du roman policier il y a quatre éléments qui construisent le roman policier, ce sont ; l’élément du crime, l’élément du mystère, l’élément du détective et l élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin d histoire (baribin 2003 :104). 1. l’élément du crime dans le terme du droit, le crime est une action contre la moralité humaine (l’immorale), ou bien l’action qui lèse de sociétés, et transgresse la loi (baribin 2003 :104). 2. l’élément du mystère c’est l’une des parties principales enquêtée et résolue. le plus important dans un mystère est que toutes façons doivent être mystérieuses donc elles apparaissent des questions comme : qui est le meurtrier, qui est le cambrioleur, ou qui est le ravisseur. ces questions provoquent un travail d’une recherche de réponse. 3.l’élément du détective le détective joue un rôle principal dans le roman policier, celui qui résout le mystère. il y a deux types du détective, ce sont le détective privé ou le détective non-gouvernementale comme isodore beautrelet et le détective de police comme ganimard dans le roman de l’aiguille creuse. 4. l’élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin de l’histoire dans le roman policier, en général, on peut trouver plusieurs personnages qu’on peut soupçonner. chaque personnage pourrait mener les lecteurs de le supposer ou présumer. cette situation s’appelle le snare (piège), et on arrive à une résolution inattendue à la fin d’histoire. la methodologie de la recherche dans cette recherche, j’ai utilise la méthode descriptive qualitative pour analyser les éléments du roman policier. le corpus utilisé dans ce mémoire est le roman l’aiguille creuse de maurice leblanc. l’analyse l’élément du crime : l’action de cambriolage. de ce texte ci-dessus, j’ai trouvé que le premier élément qui construit l’histoire de roman policier l’aiguille creuse est l’action de cambriolage chez le comte de gesvres dirigé par arsène lupin. on peut le voir dans la citation suivante : elles hésitaient, ne sachant à quoi se résoudre. appeler ? crier au secours ? elles n’osaient, tellement le bruit même de leur voix leur semblait redoutable. mais suzanne qui s’était approchée de la fenêtre étouffa un cri. ‘regarde... un homme près du basin’. un homme en effet s’éloignait d’un pas rapide. il portait sous le bras un objet d’assez grandes dimensions dont elles ne purent discerner la nature, et qui, en ballottant contre sa jambe, contrariait sa marche. elles le virent qui passait près de l’ancienne chapelle et qui se dirigeait vers une petite porte dont le mur était percé. cette porte devait être ouverte, car l’homme disparut subitement, et elles n’entendirent point le grincement habituel des gonds (lc/1909/5-6). ‘le voici, dépouillé de tout commentaire. d’une part il y a eu vol, puisque ces deux demoiselles sont d’accord et qu’elles ont réellement vu deux hommes qui s’enfuyaient avec des objets’. ‘il y a eu vol’ (lc/1909/45). l’élément du mystère l’élément du mystère dans le roman policier l’aiguille creuse est le mystère du morceau de papier plein de chiffres, de points et de signes qui s’est laissé tombé par lupin sur le champ de l’investigation. au même moment le brigadier de gendarmerie s’approchait de m. filleul et lui remettait un morceau de papier, froissé, déchiqueté, jauni, qu il venait de ramasser non loin de l’endroit où l’on avait découvert l écharpe. m. filleul l’examina, puis le tendit à isidore beautrelet en disant : ‘voilà qui ne nous aidera pas beaucoup dans nos recherches’. isidore tourna et retourna le morceau de papier. couvert de chiffres, de points et de signes, il offrait exactement le dessin que nous donnons ci-dessous : (lc/1909/66-67). quand les polices enquêtaient l’enlèvement de mlle raymonde, on a trouvé un morceau de papier d un manuscrit au champ de l’investigation. alors, cette découverte montre le détective qui révèle le mystère. l’élément du détective. dans ce roman, lupin affronte trois adversaires. on peut le voir dans la citation suivant : ‘si... trois adversaires, au besoin, pourraient concevoir quelques doutes : ganimard, dont on attend la venue, herlock sholmès qui doit traverser le détroit, et moi qui suis sur les lieux. il y a là un triple péril. il le supprime. il enlève ganimard. il enlève herlock sholmès. il me fait administrer un coup de couteau par brédoux.’ (lc/1909/127). dans le texte ci-dessus, on peut considérer que l’aventure de l’aiguille creuse met en scène trois détective, sont : sholmès, celui qui devient adversaire le plus intéressant; isodore beautrelet qui a su percer le secret de l aiguille creuse, et ganimard qui l a traqué toujours dans la plupart de ses aventures. l’élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin d’histoire. la résolution inattendue à la fin d histoire est une reconstruction de l histoire dont le mouvement est rétrospectif. elle comprend: 1). l’analyse de beautrelet qui révèle le mystère de l’aiguille creuse et sa reussite de trouver l endroit de l aiguille situé l’etretat. trente marches, toujours, puis une porte, celle-ci plus légère, d’aspect plus moderne. il la poussa doucement, tout prêt à la fuite. personne. mais la salle différait des autres comme destination. aux murs, des tapisseries, sur le sol, des tapis. deux dressoirs magnifiques se faisaient vis-à-vis, chargés d’orfèvrerie. les petites fenêtres, pratiquées dans les fentes étroites et profondes, étaient garnies de vitres. au milieu de la pièce, une table richement servie avec une nappe en dentelle, des compotiers de fruits et de gâteaux, du champagne en carafes, et des fleurs, des amoncellements de fleurs. autour de la table, trois couverts. beautrelet s’approcha. sur les serviettes il y avait des cartes avec les noms des convives. il lut d abord : arsène lupin. en face : mme arsène lupin. il prit la troisième carte et tressauta d’étonnement. celle-là portait son nom : isidore beautrelet ! (lc/1909/242). la résolution inattendue se fait parce que personne ne suppose que le seul detective qui révèle le secret de l’aiguille creuse est la jeune homme nommé isodore beautrelet, l’éléve de réthorique. (2) l’ingéniosité d arsène lupin comme un personnage principale et l intrigue de l amour. mais alors... si c’est vous... alors... mademoiselle...’ ‘eh oui, beautrelet, tu l’as dit...’ il écarta de nouveau la tenture, fit un signe et annonça : ‘mme arsène lupin’. ‘ah ! murmura le jeune homme malgré tout confondu... mlle de saint-véran’. ‘non, non, protesta lupin, mme arsène lupin ou plutôt, si vous préférez, mme louis valméras, mon épouse en justes noces, selon les formes légales les plus rigoureuses. et grâce à vous, mon cher beautrelet’. ‘oui, grâce à vous, mon cher ami. certainement, raymonde et moi, nous nous sommes aimés le premier jour. parfaitement, mon petit... l’enlèvement de raymonde, sa captivité, des blagues, tout cela : nous nous aimions... mais elle, pas plus que moi, d’ailleurs, quand nous fûmes libres de nous aimer, nous n’avons pu admettre qu’il s’établît entre nous un de ces liens passagers qui sont à la merci du hasard. la situation était donc insoluble pour lupin. mais elle ne l était pas si je redevenais le louis valméras que je n’ai pas cessé d’être depuis le jour de mon enfance. c’est alors que j’eus l’idée, puisque vous ne lâchiez pas prise et que vous aviez trouvé ce château de l’aiguille, de profiter de votre obstination’ (lc/1909/245-246). dans le texte ci-dessus, on peut trouver l’ingéniosité de lupin qui profite de l’expédition de beautrelet pour être complice sous le nom de valméras. lupin lui confie ses espérances et ses désirs. et beautrelet, il est captivé par l’histoire d’aventure de lupin. en outre, par son amour à mlle. raymonde de saint-véran, lupin décide de laisser au trésor des rois de france. ‘et voilà, c’est fini... une petite fille a passé, qui a des cheveux blonds, de beaux yeux tristes, et une âme honnête, oui, honnête, et c’est fini... moimême je démolis le formidable édifice... tout le reste me paraît absurde et puéril... il n’y a plus que ses cheveux qui comptent... ses yeux tristes... et sa petite âme honnête’. (lc/1909/255). on peut dire que mlle raymonde qui a donné à lupin de l’attention affectueuse, et de la douceur. lupin est séduit par son apparence et sa générosité. le piège généralement, le piège se trouve dans l élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin de l histoire. pour créer des cas difficiles et pour intéresser des lecteurs, l auteur multiplie les obstacles et les pièges logiques tout au long de l enquête. ces obstacles sont: (1) le meurtre de jean daval le secrétaitare de comtes gesvres; (2) le menace sur mademoiselle raymonde de saint-véran; (3) l enlèvement et le meurtre de mademoiselle raymonde et arsène lupin; (4) la falsification du nom : une seconde identité d arsène lupin et la découverte du château de l aiguille. voici, je montre par example la falsification du nom comme une seconde identité de lupin : « depuis un an arsène lupin vit à paris sous le nom d etienne de vaudreix. c est un nom que vous avez pu lire souvent dans les chroniques mondaines ou les échos sportifs. grand voyageur, il fait de longues absences, pendant lesquelles il va, dit-il, chasser le tigre au bengale ou le renard bleu en sibérie. il passe pour s occuper d affaires sans qu on puisse préciser de quelles affaires il s agit. « son domicile actuel: 36, rue marbeuf. (je vous prie de remarquer que la rue marbeuf est à proximité du bureau de poste numéro 45.) depuis le jeudi 23 avril, veille de l agression d ambrumésy, on n a aucune nouvelle d etienne de vaudreix (lc/1909/59). de cette citation ci-dessus, on peut dire que lupin se transforme en quelqu un d‟autre en empruntant le nom d‟une personnage qui existe pour tromper son adversaire. la conclusion les résultats de l'analyse présenté qu’il y a quatre éléments dans le roman policier l’aiguille creuse, ce sont : (1) l’élément du crime débuté sur un cambriolage perpétré par lupin, c’est à dire que le principal élément de ce roman est un cambriolage; (2) l’élément du mystère de vieux manuscrit de l’aiguille creuse qui garde le trésor accumulé par les rois de france; (3) l’élément du détective, dans lequel les actions des trois détectives se concentre, parle principalement de lupin, l’héros de roman qui joue le rôle du voleur; (4) l’élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin d’histoire raconte l’ingéniosité d’arsène lupin, comme un personnage principale, et l’intrigue de l’amour qui n’a pas de place dans le roman policier selon todorov, est trouvée dans le roman policier de l’aiguille creuse. le piège d’après baribin, généralement, il se trouve dans l’élément de la résolution inattendue à la fin d’histoire mais dans l’aiguille creuse on l’aperçoit tout au long de l’enquête bibliographie baribin, raminah.2003. sastra bandingan. semarang: universitas negeri semarang. claude, vareille-jean.1994. le roman populaire francais .quebec, http://www.persee.fr, téléchargé le17 octobre2009, à 09.46 wib. dhoukar, nadia.2000.le personnage d‟arsene lupin dans les aventures d‟arsene lupin de maurice leblanc. paris : université paris iiisorbonne, http://bucensier.univ-paris3 .fr / textes / ndhoudea /sommaire .htm, téléchargé le 13 mai2008, à 10.42 wib. gion, ml dan slama, p. lire et écrire avec le roman policier, crdp de créteil. houyel dan poslaniec.2001. activité de lecture à partir de la littérature policière : hachette, http://www.ac-reims.fr /ia51/ maitrise.langue /img/ pdf/le_genre_policier.pdf, téléchargé le 07 novembre 2009, à19.08. jabrohim, ed. 2001. metodologi penelitian sastra. jakarta : hanindita. jacques, dubois.2005.le roman policier ou la modernité.france: armand collin, dans http://ecrits-vains.com/polars/telus01.htm, téléchargé le 27 mai 2009, à 09.55. leblanc, maurice.1995.vol5. l‟aiguille creuse. paris:établie par francis lacassin, laffont. morteuil-de, jean.2002.histoire du roman policier: accéder au site du journal littéraire : www. journal litteraire. com http:// www. saintmont. com/jl/articles /jl28.htm, téléchargé le 27 mai 2009, à 14.26 siswantoro. 2005. metode penelitian sastra : analisis psikologis. universitas muhamadiyah surakarta: muhamadiyah university press. subroto, edi. 1992. pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. surakarta : sebelas maret university press. language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 413 asynchronous online learning: top-down and bottom-up processes for listening practices slamet utomo universitas muria kudus slamet.utomo@umi.ac.id titis sulistyowati universitas muria kudus titis.sulistyowati@uk.ac.id abstract asynchronous learning can be the best choice to provide a new learning environment during the pandemic situation because asynchronous environments treat students as autonomous learners. students can learn with no time limitation, and students can learn on online activities independently. eefl learning can be done by adopting asynchronous learning. this study examined the asynchronous learning effect on the students listening skills. this learning also adopts the principle of top-down and bottom-up listening strategies. teachers modify and develop the listening activities to meet the students' needs by using the google form link. in this research, the researchers introduce news items as listening resources. the researchers conducted this study to study the listening proficiency of first-semester students before and after implementing the top-down and bottom-up listening processes in asynchronous learning environment. this experimental research is one group pretest and posttest only. to determine the effectiveness of the asynchronous top-down and bottom-up listening processes, the researchers used the wilcoxon test to analyze the significant difference between the pre and posttest. the researchers conclude that the top-down and bottom-up process in listening is suitable for teaching news items. the paired sample test proved a significant difference between the pre and posttest data which then indicates that the students' listening comprehension on news items increases significantly. asynchronous learning offers students many advantages while they are practicing online listening. problems and listening difficulties challenge the teachers to develop the learning management for further achievement. keywords: top-down, bottom-up, listening, news, and online learning introduction during the pandemic, many education institutions adjust their approach to providing a learning environment. the english education department of universitas muria kudus has struggled to accommodate the learning process into e-language learning. some e-learning platforms and apps are used to cope with the situation. however, the institution and the faculty members should consider the simplicity and applicability. for some students, the e-learning mode is considered something new, and due to the internet connection, and some devices needed to support the e-learning, they need to adjust themselves to it. some students might need to get familiar with online learning; therefore, teachers should provide easily accessed learning resources. asynchronous learning is the solution to the growing demand in e-learning system development. e-learning system facilitates elearners to learn independently and supports each learner's characteristics as they use individual learning styles. the learning emphasis the process and learning style of the learners. in the distance education (de) concept, asynchronous online teaching supported self-paced with highly independent forms of de. this system can be the best solution for giving virtual courses with a poor http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:slamet.utomo@umi.ac.id mailto:titis.sulistyowati@uk.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 414 internet connection to avoid troubleshooting. (murphy et al., 2011; shahabadi & uplane, 2015) commonly, there are two methods in providing e-content in the online learning environment. these include synchronous and asynchronous e-learning modes. doe to the massive improvement in online education, various vendor and tools or software program create facilities that support synchronous and asynchronous e-learning. tools such as threaded discussion, instant messaging, and blogs play an important role in highlighting the online courses by designing a virtual classroom environment that enables learners and teachers to exchange information, give instruction, and construct social interaction without time and space limitation. synchronous e-learning is live, real-time (and usually scheduled), facilitated education, and learning-oriented interaction. asynchronous elearning, on the other hand, is mainly adopted because it is not time-bound, and learners can respond anytime. learners are given more time to do the tasks and submit their responses. this opportunity allows them to develop their response critically as they use various points of view. therefore, asynchronous space leads to selfpaced, independent, student-centered learning. (murphy et al., 2011; perveen, 2016; salmon, 2021; shahabadi & uplane, 2015). asynchronous e-language learning provides a learning environment with no time bond, and students can assess the learning material leisure time. various e-language materials are available online so that learners will have more authentic language materials. with this new language learning environment, learners will have less anxiety during the practice. however, teachers should also be aware that asynchronous learning, despite being able to carry many multimedia information, it is lack the interactivity (liu, 2007). to avoid miss conception in doing the task, teachers sometimes need to design the task by considering the purpose of the learning and the language learning need. because the focus of this research is to implement some principles of listening in e-language learning, the researchers design the steps by steps listening task by adopting the top-down and bottom-up listening processes into a series audio listening tasks. although e-language learning materials have been developed massively along with the world web development and technology enhancement, some learning principles need to be highlighted to support the learning process. in efl learning, listening is a fundamental skill to introduce students to speaking because listening is the first communication process in which students get the language input as the learning of a language begins (nunan, 2001; richard, 2008; solak, 2016). the new conception of viewing listening as an active process in communication can be traced from the sense of paradigm shift in language learning from the traditional approach to communicative approach. listening is now viewed as a process of deriving information and processing them through negotiation between the speaker and the listener, and finally, the meaning is created through involvement, imagination, and the ability of a person to respond to information. listening comprehension is not merely the process of a unidirectional receiving of audible symbols but an interactive process. (brown, 2000; maxwell & meiser, 2005; rost, 2011) generally, in listening comprehension, students need to acquire the listening technique to be able to comprehend and produce responses. one of the listening strategies involves top-down and bottom-up processes, which refer to how the listeners employ the information. bottom-up processes show the student's previous knowledge and information which refer to lexical awareness and knowledge of grammatical and syntactical aspects of the language, whereas top-down processes deal with the student's ability to utilize background knowledge that has been gathered and stored from previous experiences to interpret meaning. (richard, 2008; walker, 2014) siegel (2018) offered some listening strategies which adopted the top-down (td) and bottom-up (bu) listening processes. the top-down listening processes could be done by following these activities. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 415 table 1. td and bu listening processes top-down (td) bottom-up (bu) the first activity in pre-listening section is brainstorming. a brainstorming session can be done by introducing the learners to some keywords before listening activity begin. giving contextual information about the text before listening (e.g., where it takes place, who the speakers are) is done to provide the listeners with clues about the text they will listen. using the idea of genre, students are told what type of text they will listen to (e.g., hotel reservation phone call, lecture on campus safety). teachers play a short portion of an audio or video text to let the learners to predict the topic of the text. bottom-up listening processes concern the details of the text, such as the number of the words in the text. students’ task is to count the words they hear. as they are listening, listeners can identify word beginnings and endings. listeners identify keywords whiles listening, and make a list of close approximations of those keywords (e.g., coat/code; fix/fish; day/days). source: (siegel, 2018) much research analyzes top-down and bottom-up listening strategies in listening comprehension. the result shows that those strategies offer different advantages. a combination of both strategies will enhance the listening comprehension at the level of contextual understanding and the vocabulary as well as the lexical knowledge. top-down listening processes offer students the opportunity to use their previous knowledge to understand more about the text regarding the overall message in connection to the actual issues. while the bottomup listening processes focus on understanding the given text through words and their lexical connection in clauses to form detailed information (ardini, 2015; khuziakhmetov & porchesku, 2016; mandarani, 2017). khuziakmetov & porchesku (2016) tried to support the effectiveness of bottom-up by connecting it with the psycholinguistics approach to analyze the students' perception. they reported that the bottom-up approach effectively develops listening strategies and psycholinguistic findings and experiments support it. current research on foreign language listening comprehension has revealed the importance of linguistic knowledge in the bottom-up speech perception process. effective l2 materials teaching listening skills should provide l2 learners with guided listening practice following their proficiency level. the psycholinguistic approach to the problem of teaching listening comprehension helps to get relevant information about the perceived image of linguistic units of the language taught. to provide more understanding on top-down listening strategy, bekaryan (2016) stated that psychological pressure such as frustration and anxiety could affect learners' listening performance. this condition was often experienced by the learners when facing listening tasks. it can block their understanding and impede their further learning. hence, it seems reasonable to encourage learners to develop topdown listening strategies reliant on background knowledge in understanding the message. (bekaryan, 2016; khuziakhmetov & porchesku, 2016) this research exposes the first semester students with english used in the news item. short news items are chosen to introduce the students to factual information closely related to the current information. by adopting top-down and bottomhttp://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 416 up in asynchronous learning mode, it is expected that learners will be able to avoid psychological pressure during the learning and develop their learning style. they will be able to improve their listening skill. this research is experimental research with a single class only. the aim is to explain the significant difference between the students’ listening proficiency before and after implementing the top-down and bottom-up listening strategies in understanding news items. to provide more detailed information about some aspects that might influence the learning achievements, the researchers obtained more data from questionnaires to know the students' perceptions. the audio used refers to news about current events and lifestyles. news items can be used as contextual learning material for practicing english, because they give factual information (adnan, 2017). this research is conducted to implement the listening module, which has been designed by adopting bottom-up and top-down listening processes. the researchers choose the top-down and bottom-up listening processes because this process allows students to recall some background knowledge before the main listening activity begins (richard, 2008; rost, 2011). this kind of activity will give the students some important information as listening clues before they start the main listening session. by giving them brainstorming, they will be able to manage the strategy that they will use to do the listening tasks. the researchers use web-based google form software to adjust with the current elearning system. methodology this research uses an experimental design. the researchers use an experimental research design with one group only using pre and posttest design to answer research questions. the population of this research is the first semester students of the english education department in universitas muria kudus. the whole class of the first-semester student of the academic year 2020/2021 is four classes with 90 students. the researcher used class c as the experimental class by using random sampling. the research subjects are students in class c with a total number of students of 26. during the treatment, the number of students who joined the pretest was 26, but only 22 students joined the posttest. therefore the data calculated in this research are 22. due to the current pandemic situation, teaching and learning was done by adopting an online learning system. therefore the treatment used an asynchronous learning strategy by utilizing google form as learning media. in participating in the learning process, students are given the link which is specially designed to offer students some listening activities. these activities enable students to practice listening online without teachers' assistance, and they can access the materials freely. a listening pretest was conducted before the intervention period to measure the students' listening proficiency, and the posttest was administered after the intervention. the design of the test was adjusted to suit the regular listening tasks used during the intervention. thus, it consisted of three sessions with three different oral news items. the first session completed the missing fragments in a text, the second session identified true or false information, and the third session was multiple-choice questions. the intervention process was done in a half-semester and totally in six consecutive meetings. by adopting the asynchronous online learning technique, the researchers tried to offer suitable learning media to cope with the pandemic. the design of the top-down and bottom-up listening processes followed these steps. 1. before listening session students learn keywords or new vocabulary related to the topics. they identify pictures that might be related to the current issues. 2. whiles listening session students listen to audio news and fill in the missing part of the text. they identify the new words and find the synonyms. they make a list of the primary information. 3. after listening session students listen to the audio once again and draw some conclusions. they evaluate the process http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 417 and how the topics are related to their daily lives. before the listening session, these two first activities adopt the top-down listening approaches. this session aims to introduce the main topic to the students and stimulate the students' prior knowledge about the subject matter. it is an important start to give students apperception before going to the main activity. the above activities in whiles listening session are adopted the bottom-up listening processes. this activity is intended to stimulate the students to understand the text from the words level and specific information. the last session emphasizes evaluation as the final remark on learning and how the new topics enrich the students’ knowledge. based on the research questions, this research is intended to find out whether there is a significant difference between the students' listening proficiency before and after implementing top-down and bottom-up listening strategies in understanding news items. paired sample test was used to do the hypothesis testing. the test was required to compare the pretest and posttest scores of the same groups. data were subjected to non-parametric test analysis because the participants were in a small group (n=22). the data were analyzed using the wilcoxon singed ranks test to confirm a significant difference between the group's pretest and post-test scores. the statistical calculation was done by utilizing spss software version 25. the researchers also studied students' perceptions of the learning process. the questionnaire highlighted some learning aspects such as learning difficulties, listening anxiety, task flexibility, and td and bu listening process. twenty-six participants participated in the survey, and they were students listed in the experimental class, although they might not complete both pre and posttest. the questionnaire required students to respond with five-point likert scales (1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neither, 4= agree, and 5= strongly agree). result and discussion paired sample test was used to answer the research question. those questions required the researcher to do a comparative analysis between the same groups' pretest and posttest score of the same groups. the hypothesis of this research is: ho: there is no significant difference between the students' listening proficiency before and after implementing top-down and bottom-up listening strategies in understanding news items. ha: there is a significant difference between the students’ listening proficiency before and after implementing top-down and bottom-up listening strategies in understanding news items. the criterion which was used to determine the result of statistical analysis for these statements of the problem is that if the significance value (p-value) is higher than  (level of significance) = 0.05, ho is accepted. on the other hand, if the significance value (p-value) is lower than  (level of significance) = 0.05, ho is rejected. table 2. paired samples statistics mean n std. deviatio n std. error mea n before treatmen t 57 22 13.60 2.90 after treatmen t 71.8 22 9.43 2.01 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 418 table 3. paired samples correlation n correlation sig. before & after treatment 22 .553 .008 because the p. value of sig. is lower than 0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant correlation between the students' listening ability before and after the treatment. table 4. wilcoxon sign rank test n mean rank sum of ranks negative ranks 0 .00 .00 positive ranks 21 11.00 231.00 ties 1 total 22 from the wilcoxon sign rank test, the writers found zero negative rank. it means that most of the students' posttest achievements were increasing; therefore, the positive ranks are very high. twenty-one participants increased their listening achievement after the td and bu listening intervention, and only one participant remained the same. table 5. pretest and posttest comparison z -4.029b asymp. sig. (2tailed) .000 the value of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is lower than 0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the students' listening ability before and after the treatment. therefore the h0 is rejected, but ha is confirmed. table 6. descriptive statistics pretest post-test n 22 22 mean 57.00 71.82 median 60.00 68.00 mode 60 64 std. deviation 13.603 9.440 variance 185.048 89.108 minimum 20 56 maximum 80 88 sum 1254 1580 the pretest result shows that the minimum score is 20 and the maximum score is 80. it indicates that there is a huge gap in the students' listening proficiency. this fact is supported by the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 419 value of the standard deviation of 13.6. high standard deviation indicates data are more spread out. it indicates that the data are not clustered around the mean; therefore, the students' listening proficiency is varied from very low to very high. the subjects of the research are first-semester students. it means that this is their first listening subject; therefore, it is reasonable when their proficiency is not at the same level. it is also their first experience to practice listening using news items. they need to possess some vocabulary that is related to factual information. it is challenging for them to listen to some new english speeches because their english is still limited. after the students are treated by implementing the bottom-up and top-down listening strategies, they improve their listening proficiency. the value of the mean is increasing up to 71.8. it means that, in general, the students improve their listening capability. statistics data also support this fact as the value of the standard deviation decrease to the lower level with the value of 9.4. it was caused by the increase of students' vocabulary mastery, due to their effort to adjust themselves to the level of difficulty in the text. after they experience listening to the texts, they get familiar with the vocabulary. they can practice the listening strategy and learn that when they have to comprehend an audio text or oral text, they also need to have previous knowledge or background knowledge to make them familiar with the topic even before listening. salahsuri (2011) and sadighi and zare (2006) confirmed the positive influence of background knowledge. (sadighi & zare, 2006; salahshuri, 2011) the given keywords before the listening section give the students clues on the vocabulary they need to comprehend before trying to understand the complete text and the preliminary and detailed information. the listening module also provides activities that enable students to complete the missing vocabulary in the text to focus on vocabulary mastery. to stimulate the students' understanding of the listening gist and details information, the module is designed with questions that demand students' understanding of the details information. to attract the students' attention and stimulate the students' background knowledge, pictures are presented as visual aids. to make students know more about the current issues related to text, teachers set discussions about the current issues. (siegel, 2018) based on the students' progress in the listening task, the researchers note some aspects of the students' development of vocabulary focus activities and detailed information focus activities. in completing the text with missing words, students make mistakes in spelling, and they sometimes incorrectly comprehend the words with almost similar sounds (e.g., producerconsumer, fruit – food, producing – depending, according – recording, etc.) they also often make mistakes in recognizing a series of numbers, names of cities, and people names. it seems that they need to be trained to focus on numbers and characters. they commonly make some errors in recognizing fifteen, fifty, thirty, thirteen, and they tend to jumble the number when they hear longer series of numbers. yilmas and yavuz (2015) reported some problems beginner students face in acquiring listening skills. the problem started with sound recognition. they suggested that sounds in the phonetic alphabet should be taught during listening activities at the beginning of learning english. the researchers find some facts that support the previous research in this research. (yılmaz & yavuz, 2015) 1. when students are assigned to comprehend the detailed information by answering multiple-choice questions, they still focus on word recognition and identifying ideas with similar words. therefore they sometimes miss the correct information and fail to synthesize the information. 2. some students can understand the main ideas or purposes of the news when the information is given explicitly. however, students still have many difficulties in integrating or synthesizing information. however, their ability to recall important details and follow the essential ideas presented in the news needs to be http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 420 improved. they still had a limited understanding of certain vocabulary. 3. students acquire the ability to understand ideas which clearly stated with simple english. they easily recognize ideas at the group level or clauses with simple structure. many students fail to understand more detailed information. students can answer 'what, where, and when' questions compared to 'how and why’ questions. it indicates that their level of comprehension is still at the level of wording. despite all of the positive progress on the students' listening proficiency and the new experience in online learning, leaving the students with asynchronous learning without being closely monitored increases the chance for the students to take the course perfunctory. this research reported that not all the students assess the task regularly. this behavior concludes that students do not submit the assignment with high responsibility. moreover, few of them completed all the exercises and did all the steps. therefore teachers' assistance, intense instruction, and regular progress monitoring are the primary forces to lead students to a better learning process during online courses in asynchronous learning. the research points out some aspects that might influence the students' learning success from the questionnaire. twenty-six students had participated in filling the questionnaire. based on their experience in practicing listening using news items as the audio materials, students gave responses to the likert-based questionnaires to voice their opinion and perceptions toward asynchronous listening activities and top-down and bottom-up listening processes and strategies. some learning aspects were highlighted to capture the learning advantages, challenges, and difficulties during listening. the first aspect being addressed was the technical problems in administering the online learning. online learning requires supportive advanced technologies such as supportive ganged with advanced qualifications that enable students to assess internet and learning applications without excessive delay. besides the internet coverage and supportive e-technology, students' self-capability or familiarity with operating those smart technologies can also be the major problem in administering e-learning. therefore both students and teachers need to have adequate capability in working and utilizing the technologies for learning purposes. the result of the questionnaires is presented in table 7 and is attached in the appendix. the questionnaire reported the technical problems in accessing google form and internet coverage. in terms of the flexibility and accessibility of google form, it can be concluded that many students could easily access the listening tasks given in google form (neither 27%, agree 46%, and strongly agree 19%), and only a few students encounter difficulties (disagree 8%). on the contrary, the students claimed that they still have problems with the internet connection. 30% of the respondents have internet connection problems (statement 4). in comparison, many of them choose not to give clear judgment (46%) or it can be concluded that they might encounter difficulties although they still can manage the internet well. when the participants were questioned about their preference for indirect listening practice or direct listening practice, most of them preferred indirect google form listening. doing direct listening practice using the zoom application might not be very convenient due to their internet's low bandwidth coverage. these findings are also supported by nugraha et al. (2018). recently, they evaluated the implementation of the e-learning program and found out that the development of technology and e-learning supportive applications used to support the programs need to be adjusted with the need and the potential resources of the institution (nugraha et al., 2018). the characteristics of the students, the financial background, and the internet access in the students' living environment need to be put forward as the essential consideration to implement the e-learning techniques. asynchronous learning is possible to http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 421 manage online learning for students with limited internet access. doing asynchronous listening practice is also very effective in reducing students' anxiety because of its flexibility and time bondless. students could do the tasks anytime when they feel convenient. therefore they feel comfortable and less anxious (see table 7, statements 2, 3, and 5). the questionnaire reported that the anxiety aspects were dominated by agreeing and strongly agreeing. however, teachers need to give students simple instruction to adopt asynchronous learning. indirect instruction can be troublesome and lead to misinterpretation. moreover, the teachers usually directly guided and supervised the students in a classroom environment. students perceived that they needed both direct and clear indirect instruction during asynchronous learning. although they could simply understand the instruction in the google form (statement 7), they thought they still needed more guidance from their teacher (statement 6). although some research claimed that synchronous face-to-face classroom learning was reported to be more effective compared to asynchronous learning (lotfi & hosseini pozveh, 2019), due to the pandemic situation in indonesia, all the learning processes were done online. in contrast, lotfi & hosseini used email as the media of asynchronous learning with limited interaction among students and teachers; this research uses google form. google form offers a more interactive way of learning because teachers can modify the format of the listening task to meet the needs and learning purposes and monitor the students' works as they log in. this research offered alternatives of designing asynchronous listening practice using google form as a listening log book. the questionnaire revealed that students did not encounter many difficulties in comprehending the content of the news items. they claimed that they could understand the content well and had no significant difficulties doing the task (statements 9 and 12). the news items used in this research were created and designed by the teacher to meet the students' level as freshmen. the news was simple and was edited using a text-voice converter, and the speed of the speech was adjusted. in addition, the activity before listening sessions stimulated the students’ knowledge because it provided keywords to understand the topics. many students had started to use their background knowledge. however, 12% of the respondents could not provide clear judgment (statement 11). strategy training to use background knowledge to improve students' listening skills was needed. listening is a receptive language skill is not a passive process. listening strategy knowledge, background knowledge, and linguistics knowledge support listening as comprehension and language acquisition. (cross, 2010; richard, 2008; rost, 2011) the data found that students were likely to use top-down listening processes because their preference to focus on general information in the text was higher than their intention to focus on words, phrases, and detailed information (statement 13, 14, and 15). the students' strategy preference supported the previous findings of students' spelling errors and failure to recognize words with an almost similar sound. however, they tried hard to focus on the speaker. this misinterpretation affected the students' recall of the essential information presented in the oral news items. conclusion after analyzing the research data, the researchers conclude that the top=down and bottom-up process in listening is suitable for teaching news items. from the paired t-test sample, it is proved that there is a significant difference between the pre and posttest data which then indicate that the students' listening comprehension on news item increases significantly. the pre-listening activities give the students a chance to gain some listening clues, and by doing so, the students' background knowledge is stimulated. brainstorming the students by describing some visual aids and understanding keywords related to the topics will encourage students to connect the topics with current issues. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 422 therefore before the students start listening, they already possess some valuable knowledge. this knowledge helps them to understand the subject even before they start listening. the questionnaires explained how students perceive asynchronous learning and the listening processes. the internet connection is the major technical problem in the e-learning process. although doing listening tasks in google form is more convenient to them due to the time flexibility, they still need clear steps by steps instruction, because they need to learn listening strategy as well. students need teachers' assistance during asynchronous learning as they cannot fully implement autonomous learning without explicit instruction. students need to develop their listening strategy and words recognition ability to comprehend detailed ideas in oral news items. it is confirmed that the treatment done by the researchers is applicable for teaching listening with news items as audio materials, but in the process of learning, there are many weaknesses. in doing the online learning with the asynchronous method, a rigorous analysis needs to be done focusing on students' behavior. most asynchronous learnings depend on students' selfmotivation to do the tasks independently; however, it is an obligation that the teachers control the practice to monitor them. for better learning improvement, teachers should also focus on improving students' positive behavior to assist them in becoming independent learners. it is also crucial for teachers to adjust and select the listening materials to meet the students' needs and listening levels. there is much authentic material for teaching news, but most are either too difficult or too complicated because of the vocabulary level. references adnan, a. (2017). assigning students to listen to the english news in listening course. lingua didaktika: jurnal bahasa dan pembelajaran bahasa, 7(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.24036/ld.v7i1.3527 ardini, s. n. (2015). top-down and bottom-up processing in listening. which one is problematic?: a case of universitas pgri semarang. 6(2). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.26877/eter nal.v6i2.5834 bekaryan, l. (2016). developing learners’ topdown processing skills in listening. armenian folia anglistika, 12(1 (15)), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.46991/afa/2016.12.1.074 brown, h. d. (2000). teaching by principles. in teaching by principles an interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd ed.). longman. cross, j. (2010). listening in the language classroom. in elt journal (vol. 64, issue 1). https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccp090 khuziakhmetov, a. n., & porchesku, g. v. (2016). teaching listening comprehension: bottom-up approach. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(8), 1989–2001. https://doi.org/10.12973/ijese.2016.572a liu, c. (2007). the adoption of synchronous and asynchronous media in the teaching of a second language. issues in information systems, 217–223. https://doi.org/10.48009/1_iis_2007_217-223 lotfi, a. r., & hosseini pozveh, s. m. h. (2019). the effect of synchronous and asynchronous language learning: a study of iranian efl intermediate students’ vocabulary learning. theory and practice in language studies, 9(12), 1585–1594. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0912.16 mandarani, v. (2017). peningkatan kemampuan. jurnal pedagogia, 1(2), 79–83. http://ejurnal.unisri.ac.id/index.php/jpaud/a rticle/view/1477 maxwell, r. s., & meiser, m. (2005). teaching english in middle and secondary schools (4th ed.). pearson. murphy, e., rodríguez-manzanares, m. a., & barbour, m. (2011). asynchronous and synchronous online teaching: perspectives of canadian high school distance education teachers. british journal of educational technology, 42(4), 583–591. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 423 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678535.2010.01112.x nugraha, s. t., suwandi, s., nurkamto, j., & saddhono, k. (2018). evaluation of elearning in indonesian as a foreign language. january, 481–486. https://doi.org/10.5220/0007169604810486 nunan, d. (2001). new ways in teaching listening. the journal of tesol france. http://soda.ustadistancia.edu.co/enlinea/san dramilenarodriguez_listening/the_nature_ of_listening_nunan_2001.html perveen, a. (2016). synchronous and asynchronous e-language learning: a case study of virtual university of pakistan. open praxis, 8(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.8.1.212 richard, j. c. (2008). teaching listening and speaking from theory to practice. in richards-teaching-listening-speaking. rost, m. (2011). teaching and researching listening: second edition (n. candlin & d. r. hall (eds.)). longman. sadighi, f., & zare, s. (2006). is listening comprehension influenced by the background knowledge of the learners? a case study of iranian efl learners. the linguistics journal, 1(3), 110–126. salahshuri, s. (2011). the role of background knowledge in foreign language listening comprehension. theory and practice in language studies, 1(10), 1446–1451. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.1.10.1446-1451 salmon, g. (2021). the five-stage framework and e-tivities. in e-tivities. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203646380-7 shahabadi, m. m., & uplane, m. (2015). synchronous and asynchronous e-learning styles and academic performance of elearners. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 176, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.45 3 siegel, j. (2018). teaching bottom-up and topdown strategies. in the tesol encyclopedia of english language teaching. john wiley & sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt05 97 solak, e. (2016). book review: teaching language skills for prospective english teachers. sakarya university journal of education, 6(3), 232–234. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.282235 walker, n. (2014). listening: the most difficult skill to teach. teaching, 167–175. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/58911108.p df yılmaz, h., & yavuz, f. (2015). the problems young learners encounter during listening skills. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 197(july 2015), 2046– 2050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.570 appendix table 7. students’ perceptions aspects statement response strongly disagree disagree neither agree strongly agree technical problem 1. i have no difficulty in doing listening tasks utilizing google forms. 2 (8%) 0 7 (27%) 12 (46%) 5 (19%) anxiety 2. during the pandemic, i feel more comfortable doing listening tasks in google forms. 0 1 (4%) 7(27%) 5(19%) 13(50%) http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 424 anxiety 3. i don't feel anxious while doing my assignments in google form. 1 (4%) 0 5(19%) 10(38.5%) 10 (38.5%) technical problem 4. i have no problems with internet connection during online learning. 4 (15%) 4 (15%) 12 (46%) 5(19%) 1 (4%) anxiety 5. practicing listening asynchronously in the google form gives me more flexibility to work on it. 1 (4%) 0 2 (8%) 8 (31%) 15 (58%) instruction 6. while doing assignments in google form, i still need direct instruction from the lecturer. 1 (4%) 3 (11.5) 10 (38.5%) 5 (19%) 7 (27%) instruction 7. the instructions in the google form are clear and understandable. 0 1 (4%) 6(23%) 10 (38.5%) 9 (34.6%) technical problem 8. i prefer to do listening assignments in google form rather than directly with the zoom application. 0 0 8 (31%) 9(35%) 9 (35%) listening difficulties 9. i can understand listening material in news items well. 0 1 (4%) 12 (46%) 13(50%) 0 top-down listening 10. the terms in news items are not new to me. 0 3 (11.5%) 13 (50%) 9 (37%) 1 (4%) top-down listening 11. my background knowledge helps me in listening to news items. 0 1 (4%) 12 (46%) 12 (46%) 1 (4%) listening difficulties 12. i have no difficulty in doing the listening news items task. 0 2 (8%) 13 (50%) 10 (38.5%) 1 (4%) bottom-up listening 13. i prefer listening tasks that focus on words and phrases. 0 1 (4%) 16 (61%) 8 (31%) 1 (4%) top-down listening 14. i focus more on general information presented in listening news items. 0 2 (8%) 9 (35%) 14 (54%) 1 (4%) bottom-up listening 15. i focus more on analyzing detailed information in listening to news items. 0 3 (12%) 12 (46%) 11 (42%) 0 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 425 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab1bdc010ba • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 41 meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han’s to all the boys i’ve loved before trifosa olfi universitas ma chung, malang e-mail: trifosa.olfi@gmail.com f.x. dono sunardi universitas ma chung, malang e-mail: dono.sunardi@machung.ac.id received: 23 jul2 2017. revised: 20 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract this study discusses the meaning shifts found in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before (2014). shifts, including meaning shifts, often occur in the process of translation of literary works like novel. there are three types of meaning shifts: from general to specific, from specific to general, and shifts caused by socio-cultural factors. this paper examines the meaning shifts in the translation of to all the boys i‟ve loved before from english to indonesian. the research questions are: 1) what are the meaning shifts found in the indonesian translation of to all the boys i‟ve loved before?, and 2) what are the causes of those meaning shifts? by means of purposively sampling and comparing the english and indonesian versions of the novel, it was found 100 sentences with meaning shifts, 13 sentences of which are of from general to specific type, 11 from specific to general, and 76 caused by sociocultural factors. the meaning shifts from general to specific occur because one word in the sl refers to more than one word in the tl, or because one word describing one particular concept in the sl culture is equivalent to several sub-concepts in the tl culture. the meaning shifts form specific to general occur because some sentences have the words that are the name of things that do not exist or are not originated from indonesia or english words that have equivalents that are more general in indonesian. for the last category, the writer identifies five specific factors of the shifts, which are the untranslatable idioms or figurative language, parts of the sl culture that are different from the tl culture, english slang or words that has inappropriate equivalents in indonesian, the contexts of the sentences, and unspecific reasons. key words: translation, literary translation, meaning, shift, meaning shifts how to cite: trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. __________________________________________________________________________________ introduction man is a social being. they live in societies and communicate with each other. language stands as a communication device that enables people to convey their ideas, feelings, and intentions. in their daily lives, people communicate and exchange information, both in writing and speech, using language. bbc (www.bbc.co.uk) states that there are approximately 7,000 languages around the world. obviously, there is not single person, not even a polyglot, who could master all the languages. there is a great chance that people all over the world will not understand each other if they were all gathered in one place. the fact that english is an international language will not make a great difference, as according to bbc, around 75% of the world‘s population do not speak english at all. mailto:trifosa.olfi@gmail.com mailto:dono.sunardi@machung.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 42 the illustration of people all over the world ―gather‖ in one place is not impossible to draw. the world is getting smaller due to the existence of the internet. more people get access to the internet every day, and once they could access the internet; they are immediately able to access almost the whole world. printed texts also take parts in this globalization process. a large number of books are published internationally, reinforcing the need for translation to other languages. most of the time, the society needs to read texts from other countries. it can be for the purpose of education, business, general knowledge, or even entertainment. many people in this modern era want to know what is happening in the other parts of the world. therefore, international news is a necessity. in education, there are many prominent experts from many countries, whose theories are worth learning. literary works from the authors all over the world is also something that many people want to enjoy. translation is required to fulfill the readers‘ need for information and the authors‘ need for discoverability. translation is necessary – to use newmark‘s (1988) – to ―render‖ the meaning of those texts from the source language (sl) into the target language (tl). it has to be in the way that the authors intended the texts. misunderstandings and misinterpretations must be avoided. here, translators shoulder the great responsibility of conveying someone else‘s writing in another language without changing the author‘s intention, if possible, at all. obviously, every language has its own characteristics and structure. for instance, the common pattern found in english utterances is modifier-modified as in the phrase ―a good writer‖, where ―good‖ is the modifier that modifies the noun ―writer‖. meanwhile, in indonesian the pattern is the other way around: modified-modifier. an example to this pattern is the phrase ―penulis yang baik‖ (a good writer). here, the word ―baik‖ stands as the modifier and is placed after the noun that it modifies. those as well as many other differences make shifts unavoidably happen in the process of translation, and even become one of the process. shift, or also known as transposition, ―involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message‖ (vinay and darbelnet as cited by venuti, 2000). it is inevitable, as mentioned above, because the system and the pattern used in a language are most likely different from the system and pattern used in other languages. there are three types of shifts in translation: level shifts, category shifts, and meaning shifts. one type for us to pay closer attention to in this paper is the meaning shift. although according to vinay and darbelnet the meaning is not supposed to change, inevitable meaning shifts often happen in the process of translation. this case of meaning shifts seems to occur even more often in literary translations. not only the word-by-word translation, the translators must also pay attention to the aesthetic part of their expected outcome when they are doing literary translations. no wonder, landers (2001) explicitly states that ―only literarytranslation lets one consistently share in the creative process.‖ in literary translation, both the author and the translator go through a creative process. the author goes through this process when the literary work is being created, while in the translation, it is the translator‘s turn to be creative. this notion gives the greater chance for meaning shifts to occur in the translation. trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 43 one way to identify the meaning shifts in the translation and learn from it is by comparing a literary work written in a particular language – for example, english – to its translation in another language. that way we could identify the meaning shifts found in its translation and organize those shifts into the types they belong to. by doing so, many useful examples can be gathered for the study of translation. one example of a novel that has been translated from english to indonesian is jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. this is a young adult fiction novel published in april 2014. a young adult literature is written for teenagers. the young adult library services defines young adults as people ranging from 12 to 18 years of age (latham and gross, 2014). however, this kind of literature can be enjoyed by adult as well. young adult novels usually feature a teen protagonist. to all the boys i‟ve loved before matches the descriptions of young adult literature. this novel features lara jean, a biracial teenage girl as the protagonist. the whole novel is written from her point of view. this novel appeared on the new york times best seller list for young adult fiction, indicating han‘s success in engaging many readers to enjoy the novel. the novel was translated into indonesian under the same title by airien kusumawardani and was published in april 2015 by penerbit spring. the novel as well as its indonesian translation is an interesting subject of analysis. they can be models of literary translation and give a better understanding in literary translation. it can also show us what to do and what not to do when we translate literary works. this paper, therefore, aims at analyzing two problems: (1) what are meaning shifts found in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before?, and (2) what are the possible causes of those meaning shifts. it is expected that the findings of this paper will be able to be replicated for other literary translation. literary translation: definition and process lenders (2001) states that what makes literary translation different from any other form of translation is that literary translation involves the translator into a creative process. he proposes that literary translators do not simply change the words from the sl to the tl. sometimes, literary translators have to find an equivalent translation of almost untranslatable texts, such as puns, slang, and proverbs. still according to lenders, another difference of literary translation and other forms of translation is that literary translators must have a profound knowledge of the target language. in fact, they have to be ―in love‖ with both the sl and tl to be successful literary translators. lenders explains further that literary translation emphasizes also on the style. he proposes that in literary translation, how someone says something can be more important than what one says. in technical translation, the content is the most important thing to pay attention to, but not in literary translation. in literary translation, it is not only the content that is important, but also are the atmosphere and style. it is undeniable that every author of literary works has unique characteristics and ways of writing that build the author‘s signature style. for example, we can easily tell if a poem is written by e. e. cummings if all the words are written in lower case. that is language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 44 his style. that is what makes his works different from other poets‘ works. however, when a literary work written in its author‘s style is translated into another language, there is a possibility that the style will change. although ideally a literary translator should stick as close as possible to the original author‘s style, landers defines style in translation as a characteristic mode of expression that a translator displays, consciously or unconsciously. this notion leads to the stylistic analysis in literary translation alone: how the style of a literary translation sticks to or differs from the style of the original text. along with the style, the tone of the text is also very significant when it comes to translating literary works. the authors of the original texts choose some particular words and approach the work in a certain way to convey the tones that they want to present in their works. vinay and dalbernet (1995) state that it is necessary, if possible, for translators to preserve the tone in the works that they translate. it shows that tone is a significant aspect in a literary text, as it helps to build the atmosphere of the text as a whole. landers (2001) proposes the four proper steps before translating a literary work. before starting, a translator should read the entire text at least once. researches related to the text must be done too if necessary. dealing with the possible difficult things in the text should be done in the beginning. finally yet importantly, a literary translator should negotiate a reasonable deadline with the publisher before they begin translating. after all those four steps are done, a translator can come to the core: the stages of translation. in this part, lenders suggests that the translator rereads the entire work at least twice. after that, they should determine the authorial voice, which will affect every choice of the words to be translated. the third step is to do the first draft. in this draft, the translator marks the difficult parts for further attention. consultation with the educated native speaker is the fourth step. after the consultation, the translator should revise the manuscript with emphasis on phraseology, fluency, and naturalness, to make the translation looks like a text written in the target language. the next step will also need the help of a native. the translator should have a native, preferably with no knowledge of the source language, to read the manuscript and mark the parts that are still sound rigid. now, with the help of a native of the source language who is also fluent in the target language, the translator should reread and review the manuscript, before they come to the last stage: making the final change. meaning shifts shift is a procedure of translation where some structural aspects of the text from the sl is changed in order to be more acceptable in the tl. vinay and darbelnet as cited by venuti (2008) state that shifts or transposition involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning or the message. catford, cited by vernuti (2008), also defines shifts as ―departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the sl to the tl‖. catford (1965) suggests two types of shifts in translation, i.e. level shifts and category shifts. level shifts occur when an sl item at one linguistic level has the equivalent translation which is in a different linguistic level in the tl. category shifts refer to the deviation from formal correspondence in translation. they are divided into four subtypes, i.e. structure shifts, class shifts, unit trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 45 shifts, and intra-system shifts. in addition to the two types of shift, simatupang in pengantar teori terjemahan (2000) suggests another type of shifts in the level of semantic: meaning shifts. as shift is a procedure of translation where some structural aspects of the text from the sl is changed in order to be more acceptable in the tl, it can be concluded that meaning shift is the change of the semantic aspect of the sl text to be more acceptable and understandable in the tl. meaning shifts occur because of the culture and viewpoint gaps between the sl and tl users. thus, it is not always possible to transfer a text wholly with the exact same meaning from one language to another and meaning shifts take place in that gap. meaning shift itself is divided again into two types: the one from general meaning to the specific meaning and vice versa as well as the meaning shift that is caused by sociocultural factors. a. meaning shifts from general to specific meaning and vice versa meaning shifts from general meaning to the specific ones occur when one word in the sl has several equivalents in the tl. for example, the word rice in english can be translated into nasi, beras, and padi in indonesian. all those three words are rice in different forms. nasi is the cooked rice, beras is the one that is ready to be cooked, and padi is the one that is still in the rice field. meanwhile, meaning shifts form specific meaning to the general ones happen when one word in the tl has several equivalents in the sl. for instance, indonesia has only one word to refer to he and she. that word is dia. this word can be used to refer to a male or female third person. according to simatupang (2000), this kind of shifts can occur in any word class. b. meaning shift that is caused by sociocultural factors meaning shift caused by sociocultural factors occurs because of the distinction in the social and cultural aspects of sl and tl users. sociocultural factors, according to scott and palincsar (2013), include someone‘s cultural, institutional, and historical contexts. the characteristics and ways of thinking of a group of people is shaped by their sociocultural factors, and their characteristics shape the way they communicate and the words that they use in their communication. diction is one aspect that reflects the way someone thinks and is affected by sociocultural factors. an example of this type of shifts is in the sentence ‗i‟ve never known margot to chicken out before,‟ which is translated into ‗aku tidak pernah tahu bahwa nyali margot bisa ciut.‟ the idiom chicken out cannot be translated literally using the word ayam in indonesian, because the message will be completely lost. in indonesia, ayam has nothing to do with cowardice, while in english the word chicken symbolizes it. thus, in this case, this kind of shifts is necessary in the process of translation to deliver the message intended by the author to the indonesian readers well. now that we have discussed meaning shifts, what is meaning itself? crystal (1980) defines meaning as ―a theoretical distinction introduced in early generative grammar between two types of information: input and derived‖. meanwhile, hornby (1995) states that meaning is ―what is referred to or indicated by e.g. sounds, words or signals‖. we can conclude that it is the idea or the message that we refer to when we utter a word, make a sound, or give a signal. language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 46 fitriany (2009) suggests three generally known types of meaning. the first one is conceptual meaning. it is also known as cognitive or denotative meaning. in other words, it is the literal and logical meaning of the word that can be understood explicitly when someone utters it. for example, the denotative meaning of the word mule is the offspring of a donkey and a horse. the second type is associative meaning. it is the meaning that someone derives based on his or her individual and/or social experience. associative meaning includes: a. connotative meaning connotative is the additional, non-literal meaning that a word has. for example, while the denotative meaning of the word mule is the offspring of a donkey and a horse, its connotative meaning is a stubborn person. b. social meaning social meaning is the meaning of a word that indicates the social context and circumstance in which the word is used. an example to this type of meaning is the words dollar and buck. both refer to american currency, but the social meanings are different. dollar indicates that the situation is formal or neutral, while buck shows that the social situation is informal. c. reflected, collocative, and affective meaning reflective meaning arises when a word has multiple conceptual meanings. for example, when someone says “he takes drugs regularly”, the ‗unwanted‘ reflective meaning might come into the hearer‘s mind. the speaker might uses the word drugs to refer to a medication, while the hearer thinks of the illegal substances. collocative meaning refers to the meaning of a word that is produced in a specific context. an example to collocative meaning is the word heavy that has several meanings according to where it is used. heavy smoker refers to someone who smokes a lot, heavy news refers to a piece of sad news, and heavy schedule means a very tight schedule. meanwhile, affective meaning communicates the feeling and attitudes of the speaker or writer towards the referred thing. here, the way that someone uses to utter a word or sentence shows the affective meaning that he or she has in his or her mind. affective meaning are normally expressed in such forms of language use as insults, flattery, hyperbole or sarcasm. the third type of meaning is the thematic meaning. it is communicated by how a speaker or writer organizes his or her message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis. for example, the sentence caroline painted the class has a different thematic meaning from the one of the sentence the class was painted by caroline. in the first sentence, the speaker emphasizes on the class. what matters is what caroline did. on the other hand, the second sentence‘s emphasis is in caroline, and what matters is who painted the class. methodology the primary material of this study is jenny han‘s young adult novel titled to all the boys i‟ve loved before and its indonesian translation. the original was published in april 2014 by simon & schuster, while its indonesian translation was published one year later in april 2015 by penerbit spring. the translator is airien kusumawardani, a freelance to several publishers in indonesia. the noveltells the story of lara jean, an asian-american teenage girl. she is a typical feminine young girl. the only thing trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 47 that makes her different from other teenage girls is her habit to write a letter to her crushes, which she never sendsto them. those letters are more of a diary for her. one day, all her letters are accidentally sent to all her former crushes. that is when the story begins. this paper applies descriptive qualitative method, as it focuses on the meaning shifts found. the main resources of the research are the qualitative data in the form of sentences taken using purposive sampling technique from the novel. the samples include the sentences in which different meaning shifts occur and leave out the recurrent meaning shifts. the findings are in form of descriptions and the data will be non-numerical. results and discussion after reading, comparing, and purposively sampling the original and indonesian version of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before, it is found a population of sentences with meaning shifts. several meaning shifts that occur repeatedly throughout the whole novel is stated only once in the data, leaving only 100 sentences as the sample. the words he and she, for instance, keep occurring in the original novel and the translator uses the word dia in her translation. the meaning shifts that was found in the indonesian translation of this novel fall into three types, in line with the theory that has been elaborated above. those types are meaning shifts from general to specific, from specific to general, and meaning shifts that is caused by sociocultural factors. table 1 below contains the meaning shifts found in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. in the table, gs stands for the meaning shifts from general to specific. sg stands for the meaning shifts from specific to general. meanwhile, sc stands for the meaning shifts that are caused by sociocultural factors. table 1. sentences with meaning shifts no. sl tl gs sg sc 1 josh is margot's boyfriend, but i guess you could say my whole family is a little in love with him. josh adalah pacarnya margot, tapi kurasa seluruh kelurgaku bisa dibilang sedikit jatuh cinta kepadanya.  2 yeah! we can stay at hostels and just eat pastries and cheese for all of our meals! yeah! kita bisa tinggal di sebuah hostel dan hanya makan roti dan keju setiap hari!  3 she thinks i'm being dramatic, but i'm not. dia pikir aku bersikap terlalu dramatis, tapi tentu saja aku tidak begitu.  4 he would never so much as look at another girl. dia bahkan tidak pernah mau melirik cewek lain.  5 absently, i scoop up a mound of cookie dough and pop it in my mouth. tanpa berpikir, aku meraih sejumput adonan kue dan memasukkannya ke mulutku.  language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 48 6 when kitty and i were brushing our teeth just now, i was tempted to go ahead and spill the beans… ketika tadi aku dan kitty sedang menyikat gigi bersama, aku tergoda untuk lebih dulu memberitahukan apa yang terjadi antara josh dan margot.  7 margot first, me in the middle, and my sister kitty last. margot yang pertama, aku di tengahtengah, dan adikku kitty yang terakhir.  8 we are three song girls, there used to be four. kami adalah tiga gadis song. dulu ada empat orang gadis song.  9 i've never known margot to chicken out before. aku tidak pernah tahu bahwa nyali margot bisa ciut juga.  10 she needs to pull that stick out of her ass. dia harus berhenti bersikap menyebalkan,  11 she screams at the drop of a hat. dia bisa tiba-tiba saja berteriak.  12 french some guys, live a little, you know? ciumlah beberapa cowok, tambah pengalaman hidupmu, kau tahu?  13 you can dress that up or down. kau bisa memakainya untuk acara formal dan santai.  14 for the past week our father has been in spring-cleaning mode, even though it isn't spring. seminggu terakhir ini ayah kami sedang rajin bersih-bersih.  15 for prettiest freshmen, my grade, he said genevive. untuk cewek kelas sembilan tercantik, di angkatanku, josh menjawab genevive.  16 i was the flighty one, the flibbertigibbet, as my white grandma would say. akulah yang mudah menyukai seseorang. "bagai seekor kutu loncat", itulah yang sering dikatakan nenek-kulit-putihku.  17 she came into the kitchen and announced, "i have something to tell you." margot masuk ke dapur dan mengumumkan, "ada sesuatu yang harus kukatakan pada kalian."  18 "yeah, i think so." "ya, kurasa begitu."  19 and then she smiled, and her eyes went all soft and liquid. lalu dia tersenyum, dan matanya berubah lebih lembut dan berkacakaca.  20 "want me to call triple a for you?" "kau ingin aku menghubungi pihak asuransi kecelakaan untukmu?"  21 kitty's over the moon about hanging out with josh. kitty sangat gembira karena akan pergi bersama josh.  trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 49 22 i'm doing my pinky toe a fruitpunch color called hit me with your best shot. aku sedang mengecat kuku jari kelingking kakiku dengan warna minuman buah yang diberi nama rayu aku dengan rayuan terbaikmu.  23 i'm doing my pinky toe a fruitpunch color called hit me with your best shot. aku sedang mengecat kuku jari kelingking kakiku dengan warna minuman buah yang diberi nama rayu aku dengan rayuan terbaikmu.  24 "boy or girl?" "jantan atau betina?"`  25 a potscript with as many pages as it takes to x away whatever feelings i have left for him. surat lanjutan setebal yang dibutuhkan untuk menyingkirkan perasaan apapun di hatiku yang tersisa untuknya.  26 i want to be his lighthouse keeper while we wait for margot's return. aku ingin menjadi cahaya penerang baginya sementara kami menunggu margot kembali.  27 "you look like a farm girl," "kau terlihat seperti gadis desa,"  28 margot left her brown lace-up combat boots, and they're only a half size too big. margot meninggalkan sepatu bot bertali warna cokelat miliknya dan ukurannya hanya sedikit lebih besar dari ukuran kakiku.  29 i put my plate in the sink and then put kitty's bag lunch down next to her plate. aku memindahkan piringku ke bak cuci piring, lalu meletakkan kotak makan siang kitty di samping piringnya.  30 "have a great first day," my dad chirps. "semoga hari kalian menyenangkan," serudaddy.  31 we whizz past the pool, the sign for our neighborhood, then past the wendy's, kami melaju melewati kolam renang, batas lingkungan tempat tinggal kami, lalu melewati rumah wendy.  32 up close, your face wasn't so much handsome as beautiful. dari jarak dekat, wajahmu tidak bisa dibilang tampan, tapi cantik.  33 "lara jean, i don't even know that i got rid of it." "lara jean, aku tidak tahu apakah aku telah menyumbangkannya."  34 "only everything." "hanya benda yang sangat penting."  language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 50 35 both chris and margot have said it's annoying, but to that i say looking on the bright side of life never killed anybody. baik chris maupun margot bilang bahwa sikapku itu menjengkelkan, tapi aku membalasnya dengan mengatakan bahwa melihat sisi baik dari kehidupan tidak pernah merugikan siapapun.  36 both chris and margot have said it's annoying, but to that i say looking on the bright side of life never killed anybody. baik chris maupun margot bilang bahwa sikapku itu menjengkelkan, tapi aku membalasnya dengan mengatakan bahwa melihat sisi baik dari kehidupan tidak pernah merugikan siapapun.  37 "aren't you leaving too early?" "apa kau tidak pergi terlalu pagi?"  38 if josh's car had started up and he hasn't had to get a jump from his dad, he wouldn't have been walking by my locker. jika mobil josh tidak mogok sehingga dia harus diantarkan ayahnya, dia tidak akan berjalan melewati lokerku.  39 "a million years ago." "sudah lama sekali."  40 …because peter likes to be amused. …karena peter menjadikan semua hal sebagai lelucon.  41 my first thought is: i have muscle memory of his lips. hal pertama yang kupikirkan adalah: bibirku masih mengingat bibirnya.  42 they're an institution at this institution. mereka adalah pasangan legendaris di sekolah ini.  43 "i think you're cute. in a quirky way." "menurutku kau imut dan sedikit unik."  44 peter kavinsky is giving me a brush-off! peter kavinsky menolakku!  45 he's still talking, still giving me the kind eyes. peter masih berbicara, masih menatapku dengan ramah.  46 "that's…personal." "itu…rahasia."  47 "so you used me to save face?" "jadi kau memanfaatkanku untuk menyelamatkan harga dirimu?"  48 but my reasons were really good! meski begitu, aku punya alasan yang kuat!  49 chris exhales. "damn!" chris menghela napas. "itu gila!"  50 "shit. i didn't know you had it in you." "gila. aku tidak tahu kau punya nyali sebesar itu."  51 "they may be broken up, but she still thinks she owns his ass." "mereka memang sudah putus, tapi gen tetap beranggapan kalau peter adalah miliknya."  trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 51 52 "you better watch your back." "lebih baik kau berhati-hati."  53 "she's the new girl." "murid baru."  54 it's a little early to switch out my sandals for my winter shoes… terlalu cepat untuk mengganti sandal-sandalku dengan sepatusepatu musim semi…  55 i'm thinking i want to shake things up. aku berpikir untuk mengganti suasana.  56 …and all the while my wheels are turning about how i'm going to get myself out of this peter k.situation with even a sliver of dignity. sementara itu, pikiranku berputar mengenai bagaimana caranya keluar dari situasi peter k. ini dengan harga diri yang masih tersisa, walaupun hanya sedikit.  57 …a little bowl of pepper paste; soy sauce with scallions and ginger. …semangkuk kecil pasta cabai, dan kecap asin dengan daun bawang dan cabai.  58 it's a cozy day: it's nearly six o'clock, and i'm still in my pj's. hari ini adalah hari yang santai: sekarang hampir pukul enam sore dan aku masih memakai piama.  59 "i get it. no need to rub it in." "aku mengerti. tidak perlu membesar-besarkannya."  60 "i say we don't count josh out just yet." "menurutku kita jangan dulu menjauhi josh."  61 we are stuck eating that salty pork shoulder for the rest of the weekend. kami terpaksa menghabiskan daging asin itu sepanjang sisa akhir pekan.  62 for dinnwe i test that theory by mixing it with kraft macaroni and cheese, … untuk makan malam aku menerapkan teori itu dengan mencampur dagingnya bersama makaroni dan keju.  63 "i could have just as easily blown up your spot." "aku bisa saja dengan mudah membongkar sandiwaramu."  64 my heart sinks to the pamevement. semangatku merosot.  65 it's a lost cause. …tapi tidak ada gunanya.  66 "none of my friends will believe i suddenly turned into a monk to date you." tidak ada temanku yang akan percaya bahwa aku mendadak jadi orang suci hanya untuk pacaran denganmu.  67 i think i heard that british people dink absinthe at pubs. kurasa aku pernah mendengar bahwa orang inggris minum alkohol bernama absinthe di kedai-kedai minuman.  language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 52 68 "let's send gogo a care package!" "ayo kita kirim sebuah paket untuk gogo!"  69 "not one frigging word, lara jean!" automatically i say, "don't say 'frig'," "tidak satu kata pun, lara jean!" secra otomatis aku berkata, "jangan bilang begitu."  70 "i mean, everybody thinks you're this big ladies' man, when in reality you've only ever been with genevive and then jamila for like a month-" "maksudku, semua orang beranggapan kalau kau adalah seorang cowok yang sering mematahkan hati cewek, padahal kenyataannya kau cuma pernah pacaran dengan genevive, lalu dengan jamila selama sebulan-"  71 our waitress is kelly, who's a student at the college. pramusaji kami, kelly, adalah seorang mahasiswi.  72 our waitress is kelly, who's a student at the college. pramusaji kami, kelly, adalah seorang mahasiswi.  73 "i also think you need to learn how to kick back and have fun." "menurutku kau juga harus belajar untuk bersikap sedikit santai dan bersenang-senang."  74 "just because lucas appreciates fashion, that doesn't make him gay." "hanya karena lucas mengerti mode, bukan berarti dia gay."  75 "just tell me, lara jean. how far have you guys gone?" "katakan saja padaku, lara jean. kalian berdua sudah melakukan apa saja?"  76 "fine. but there's no way they haven't boned." "baiklah. tapi mustahil mereka belum pernah berciuman."  77 "but if i had to put money on it, yeah." "tapi kalau aku harus menebak, ya, mereka sudah melakukannya."  78 "why are you even going to her for advice? that girl is a train wreck." "kenapa kau meminta nasihat dari chris? cewek itu kacau balau."  79 "how tall are you?" darrell asks me. "five two," i fib. "berapa tinggi badanmu?" tanya darrell. "seratus enam puluh sentimeter."aku berbohong.  80 he points at the framed picture of me and margot taking a bath when we were babies. "cute." dia menunjuk sebuah bingkai berisi foto aku dan margot sedang mandi waktu kami masih bayi. "lucu."  81 "well, duh." "tentu saja aku ingat."  82 "hey, do you have any water?" "hei, apa kau punya air minum?"  trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 53 83 impressed, i say, "wow, i had no idea this business was so cutthroad." dengan penuh kekaguman, aku berkata, "wow, aku sama sekali tidak tahu kalau bisnis ini penuh dengan sikut-menyikut."  84 "you know it," peter calls back. "seperti yang anda tahu," jawab peter.  85 before peter arrives at my house, i go on the computer and look up what fork to use with what, just in case. sebelum peter tiba di rumahku, aku menyalakan komputer dan mencari tahu alat makan apa yang harus kugunakan, untuk berjaga-jaga.  86 it drove her crazy waiting for us to get to the third book so we could discuss. dia sangat tersiksa menunggu kami selesai membaca buku ketiga agar kami semua bisa mendiskusikan ceritanya.  87 "'cause i'm warning you, you do not want to step the ring with me." "karena aku peringatkan, kau tidak ingin menantang orang sepertiku."  88 she sits on her hand and looks at him through her lashes and shakes her head. dia menduduki tangannya dan memandang peter sambil sedikit menunduk, lalu menggeleng.  89 "peter and genevive were an item?" "peter dan genevive pernah berpacaran?  90 she's shameless that way. dia pantang menyerah.  91 i could try to twist chris's arm into going, but she's probably laugh in my face. aku bisa memaksa chris untuk pergi, tapi dia mungkin hanya akan menertawakanku.  92 "my great-aunt trish used to make fruitcake, and she'd put ice cream on top and it was awesome." "bibi trish dulu sering membuat kue buah kering dan dia menambahkan es krim di atasnya. rasanya luar biasa."  93 my favorite is the painted blue star i made in kindergarten out of dough. ornamen favoritku adalah bintang yang dicat biru yang kubuat dari adonan garam saat masih duduk di taman kanak-kanak.  94 "you had on that tan suede fringy shirt you used to wear, with the straps, and it showed your belly button." kau memakai kaus suede berumbai warna cokelat muda yang sering kau pakai waktu itu, kaus bertali, yang memperlihatkan perutmu.  95 "wow. the body ain't even cold yet." "wow. tintanya bahkan belum kering."  96 "you are a little player, covey." "kau buaya kecil, covey."  language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 54 97 i keep my eyes peeled for her… aku berusaha keras mencarinya…  98 she calls it having her finger on the pulse, but really she's just a gossip. dia menyebutnya berusaha mengikuti perubahan, tapi sebenarnya ms. davenport hanya senang bergosip.  99 "…you caught me off guard, so i didn't know what to say." "…kau mengejutkanku, jadi aku tidak tahu apa yang harus kukatakan."  100 she hangs her head. kitty menunduk.  13 11 76 from table 1, it can be said that all the three types of meaning shifts can be found in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. and, out of the 100 meaning shifts that could be found in the novel, it can be said that 13 sentences are examples of meaning shifts that fall into the category of from general to specific, 11 are of from specific to general, and 76 sentences are caused by sociocultural factors. the percentage of the meaning shifts found in the novel and its translation is shown in the chart below. figure 1. chart of the categorization of the meaning shifts some meaning shifts turn out to be necessary in the process of the translation of this literary work, because if the meaning of some certain sentences is not shifted, the translation would have weaknesses in term of fluency in the tl or message deliverance. however, it is also found that several meaning shifts are misleading for the tl readers and, therefore,should be improved. various factors are responsible for the occurrence of those meaning shifts. trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 55 exploring into those factors lead us into an attempt to answer the second problem of this paper: the possible reasons why those meaning shifts happen. 1. meaning shifts from general to specific there are 13 data of meaning shifts from general to specific found in this research. meaning shifts of this type happen because one word in the sl refers to more than one word in the tl. moreover, socioculturally speaking, this type of meaning shifts can happen because one word describing one particular concept in the sl culture is equivalent to several sub-concepts in the tl culture. facing this problem, a translator must shift the meaning by choosing one of the equivalent sub-concepts according to the context of the sentence. an example to this type of meaning shifts happens in data number 24, where the interrogative sentence “boy or girl” is translated to “jantan atau betina?”. when depicted through a chart, the words boy and girl that have two equivalents in indonesian will be as follows. the word cowok refers to young male human, and cewek to young female human. meanwhile, the words jantan and betina is used only refer to the genders of animals in indonesia. jantan means male, and betina means female. jantan and betina are used for only animals, and it will be very rude and unacceptable to use those terms for human. while in english it is common to use the words boy and girl for both human and animal, in indonesian, the words used to refer to the gender of human and animals are different, and the rule regarding this matter is quite strict. the conversation from which data number 24 is taken took place when josh asked kitty whether she wants a male or female puppy. therefore, it is a right choice for the translator to shift the words boy and girl to the more specific words, which are jantan and betina, instead of cewek and cowok. the word youis another example of english words that haver more than one equivalents in indonesian. in indonesian, several different words are used to refer to the person whom someone is addressing, according to the occasion of the conversation or the social status of the addressee. boy – girl cowok – cewek (human) jantan – betina (animal) language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 56 the meaning shift of the word you occurs in data number 17 and 84. in data number 17, the sentence she came into the kitchen and announced, "i have something to tell you." is translated into margot masuk ke dapur dan mengumumkan, "ada sesuatu yang harus kukatakan pada kalian." in this part of the novel, margot came into the kitchen, in which there are three people, lara jean, kitty, and their father. margot announced that she started dating josh to all those people in the kitchen. thus, the word kalian is an appropriate choice for the context. on the other hand, the sentence "you know it," which is translated into "seperti yang anda tahu," in data number 84 is taken from the conversation between the young boy peter kavinsky and the old man mr. epstein. there, peter was answering mr. epstein‘s sarcastic question, as they were business rivals. it is very uncommon in indonesia to address the older people with kamu or kau, regardless of the occasion. therefore, the shift from you to anda instead of its other equivalents mentioned above in this case is an appropriate choice taken by the translator. 2. meaning shifts from specific to general not only from general to specific, meaning shifts from specific to general are also found in jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. there are 11 data found and classified into this type of meaning shifts. out of those 11 data, eight shifted words are the name of things that do not exist in indonesia. to make it easier for the indonesian readers to relate to the messages of those sentences, the translator shifted those unfamiliar words to those that are more familiar to the readers, but still closely related to the original ones. an example to this case is in data number 2, where the sentence “yeah! we can stay at hostels and just eat pastries and cheese for all of our meals!” is translated into “yeah! kita bisa tinggal di sebuah hostel dan hanya makan roti dan keju setiap hari!”. in america and many other western countries, bakery and its products has existed for a longer time than it has in indonesia. indonesians are generally less familiar with types of bakery products. therefore, there are only one indonesian word to refer to bakery you anda (singular, in formal occasions or for addressee with higher social status than the speaker) kamu (singular, in informal occasions, for addressee with equal or lower social status than the speaker) kau (singular, mostly used in literature) kalian (plural) trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 57 products such as pastry, bread, and bun, which is roti. the word roti literally means bread, but it is commonly used to refer to other bakery products; hence the word pastry is translated into bread. meaning shift from specific to general also occurs in data number 5. there, the sentence absently, i scoop up a mound of cookie dough and pop it in my mouth. is translated into tanpa berpikir, aku meraih sejumput adonan kue dan memasukkannya ke mulutku. just like the word roti that is used to refer to various bakery products, the indonesian word kue is commonly used to refer to the variety of snacks. thus, the translator uses that word as the equivalent of the word cookie. however, this choice can be misleading for the readers, although it is a minor part in the story. when the readers read the phrase adonan kue, what comes into their minds might be the liquid, raw, white batter that is still completely not edible, while cookie dough is more solid and it is common and safe to eat raw cookie dough. the translator could have used the phrase adonan kukis instead of adonan kue to translate cookie dough. although kukisas a loan word might be less familiar for indonesian readers, it certainly will not be misleading. the rest three out of 11 data classified to this type of meaning shifts are the english words that have equivalents that are more general in indonesian. one of them is data number 1, where the sentence josh is margot's boyfriend, but i guess you could say my whole family is a little in love with him. is translated into josh adalah pacarnya margot, tapi kurasa seluruh kelurgaku bisa dibilang sedikit jatuh cinta kepadanya. this meaning shift happens because english has the words boyfriend and girlfriend, while indonesians use the word pacar to refer to a lover, regardless of the gender. 3. meaning shifts that are caused by sociocultural factors most meaning shifts that were found in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before fall into this category. thereare 76 out of 100 data from the novel with meaning shifts that are caused by sociocultural factors. they do not shift from general to specific or vice versa. instead, most sentences in the finding list are translated using words or expressions that are literally very different from the original version. the translator does it to preserve the original messages in the novel. some certain words or sentences might be misleading or confusing for the readers of the tl if they do not undergo meaning shifts, because of the social and cultural differences between the sl and the tl. furthermore, those 76 sentences are divided into five sub-categories, based on the specific factors that cause their sociocultural meaning shifts. those specific factors are as follow: a. untranslatable idioms or figurative language it is found 28 sentences in this novel that contain different idioms or figurative words or phrases. they are in data number 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 38, 39, 44, 47, 52, 55, 56, 59, 65, 78, 83, 87, 88, 95, 97, 98, 99, and 100. those idioms or figurative words or phrases have no literal equivalent in indonesian. if the translator insisted on translating those sentences literally, the outcome would be meaningless and confusing for the tl readers and the messages intended by the author would not be conveyed. an example to this case is in data number 38. the original sentence is if josh's car had started up and he hasn't had to get a language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 58 jump from his dad, he wouldn't have been walking by my locker, which is translated into jika mobil josh tidak mogok sehingga dia harus diantarkan ayahnya, dia tidak akan berjalan melewati lokerku. here, the verb phrase get a jump is translated into diantarkan, because translating the phrase literally could get the readers a completely wrong idea of what is happening in the plot. the sentence is taken from lara jean‘s thought when she met josh at school, although she had been trying hard to avoid him. josh did not usually come to school at that time, but his car did not start up and he had to get a jump from his father‘s car. if it was translated literally, get a jump would be mendapat loncatan in indonesian, which has nothing to do with the context. however, translating it to diantarkan is not a good choice either. using the word diantarkan makes the sentence mean josh was eventually taken to school by his father, while the original sentence says that the battery of josh‘s cargot an additional power from the battery of his father‘s car, and eventually, josh got to school in his own car. those two messages are very different. in indonesia, the term get a jump is equivalent to the loan word dijumper. thus, a better translation to the clause would be jika mobil josh tidak mogok sehingga aki mobilnya harus dijumper dengan aki mobil ayahnya, which means that the battery of josh‘s car had to get a jump from the battery his father‘s car. another example to this case is data number 47, where the sentence "so you used me to save face?" is translated into "jadi kau memanfaatkanku untuk menyelamatkan harga dirimu?". here, the idiom save face is translated into menyelamatkan harga diri, which literally means saving your pride. it is a good choice, since the message remains the same when it travels from sl to tl, and the translation sounds fluent in indonesian. it might still be understandable for the tl readers if this idiom is translated literally using the phrase menyelamatkan wajahmu, but it is very uncommon and it sounds strange in indonesian. b. parts of the sl culture that are different from the tl culture there 10 sentences that contain parts of american culture that are different from indonesian culture. those sentences are in data number 8, 14, 15, 20, 27, 28, 29, 31, 67, and 79. an example can be seen in data number 14, where the sentence for the past week our father has been in spring-cleaning mode, even though it isn't spring. is translated into seminggu terakhir ini ayah kami sedang rajin bersih-bersih. the phrase springcleaning means the act of thoroughly cleaning a house or a room in the springtime. however, there is no such culture in indonesia. indonesia is a tropical country with only two natural seasons: rainy season and summer. indonesians do a thorough cleaning of their houses anytime it is necessary or simply when they feel like doing it. it does not have to be in a certain season. therefore, the translator chooses the phrase rajin bersihbersih in this case. the word rajin literally means diligent, and bersih-bersih means cleaning. however, the word sedang before that phrase indicates that their father did not always want to clean the house thoroughly, which makes sedang rajin bersih-bersih there means that he felt like cleaning the house thoroughly at that moment. another example to this case is in data number 79. there, the line "how tall are you?" darrell asks me. "five two," i fib. is translated into "berapa tinggi badanmu?" trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 59 tanya darrell. "seratus enam puluh sentimeter."aku berbohong. americans are used to using feet and inches as the unit to measure human height, while in indonesia this concept is not familiar. indonesians usually use centimeters or meters. in the example, darrell was asking lara jean about her height, and she simply answered five two, meaning 5 feet and 2 inches. if it is translated literally into indonesianlima koma dua, what first comes into the mind of indonesian readers might be 5.2 centimeters, which is extremely short for a person, or 5.2 meters, which is extremely tall. therefore, the translator made a good decision to convert the height from feet into centimeters to avoid misunderstanding in the translation. c. english slang or words that has inappropriate equivalents in indonesian sometimes, the translator chooses to shift the meaning of some words or phrases to ameliorate them – making some words less harsh – because they sound inappropriate for indonesian readers. moreover, this is a ya novel, which is intended to be read mainly by teenagers. making some words less harsh in the translation could be a good choice to keep this literary work appropriate for the readers for whom this novel was written. meaning shifts caused by this factor can be seen in data number 12, 36, 41, 42, 49, 50, 51, 60, 63, 64, 69, 70, 73, 76 89, 91, 92, and 94. an example to the amelioration in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before is in data number 50. there, the sentence "shit. i didn't know you had it in you." is translated into "gila. aku tidak tahu kau punya nyali sebesar itu." the word shit is a quite harsh curse word. if it is translated literally to indonesian, it will be inappropriate and not suitable with the culture of common indonesian teenagers. thus, the translator shifts it into the word gila, which literally means crazy, to make it more appropriate. slang is also something that is untranslatable literally. as a young adult novel, to all the boys i‟ve loved before uses mainly the informal kind of language. therefore, there are many slang words or phrases in this literary work. one of them can be seen in data number 63, where the sentence "i could have just as easily blown up your spot." is translated into "aku bisa saja dengan mudah membongkar sandiwaramu." to blow up a spot, according to urban dictionary (www.urbandictionary.com), means to tell someone something that was supposed to be a secret. it is translated using the phrase membongkar sandiwara, which literally means to expose a charade. the sentence was said by peter kavinsky to lara jean. lara jean pretended to date peter to save her face in front of josh, a person who just found out that she once had a crush on him. however, she never thought that peter would also join her ‗play‘ and act as if he is her boyfriend, even when they were not together. therefore, she asked him why he did it. peter was surprised that lara jean asked such question instead of thanking him, and answer her with "i could have just as easily blown up your spot." the indonesian translation suits the original message and the context well. d. contexts the translator shifts the meaning of some words and phrases in some sentences in the novel to make the contexts clearer. in a conversation, people do not usually say a full, clear sentence, especially when it comes to answering a question or reacting to what other people say. it is found in three sentences in language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 60 the novel (data number 33, 34, and 81), all of which are conversations. the translator shifts the meaning of a part in each of those sentences, making it more elaborate. that way, the contexts are shown clearly in each sentences. an example to this case can be seen in data number 33. in data number 33, the sentence "lara jean, i don't even know that i got rid of it." is translated into "lara jean, aku tidak tahu apakah aku telah menyumbangkannya." this sentence is taken from the conversation of lara jean and her father, danny. he had just donated many of their family‘s unused items to a retirement house when lara jean found out that she lost her hatbox full of her secret letters. thus, lara jean concluded that her father is the one who is responsible for that lost. danny tried to calm her down by saying that her hatbox might still be in their house. toget rid of somethingliterally means menyingkirkan in indonesian. the translator could have used menyngkirkan, which is its literal translation, and the translation would not sound strange in indonesian. however, by translating it into menyumbangkan, which is literally equivalent to the word donate, the translator makes the sentence get closer to its context. e. unspecific reasons as stated in the second chapter, literary translation is where a translator can also go through a creative process. a literary translator reserves the right to choose one word instead of another to translate the original word for the sake of fluency or aesthetic pleasure of the tl readers, as long as the word has as close meaning as possible to the original one. in this research, the writer found 17 sentences with words, phrases, or clauses the meaning of which are shifted without an apparent reason, which can be seen in data number 18, 19, 30, 35, 40, 43, 45, 46, 48, 54, 74, 75, 77, 80, 86, 90, and 96. they could have been translated literally and still make sense and do not sound strange in indonesian. yet, the translator chooses to shift them. an example to this case can be seen in data number 19. there, the sentence and then she smiled, and her eyes went all soft and liquid. is translated into lalu dia tersenyum, dan matanya berubah lebih lembut dan berkaca-kaca. the word liquid is used in mainly literary works to describe someone‘s eyes. liquid eyes, according to macmillan dictionary (www.macmillandictionary.com), are clear and shiny eyes. however, the translator chooses to translate it using the word berkaca-kaca, which is normally used to describe the state of someone‘s eyes when he or she is about to cry. not only the meaning, the atmosphere is also shifted in this case. another example can be seen in data number 46, where the sentence "that's…personal." is translated into "itu…rahasia." the word personal should be translated as pribadi in indonesian, which would make the translation “itu…urusan pribadi.”, but the translator chooses the word rahasia, which literally means secret. those sentences as well as 15 other sentences contain words of phrases that are shifted without any apparent reason in the writer‘s point of view. perhaps, airien kusumawardani as the translator had her own specific reason to shift the meaning of those words or phrases that the writer failed to see. it is also possible that the translator was using her privilege to be creative in the process of literary translation. conclusion and suggestion trifosa olfi & f.x. dono sunardi. 2017. meaning shifts in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 41—63. 61 meaning shift turns out to be a necessary part in the process of translation, especially when it comes to literary translation. most of the time, literary works use expressions (e.g. idiom and slang) that cannot be translated literally. moreover, many words in a language have no exact equivalent in another language. therefore, to be able to deliver the message that is intended by the author of a literary work to the tl readers, a literary translator must apply meaning shifts. meaning shift itself can be described as the change of the semantic aspect of the sl text to be more acceptable and understandable in the tl jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before as a young adult literary work is a good showcase for that since it has many sentences that has to be shifted semantically in the process of its translation into indonesian. it is found 100 sentences that have undergone different meaning shifts in its indonesian translation. if those sentences are translated literally just as it is, they will either sound strange in indonesian or be misleading for the indonesian readers. another finding is that all of the two types of meaning shifts suggested by simatupang (1999) are present in the indonesian translation of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before. there are 13 sentences with meaning shifts from general to specific and 11 sentences with meaning shifts from specific to general. the meaning shifts from general to specific occur because one word in english refers to more than one word in indonesian. meanwhile, the meaning shifts from specific to general occur in the name of things that do not exist in indonesia or are not originated from indonesia. the translator had to shift them into other words that is more general and familiar for indonesian readers. for instance, the word pastry is translated into roti that is used to refer to the variety of bakery products in indonesia. this type of meaning shifts also occurs when a word in indonesian has more than one equivalent in english, as in the word pacar in indonesian that is used to refer to both boyfriend and girlfriend. the rest of the gathered data fall into the second type, which is meaning shifts caused by sociocultural factors. those 76 sentences that have undergone meaning shifts that are caused by sociocultural factors are classified again into five groups according to the specific factors of the shifts. the specific factors are: 1) untranslatable idioms or figurative language, 2) parts of the sl culture that are different from the tl culture, 3) sl slang / inappropriate words, 4) obscurity of the context in the sentences, and 5) the translator‘s creative preference. most meaning shifts that were done by the indonesian translator of jenny han‘s to all the boys i‟ve loved before succeeded to deliver the message that is intended by the author. however, several meaning shifts change the message or atmosphere of the original novel. literary translators should try to avoid this kind of meaning shifts as well as possible. although the tl readers might not realize the change and still enjoy the literary work, it is the translator‘s responsibility to keep the message as close as possible to the original one. translation plays a significant role in the society. the fields of education, business, and even entertainment always have the need of good translators. thus, the study of translation should keep on expanding. extensive practices and researches on translation are good ways to shape good translators that the world needs. meaning shift is an important aspect in the field of language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 62 translation. the more translators pay attention to this matter, the more they will realize that language has a very close relationship with the culture 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(1995). comparative stylistics of french and english: a methodology for translation. philadelphia: john benjamins north america language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 64 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa5aa8a115f • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa82e101253 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaefedc1167 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 161 the use of metaphor in barack obama’s inauguration speech faizal risdianto faizrisd@gmail.com stain salatiga received: 10 april 2015. revised: 10 august 2015. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract this study is aimed to elaborate the uniqueness of barack obama‘s inaugural speech when he has been sworn in as the 44th us president at 20 january 2009. this research is a (qualitative) bibliographical study. the object of the study is the analysis of the use of metaphor in barrack obama‘s speech. there are 23 sentences chosen to represent all the metaphorical sentences of obama‘s speech being the object of the study. having analyzed the data by the perspective of george lakoff and johnson‘s conceptual metaphor, the researcher can draw a conclusion that obama has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in convincing his people about his future plans. his remarkable speech discussing how to solve the great scale of the economic mess that now confronts the us and the common feeling of the loss of national self-confidence. keywords: metaphor, source domain, target domain, inauguration speech. how to cite: risdianto, faizal. 2016. the use of metaphor in barack obama‘s inauguration speech. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction one of interesting problems in language study is the use of metaphor in all walks of life. one of its mysteries is the public confusion in encountering metaphorical expression that says something that is different to what it really means. hawkes says ―language which doesn‘t mean what it says‖ (1980:1). this fact creates the impression that the user of metaphor looks like a liar or deceiver. when juliet said to romeo ―the lights that shines from your eyes‖ she did not mean to say that from romeo‘s eyeballs radiating or shining on the chamber they stayed. when a poet says,‖ a poem is a bird‖, he did not mean to state that the poem can flap its wings and tail. those two instances is only part of many examples that creates the impression of metaphor as the expression full of ―absurdity‖ and ‗falsity‖ (max black in ortony, 1993:21). one of the interesting studies of metaphor is the use of metaphor in political discourses. the outstanding feature of metaphor in this case lies on it uniqueness and specification that very different to other genre of writing like business, literary of arts, science and technology. such uniqueness refers to the poetic function of literary wok to convey message or ideas to its readers (culler, 1975:55). culler says, ―by showing what properties of language were being exploited in particular texts and how they were extended or organized‖ (1975:55). politics is a struggle for power in order to put certain political, economic and social ideas into practice. in this process, language mailto:faizrisd@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 162 plays a crucial role, for every political action is prepared, accompanied, influenced and played by language. this paper analyzes the discourse of political speech, namely the inaugural address of president barack obama. he had given the enormous domestic and global significance of the inauguration speech in times of international economic turmoil. to define what had been analyzed in this research, it had been formulated the problem of this paper: what‘s the uniqueness of metaphor in obama‘s inauguration speech? basic theories and analysis the basic theory of this paper covers three aspects as follows: (1) the definition of metaphor (2) george lakoff‘ and mark johnson‘s conceptual metaphor (3) the biography of obama. those three aspects have a close relation to the topic discussed in this paper. what is metaphor? in literary use, a metaphor (from the greek: metapherin rhetorical trope) is defined as an indirect comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subjects that typically uses ―is a‖ to join the first subjects for example: ‖ man is a wolf ―. this is an elliptical form compared to simile sentence man is like a wolf. a metaphor is commonly confused with a simile, which compares two subjects using ―like‖ or ―as‖. an example of a simile: ―he was as sly as a fox.‖ in the simplest case, a metaphor takes the form: ―the first subject is a second subject.‖ edi subroto (1986:45) said that a metaphorical expression can be categorized as metaphor if it can give a new enjoyment in reading language expression, kicking out monotony and enliven inanimate object, and actualizing something that which actually crippled or paralyzed. in the development of theories of metaphor there are several domestic and foreign linguists who had tried to describe their complex conception about metaphor. they are: rachmad djoko pradopo(1987), edi subroto(1991), herman waluyo(1991), aminuddin(1995), stephen ullmann (1972), andrew orthony(1993), and wellek (1993). these conceptions will be elaborated one by one: pradopo (1987:66) explains that categorically metaphor consists of two terms that is main term or tenor (principal term) and the second term or vehicle (secondary term). the main term or tenor told about the compared entities whereas the second term or vehicle told about the comparison or the things compared. then it was said that metaphor sees things by the medium of other entities. this metaphor explains something with the same result which actually has different meaning. edi subroto (1995:38) explains that metaphor is created particularly based on the similarity of two referents. the first referent is called tenor and the second one is called vehicle. the similarity of both referents is the basic builder of metaphor creation. according to edi subroto one of important factor in the affectivity of metaphor is the distance between tenor and vehicle. if the distance of both of them is very close in their similarity level, the metaphor is less expressive, less effective. on the contrary, if the similarity level of both elements is not so real, the metaphor has expressive power. the metaphor like ―black wolf‖ to depict ―night shadow‖ like what has arthur rimbaud said in his poem risdianto, faizal. 2016. the use of metaphor in barack obama‘s inauguration speech. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 163 is the example of effective and expressive metaphor (edi subroto, 1995:39). according to herman waluyo (1991: 84), metaphor is an insight or approach towards object through direct or indirect comparison. aminuddin (1995:304), in his stilistika explained that metaphor is: one of the form of figurative language which created and re-created through comparison and the transfer of semantic features via direct or indirect comparison. the indonesian metaphor of ―aku ini binatang jalang‖ (i am the untamed animal) for example, is a form of metaphor which used direct comparison but in the metaphor of ―jam mengerdip‖ something is compared to the blinking as indirect nature. viewed to its function, the use of metaphor is functioned to enrich the nature of imagery description and the picturing of meaning of an elaboration. ullmann said that the subjects of metaphor by telling the things that we compared to. in his semantic an introduction to the science of meaning explained about both things by giving term of tenor and vehicle, whereas the common feature that they have has formed the ground of metaphor. this had been stated in these following sentences: the basic structure of metaphor is very simple. there are two terms present: the thing we are talking about and that to which we are comparing it. in richard‘s terminology, the former is the tenor, the later the vehicle, whereas the feature or features they have in common from the ground of the metaphor (ullman, 1972:213). it means that the basic structure of metaphor is very simple. there are two things that we are talking about the things we talk and the things we compared to. the first term of richard from the early start is tenor (direction/objectives) and the latest is vehicle. this remains us to the idiosyncrasies of daily lexicon which form the ground of metaphor. in the view of andrew ortony (1993:2), in his book entitled metaphor and thought: it seems preferable, however, to attempt to relate two alternative approaches to metaphor – metaphor as an essential characteristic of the creativity of language; and metaphor as deviant and parasitic upon normal usage – to a more fundamental and pervasive difference of opinion about the relationship between language and the world. it means that it is better to relate two alternatives of approach in metaphor – metaphor as the main character from language creativity; and metaphor as a deviation and parasitic from the normal language toward deep fundamental difference from the opinion of the relationship between language and the world. furthermore, wellek (1993: 235) explained that metaphor compared two worlds and conveyed themes through idioms as the works of shakespeare (raging sea, the wild storm in the meadow, the gloomy lake). in general, it can be concluded that what had been said by the above linguistic experts had enrich our knowledge about the theories of metaphor started from the tenor and vehicle explained by richard (1936). even though sometimes using different terminology outstanding linguists like pradopo, subroto, waluyo, aminnuddin, wellek and ullmann had just given an emphasis to the theory of richard whereas andrew ortony had added by his viewpoints which insisted on the inconsistencies language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 164 between ―the two terms‖ in metaphor called as tension. conceptual metaphor it is true that all of us speak in metaphors whether we realize it or not. in metaphors we live by lakoff, a linguist, and mark johnson, a philosopher, suggest that metaphors not only make our thoughts more vivid and interesting but that they actually structure our perceptions and understanding. thinking of marriage as a ―contract agreement,‖ for example, leads to one set of expectations, while thinking of it as ‗team play‖, ―a negotiated settlement,‖ ‗russian roulette,‖ ―an indissoluble merger,‖ or ―a religious sacrament‖ will carry different sets of expectations. when a government thinks of its enemies as ‗turkeys‖ or ―clowns‖ it does not take them as serious threats, but if they said that they are ―pawns‖ in the hands of the communists, they will be taken seriously indeed. in metaphors we live by has led many readers to a new recognition of how profoundly metaphors not only shape our view of life in the present but set up the expectations that determine what life will be for us in the future (1980:13). metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourisha matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action. for this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly without metaphor. we have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. the concepts that govern our thought are not just matter of the intellect. they also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most common details. our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world and how we relate to other people. our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities. if we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we thinks what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor. the conceptual system used by mankind in wherever society strongly influenced our style and style of thinking and doing is metaphorical. the non-metaphorical thinking is only possible if we discuss merely physical realities. the greater the level of abstraction made by people, the greater of the metaphorical layers needed to state the result of human thinking. many people ignored these for several reasons. one of them is the reason that few form of metaphor is considered ―dead‖ and has unknown origin. the other reason is that we do not know what happen on our conceptual system in our thinking. (1993:224). the clearer depiction of the view that most of our conceptual system is metaphorical can be seen in the instances of conceptual metaphor by lakoff and turner (1989:3-4) that is given then name of the metaphor life is a journey. in this metaphor the mental domain) ―journey‖ as the source domain is compared to mental domain of ―life‖ as the target domain. the conceptual mapping between the concepts is as follows. life is a journey.  the person leading a life is a traveler. risdianto, faizal. 2016. the use of metaphor in barack obama‘s inauguration speech. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 165  his purposes are destinations.  the means fro achieving purposes are routes.  difficulties in life are impediments to travel  counselors are guides.  progress is the distance traveled.  counselors are guides.  progress is the distance traveled  things you gauge your progress by are the landmarks.  material resources and talents are provisions. the conception of the metaphor life is a journey can be applied into other examples like what have been said by (in ortony 1993:206) like the metaphor of love is a journey  our relationship has hit a dead-end street.  we can‟t turn back now.  we‟re at the crossroads.  the relationship isn‟t going anywhere.  we‟re spinning our wheels.  our relationship is off the track. it should be understood that the above metaphorical conception is not the only form, but there are hundreds and thousands form and mental domain mapping which compared on mental domain to other mental domain like what had been elaborate by lakoff in the metaphor of life is a journey, change is motion, causes are forces, seeing is knowing, thinking as body movement, time passing is a movement over a landscape etc. from this, the researcher can defined that according to george lakoff metaphor is the most important conceptual construction in the development of human thinking history. the conceptual system which used daily in each and every society will influence our ways of thinking and doing which metaphorical in nature. the biography of obama barack hussein obama ii (august 4, 1961) is the 44 th and current president of the united states. he is the first african american to hold the office, as well as the first president born in hawaii. obama previously served as the junior united states senator from illinois from january 2005 until he resigned after his election to the presidency in november 2008. obama is a graduate of columbia university and harvard law school, where he was the president of the harvard law review. he was a community organizer in chicago before earning his law degree. he worked as a civil rights attorney in chicago and taught constitutional law at the university of chicago law school from 1992 to 2004. obama served three terms in the illinois senate from 1997 to 2004. following an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the u.s. house of representatives in 2000, he ran for united states senate in 2004. during the campaign, several events brought him to national attention, such as his victory in the march 2004 democratic primary election for the united states senator from illinois as well as his prime-time televised keynote address at the democratic national convention in july 2004. he won election to the u.s. senate in november 2004. obama began his run for the presidency in february 2007. after a close campaign in the 2008 democratic party presidential primaries against hillary clinton, he won his party‘s nomination. in the 2008 general election, he defeated republican nominee language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 166 john mccain and was inaugurated as president on january 20, 2009. on october 9, 2009, he was awarded the 2009 nobel peace prize. analysis the following paragraphs are the result of analysis toward 23 sentences which contain metaphor in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech text. these sentences had been analyzed by using george lakoff‘s theory of conceptual metaphor. in this analysis it can be found eight most outstanding conceptual mapping of metaphor: no the names of conceptual metaphor 1 change are movement 2 states are locations 3 states is a motion over a landscape 4 politics is fight/war 5 actions are transfer 6 politics is a journey 7 more is up ; less is down 8 achieving a purpose is agriculture change are movement in general there are two metaphorical data in obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of change are movement: (1) forty-four americans have now taken the presidential oath. the words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. (2) the question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works – whether it helps families find jobs at a decent wage, care they can afford, a retirement that is dignified. where the answer is yes, we intend to move forward. where the answer is no, programs will end. in the metaphorical expression (1) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―rising tides‖ and ―still waters‖ whereas the target domain is the words ―prosperity‖ and ―peace‖. as it can be seen in the phrases of ―rising tides of prosperity‖ and ―the still waters of peace‖, movement – either self-propelled or otherwise – can involve a change of location or stationary (e.g. shaking). if it involves a change of location, it can be associated with the words like: forward, backward, upward, or downward directions. so, the rising tide of prosperity can be constructed as the state of prosperity has become more than before, while peace has not undergone change (still). besides, the movements here can also be specified as flow of natural force (―the rising tides‖) and substance (―still waters‖). in the metaphorical expression (2) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―we intend to move forward‖ and ―programs will end‖ whereas the target domain is the ideas of us government plan to provide job for jobseekers and better social warranty. in both metaphorical expressions obama wants to tell us that all presidents of risdianto, faizal. 2016. the use of metaphor in barack obama‘s inauguration speech. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 167 america since george washington until his period had taken the presidential oath and strived hard to develop america. all of their effort has the aim of raising economic development and prosperity. all of these can be achieved if there is a good political support from his people. states are locations there is only one metaphorical data in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of states are locations: (3) that we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred. (4) yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. in the metaphorical expression (3) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―in the midst of‖ and ―our nation is at war against a far-reaching‖ whereas the target domain is ―crisis‖ and ―network of violence and hatred‖. by saying them the metaphorical expressions gave an impression that the states of american crisis located on a certain position; position which is located in the middle position; not on the edge or peripheral position. it‘s what the cognitive linguists had stated as ―spatial metaphor‖, i.e. metaphorical expressions which showing a position of object in the frame of ―space‖ or spatial one. american citizens are facing the crisis and also have the feeling of fear of the long distance threat of international terrorist which they think spreading violence and hatred every place. by stating it the president acknowledges the ongoing war on terror; however, he makes no clear reference to the ―terrorist organization‖ of al-qaeda. in the metaphorical expression (4) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase ―amidst gathering clouds and ―raging storm‖ whereas the target domain is ―the oaths‖ or ―the presidential oath of american president‖. the metaphorical expression in the phrase of ―oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms‖ can be elaborated as ‗amidst‘ itself means ‗in the middle of something, especially something causing excitement or fear‘. so, the ‗gathering clouds and the raging storms‘ metaphorically refer to the state of strong feeling of sadness, anxiety by american people about the bad socioeconomic of recent time. states is a motion over a landscape it can be seen that there is merely one metaphorical data in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of states is a motion over a landscape: (5) these are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land – a nagging fear that america‘s decline is inevitable, that the next generation must lower its sights. in the metaphorical expression (5) the part which plays role as source domain is the phrase ―across our land‖ whereas the target domain is ―a sapping confidence‖. according to lakoff‘s conceptual metaphor the manner of action is manner of motion towards a landscape. forces which affecting action are forces affecting motion. progress made is distance traveled or distance from goal. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 168 the phrase ―a sapping of confidence across our land‖ gave us impression that confidence as an abstract thing treated as a concrete thing which can come across over a land. in this metaphor obama wants to tell us that american people are now facing the fear of weakening confident in their psychological condition spreading all over the country, a deep rooted fear about the unavoidable decline of american economy and hegemony. in this part obama wants to describe the current condition of america and his plan for big improvement towards the country. politics is fight/war it can be found that there are two metaphorical data in barrack osama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of politics is fight/war: (6) our nation is at war, against a farreaching network of violence and hatred. in the metaphorical expression (6) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase ―at war‖ and ―against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred‖ whereas the target domain is ―our nation―. in this quotation it can be found the talk of a country‘s political condition in terms of fight or war. in the domain of fight or war we can actually be a winner or a loser. we see how a politician in political arena faces other politician as an opponent. he attacks other politician‘s position and he defends his own. possibly he will gain and lose ground. he plans and uses strategies. if he finds a position indefensible, he can abandon it and take a new line of attack. many of the things a politician does in politics are partially structured by the concept of war. though there is no physical battle, there is a verbal battle, and the structure of an argument– attack, defense, counter-attack, etc. — reflects this. it can be clearly seen that in the politics is fight/war metaphor that expressions from the vocabulary of war or fight, e.g., attack a position, indefensible, strategy, new line of attack, win, gain ground, etc., form a systematic way of talking about the battling aspects of the world of politics. it is no accident that these expressions mean what they mean when we use them to talk about politics. a portion of the conceptual network of battle partially characterizes the concept of politics, and the language follows suit. since metaphorical expressions in our language are tied to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way, we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of metaphorical concepts and to gain an understanding of the metaphorical nature of our activities. on above quotation we can set out that barrack obama is using the concept of fight or war to conceptualize politics in terms of politics is a fight/war metaphor. american people are at war against the dangerous group which obama called as the global terrorism networking. actions are transfer in general there is one metaphorical data in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of actions are transfer (7) the time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the god-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a risdianto, faizal. 2016. the use of metaphor in barack obama‘s inauguration speech. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 169 chance to pursue their full measure of happiness. in the metaphorical expression (7) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―that precious gift, that noble idea‖ whereas the target domain is ―to carry forward and ―passed‖. this metaphor can be analyzed as the speaker is a certain generation. they do their action by putting the ideas (treated as objects) into words (containers) and send them (along a conduit) to another generation as a bearer who takes the idea/objects out of the word/containers. this is the idea of reddy, the linguist who had conducted much time for experimentation on metaphor. he has made analysis on documents with more than a hundred types of expressions in english. he said that in this case actions are conceptualized as objects transferred from an agent to a patient, as when one gives someone a kick or a punch. we know (as part of target domain knowledge) that an action does not exist after it occurs. in the source domain, where there is a giving, the recipient possesses the object given after the giving. but this cannot be mapped onto the target domain since the inherent structure of the target domain says that no such object exists after the action is over. politics is a journey there are two metaphorical data in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of politics is a journey: (8) this is the journey we continue today. we remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on earth. (9) our journey has never been one of shortcuts or settling for less. it has not been the path for the faint-hearted – for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things – some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labour, which have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom. in the metaphorical expression (8) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―this is the journey we continue today‖ whereas the target domain is american political life. by saying the sentence of ―this is the journey we continue today‖ gave an impression that the american people are the traveler having a journey to certain destination. in the metaphorical expression (9) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase ―our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. it has not been the path for the faint-hearted‖ whereas the target domain is also american political life. it can be seen from both quotation that the principle for under standing the domain of politics can be applied in terms of the domain of journeys. the principle can be stated informally as a metaphorical scenario: the people involve in political life are travelers on a journey together, with their common life goals seen as destinations to be reached. the political activities and relation is their vehicle, and it allows them to pursue those common goals together. the relationship is seen as fulfilling its purpose as long as it allows them to make progress toward their common goals. the journey isn‘t easy. there are impediments, and there are places (crossroads) where a policies or a political decision has to be made about which direction to go in and whether to keep traveling together. the metaphor involves understanding one domain of politics in terms of a very language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 170 different domain of journeys. more technically, the metaphor can be understood as a mapping (in the mathematical sense) from a source domain (in this case, journeys) to a target domain (in this case, politics). the mapping is tightly structured. there are ontological correspondences, according to which entities in the domain of politics (e.g., the political activists/ politicians, their common goals, their difficulties, the political activities, etc.) correspond systematically to entities in the domain of a journey (the travelers, the vehicle, destinations, etc.). more is up, less is down in general there is one metaphorical data in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of change are movement: (10) our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered. in the metaphorical expression (10) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―badly weakened‖, ―have been lost‖, and ―shuttered‖ whereas the target domain is ―economy, homes, jobs, and business.‖. by saying the sentences of ―our economy is badly weakened, and homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered‖ obama want to indicates a physical basis of american current economic condition that if there is a decrease in physical objects to a container or pile like the weakened economic condition like homes have been lost, jobs shed and businesses shuttered. it means the economic level goes down. but otherwise if there is an increase in the substance or physical object to a container, the level goes up. the elaboration given in the contemporary theory is that the more is up metaphor is grounded in experience-in the common experiences of pouring more fluid into a container and seeing the level go up, or adding more things to a pile and seeing the pile get higher. these are thoroughly pervasive experiences; we experience them every day of our lives. they are experiences with a structure-a correspondence between the conceptual domain of quantity and the conceptual domain of verticality: more corresponds in such experiences to up and less corresponds to down. these correspondences in real experience form the basis for the correspondence in the metaphorical cases, which go beyond the cases in real experience: in prices rose there is no correspondence in real experience between quantity and verticality, but understanding quantity in terms of verticality makes sense because of the existence of a regular correspondence in so many other cases. achieving a purpose is agriculture it can be analyzed that there is one metaphorical data in barrack obama‘s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of achieving a purpose is agriculture: (11) to those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society‘s ills on the west – know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy. in the metaphorical expression (11) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase ―seek to sow‖ whereas the target risdianto, faizal. 2016. the use of metaphor in barack obama‘s inauguration speech. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 171 domain is ―the conflict‖. this quotation told us that the principle for understanding the domain of agriculture can be applied in terms of the domain of achieving a purpose. this has a unique metaphorical story line: the people who want to achieve a common goal are farming the land together, with their common life purpose seen as the farming crops as the result of their effort. conclusion having analyzed the data, the researcher can draw the conclusion that obama has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in convincing his people about his future plans. his remarkable speech discussing how to solve the great scale of the economic mess that now confronts the us and the common feeling of the loss of national self-confidence. these problems not so many people are seriously questioning. he has used the domain of ―movement‖ in explaining ―change‖, the domain of ―location‖ over ―states‖, the domain of ―motion over a landscape‖ used to elaborate ―states‖, the domain of ―war/fight‖ had been used to describe ―politics‖, the domain of ―transfer‖ in explaining ―actions‖, the domain of ―journey‖ in describing ―politics‖ and the domain of ―agriculture‖ had been used in describing ―achieving a purpose‖. finally, the researcher suggest that there are many opportunities and facets to make a lingual research about this study particularly a research on the metaphorical expression of world‘s famous speech like barack obama‘s inauguration speech. this work requires deeper and broader observation, interpretation and analysis. the study towards this most outstanding figurative language offers deeper interpretation about the linguistic unique feature of formal speech. this suggestion is aimed to all language researcher and the students of english department, particularly the program of english linguistics. references cuddon, j.a. 1979. a dictionary of literary terms. great britain: w&j mackay ltd. culler, j. 1975. structuralist poetics. london: routled & keagan paul. subroto, edi d. 1991. ―metafora dan kemetaforaan: analisis pada beberapa puisi indonesia‖ dalam majalah haluan sastra budaya no.17 th. xx. surakarta. sebelas maret university press. subroto, edi d. 1992. pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. subroto, edi d. dkk. 1999. kajian stilistika novel berbahasa jawa tahun 1980-an. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa . hawkes, t. 1980. metaphor. new york: methuen & co. keraf, gorys. 2004. diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. levin, samuel. 1977. the semantics of metaphor. baltimore: the john hopkins university. ortony, andrew. (ed). 1993. metaphor & thought. london: cambrigde university press. saeed, j. 1997. semantics. massachusetts: blackwell publishers. scott, a.f. 1980. current literary terms: a concise dictionary. london: the macmillan press. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 172 sutopo, h.b. 2002. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. ullmann, s. 1997. semantics: an introduction to the science of meaning. oxford: basil blackwell ltd. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 tajikistan contemporary poetry themes gholam abas nafisi islamic azad university, arak, iran email: <n.nazanin67@gmail.com mohammad a.d.a farahani islamic azad university, arak, iran ali sar yaghoubi islamic azad university, arak, iran abstract tajik poetry deviated from its mainstream with the victory of the communist revolution. the imposition of russian language and the new communist literature made tajik poetry to take influence from the works of russian romantic poets and to have new themes. meanwhile, it benefited from the ancient persian poets and one can see the rhetorical figures such as metaphor, simile, conflict, pun, īhām, proverb, husn-i ta'lil (good reason), imagery and paradox in the works of tajik poets. additionally, bīdel's poem has also had a clear influence on the poetry of some contemporary poets. tajik poetry is very close to the informal language of the people, and in these poems, we encounter words that are specific to the tajik dialect. the first persian she'r-e now (new poetry) in central asia was written by sadriddin ayni. in tajik poetry, we occasionally encounter with recurrences, the nostalgia of the missed glory, the oppression of the nation, and the unwanted fate of their ancestors. in these poems, they rely on emotion and content, and the epic and passionate tone prevail other poetic performances. the present study gives a general overview of the poetry of some tajik poets. keywords: poetry, tajikistan, tajik, persian language introduction if we regard persian poetry and literature as a tree whose foliage and branches has reached all the lands of the persian language people and the fruits of which are enjoyed by the children of these lands, we must admit that this fruitful ancient tree is rooted in the great land of the old khorasan, which includes the modern iranian khorasan, and the vast territories today known as afghanistan and tajikistan. in days that there was no sign of civilization and culture in the present countries, people of those lands had culture and literature. great poets such as rudaki, rumi, attar, sanai, hafez, saadi, etc. have grown up in those lands and every persian speaking person is proud of them. they are poets that are still famous and their works have become more well-known over time so that they are known to more people in the world. the consistent words and content of the poetry of these great poets are such that even the translation of their works into other languages surprises the non-persian speaking readers and increases their admirers. today, with arguments about the modern and postmodern world, and due to the remarkable media facilities, languages will soon forget their old words and, instead, they will have more new words. but what is the reason for everyyear memorials in different countries and the cost of these celebrations to commemorate those great poets, and, more participants attend these memorials and ceremonies every year? is it not for no reason but the fact that the great sea of persian literature is so much filled with language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 spiritual gems and expensive pearls of words that the more the rhetorician divers search this sea the more jewels they find? the politically motivated world of today that has created new geographic boundaries does not want people to live together like the past, or the poets and writers write for their hearts and their people, and create literary and artistic works. there is no iranian that reads tārīkh-i bayhaqī (bayhaqi's history) book and is not influenced by the honesty of the author and great historian and does not feel to be close to him. there is no one who reads the life story of hasanak the vizier and does not blow in tears with the weeping of the author’s pen. the strong cultural and literary link between iranians and countries like afghanistan and tajikistan is such that centuries of separation have not been able to disassociate their hearts, because no one can erase the love of the great people like rudaki, rumi, abu reyhan biruni (al-biruni) and abusa'id abolkhayr from the heart of people of these lands. therefore, in order to revive this cultural and historical affinity of people who share many common grounds and have loved the works of their great authors for centuries, an effort should be made to analyze and remind these respected commons to provide the ground for the affinity of the persian speaking people and benefit from the richness of this reviving culture that has been cultivated for centuries among these nations, and not to let the geopolitical and political separations of the nations lead to their cultural and literary separations. contemporary tajik poetry content tajik poets, following the example of bidel’s poetry, and enjoying the rhetorical figures of indian poetry style, moved towards imagism in poetry. although some poets like muhammad naqib khan tugrul ahrari (1865 1919) considered themselves fascinated by abdul qadir bidel dehlavi and, as their poems show, followed him, but despite their talent, they did not succeed much because of mere imitation of bidel's poetry. in this regard, sadriddin ayni says ‚tugrul imitates bidle, but like many of bidle ’s imitators, he has not succeeded in this pursuit. the talent of tugrul was very complete and his imagination was capable of ascension. if he has not captivated his taste in imitating bidel, and he knew himself well, he would have excelled in his own time (ayni, sadriddin, 2016, pp. 41-409). zafarkhan jowhari is another tajik poet who imitated bidel and sadriddin ayni has spoken of him (ayni, sadriddin, 2016, p. 109). in addition to the effect of bidel's poetry, tajik poetry has been influenced by russian romantic poets, too. nevertheless, they still enjoy the ancient persian poets and one can see the rhetorical figures such as metaphor, simile, conflict, pun, iham, proverb, husn-i ta'lil, and figures that are well-known today such as imagery and paradox in their poems. tajik poetry, in comparison with afghan poetry, has been less associated with iranian contemporary poetry. tajik poetry is very close to the dialect of the native people. in the works of poets such as mū’min qanoat, bozor sobir, loiq sher-ali, and gulrukhsor safieva, you see a language spoken by the people on the streets. in these poems, we encounter words that are only available in the tajik dialect (mojib mehrdad: december 6, 2009). according to tajik scholars, the first persian she'r-e now (new poetry) in central asia was written by sadriddin ayni. when tajik poetry was experiencing turbulence and indolence, few young people entered the field and created a new path for their language and culture, contrary to the current destructive stream. these were mū’min qanoat or the ‚nima of mian roodan‛, who initiates this trend, and the bozor sobir and loiq sher-ali who followed him. these are the first people who breathed a new life in the dead body of the tajik poetry and created hope for people who were drowning in a foreign culture. replying to those who called the persian language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 language three different names with wrong intentions, mū’min qanoat says either you call it farsi or dari say what you say or you call it the good words of coquetry say what you want for me, it is only the mother tongue this is like the breast milk there is no other thing to liken it to since it is the mother's love. bozor sobir also expresses his objection to the current situation with language. his ‚zaban madari‛ (mother tongue) poem expresses the painful history of the tajik people. whatever it had in this world, it lost it had balkh and bukhara, it lost it had a great tradition and the court of justice, it lost it had the throne of saman, it lost ... the young poetry of present tajikistan breathes with full glory in the persian language territory, and it has a great contribution to this process. poets such as siavash, rostam, farzaneh khojandi, ali ajami, soroush esfandiar, dara nejat and others are known by their works in the entire persian language territory. on the other hand, tajiks also know the poems of poets such as bahmani, monzavi, salman harati, ali moalem, and najme zare in iran, and parto naderi, sami hamed, qahar assi, seyyed reza mohammadi, sharif sa'idi and others in afghanistan. this reveals a promise for the re-establishment of a major language territory. language and literature as the identity of tajik people in the introduction to the book ‚sample of tajik literature‛ on the importance of the work of sadriddin ayni, dr. ali-asghar sherdost writes ‚sample of tajik literature was the tip of the iceberg, although prepared in a hurry and quickly, it was able to silence the tumult of the mob that was going to deny the national, ethnic, and cultural identity and the ethnic language of tajiks, and bring them to their knees. that's why tajiks still consider the ‚sample of tajik literature‛ as the proof of their identity and they appreciate it and are proud of it (ayni, sadriddin: 1385, p. b). sadriddin has a long tarji-band that is full of curses, curses on the oppressors who gain power by slaughtering people and commit numerous crimes to keep their power. this throne, instead of bringing peace and security, causes the nation to be miserable. in this poem, sadriddin curses the oppressors from the bottom of his heart and fully expresses his hatred. such curses and complaints of the time clearly indicate that the noble tajik people have gone through many hardships and lost many lives for the sake of their love and interest in the language of their ancestors, i.e. persian language. as a result, now that they have found a small relief and have survived the former soviet communist regime by the independence of the tajik countries, and have been able to establish relations with their neighboring countries who speak the same language, it is not unlikely that they will need to communicate with the people who have spoken their language for a long time in order to rejoin their historical past, and benefit from the eternal sea of persian language and literature (sherdost, 2010). bozor sobir the professor bozor sobir, along with mū’min qanoat and loiq sher-ali, were the founders of the literary-cultural movement after years of forgetting and silence among tajiks. the obvious difference between bozor sobir and others is that when other poets talk about their homeland, they also a little consider the soviets, while bozor sobir wanted to draw the true borders of his country begun at the start of alienations for the tajiks in his poetry. in his poem, he does not speak of any country but language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 tajikistan, and tajikistan appears with another manifestation. the beautiful nature of tajikistan has less found its true and elegant appearance in other poetries than in his. in tajik poetry, these figures are referred to as wisdom symbols and glorious and liberating myths for future generations. bozor sobir's poetry was written in the same language of tajik poetry at that time. tajik poets have paid less attention to the language itself and its structure in their poetry. the images are so simple that they cannot be easily detected in these poems. tajik poetry is more reliant on emotion and content and the poet forgets the language when writing the poem. tajik poetry is epic. tajik accent is naturally rigorous and is the most favorable bed for epic poems. the poems of sobir are tremendous, especially when he wants to make a show. in tajik poetry, you see very old words along with informal words. it is hardly possible to disclose the boundaries of formal and informal languages in these poems. this fact is both evident at the lexical and the syntactic levels. the love poems of bozor sobir are unique. in his poems, the beloved sometimes has a natural manifestation, or in other words, it is a part of tajikistan's beautiful and diverse nature or vice versa, nature appears in the form of a beloved in his poem. in his poems, we see impressive images that are completely new and defamiliarize our aesthetic sense, and art has no duty but eliminating the dust of familiarity from the eyes of the beholder: remained like an anonymous island in the midst of the sea of ancient memories the homeland, my love, your youth the homeland, my love, your youth (fire leaf, 1984, p. 11). bukhara is a sore wound in tajik poetry, a separated part of tajiks’ body that they always look at it with regret: the land of my poetry is not a grave of words it is the durability of the mountains and deserts of my homeland my alive native language is the language of spring thunder and rain my lips are opened to poems by springs and my heart by cascades not line by line, but stream by stream to my book has reached the water of the sea of zarfeshan. (kofi site, 2009) loiq sher-ali professor loiq sher-ali is a major tajik poet that had a new perspective. with his innovations is rhyming schemes, and with his social-political-literary thoughts, he created a new era in tajik literature. he attracted the attention of literary people by writing the poem of ‚the name‛ published in 1959 in the influential literary magazine of ‚red east‛. in loiq’s poems, one can see the grief of loneliness and the perplexity of his countrymen. the adventures that he had throughout his life have been very effective in expressing his feelings. when he contemplates on his past, he is worried about it and says: my childhood passed in solitude by harvesting and harvesters with a handful of clusters it passed across the field attention to nature, mountains, and the sea are observed in the poems of other tajik poets, too. sometimes the poet, by comparing himself to one of the manifestations of nature, expresses the words as if he is talking to a living creature (personification). in this conversation, the poet reveals his intention to express his inner feelings, as if he does not find someone to talk to. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 the themes of loiq’s poetry are diverse, from personal issues to social issues, to return to the past and to be proud of historical and contemporary characters, descriptions of the land and the peasants, etc. the poetry of loiq is first of all about human self-knowledge, which is in search of himself, his origin, his past, and the perception of his life and time, and it is because of this effort for self-knowledge that the poet talks about the ancient history of the nation and its great scholars and scientists, and recounts the current problems and sorrows of the nation (all poems, 2004, p. 5). loiq’s poetry links the contemporary poetry and the past tajik persian poetry. generally speaking, loiq is a traditionalist, but his new poetry is the common language of the people of his time. this is why he is popular among his compatriots. while adhering to the principles of traditional poetry, he has written many poems in the new style. his poetry expresses his talent and innovation so that with the use of appropriate rhetorical figures, he has been able to distinguish his poetry from other poets of his time. a new poem of loiq, which has played a significant role in the evolutionary process of tajik contemporary poetry, is mostly influenced by the nimayi poetry of the poets of iran. nevertheless, he believed that nimayi poetry would not have a future in tajikistan since the taste of the tajik people would not be satisfied by the rhyme-less nature of new poetry. loiq’s new poetry is not written completely in accordance with the principles of nimayi poetry. he mostly writes charpareh and changes the length of the hemistiches, bringing his poetic thoughts to his audience. the iranian nimayi poets who had significant supporters in tajikistan include nader naderpour, fereydoon tavaloli, forough farrokhzad, khanlari, sayeh, and kasraei. present poets of tajikistan have benefited greatly from their poems. although loiq is inspired by the poems of the poets of iran, his creativity and art are completely visible in his new poems. about the inspiration of loiq sher-ali, professor alam jan khajeh morad says ‚the inspiration of loiq by other poets of the twentieth century in iran has not been uniform in different periods of his poetry writing. in creating a series of his poems called ‚madar nameh‛ (the book of the mother) he was creatively influenced by iraj mirza, and in writing ghazal by rahi mo'airi, shahriar, simin, akhavan-sales and the like. the poem of ‚kaveh weeping on the death of his seventeen sons‛ by loiq reminds you of the akhavansales’s poem of ‚for this sadness, not only my eyes shed blood‛. however, unlike the current poetry of tajikistan, which in its entirety engages in national issues, loiq's poetry is not free of individual concerns and philosophical thoughts. loiq sometimes writes about love, with its earthly and everyday meaning, human life and relationships, and life and death. he considers death a reason for rebirth and motivation of dynamism in the ongoing route of life (elegy of death, p. 35). loiq's poetry is content oriented, like the poems of mū’min qanoat and bozor sobir, a poem that is filled with love for tajikistan and the historical pains of its people. loiq is powerful in writing ghazals, too, and his contemporaneous poets have used classical forms less than him and have been less successful. he has written ghazal, do-bayti, ruba’i (quatrain) and charpareh, and there are undoubtedly spectacular samples among his works, which are rare in tajik poetry and especially in these formats. however, loiq has shown his capabilities in do-bayti and ruba’i more than other formats. his ruba’is cover the subjects of worldliness, caring for happy moments (carpe diem), and everyday romantic issues. as the love of a mother, he has welldeveloped the torn-apart homeland and the language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 116 hope for a reunion of culture in this short format. no other contemporaneous poets equate him in terms of quantity and quality of writing do-bayti and ruba’i. many of these dobaytis and ruba’is are retold by tajiks and are sang in ceremonies. gulrukhsor safieva gulrukhsor is the most famous female poet of tajikistan. this reputation is due to both her sweet poetry and her multifaceted character as a poet, novelist, and politician. ms. gulrukhsor safieva is a popular tajik poet that published her first poems in 1962 in literary magazines. she continued to work in the press as the head of the press office of the central committee of tajik komsomol and the editor of the pianar newspaper in tajikistan and was promoted to the secretariat of the tajik writers' association. ‚shelter in the shade‛, ‚green women of spring‛ and ‚hardships of death‛ revealed another literary aspect of gulrukhsor and introduced her as a successful novelist to the contemporary tajik novelists and novel readers. the poetry books of gulrukhsor were published one after the other and each one more successful than the previous one. she introduces hafez and bidel as her first degree masters and considers her poetry more closely related to the poetry atmosphere of these two great poets. so far, two cassettes of poetry reading have been published with the voice of gulrukhsor: ‚alone woman's streets‛ and ‚tears of typhoon‛, which still have a lot of popularity among tajik poetry lovers (surah mehr, no. 57). theme and content in tajik poetry, you see very old words along with informal words. it is hardly possible to disclose the boundaries of formal and informal languages in these poems. this fact is both evident at the lexical and the syntactic levels. the hardships of the life have made tajik poets, who have had many cultural, historical and national concerns, to use all their energies to express their unspeakable words in a simple way. this is why, according to mojib mehrdad, ‚the tajik poet, when speaking of his historical pains, uses the language recklessly, and he does not fear that this poem lacks an artistic aspect and anything that gives it an artistic value. tajik poetry is a sensual poetry, one that blends the nature of the homeland and the culturalhistorical homeland with nostalgia, quarrel, and complaints to make the body of tajik poetry. the tajik poet always feels a vindictive and envious enemy waiting behind the gates of his culture. he has inherited this feeling from his risky history‛ (tajikam, may 29, 2010). tajik poetry is full of awakening themes, and the poets were willing to maintain their enormous culture at any cost to escape the domination of foreigners. therefore, ‚during these years, the tajik poet sees that his culture, which has great scholars like ferdowsi, maulana and saadi, is ill-treated, his only homeland is divided, his great language loses its authority, and he can do nothing‛ (ibid.). nonetheless, tajik poetry has a beauty that influences persian speakers. as the tajik poet mojib mehrdad says ‚tajik poetry has beauties that have a special refreshing and sweet taste for the persian speakers. tajik poetry, unlike the poetry of iran and afghanistan, is the poetry of content, i.e poets pay attention to the theme in each poem, instead of dealing with transient moments and shortcuts and transient inspirations. although we see this style in iranian poetry in the works of nima and his successors, and in the poetry of afghanistan in the works of poets such as vasef bakhtari, latif nazemi, parto naderi and siah sang; akhavan is the epic writer and storyteller. however, tajik poetry, unlike the poetry of nima and akhavan, have become content-centered in accordance with russian poetry and poets such as pushkin, lermontov, sergei yesenin, mayakovsky, akhmatova, and mandelstam, since tajik poets had an organic link with the russian poetry through the russian language, in which they were all fluent. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 for this reason, whether mū’min qanoat, bozor sobir or loiq sher-ali, all have written poems like the bronze horseman by pushkin, letter to my mother by sergei yesenin, a cloud in trousers by mayakovsky, etc. (ibid.). what is repeated throughout the poems of all the poets of tajikistan, alongside the expression of the suffering of the separated homeland, and the lost history, especially in times of the russian rule, is the matter of love for mother, which is one of the central themes of tajik poetry. mother is very much honored by the tajiks. tajiks consider their homeland the same as a mother and their mother as tajikistan and consider no difference between the two. tajik poetry, from the perspective of the persian speakers of iran and afghanistan, is weak in terms of language usage, which is quite right, but the problem arises because iranians are less familiar with the syntactic structure and the wording of the tajik dialect resulted from forced geographical separations. this problem particularly occurs when tajiks remove any gap between their informal language and their literary language in previous generations. if we are familiar with these issues, many of these phonetic and syntactic weaknesses would not come up to us as flaws and will double the pleasure we receive by reading these poems. in any case, what is certain is that the poetry language of the second and third generations, using the possibility of new communication with persian sources and other persian speakers, has come closer to the standard persian language. however, the specific sweetness of reckless use of the language, which was mixed with rich native resources in previous generations, is less pronounced in the language of the new generation of poets. tajiks have encountered many injuries through especially those inflicted on them by the rule of the communist party, who intended to take away their identities and to eliminate their thousand-years-old culture and literacy. this has made tajik poets, who have had many cultural, historical and national concerns, to use all their energies to express their unspeakable words in a simple way. this is why, according to mojib mehrdad, ‚the tajik poet, when speaking of his historical pains, uses the language recklessly, and he does not fear that this poem lacks an artistic aspect and anything that gives it an artistic value (wonderful climate of tajik poetry, october 2009). the decline of tajik poetry about the superiorities and weaknesses of contemporary tajik poetry compared with the poetry of other persian poets, qanoat says ‚iranian scholars also say that the current poetry of tajikistan is superior to the poetry of other persian poets in terms of its theme, meaning, and realism. there is a defect in tajik poetry, however, that is related to the rules of persian poetry, namely, prosody, rhymes, rhetoric, and perspicuity. perhaps our poets have benefited less from these language arts. that is because in their poetry, purpose and meaning are realistic, but the decoration of that particular meaning is not the same meaning, that is why the rhetorical figures are somewhat weak and old‛. tajik poetry requires a thorough review. however, according to qanoat ‚tajik poetry requires a comprehensive review after the independence of tajikistan ... dr. sherdost has divided the themes of tajikistan poetry in the ‚perspective of poetry of tajikistan‛ book as follows: a. poems that have a historical-national background and they talk about the history of the tajik people, their culture and native language, and relations with iran. in some of these poems, the poet searches for his lost identity with the help of the historical memory. those patriotic poems written in praise of tajikistan or iran are also in this group. b. mother and wife are also commonly-used topics of contemporary tajik poetry. almost every tajik poetic book has some poetry on these subjects. some poets, such language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 118 as loiq sher-ali, have a poetic collection on this subject. c. childhood is also a constant theme of the works of every poet. the focus of contemporary tajik poets is on the same issue, too. d. war and peace are other themes of tajik poetry. since tajikistan, like other soviet republics, itself was part of a country that was one of the main fronts of the world war, many of its poets have written poems about the devastation of the war, the heroism of the soviet troops, and the propitiousness of peace. many of the featured poems are written on the same subject. ‚the angel of stalingrad‛ by mū’min qanoat is one of them. e. tajik poetry also has a lot of romance. love in tajik poetry like the poetry of most nations of the world is a feature that most poets have written about. f. nature is one of the old themes of persian poetry. following this tradition, the contemporary tajik poets have also depicted nature in their poetry. g. the political-social themes of tajik poetry can be explored in two branches: the period before the collapse of the soviet union and the post-independence period of tajikistan. in the first period, poems are full of praise, while the protest is formed in the second period, of which bozor sobir is the most prominent representative. based on the works studied, bozor sobir has poems in praise of the soviet union in the first period. although there is protest poetry in the first period and praise poetry in the second, they have no definitive nature. h. although the ethical advice is an old theme in persian poetry, it is presented in contemporary tajik poetry both traditionally and in other ways. i. due to the conditions, the religiousmystical poetry is still weak, but due to its remarkable start, we will see the flourishing of this branch in the future‛ (sherdost, ali asghar, 2010, pp. 83-84). recalling the magnificent history of the tajik people and the oppression that tajiks have come across in history is the source of many poems. among tajik poets, one cannot find anyone who has not written poems about it. we will find some spectacular examples in the works of the sobir bozor. in several poems, sobir speaks of the glory of the samanid era and the grief of his oppressed people. in a poetry, we find the poet at the side of the bukhara wall, putting his lips on the lips of the cracks of the wall, stroking its shoulders, and writing a grieving poem (ibid, 83-85). after the independence of tajikistan, culture and literature were also liberated from an ideological fence. contemporary poets have no more limitations in the open atmosphere and the literary environment filled with ups and downs. the poetry of independence era moves back to its root, foundation, and initial origin, and great poets such as rostam, siavash, khojasteh sayyad, farzaneh, soroush, esfandiar, afagh, azar, vares, dolat rahmanian and dozens of others bear the great duty of being a poet, who tie together the past and present of persian tajik poetry is in central asia. sadriddin has a long tarji-band that is full of curses, curses on the oppressors who gain power by slaughtering people and commit numerous crimes to keep their power. this throne, instead of bringing peace and security, causes the nation to be miserable. in this poem, sadriddin curses the oppressors from the bottom of his heart and fully expresses his hatred. here is the last clause of the tarji-band: oh god! destroy that house of oppression oh god! bury that court of oppression oh god! that throne that made us miserable shatter it and raise it to the ground language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 119 such curses and complaints of the time clearly indicate that the noble tajik people have gone through many hardships and lost many lives for the sake of their love and interest in the language of their ancestors, i.e. persian language. bozor sobir has a poem in which there are references to the history of its ancestral land, it has images that affect the reader: like the blood of the homeland from the neck of nizam al-mulk drop by drop we dripped the fluctuating history of the tajik people is more reflected in the works of loiq sher-ali and bozor sobir. in the poems of these two, the bitter fate of the samanids is depicted for the readers dolorously. in the following poem, bozor sobir addressed himself, whose tone is very sad. on the other hand, the sarcastic tone of the poem is obvious. the cry and adjuration of bozor are well heard between the lines of this poetry: ... shame on me, shame on me, shame on me ... i was before but i was not or what was i ... my face is in that sad image that pours sadly from sistan’s minarets and towers my grief is in those stones that are silent and crying in the tomb of rudaki and samanids i made bamian i processed kafian i lost kafian the throne of dara was in my way, i ruined it the treasure of qarun was in my hand i wasted it i considered it a piece of straw and a bunch of dirt shame on me, shame on me what have i done i expelled avicenna from the honorable bukhara i threw al-tirmidhi in the amo river last night i shed the blood of nizam al-mulk even i shed the blood of our land ... gulrukhsor also refers to the resistance of tajik people against the life events, and uses the word of taj (crown) to show the immortality of the tajik people: fate has overthrown many kings with crowns and has made kings beg the beggars so many qaruns has spoiled their life but tajik peoples have always worn the crown they have been looted many times but never looted others (selection of poems by gulrukhsor, p. 57; landscape, p. 90). tajik poetry stylistics and aesthetics the review of contemporary poetry in tajikistan, will not categorize the poems written in this era as classified in typical stylistics of iran into the style of poets based on the place they lived in. although many scholars believe that the classification of different poetic styles in iran was not based on a correct method, they themselves did not provide the method they considered correct. due to the political and historical changes that took place in tajikistan in the contemporary century which was going to eradicate the persian language, poetry did not find good conditions to follow its normal course and flourish as in iran. therefore, the categorization of poetry periods in tajikistan and afghanistan are remarkably different from the situation in iran. this is because the style of poetry in contemporary tajik literature has not followed language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 120 a correct course. if we want to give a correct definition of the style of this period, we should say that we can find the trace of every style in tajik contemporary poetry. that is because the fighting poets, in order to save their persian poetry and language they have used the word to express their goal which was the struggle to keep the persian language alive, regardless of the texture of the words and use of rhetorical figures. as a result, poetry has sometimes been transformed into slogans without any specific features. many of the poems of this period are written in the same old forms of qasida (ode), ghazal, masnavi, do-bayti, qit’e, and sometimes musammat. we will describe each of them separately. qasida, which has been used extensively in ancient poetry, has not attracted much attention in contemporary tajik poetry. as a result, no qasida writing poet has emerged in tajikistan during this period. as bidel says: neither ghazal nor qasida will remain after us only two or three drops of tears from the pens will remain in addition to the factors that made the poetry of tajikistan stay away from qasida, one of the other factors was the language after the october revolution of this country, which attributed the perfection of the language of poetry to the bourgeoisie and reactionary, and qasida could not survive such circumstances. however, there are some long poems by some poets that can be considered as some kind of qasida. the political qasida by loiq with the following beginning lines is one of them: the land of stones, and we have no fortress every one of us a warlord, and we have no leader ... (a selection of poems by loiq, 1995, p. 179). conclusion from the review and comparison of the themes of contemporary poetry of afghanistan and tajikistan, it is concluded that the persian poetry of afghanistan is far superior to tajikestan poetry in terms of sophistication and consistency of the word and the use of rhetorical figures in the classical style. and the works of iranian poets are far superior to that of the two persian-speaking neighboring countries. these superiorities have been made due to their specific political and geographic conditions. because over the past century there has been more unrest in those countries, and the opportunity for cultural, literary, etc. development is only obtained when the people of the country are at peace over the years. this peace has been less available in afghanistan and tajikistan. moreover, the distancing of these countries from the iranian persian language and their particular conditions have caused the dialects to differ, and this difference is more evident between the language of the tajik people and iranian people. obviously, tajik and afghan dialects are different, and there are words and phrases in these languages that are less available in the iranian vocabulary. for instance, there are words specific to the people of tajikistan that either do not exist in the language of iranians or they have a different meaning. the names of the new instruments are different in iran, tajikistan, and afghanistan. tajik poets have tried to keep the form of ghazal alive in every situation. in the ghazals of first-generation poets, the lyric, classical, and political languages were parallel. the ghazal of ‚tajik song‛ by sadriddin ayni is one of them. some of the ghazal writers of this era, along with political poetry, have tried to improve lyric ghazal (real ghazal), too, and relying on the rich persian ghazal history, and being influenced by the indian style, they have language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 121 created beautiful, yet simple ghazals. the impact of bidel's style on tajik poetry, especially in ghazal, is sometimes quite obvious. references aini, sadr al-din. 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"about the tajik and tata names" in tajikistan in the history of tehran, alhadi the encyclopedia of tajik literature and arts, vol. 1, p. 82; d. islam, second edition the same, c 1, p. 82; d. islam, second edition language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 19 understanding the three types of the first semester learners in english language education study program ryan andhika pratama english education master’s program, sanata dharma university, indonesia email: pratama.ryan17@gmail.com abstract every learner has their own learning styles, and there are three types of learner; such as visual learner, auditory learner, and kinesthetic learner. this paper will talk about the three types of learners based on their learning styles, the classification of english language education study program students based on the three types of learners, and what should the teachers do to help them to achieve the greater knowledge while learning new things. the research using the vak learning styles self-assessment questionnaire obtained from swinburne university of technology. the result shows that from the total of 153 students, there are 47% visual type learners, 36% auditory type learners and 17% kinesthetic type learners. keywords: learning styles, visual, auditory, kinesthetic introduction as kolb (1984) states, one's very own learning style demonstrates his or her individual contrasts in learning. shaughnessy (1998) contends in his work, a person's learning style is an approach to focus on new and troublesome scholastic information or aptitudes, disguise and recollect forms. people have various mentalities to learning on account of contrasts in learning styles. sims (1995) found that an individual's learning approach is a moderately steady sign of how they see, interface and react to the learning condition. the important components in teaching effectively are to understand the learning styles and the best method to comprehend the learning styles. learners, based on their style of perceiving lesson, can be divided into three categories: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (vak). a learner can employ a particular learning style, but it is also possible that a learner employs two or even all three learning styles – with one learning style dominating the other two. visual learners rely on their eyesight. typically, they are adaptive to colors, writing size, and writing font. visual learners focus more on writing, as such they tend to read billboard and posters as they walk the street. the utilization of visual presentation gives a simple concentration to students. by the visual sequencing, a learning procedure reflects neurons can be terminated and the succession at that point imitated, demonstrated and connected to different settings – for example, incredible support in mathematics education (averis et al, 2005). needless to say, books are their go-to handheld. auditory learners are dependent on their listening ability. they listen to music or whatever sound which pleases their ears. auditory learners tend to study either in complete silence or amid musical beats. it helps hone their focus in completing their task. auditory learners can also be very talkative, either by talking to people or simply humming by themselves. as anderson and lorch (1983) state that children’s focus during watching tv is short and periodic, with audio included in the tv language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 20 show became the cue to get their focus back on the show. kinesthetic learners are all about movements. they absorb more lessons when on the move. these learners tend to bite their pen while writing, or do other minor to major physical stunts just to channel their learning persona. logsdon (2019) adds that they (kinesthetic learners) regularly incline toward direct association with the material they are learning as opposed to worksheets or reading from a book. as indicated by sarasin (1999), "… educating can't be effective without information of learning styles and a guarantee for coordinating them with showing styles and methods". there is a connection between word related inclinations and learning style type. utilizing learning style theory in the classroom is professed to be very advantageous at all instructive dimensions for an assortment of reasons. in general, visual learners, auditory learners and also kinesthetic learners could have a different method to learn and achieve the best result of their learning. in this study, the researcher wants to know what types of learners are the first-semester students of english language education study program, because they are new in college level, so the teacher needs to understand how to choose the best method for them. later based on the findings, the researcher could recommend the suitable method to accommodate the learners. methods in order to know the learning styles from rose university students majoring english language education study program, the researcher uses visual, auditory, and kinesthetic assessment rubric. the rubric was obtained from swinburne university of technology. the reason for choosing the vak assessment rubric is because the rubric was self-scoring and easy to interpret. the participants of the study were 153 students from rose university and in the first semester of their study. the researcher uses document analysis method. as stated by ary et al (2010) a research method is that which is applied to written or visual materials for the purpose of identifying specified characteristic of the materials called document analysis method (p. 442). later, the researcher prepares and organizes the data, coding, and represent the data as proposed by creswell (2007). findings and discussion the vak rubric consisted of thirty questions in the form of multiple choices. each question bears three multiple choices: a, b, and c. the categorization of which learner the respondent will get based on the most choice he/she answered. if the respondent mostly chose a as his/her answer, he/she would be categorized as a visual learner, it also applied for b which is auditory, and c is kinesthetic. for example, this is the question number 1 in the rubric. when i operate new equipment i generally: a) read the instructions first b) listen to an explanation from someone who has used it before c) go ahead and have a go, i can figure it out as i use it. from that sample question, if the respondent chose a for his/her answer, it shows that he/she is a visual learner. it happens because the answer “read the instruction first” shows that the respondent has a preference in reading the manual first before operating the new equipment, thus he/she use his/her visual ability. it also applied to answer b and c. if the respondent answered with option b, it shows that he/she is an auditory learner. it happens because the answer “listen to an explanation from someone who has used it before” shows that the respondent has a preference in listening to the instruction of how to use the new equipment from someone whom are expert than he/she, thus, the respondent depends on his/her auditory ability. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 21 if the respondent answered with option c, it shows that he/she is a kinesthetic learner. it happens because the answer “go ahead and have a go, i can figure it out as i use it” shows that the respondent has a preference in directly using the new equipment before reading or listening to the instruction given, thus the respondent depends on his/her motoric (kinesthetic) ability. the findings of this study classified the 153 students of 2016 batch of english education study program of rose university into 3 different types based on vak learning styles. the most adapted learning style was visual with 47 percent (72 students), followed closely by auditory with 36 percent (55 students). kinesthetic type of students was the least with only 17 percent (26 students). visual learners from the 47 percent (72 students) of the respondents are all visual learners. somebody with a visual learning style has an inclination for seen or watched things, including pictures, graphs, exhibits, shows, gifts, films, flip-outline, and so forth. these individuals will utilize expressions, for example, 'show me', 'how about we view that' and will be best ready to play out another errand subsequent to perusing the directions or watching another person do it first. these are the general population who will work from records and composed bearings and guidelines. thus the visual learners are best working with underlining, various colors, highlighting, symbols, stream outlines, outlines, charts, pictures, recordings, posters slides, distinctive spatial courses of action on the page, reading material with graphs, pictures, speakers who utilize signals and beautiful language. visual learners could absorb new knowledge through their visualization. the visual learner is more attracted to color, font, or the handwriting style. there are four methods for the visual learners to improve their knowledge absorption; they are through taking notes, underlining or highlighting, summarizing, and mapping. taking notes is one thing to do when you have some times to improve your visual and kinesthetic also through handwriting. taking notes could be effective in improving the understanding of the main idea to be absorbed by our mind because our mind makes a decision for what would be written, and when we are writing, our visual also take part. as rickards, fajen, sullivan & gillespie said that the positive effect which possibly will happen while taking notes for the complicated conceptual knowledge, therefore, identifying the main idea is one of them (1997). it is also stated that note-taking align with mental processing will be more effective rather than just taking a note without thinking about what one’s is writing about ( kiewra et al., 2001; slotte & lonka, 1999). kuepper-tetzel (2018) also stated that for the most part, the elements of note-taking are two-part: first, taking notes can positively affect the admission and handling of data (encoding impact). the possibility of this is while we take notes, we connect effectively with the substance of an address or class, which prompts better appreciation of the introduced material. the second capacity is that notes enable students to return to them and use them to think about the material (external storage effect). text-marking or highlighting is one of the simplest things that visual learner can do to improve their knowledge. as the visual learners are more attracted to the color variations, there are a few reasons to expect highlighting/text-marking to profit learning. from a depth-of-processing point of view, only the demonstration of choosing what to check and what not to check may lead students to process textual data at a more profound, more evaluative stage than they would when basically understanding it (craik and lockhart 1972; nist and hogrebe 1987). reliable with this thought, learnergenerated highlighting will in general, language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 22 produce preferable test execution over experimenter-generated highlighting (fowler and barker 1974; rickards and august 1975; rickards and denner 1979; however, see nist and hogrebe 1987). also, when students are prepared in highlighting systems (i.e., to peruse a section, choose what is conceptually significant, and after that highlight the data), they perform better rather than students who don't get such training (leutner et al. 2007), demonstrating that suitable intellectual action during highlighting can improve its advantages. the visualization of the color could help them to get the main idea of the new things that they want to learn. on the other hand, highlighting could make them confused in case if they highlighted many sentences and that would make them to not get the main idea itself (snowman, 1984). summarizing is a little bit similar to taking notes. summarizing involves the choice of words which will be assembled as a simple sentence which delivered the main idea. summarizing draws upon additional evidence from input, output and other sources in order to reconstruct a more complete image of the cognitive activities from of their traces in the thinking-aloud protocol (endres-niggemeyer, 1998). the effectiveness of this strategy itself relies upon the understanding of the main idea itself, which upon the visual learners could get the main idea and transformed it into one better sentence to be recalled again in the later time (king, 1991). mapping or outlining is the way to get the main idea in the form of some points or diagram. the purpose of this method is to let the visual learners organize the information or the main idea in a more structured way (hyerle, 1995; robinson & skinner, 1996). the mind mapping could help them to get a better understanding by conducting a simple reading. auditory learners from the 36 percent (55 students) of the respondents are all auditory learners. somebody with an auditory learning style has an inclination for the exchange of data through listening: to the expressed word, of self or others, of sounds and clamors. these individuals will utilize expressions, for example, 'let me know', 'how about we talk it over' and will be best ready to play out another assignment subsequent to tuning in to guidelines from a specialist. these are the general population who are glad being given spoken guidelines via phone, and can recall every one of the words to melodies that they hear. thus auditory learners are best working by listening to lectures, go to instructional exercises, talk about points with different students, examine subjects with the teachers, disclose new plans to other individuals, utilizing a recording device, recollect the fascinating topics, stories, jokes, portraying the overheads, pictures and different visuals to someone who was not there leave spaces in your address notes for later review and 'filling'. auditory learners could learn best from hearing and verbal communication. they really paid attention toward auditory component such as tone, pitch and also the loud volume of a sound. therefore, these are the best methods for auditory learners; hearing the lecture, reciting the material, and also group discussion. a research conducted by cohen and wolvin (2011), story-listening is contended to be significant for auditory learning. they highlighted the significance of stories for auditory learners and announced that the accounts both give significantly more than amusement and help us get ourselves and our general surroundings. the research stated that storytelling is the key to correspondence and prepared story audience members are all the more subjectively engaged. storytelling is significant, however, cohen and wolvin underline the need to refocus on story tuning in. in like manner, the extraordinary potential for making classroom instruction around the accounts can be given to improve the listening abilities language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 23 of students and their general understanding aptitudes such as hearing the lecture. tabanlıoğlu (2003) stated that auditory learners are great at forming words all together, making associations and exploring them so as to encourage their retrieval as far as vocabulary learning. the outcomes in tabanlıoğlu’s study tell that auditory learners realize the best way to control and accomplish the objective language productively. on this extent, reciting (repeating at the same time as hearing the lecture) is the best way to boost their knowledge. group discussion is also a best method for auditory learners. mackay (1997, p. 9) takes note of that listening has opened up new knowledge to individuals. research demonstrates that a standout amongst the most significant purposes behind student disappointment is the absence of listening (conaway, 1982, fw. yıldırım, doğanay & türkoğlu, 2009, p. 99). students group discussion exercises ought to be incorporated into the schools, and listening abilities ought to be improved at an early age, moreover, it also could be applied in the early stage of higher education level. kinesthetic learners from the 17 percent (26 students) of the respondents are all kinesthetic learners. somebody with a kinesthetic learning style has an inclination for physical experience contacting, feeling, holding, doing, down to earth hands-on encounters. these individuals will utilize expressions, for example, 'let me attempt', 'how would you feel?' and will be best ready to play out another assignment by feeling free to give it a shot, learning as they go. these are the general population who like to try, hands-on, and never take a gander at the guidelines first. thus, kinesthetic learners are work best by using every one of their senses sight, touch, taste, smell, hearing, field trips, instances of principles, teachers who give real life applications, hands-on methodologies (figuring) on experimentation of trial and error, collecting plants, shells, grasses. kinesthetic students incline toward body movements over visualization and audio (gardner, 1993). development fills in as a guide to their memory and they recollect development from others just as their own. logsdon (2019) stated that they (kinesthetic learners) may search out contacting and controlling articles when finding out about them. based on those theories, there are three best methods for kinesthetic learners, those are; copying/imitating, visualize the knowledge, and also reading by writing. as armstrong (2003, p. 15) stated that kinesthetic activities may incorporate the capacity to mirror the physical developments of others or the ability to ace built up finemotor schedules for building a structure. based on that, it is best for kinesthetic learners to imitate their teacher movement. for example, as fernald (1988) stated that kinesthetic learners could imitate by making letter shapes in the air, or on the desk. the teacher could also ask the student to imitate the movement of an animal in teaching the young grades. kinesthetic learners also could visualize the body movement, houston (1982) defined as kinesthetic imagery. kinesthetic imagery alludes to internal symbolism that mimic to physical movement, bodily sensations, and material impressions (houston, 1982). a couple of fundamental exercises can get ready students to comprehend this type of symbolism: have them envision strolling down a street that has been newly paved with tar (and feeling the imaginary stickiness on their nonexistent feet), or lounging in the sun (and feeling the nonexistent warmth on their imaginary skin), or lifting a substantial weight (and feeling the strain in their imaginary muscles. the last method is reading by writing. as armstrong (2003) stated that writing is in reality only a profoundly kinesthetic method for reading, thus you should need to consider it as a fantastic methodology for helping the language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 24 reader to start mastering the code (p. 31). for example, as we know, the press in the earlier time, they did writing by hand before printing the reading material. furthermore, the first sentence that the students read was meaningful and inscribed by themselves, it had a physical connection to made them wanted to learn more. conclusion based on the findings, there are three learning styles that students of english language education study program of rose university use, they are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. 72 students have visual learning style preferences. 55 students have auditory learning style preference. 26 students have kinesthetic learning style preference. to sum up the conclusion, students with visual learning style preferences are 47%, students with auditory learning style preferences are 36%, and students with kinesthetic learning style are 17%. based on the visual learning style result, the best method a visual learner could use, he/she will perform well at composing practice answers, passaging role play the exam situation in your own room, encountering the test with the goal that you can get it, able to getting things done. based on the auditory learning style result, the best method an auditory learner could use, he/she will do best in converse with the examiner, listening to their voices and record them, spend time in quiet spots reviewing their thoughts, practice composing answers to old test questions, speak your answers, they like to have the majority of this page explained verbally to them, the composed words are not as significant as those they hear, they will most likely proceed to inform someone regarding new information. based on the kinesthetic learning style result, the best method a kinesthetic learner could use, he/she will do best in composing practice answers/paragraphs, role playing the test examination in their very own room, they need to encounter the test so they can get it, the knowledge on the page are just important only if they sound practical, genuine and significant to them, they have to get things done using their motoric senses to get it. this study hopes for teachers could have more method to accommodate the three learning types. the more variation of method used, more students could adapt to their own learning style preference. it also has an impact on the students to be more motivated in their learning. references anderson, d., & lorch, e. p. (1983). looking at television: action or reaction? in j. bryant & d. r. anderson (eds.), children's understanding of television: research on attention and comprehension (pp. 1-33). new york: academic press. ary, d., jacobs, l. c., sorensen, c., & razavieh, a. (2010). introduction to research in education (8th ed.). belmont, tn: wadsworth cengage learning. armstrong, t. (2003). the multiple intelligences of reading and writing. virginia: ascd. averis, d., glover, d., & miller, d. (2005) presentation and pedagogy: the effective use of interactive whiteboards in mathematics lessons. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 25 cresswell, j. (2007). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). santa barbara, ca: sage publication. cohen, steven d. & wolvin, andrew d. (2011) listening to stories: an initial assessment of student listening characteristics. listening education, 2, 16-25. conaway, m. (1982). listening: learning tool and retention agent. in a, s, algier & k, w. algier (eds.), improving reading and study skills (pp. 51-63). san francisco: jossey bass. craik, f. i. m., & lockhart, r. s. (1972). levels of processing: a framework for memory research. journal of verbal learning & verbal behavior, 11, 671-684. endres-niggemeyer, b. a. (1998). a grounded theory approach to expert summarizing. proceedings of intelligent text summarization, aai spring symposium. fernald, g. (1988). remedial techniques in basic school subjects. austin, tx: pro-ed. fowler, r. l., & barker, a. s. (1974). effectiveness of highlighting for retention of text material. journal of applied psychology, 59, 358 –364. gardner, h. (1993). multiple intelligences: the theory in practice. new york: basic books. houston, j. (1982). the possible human. new york: tarcher/putnam. hyerle, d. (1995). thinking maps: seeing is understanding. educational leadership, 53, 85-89. kiewra, k. a., dubois, n. f., christian, d., mcshane, a., meyerhoffer, m., & roskelley, d. (1991). note-taking functions and techniques. journal of educational psychology, 83(2), 240245. kolb, d. (1984). experiential learning experience as the source of learning and development. new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. kuepper-tetzel, c. (2018). factors of effective note-taking: application of cognitive load theory. received on june 9th, 2019 from http://www.learningscientists.org/blog/2018/9/13-1 leutner, d., leopold, c., & den elzen-rump, v. (2007). self-regulated learning with a texthighlighting strategy: a training experiment. zeitschrift für psychologie/journal of psychology, 215(3), 174–182. doi: 10.1027/0044-3409.215.3.174. logsdon, a. (2019). bodily kinesthetic physical learning style characteristics: learning through physical hand and body movement. received on may 30th, 2019 from https://www.verywellfamily.com/kinesthetic-learner-characteristics-2162776 mackay, i. (1997). dinleme becerisi. (çev: aksu bora ve onur can çolak). ankara: i̇lknur kültür ve sanat ürünleri ltd. şti. nist, s. l., & hogrebe, m. c. (1987). the role of underlining and annotating in remembering textual information. reading research and instuction, 27, 12-25. p. rickards, john & r. fajen, brett & f. sullivan, james & gillespie, gerald. (1997). signaling, notetaking, and field independence-dependence in text comprehension and recall. journal of educational psychology. 89. 508-517. 10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.508. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 26 rickards, j., & august, g. (1975). generative underlining strategies in prose recall. journal of educational psychology, 67, 860–865. rickards, j., & denner, p. r. (1979). depressive effects of underlining and adjunct questions on children’s recall of text. instructional science, 8, 81 –90. sarasin, l. c. (1999). learning style perspectives: impact in the classroom. madison, wi: atwood publishing. slavin, r.b. (2009). educational psychology: theory and practice, 9th ed. new jersey: pearson education, inc. shaughnessy, m. f. (1998). an interview with rita dunn about learning styles. clearing house, (71)3, (oclc firstsearch: full text). sims, r. r. & sims, s. j. (eds.) (1995). the importance of learning styles: understanding the implications for learning, course design, and education. westport, ct: greenwood press. slotte, virpi & lonka, kirsti. (1999). review and process effects of spontaneous note-taking on text comprehension. contemporary educational psychology. 24. 1-20. 10.1006/ceps.1998.0980. tabanlıoğlu, s. (2003). the relationship between learning styles and language learning strategies of pre-intermediate eap students. graduate school of social sciences, master thesis, odtu, ankara. yıldırım, a., doğanay, a. & türkoğlu, a. (2009). ders çalışma ve öğrenme yöntemleri (2. baskı). ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 the evaluation of lesson plans for history of english literature maria johana ari widayanti english department, universitas negeri semarang widabranta.74@gmail.com abstract history of english literature is one subject that is taught by semester fifth in english literature students. this subject discusses about the history of english language and literature that includes the periods of literature and the characteristics. the aim of this research was to evaluate rps in history of english literature. the subjects were the fifth students of english literature. the research used qualitative. in doing the research, i broke down all parts in lesson plan, such as capaian pembelajaran lulusan, capaian pembelajaran mata kuliah, deskripsi mata kuliah, and kemampuan yang diharapkan. after broke down all parts in lesson plan, i saw there was an importance thing in learning history of english literature among fifth semester students of english literature because this subject gave knowledge about the history of english, particularly the literature, the periods of literature, and the literary works in each period. although the subject was important for students, there was imbalance between graduate learning outcome (capaian pembelajaran lulusan) and course learning outcome (capaian pembelajaran mata kuliah). to solve its imbalance, i gave the knowledge about the development of language among students by lecturing and answering some questions. the result showed by giving questions about the development of language and the period of literature, students increased knowledge about this subject. key words: evaluation, rps, history of english literature introduction history of english literature is a subject that is taught to 5th semester students of english literature department in universitas negeri semarang. it is important for students because it gives knowledge about the history of english, the periods of literary works, the characteristic of literary works, and the development of a language and culture or society from period to period. according to collins dictionary, lesson plan is a plan that is used by teachers in a school that mentions the structure and format of lessons in detail. according to ali jamali nesari (2014), lesson plan is a written description for this process; where the materials, the method, the time and the place of education as well as methods for evaluating the students are described in detail. as cited from farrell ( 2002), nesari said a lesson plan as ‚a unit in which it is a sequence of correlated lessons around a particular theme or it can be specified as a systematic record of a teacher’s thoughts about what will be covered during a lesson‛(p. 30). shrum and glisan (as cited in farrell, 2002, as cited in nesari 2014) pointed out that for english language lesson, the effective objectives of a lesson plan describe what students will be able to do in terms of observation, behavior, and using the foreign language. spratt, pulverness and williams, 2005, as cited in nesari 2014 stated that lesson plan is a series of course plan which provides direction for a teacher of what kind of materials of study to be taught and how to teach them. nesari added lesson plan is one option for teachers to manage the class properly. lesson mailto:widabranta.74@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 plan is teacher-made depending upon the class & learners’ needs, that is teaching styles & learning styles should be compatible. there is a saying stating that ″well planned is half done″. lesson plan (rps) is important in delivering subject from teachers to students because it reflects on what to teach, how to teach, and how to evaluate. in teaching history of english literature, the role of lesson plan is important because it also presents course description, graduate learning outcomes (capaian pembelajaran lulusan), and course learning outcome (capaian pembelajaran mata kuliah). unfortunately, there was an imbalance between graduate learning outcomes (capaian pembelajaran lulusan), and course learning outcome (capaian pembelajaran mata kuliah). it arose a problem among students. methodology the participants of this research were 5th semester students of english department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri semarang. the subjects were 68 students with 45 female students and 23 male students. the method of this research was a qualitative one which focused on the naturalistic inquiry process that seek in-depth understanding of social phenomena with their natural setting. it focused on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relied on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their everyday lives. rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers used multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory and phenomenology. there were three major focus areas are individuals, societies and cultures, and language and communication. although there were many methods of inquiry in qualitative research, the common assumptions were that knowledge was subjective rather than objective and that i learned from the participants in order to understand the meaning of their lives. to ensure rigor and trustworthiness, i attempted to maintain a position of neutrality while engaged in the research process (https://nursing.utah.edu/ research/qualitative-research/what-isqualitative-research.php). students were given mid test and final test as the instruments. in mid test, students analyzed one literary work in one period. they also inserted the development of languages. in final test, students analyzed two literary works from different periods. they also mentioned the languages that influenced the literary works. students were given list of questions about development of language. findings and discussion lesson plan (rps) is an important tool in transforming materials from teachers to students. stiliana milkova from the center for research on learning and teaching said that a lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. before planning the lesson, teacher will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting, design the appropriate learning activities, and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. a successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components, such as objectives for student learning, teaching/learning activities, and strategies to check student understanding. she added specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished (see fig. 1). https://nursing.utah.edu/%20research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php https://nursing.utah.edu/%20research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php https://nursing.utah.edu/%20research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 steps for preparing a lesson plan while according to webster, evaluation is a determination of the value, nature, character, or quality of something or someone. jabbarifar in the importance of classroom assessment and evaluation in educational system (2009) said that evaluation in teaching english language is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information about teaching and learning in order to make informed decisions that enhance student achievement and the success of educational programs (as cited from rea-dickens and germanie, 1993; genesee and upshur, 1996; o’mally and valdez-pierce, 1996). evaluation is a process that includes five basic components: 1) articulating the purpose of the educational system. 2) identifying and collecting relevant information. 3) having ideas that are valuable and useful to learners in their lives and professions. 4) analyzing and interpreting information for learners. 5) classroom management or classroom decision making. in what i wanted students learn point, i wanted students to learn about the history of english literature, analyze the literary works and culture from period to period. in what teaching and learning activities i would use, i would give knowledge about the history of english from period to period, the knowledge about the popular literary works, culture, and language that influenced the works. and in how i checked for students’ understanding, i gave them tests, such as mid test and final test. after knowing what i should do in this subject, i evaluate this course by seeing the graduate learning outcome (cpl), course learning outcome (cpmk), and description of course. then i broke down each meeting that consisted of 16 meetings, including mid test and final test. in first week, it discussed about how to evaluate and judge literature. here, students were given a brief introduction about the definition of literature, kinds of literature, period of literature, literary works, and development of languages from old english to modern english. second week, it discussed about the origin of english. students were introduced the origin of english inhabitants, britons and anglo saxons. it was also explained the language during this period, the characteristic of society, and the early literary works. third and fourth week, students were given knowledge about the norman and french conquest. how they invaded and influenced the society and culture, how they influenced the language. it started the middle english where students were informed about the characteristics of literary works. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 in fifth and sixth week, students were given the knowledge about the early drama. this period was the end of middle english. students were informed the characteristic of literary works in this period. in seventh week, students were given knowledge about the renaissance period. it was as the enlightment period where people started to open their mind about the universe and the inventions develop rapidly. it also happened in literary works where drama developed rapidly. in eight week, students learnt about the improvement of poetry and prose. it included in 17th century. there were mid test in ninth week. students were given a test. they should analyze a literary work and find the characteristics. they also mentioned the languages that influenced the literary works. tenth week, students learnt about the restoration period. it’s the shortest period from the other because it happened only 40 years. eleventh and twelfth week, students learnt about pseudo classicism and the romantic movement. it started the early modern period. students were given knowledge what pseudo classicism is, the romantic movement, and the characteristics of literary works. in thirteenth and fourteenth week, students learnt about the romantic triumph, the characteristics of literary works, and the popular authors in this period. in fifteenth, students learnt about the victorian era and the literature during this period. in the sixteenth week, students get final test. after breaking down the rps from each meeting, i saw graduate learning outcome (cpl) and course learning outcome (cpmk). in graduate learning outcome (cpl), students were hoped to get attitude competency, knowledge competency, general skill competency, and specific skill competency. in attitude competency, students should appreciate diversity in cultures, opinions, religions and believes, as well as points of view or original findings of others, and being competent at cooperating and possessing social sensitivity as well as caring for the community and the environment. in knowledge competency, students should master at english training technique and theoretical concept by applying innovative and sophisticated technological approaches having cultural insights. in general skill competency, students should be competent at applying logical, critical, systematic and innovative ways of thinking in the context of developing or implementing science and technology that takes into account and applies the values of humanities which are relevant to his/her expertise. in specific skill competency, students should be competent at implementing logical, critical, systematic, and innovative thought in contexts of science and/or technology development and implementation based on his/her expertise. in course learning outcome (cpmk), students were hoped to be able to acquire the knowledge about the history of english literature and the period of literary works in order to enable students to explain and write about the way of english people think, behave, socialize through individuals or groups starting from the period of literary works from the origin of the britons and anglo saxons, the end of middle ages, the renaissance, the medieval drama, the prose and poetry, the restoration, the romantic period, and the victorian period. students are introduced the language in each period that influences the literary works by implementing values of smartness and tolerance and applying accuracy on content aspects and linguistic features in postintermediate english acquisition. after seeing all aspects from the rps, there was a gap between the description and the course learning outcome (cpmk). in description, this subject discussed about the history of the english literature, analyzed literature that were related or connected to the language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 history seen from the chronology and works produced to create better condition of the environment and the world by implementing values of smartness and tolerance and applying accuracy on content aspects and linguistic features in post-intermediate english acquisition. in graduate learning outcome (cpmk), it only focused on the literature and literary works in each period. students did not learn about the development of languages from each period. there was also lacks of sources. students only got sources from books (e books). they seldom learnt this subject from journals or articles. this rps needed to redesign where the development of language and culture involved in this learning process, not only the literature. the imbalance was occurred between the graduate learning outcome (cpl) and the course learning outcome (cpmk). in graduate learning outcome (cpl), students were hoped to get enough knowledge about the history, the development of language, the culture, and the literature of english. they should understand, mention, and analyze the knowledge. in fact, students still got difficulties in understanding, mentioning, and analyzing the history, the development of language, the culture, and the literature of english. to overcome the cpl and cpmk, i redesigned the rps. in the new design, i inserted the development of languages that influence the literary works from period to period. below was the example of old english language in gothic lord’s prayer. we could examine the first few lines in detail: fæder ure †u †e eart on heofonum father our thou [who] are in the heavens si †in nama gehalgod [may] thine name holy-ed another example was from the anglo-saxon chronicle entry for 893: †à hìe †à fela wucena såton on twà healfe †åre, & sè cyng wæs west on defnum wi† †one sciphere, †à wåron hìe mid metelìeste gewågde, & hæfdon miclne dål †àra horsa freten. & †à ò†re wåron hungre àcwolen. †à èodon hìe ùt tò †åm monnum †e on èasthealfe †åre wìcodon, & him wi† gefuhton, & †à crìstnan hæfdon sige. when they had sat on both sides of that [of the river] for many weeks, and the king was in the west in devon [fighting] against the piratearmy, they suffered lack of food and had eaten the greater portion of their horses, and the others were perishing with hunger. then they went out to the men who were camped on the east side, and fought against them, and the christians had the victory. below was the example from middle english: georgery chaucer in canterbury tales that using a mix of french and english words in a new and simplified middle english grammar. whan that april with his shoures soote the droghte of march hath perced to the roote, and bathed every veyne in swich licuor, of which vertu engendred is the flour; whan zephyrus eek with his sweete breeth inspired hath in every holt and heeth the tender croppes, and the yonge sonne hath in the ram his halve cours yronne, and smale foweles maken melodye, that slepen al the night with open ye (so priketh hem nature in hir corages) thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages i also introduced some borrowing words from french to students such as: government, language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 justice, crime, jury, felon, punishment, prison, attorney, mortgage, heir, legacy, sovereign, prince, princess, duke, duchess, count, countess, baron, squire, and page are all french. many words for war, army and navy and soldier, major gemstones (diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, pearl, and amethyst), food words (beef, pork). below was the table of the language and the characteristic based on students’ assignments. no periods works language and characteristic of literary works 1 old poetry / prose the language was difficult to be understood because it used old english. the characteristic of literary works were heroism and using religious aspect. 2 middle ages poetry / prose the language was more complicated and hard to be understood because it got influence from french and german and it introduced the simple english grammar. the characteristic of literary works were loyalty and political supremacy. 3 renaissance and elizabethan period prose, poetry, drama the language used more simple words. the characteristic of literary works were innovation and transformation knowledge. 4 romantic period prose, poetry, drama the language used common daily language. the characteristic of literary works were talking about nature, love, loyalty 5 victorian period prose, poetry, drama it used modern language (as we speak now) the characteristic of literary works were scientific knowledge, material comforts, consumerism, and impulse. 6 modern period (20th century) prose, poetry, drama getting more influences from other parts because people travelled in many countries. the works presented spirit of independence, democracy, and humanities. students could improve their understanding about the knowledge and development of language and culture after they analyzed and evaluate the literary works. they learnt much the works, the language, and the culture from period to period. they knew that culture influenced people’s ideas and thoughts, even culture might influence the literary works. conclusion the ideal rps of history of english literature is the rps should learn the development of language and culture from period to period. it was important for english literature students to raise their cross cultural awareness in english literature class that relevant with language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 students’ field and learn the languages and cultures that were presented in literary works. references collins dictionary. definition of lesson plan. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/ english/lesson-plan crystal, d. (1995). the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language. london: bca drout, m.d.c. (2006). a history of the english language. wheaton college: recorded books llc a. fletcher, r.h. (2002). a history of english literature. blackmask online: www.blackmask.com. jabbarifar,t. (2009). the importance of classroom assessment and evaluation in educational system. proceedings of the 2nd international conference of teaching and learning (ictl, 2009) intiuniversity college, malaysia. mcdowal, d. (1989). an illustrated history of britain. essex: pearson education. milkova, s. strategies for effective lesson planning. center for research on learning and teaching (http://www.crlt.umich.edu/gsis/p2_5) millward, c.m., & hayes, m. (2012). a biography of the english language, (3rd ed.). boston: wadsworth. nesari, a.j. (2014). the important role of lesson plan on educational achievement of iranian efl teachers' attitudes. international journal of foreign language teaching & research, 3( 5), 25 qualitative research (https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitativeresearch.php). https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/%20english/lesson-plan https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/%20english/lesson-plan http://www.crlt.umich.edu/gsis/p2_5 https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _________________________________________________________________________________________ 37 optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners jumbuh prabowo english department, sultan ageng tirtayasa univesity, indonesia received: 30 june 2015. revised: 1 august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 abstract teaching english for young learners always gets more attention. it is because young learners are very unique. they have many characters which can change rapidly in one time. sometimes, they display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them. they also have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher. they are keen to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom. however, they also have a limited attention span. they can easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes if the activities are not extremely engaging.considering those characters, there should be good ways how to treat children in delivering materials. one of ways is by exposing and utilizing children‘s senses. the senses are visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory (vakog). it will be very useful because a teacher not only gives something to be seen but also invites them to get involved mentally and physically. in this case, the teacher will prepare a set of teaching material where this material has very tight relationship with activities done in class. for instance, when teacher will teach part of body, she or he will prepare some pictures, songs, games, and other activities related to body‘s part. these are intended to strengthen children‘s knowledge. keywords: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, gustatory how to cite: prabowo, j. 2015. optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction teaching english for children must be fun and enjoyable. it is because children have very unique characteristics. their characteristics can change rapidly in one time. sometimes, they display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them. they also have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher. they are keen to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom. however, they also have a limited attention span. they can easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes if the activities are not extremely engaging. as a result, there are some teachers who get difficulties in handling them as students. some of teachers said that it is quite difficult when they have to deliver a certain material. it leads to teacher‘s conclusion that they are ―naughty‖. considering the fact above, this paper will give solution how to overcome the problem by discussing the following items: language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 38 a) the characteristics of children, b) how they learn english as a foreign language, c) the way of teaching children, c) the implementation of vakog, and d) a package of teaching english for young learners. there are many approaches in teaching english to young learners. the use of appropriate approach can facilitate the learning process. however, in the reality, there are many teachers who have not been able to select and choose the suitable approach. as a result, most of students get difficulty in learning english. referring to the background above, this research aims to find out how the process of optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners is and how the students responses toward the implementation of vakog are. children characteristics many children, perhaps the majority of children in the world, are exposed to more than one language in early childhood. children who hear more than one language virtually from birth are sometimes referred to as ‗simultaneous bilingual‘, where those who begin to learn a second language later are referred to as ‗sequential bilingual‘. there is a considerable body of research on the ability of young children to learn more than one language in their earliest years. in this essay, the term ―young learners‖ means students from the first grade of elementary school (six or seven years old) to the sixth grade of elementary school (eleven or twelve years old). teaching english at this level needs a lot of attention and efforts as the years at primary school are extremely important in young learners‘ intellectual, physical, emotional, and social development (phillips, 1995:5-6). intellectually, young learners go through a series of stages, progressively acquiring skills that are thought necessary by the society they live in. while on the physical side, young learners need to develop balance, spatial awareness, and fine control of certain muscle in order to play sport and perform everyday action. emotionally and socially, these young learners need to develop a series of characteristics to enable them to fit into the society they live in. according to williams (1994:208) quoted by setiawati, l. (2002:115) there are seven principles that should be considered in carrying out teaching-learning activities. they are interest, challenge, purpose, language use, language input, conceptual appropriateness, and promotion of learning. young children, especially those up to the ages of nine or ten, learn differently from older children, adolescents, and adults in the following ways:  they respond to meaning even if they do not understand individual words.  they often learn indirectly rather than directly – that is they take in information from all sides, learning from everything around them rather than only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.  their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they see and hear and, crucially, have a chance to touch and interact with.  they generally display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them.  they have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher. jumbuh prabowo. optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners __________________________________________________________________________________________ 39  they are keen to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom.  they have a limited attention span; unless activities are extremely engaging they can easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so(harmer, 2001: 38). in the light of these characteristics, it can be concluded that good teachers at this level need to provide a rich diet of learning experiences which encourages their students to get information from a variety of sources. they need to work with their students individually and in groups developing good relationship. they need to plan a range of activities for a given time period, and be flexible enough to move on to next exercise when they see their students getting bored. how they learn english as a foreign language children learn language through play and purposeful activity, naturally and in an environment that invites risk taking, poses no anxiety, and applauds all effort. and such learning is best served by teachers who always facilitate, guide, and model this process, while being expansive in their gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice. with the focus always on what a child is trying to do, practice activities should be related to his/her actual language needs. it is in the line with piaget (1970) cited in shin (2011) that children are active learners and thinkers. children construct knowledge from actively interacting with the physical environment in developmental stages. they learn through their own individual actions and exploration. this is backed up by vygotsky (1962) in shin (2011) that children learn through social interaction. children construct knowledge through other people, through interaction with adults. adults/teachers work actively with children in the zone of proximal development (zpd). those theories are also supported by cameron (2001). it is stated that the adult‘s role is very important in a child‘s learning process. like vygotsky, bruner focused on the importance of language in a child‘s cognitive development. he shows how the adult uses ―scaffolding‖ to guide a child‘s language learning through finely-tuned talk. according to phillips (1995:7) the young learners learn a foreign language, and therefore the way to teach it, obviously depends on their development stages. by following the students‘ developmental stages, teachers will get a great advantage as to prepare appropriate activities for the appropriate level of young learners. table 1 shows the developmental characteristics of young learners (ages 5 – 10) according to rhodes, curtain, and has as quoted by shrum (1994:113). table 1. developmental characteristics of young learners age physical cognitive social 5/6  large and small motor skills developing.  very active  need concrete objects as base for experience  still learning bulk of the language.  limited by ―cent ration‖  egocentric  uninhibited  friendly  need structure language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 40 besides young learners‘ developmental stages, there are some common characteristics of them that should be taken care of in planning and designing the teaching program. according to scott (1994:2-3), the characteristics that may be shared by all young learners are that: 1. they use language skills before they are aware of them. therefore, acquisition of languages is possible without selfconsciousness at an early age (brumfit, 1994:vii). 2. they consider physical worlds as dominant at all times. therefore, the teaching learning activities should be referred most to the physical movements and activities such as the presentation of real objects, pictures, actions, gesture, and all facial expressions. as a result, young learners‘ language learning is more closely integrated with real communication because it depends more on the immediate physical environment (brumfit, 1994:vii). 3. they have a very short attention and concentration span. scott (1994:5) insists that variety in the classroom is a must – variety of activity, variety of pace, variety of organization and variety of voice. 4. they love to play, and learn best when they are enjoying themselves. as a result, selecting an interesting activity is an important thing to do (ur, 1996: 288). 5. they are enthusiastic and positive about learning. because of this, young learners are better motivated than adults (brumfit, 1994: vii) another point should get attention from teacher related to teaching for young learner is multiple intelligences (mi). sólmundardóttir (2008) stated that it is very  short attention span.  fatigue easily  can classify along one dimension  think in terms of associating words with meanings  need praise  see self as physical traits  interact with peers more as friends  enjoy fantasy play 7/8  refining large and small motor skills  longer attention span  on task longer  greater ability to reason  interest in how and why relationships  reading and writing  language ma be ahead of concepts  can construct a series (small to big)  can classify hierarchically  still need concrete experiences  more separate sense of self  more reflective  go by rules  stronger friendships 9/10  skill well developed  reading and writing well established  can classify along more than one dimension  can think logically  can ―conserve‖  analyze work critically  still need concrete experiences  increased autonomy  sensitive to differences  friendships are important and peeroriented (same sex)  judgmental jumbuh prabowo. optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners __________________________________________________________________________________________ 41 important for students‘ self-esteem that they find their strengths and that they know how to use them. it can be interpreted that by recognizing and using the strengths in appropriate way, students can build and upgrade their self-confidence. she gives more statements that it is therefore important for teachers to know how to work with the different intelligences and be able to use various teaching methods. the activities have to be appealing and suitable for the students and it is good to work with different intelligences together in order to get the students to develop the intelligences that they are weaker in. understanding the numerous ways that children acquire knowledge enables teachers to use a variety of strategies to reach children with different types of intelligence. to know further dealing with mi, it can be seen in table 2. table 2. multiple intelligences and their applications to the language classroom intelligence excels at language application linguistic reading, writing, telling stories, playing word games, etc. almost everything we do in class! logicalmathematical experimenting, questioning, figuringout logical puzzles, calculating, etc. spatial designing, drawing, visualizing, doodling, etc. illustrating a gouin series; creating a picture of an object by writing the word for the object over and over bodily kinesthetic dancing, running, jumping, activitiesadding motions to songs and chants total physical response (tpr), building, touching, gesturing, etc. musical singing, whistling, humming, creating melodies for favorite rhymes using songs and rhythmic chants, tapping feet and hands, listening, etc. interpersonal leading, organizing, relating, manipulating,mediating, partying,etc. small group and partner work intrapersonal setting goals, meditating, dreaming,planning, being quiet journaling, portfolio building naturalist understanding, categorizing, explaining things in the world of nature photography, field trips, classifying sources: adapted from gardner (1983, 1993, 1999) and armstrong (1993, 1994) it is expected by having known students‘ characteristics and the way they learn, a teacher can easily prepare, design, and choose appropriate materials. thus, the language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 42 teacher will treat students in an appropriate way because every single steps of teaching has been well planned and designed. ways of teaching children referring to the characteristics of children, teacher needs to pay attention in teaching them. shin (2007) proposed ten helpful ideas forteachingenglish toyounglearners. 1) supplement activities with visuals, realia, and movement. young learners tend to have short attention spans and a lot of physical energy. in addition, children are very much linked to their surroundings and are more interested in the physical and the tangible. as scott and ytreberg (1990) in shin (2007) describes, ―their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears. the physical world is dominant at all times.‖ this can be done by using brightly colored visuals, toys, puppets or objects, creating a visuals and realia bank, and using total physical response (tpr). 2) involve students in making visuals and realia. having children involved in creating the visuals that are related to the lesson helps engage students in the learning process by introducing them to the context as well as to relevant vocabulary items. students are more likely to feel interested and invested in the lesson and will probably take better care of the materials. in order to involve students in teaching learning process, teacher can guide and order students to draw different characters for a story or to make puppets, masks, play-do sculptures. it also can be done by collaborating with the art teacher to make the visuals for supporting the activities. 3) move from activity to activity. young learners have short attention spans. for ages 5–7, keep activities around 5 and 10 minutes long. for ages 8–10, keep activities 10 to 15 minutes long. thus, it is recommended for teacher to combine some activities in order to create an interesting teaching. for example: by applying quiet/noisy exercises, individual/ pair work/ group work/ whole class activities, or teacher-pupil/ pupil-pupil activities. 4) teach in themes. a thematic unit, a series of lessons on the same topic or subject, can create broader contexts in which to teach language, recycle language from lesson to lesson, and allow students to focus more on content and communication than on language structure. those themes are transportation, family, environment, profession, etc. 5) use stories and contexts familiar to students. use of stories and contexts in home country or culture can help yls connect english with their background knowledge, which is limited because of their young age and inexperience. stories and contexts are also very useful for students to engage the contents in order to be kept in long term. as a result, students, in another occasion, can recall the words and use them in real communication. 6) establish classroom routines in english. yls function well within a structured environment and enjoy repetition of certain routines and activities. having basic routines in the classroom can help to manage young learners. it can be assumed that by providing classroom routines in english, it can be used to maintain the language got in the previous activities. three of classroom routines include clapping short rhythms for students to repeat, starting the lesson with song or chant, and adding classroom language to the routines as well. 7) use l1 as a resource when necessary. teaching english for young learners in a country where english is not spoken needs a bilingual teacher. the jumbuh prabowo. optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners __________________________________________________________________________________________ 43 teacher should have or possess l1 and l2. it means that if the students do not understand to a certain word, teacher can explain by switching or using l1. 8) bring in helpers from the community. 9) collaborate with other teachers in your school. this way is quite wise to make collaborative teaching. it is necessary for a teacher to share knowledge each other in order to get new experience in handling students. 10) communicate with other teyl professionals. sometimes, a teyl teacher gets deadlock in treating students. it is very understandable because students have many characteristics. however, it is not wise if the teacher complains toward the students‘ behavior. to overcome this condition, the teacher should consult and communicate with teyl professionals. it is intended to minimize problem in teaching learning process. methodology case study is employed to answer the research questions. this is relevant to merriam‘s (1988) and mcmilan and schumacher (2001) statement that case study can be classified as an evaluated study because it involves description, explanation and judgements people‘s individual abd collective social actions, benefits, thoughts annd perceptions. in addition case study has several categories which are classified by yin (2009); they are exploratory, descriptice and exploratory case studies. in this research, the researchers focused on descriptive case study. descriptive case study sets to describe the natural phenomena which occurs within the data in question (zainal:2007), for insance, this study finds out whta teacher‘s preparation before teaching and also teacher‘s and students‘ activity before, during and after activites by using vakog. besides, in this research, the rsearchers also act as participant observer because they hold the position of the teacher as well in the classroom. the research was taken place at sd islam tirtayasaserang. a purposive sampling was used in this research. according to arikunto (2006) purposive sampling is the technique of sapling used by the writer that concern on some consideration (limitation of time, energy, and fund) in order to acquire a certain objective. thus, to make the teaching and observation run effectively, the students of second grade were taken as participant. to collect the data, the researchers relied on qualitative method to find out the teacher‘s way to teach vocabulary to young students through vakog. classroom observation, students‘ interview and teachers‘ journal were the main sources of data collection.the researchers usedqualitative data analysis from miles huberman (1994:10) analysis as consisting of three current flows of activity: data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing/verification. results and discussion after revealing the characteristics and the way students learn, it is time to discuss one of ways how to wrap material for teaching children. it is called ―vakog‖ as learning styles. it stands for visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory. vakog is a package of how to treat students, especially for young earners. it contains activities which involve both mental and physic aspects. this combination is expected to be helpful for assisting teacher to teach students in a right portion. it language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 44 is done by considering the characteristics of students. the definitions of these learning styles are as follows (gilakjani and ahmadi 2011). visual style according to a certain institution (child central, 2007) available on website, it is estimated that 80 percent of what we learn is through our vision. from an early age, a child acquires valuable information about his surroundings through his or her eyes. because of this fact, normal schooling makes use of methods that favor visual learners. children who are primarily visual learners tend to get information through reading books. they can also learn more from pictures and other visual materials. if you notice that your child is tidy and organized in their learning habits, then he might be a visual learner. students of this style are drawn to paintings, crafts, and other arts. they also have a wonderful sense of imagination and are known to be very creative. visual learners think in pictures and learn best in visual images. they depend on the instructor‘s or facilitator‘s nonverbal cues such as body language to help with understanding. sometimes, visual learners favour sitting in the front of the classroom. they also take descriptive notes over the material being presented. auditory style these individuals discover information through listening and interpreting information by the means of pitch, emphasis and speed. these individuals gain knowledge from reading out loud in the classroom and may not have a full understanding of information that is written for some children, their sense of sound allows them to gather large volumes of information and have them processed accordingly. a child is most probably an auditory learner if he or she is good at listening to instructions and is very sensitive to variations in spoken words. they excel in gaining knowledge from conversations and lectures. because listening requires more concentration than seeing, students of this learning style can be more discerning. they are usually more attentive in class and can distinguish different ideas just by listening to them. because information revealed through speaking is not usually recorded accurately in class, the memory capacity of auditory learners exceeds those of visual learners. children of this type also enjoy studying with music in the background. auditory children also can pick up instruments rather quickly. you can find music teachers that specialize in auditory teaching. for them, sounds provide the best medium of instruction. unlike other students, these kinds of learners do not get bored easily with teachers who are fond of lectures. if your child is an auditory learner, he or she can also be creative and have an imaginative mind. without relying heavily on visual models, auditory learners become skilled at interpreting information and reproducing them using their own understanding. students of this classification often stand out in college because they enjoy class lectures and find listening to teachers a rewarding activity. however, because regular schools favor visual learning, auditory learners can find it hard to gain useful education from them. as a result, many students have to enroll in home schooling programs to enhance their skills. home schooling can be programmed in such jumbuh prabowo. optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners __________________________________________________________________________________________ 45 a way that it gives auditory learners the opportunity to learn using a medium they are familiar with and find no faults with. if you think that your child is of this learning style, then you may want to find a suitable program that will help you and your child develop his potential without sacrificing his listening skills. kinaesthetic style individuals that are kinaesthetic learn best with and active ―hands-on‖ approach. these learners favour interaction with the physical world. most of the time kinaesthetic learners have a difficult time staying on target and can become unfocused effortlessly. a child who has a kinesthetic learning style cannot just sit still and wait for information to be given. they surpass in finding out things for themselves without any needs for guidance. explorers at heart, kinesthetic learners are known to be quite active even before a lesson proper. their natural curiosity drives them to make new discoveries, making it hard for regular schools to limit their movement. children of this learning style are often mistaken to be rowdy and undisciplined. that however, is a grave misconception. kinaesthetic learners always seem to be moving around because they see their surroundings differently. for them, the world is just a huge playground full of wonderful things they want to discover and explore. your child is probably a kinesthetic learner if he or she is fond of tinkering with toys, trying to find out how they work. they are also quick learners, especially when left alone to examine a particular object. these children can quickly put one and one together and have a great capacity to understand complex processes and procedures. a student who exhibits this particular learning behavior is always at the forefront of experimentation and exploration. they excel in discovering how machines operate and how a process works. students of this particular behavior are more of doers than thinkers. olfactory style olfaction or olfactory perception is the sense of smell. children learn to discriminate between good and bad odors and make the connection between eating and smelling. the olfactory learner learns best through the sense of smell and taste, smells have a special significance, associates a particular smell with specific past memories, is frequently able to identify smells, and finds that smells add to learning. strategies for olfactory sense (smell): a. hypersensitivity: apply lotion or cream under the nostrils b. hypo-sensitivity: introduce child to food with strong smell; walk around smelly places and talk about the smell of flowers. gustatory style gustatory is defined as something of or pertaining to the sense of taste. taste refers to the ability to respond to dissolved molecules and ions known as tastants. humans detect taste using their taste receptor cells. the child learns to recognize tastes such as sweet, bitter, sour, salt etc.there are strategies for gustatory sense (taste) oral defensive a teacher can introduce new food taste through food play, do facial massage before a meal, introduce one new experience at a time (new tastes and textures), and use language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 46 proprioceptive activities such as chewing or blowing games before a meal. oral seeking we can order our students to use activities that make the mouth and surrounding structures work hard. the following item is the activities for gustatory sense and olfactory sense 1) blowing bubbles with a straw 2) suck drinks with squiggly straws or thin straw 3) eat chewy foods such as gummy bears, and crunchy foods such as carrots, crackers. 4) smell and tell game – have different items placed on the table such as lemons, coffee, scented markers, soap, etc. allow child to smell and tell the items. 5) taste and tell game – have different food items that has sweet, sour, spicy, salty taste; allow child to taste and tell the food items. students’ response in getting the data whether students gave good response or not, the researchers observed all activities in the class. this observation consisted of three sections, namely pre teaching, whilst teaching, and post teaching. 1) pre teaching when researchers came to the class in early time, the students gave different responses which were expressed through their faces, gesture, and body movement. most of them welcomed enthusiastically by giving good response. it can be interpreted that nearly all students gave positive way, event tough it was the first time to meet. 2) whilst teaching in this step, researchers applied some activities related to the topics. these activities were combination of learning styles in order to explore and expose all students‘ characteristic. hence, the students who had introvert characteristics could take activities which provoke them to speak and act more than usual. thus, when researchers introduced the topic and the activities which were going to be learnt, they were very expressive in involving teaching learning process.their positive responses seemed clearer when they had to do physical activities; for example in run and slam game. they did this game very well. they run and slammed the pictures attached on the wall. 3) post teaching at the end of teaching, students still did physical activities. it was intended in order the students could strengthen what they had learnt from the early time. conclusion a package of teaching english for a young learner which is done in this research includes three main steps namely presentation stage, practice stage and production stage.most of the students welcomed enthusiastically by giving good response. it can be interpreted that nearly all students gave positive way, event tough it was the first time to meet. their positive responses also seemed clearer when they had to do physical activities; for example in run and slam game. they did this game very well. they run and slammed the pictures attached on the wall. at the end of teaching, students still did physical activities. it was intended in order the jumbuh prabowo. optimizing vakog as human senses in teaching english for young learners __________________________________________________________________________________________ 47 students could strengthen what they had learnt from the early time. by having some characteristics of young learners, it demands teachers to create, design, and teach in different ways of teaching in order to catch students‘ attention. vakog, as a learning style, is proposed to overcome some problems happened in the class. by applying this learning style, it is expected for the teacher to blend vakog to be fun and enjoyable teaching and learning process. references brumfit, ch. 1994. teaching english to children. london: thomas nesson and sony. cameron, l. 2001. teaching language to young learners. cambridge university press. uk. gilakjani, a. p. & ahmadi, s. m. 2011. the effect of visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic learning styles on language teaching. paper presented in international conference on social science and humanity ipedr vol.5 (2011) © (2011) iacsit press, singapore harmer, j. 2001. the practice of english language teaching. england: pearson education limited. josel, c. a. 2002. ready-to-use esl activities for every month of the school year. usa: the center for applied research in education. setiawati, l. 2002. magister. fkip uika widya mandala. surabaya. lightbown, p m. & spada n. 1999. how language are learned. oxford: oxford university press. musthafa, b. 2004. english for young learners. phillips, sarah. 1995. young learners. oxford: oxford university press. scott, w. a. & lisbeth h. y. 1994. teaching english to children. new york: longman. shrum, j. l. and glisan e. w.. 1994. teacher‟s handbook: contextualized language instruction. usa: boston heinle and heinle publishers. shin, joan king. 2011. teaching english to young learners. baltimore county: english language center university of maryland. ur, p. 1996. a course in language teaching: practice and theory. cambridge: cambridge university press. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 103 the violation and flouting of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show esterani zebua akademi komunitas negeri nias utara, indonesia e-mail: zesterani@yahoo.co.id dwi rukmini semarang state university, indonesia e-mail: wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com mursid saleh semarang state university, indonesia e-mail: gusmur4@gmail.com received: 20 july 2017. revised: 25 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract this study is pragmatic studies. it aimed at investigating the violation and fluoting of quantity maxims, quality maxims, relevan maxims, manner maxims were used by male and female participants in the ellen degenerestalkshow. the violations of maxims occur when the maxims are deliberately manipulated so that the speaker misleads the interlocutor. while the flouting of maxims occurs when individuals intentionally do not apply the maxims in order to persuade their listeners to derive the hidden meaning behind what is said, that is, the speakers employ implicature. in obtaining the data, the researcher uses the descriptive qualitative to the utterances of sixteen guests stars which is devided in to eight male and eight female. the data is taken from six episodes in the newest edition in 2016. the result reveals that the male participants mostly did the flouting than violating. from the overall of violation and flouting they done, quantity maxim is dominantly flouted by male participants. based on the analysis it signed that male partcipants mostly uses exaggerated statement to convey their opinion which is too strong and appears worse than the really they are. they gave more explanations in order the audience satisfied and to comfirmed the real information toward the negative thinking of audience at the previous time while the female participants dominantly violate the maxim of relevance. the female participants tend to avoid talking about something. they change the topic of conversation and do not give well responses to the partner. keywords: cooperative principles, flouting, talk show, violation how to cite: esterani zebua, dwi rukmini, mursid saleh. 2017. the violation and flouting of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 103— 113. _________________________________________________________________________________ introduction as social creatures, people interact or communicate with one another in the form of conversation. it aims to keep the good social interaction among them. besides giving or getting information, the conversation occurs to show the existence of the human in its surroundings. in conducting the good conversation, the participants involved, in this case the locutor and interlocutor should be active in the interaction. if one of them is not mailto:zesterani@yahoo.co.id language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 104 active, it can be predicted that the dialogue cannot run well. so, in order the communication‘s process between speaker and hearer become smooth and effectively, both of them have to be cooperative. it means that they have to understand mutually what they are talking the conversation. in linguistic especially in pragmatic field, there is a theory that explains how people can be cooperative in the conversation. it is cooperative principle. this theory is a principle of conversation that was introduced by philosopher h. paul grice in 1975. he stated that the cooperative principle is the assumption that participants in a conversation normally attempt to be informative, truthful, relevant, and clear. it means that each participant is expected to give contributions in the conversations as required. grice in cutting (2002:34) proposed four conversational maxims cooperative principles. they are maxims of quality, quantity, relevance and manner. maxim of quantity means that speakers should be as informative as is required, that they should give neither too little information nor too much. some speakers like to point to the fact that they know how much information the hearer requires or can be bothered with. people who give too little information risk their hearer not to be able to identify what they are talking about because they are not explicit enough. on the other hand, those who give more information than the hearer needs risk boring them. the effect of this maxim is to present that the statement is the strongest, or most informative, that can be made in the situation. the second maxim is the maxim of quality, which says that speakers are, expected to be sincere, to be saying something that they believe correspond to reality. they are assumed not to say anything that they believe to be false or anything for which they lack evidence. some speakers like to draw their hearer‘s attention to the fact that they are only saying what they believe to be true, and that they lack adequate evidence. the third maxim is the maxim of relevance, which says that speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to what has been said before. while the fourth maxim is the maxim of manner, which says that speakers should be brief and orderly, and avoids obscurity and ambiguity. in communicating with others, sometimes people do interaction which is not accordance with the maxims. they do not follow the principles and break the rule of maxims to communicate their ideas for some reasons. in this case, the speakers violate and flout the maxims for achieving some purposes. the violation of maxim is the condition in which the speakers do not purposefully fulfill or obey the four sub-maxims. speakers can be said to violate a maxim when they know that the hearer will not know the truth and will only understand the surface meaning of the words. they intentionally generate a misleading implicature (thomas 1995: 73); maxim violation is unostentatiously, quietly deceiving. the speaker deliberately supplies insufficient information, says something that is insincere, irrelevant or ambiguous, and the hearer wrongly assumes that they are cooperating. while breaking the rules of cooperative principle or grice‘s maxims is called flouting. usually, we can find some flouting in the form of tautology, metaphor, overstatement, understatement, rhetorical question, and irony. according to grundy (2000: 78), flouting maxim is a particularly silent way of esterani zebua, dwi rukmini, mursid saleh. 2017. the violation and flouting of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 103—113. 105 getting an addressee to draw inference and hence recover an implicature. moreover, cutting (2002:37) states that when the speaker does not seem to hold on the maxims but expect the hearers to get the meaning implied, it is called flouting the maxims. on some occasion speakers flout the cooperative principle and intend their hearer to understand this; that is, they purposely do not observe the maxim, and intend their hearer to be aware of this. some studies have been investigated by several researchers that focus on violating and flouting of cooperative principles. riyanti and sofwan (2016) conducted a research in her world magazine advertisements by analysing the speech act and grice‘s maxims non abservance. both of researcher found that among the four maxims of quality, quantity, manner, and relevance, the one which is most flouted is the maxim of quality. another study was done by wei & wenfeng in 2015. they conducted a research in conan television show. both of researchers investigated the violation of cooperative principles. their studies examine the utterances of tv talk shows on the structural level. it means they can not explain why the participants choose to say something ambiguous, irrelevant or even something they believe to be false, why they violate the cooperative principles unconsciously or intentionally, and what conversational implications are generated by these violations. hence, how the participants‘ utterances purposefully employ these pragmatic strategies to achieve the desired effects may be identified. however, this current study is different from those other previous studies of violation and flouting of the cooperative principles. the current study identifies the purposes of violation and flouting made by the speakers in the talk show of ellen degeneres. this study interest to (1) explain the way of the male and female participants violate and flout the quantity maxims, (2) explain the way of the male and female participants violate and flout quality maxims, (3) explain the way of the male and female participants violate and flout relevan maxims, (4) explain the way of the male and female participants violate and flout manner maxims, and (5) explain how the application of analysis results towards the english spoken teaching. methodology in this study, the researcher uses descriptive qualitative as research design. it investigates the utterances used by male and female participants in the ellen degeneres talkshow. in obtaining the data, the researcher chooses 6 episodes in the newest edition in 2016. they are 16 guests stars which consist of 8 male and 8 female. the data are about the violation and flouting of cooperative principles which resulted conversational implicature uttered by the participants. the steps in collecting data are started with downloading the videos from youtube. after getting the video, the reseachertrancribes the video into dialogue list. then, observing every utterance which are violated and flouted by guest stars. after the data had been collected, the researcher analyzed the data through the following steps; (1) identifying the violated and flouted maxim based on the grice‘s cooperative principles used by male and female participants. (2) clasifying the violation and flouting maxims based on their maxim. (3) analyzing deeply the violation and flouting, the function of violation and flouting, and the way to violate language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 106 and flout of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show. she gave the context of situation and also the dialogue which consist of the participants‘ utterances in the ellen degeneres talk show to make the reader easy to understand. triangulation is the concept of using a multi approach method in collecting data, information or evidence (wellington, 2015). although in its nature, triangulation consists of four types, namely, methodological triangulation, data triangulation, investigator triangulation, and theory triangulation but this study only uses one of them. it is investigator triangulation. investigator triangulation requires more than one person examines the same situation for the reability of the method.through investigator triangulation, the researcher asks an expert, who is an english lecturer majoring linguistics in ikip gunungsitoli. the collaborator who reanalyzed the data of this research is the lecturer majoring research and development and having taught at the faculty for several years and had many experiences in teaching english.the data analysis is needed both to avoid subjectivity in determining the results of data analysis and to ensure the data results reliability. results and discussions the violation and fluoting of quantity maxims used by participants in the ellen degenerestalkshow violation maxims of quantity: ellen: what has changed for you in your life? i mean, i can imagine what, but what is the hardest thing to deal with all this fame? adele: i think just having to be guarded sometimes, i'm so mouthy. i never really hold back how i feel or when i say it, or who i say it to. and i feel that sometimes is now when i walk into everyone shuts out to hear what i have to say even if i'm not saying something to them or might be that whispering something about what happened the night before and they're just that, but it's kind a it's a very small price to pay really. i don't really mind. i mean, there was a period when i have my kid where i didn't leave my house for a while and then i asked a fellow musician. he sorts of said, how are you feeling? you're not becoming a recluse are you? i was like no, but maybe. he's like, if you're gonna becomes a recluse, you need a big enough house to be a recluse in. and that was when i was no. [inaudible] and i'm out, i was fine after that. in this conversation, ellen asked adelle what make her life changed. perhaps this question is ambiguous so ellen turned her question by saying ― i mean, i can imagine what, but what is the hardest thing to deal with all this fame?‖. the main question of ellen is what the hardest thing to deal with all her fame is. and adelle replied it too long and much. she used overstatement expression by saying ―i'm so mouthy. i never really hold back how i feel or when i say it,...‖. moreover, she violated maxim of quantity because she gave more informations than was required. actually, it was enough for adelle to say ―it is to be guarded every time‖. so, the purpose of violating maxim of quantity that was done by adelle is to flouting the maxim of quantity: ellen : you'd never gone to disneyland before? esterani zebua, dwi rukmini, mursid saleh. 2017. the violation and flouting of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 103—113. 107 adele: i've never been and my father always wanted to take me. he died when i was 10 and he planned to take me when i was about 11 or 12, and he died before he took me. so when i arrived at the castle, i was like full on welled up. i was really emotional and just the whole thing, him believing. and me believing, that they were all real like it was the innocence of it all was what was so magical. it was really, i cried when i met belle, because i was talking to my kid and then she started talking and i was like my god. she sounded just like the character from the film and it freaked me out and i burst into tears. and he met anna and elsa, who he loves and stuff like that. ellen : that's great. in this part adelle flout the maxim of quantity. ellen and adelle talked about adele family's first trip to disneyland. ellen wanted to make sure whether adelle never gone to disneyland before. adelle answered that she had never been there by adding much information after that, and this information was more than required. she did circumlocution. she explained that her father wanted to take her before but he died when she was 10. the violation and fluoting of quality maxims used by in the ellen degenerestalkshow the violation maxim of quality ellen : so here would you like to take that? slater : what do you think yeah ellen : yeah you want it i level slater : no. look at that i mean it's it's the great i live about, you know six blocks away from there right there in the city i it's it's one of the greatest jobs ever.. i i love her. she's amazing. so yeah kelly yeah a little break before next season that would be great. in this diaologue, slater did not answer the teasing question from ellen. he even gave re-question to ellen. previously, ellen asked slater to be her co-host in her show but slater replied by asking ellen‘s opinion. and ellen said that slater wanted it. quickly, slater responded ―no, look at that i mean it's... it's the great i live about, you know six blocks away from there right there in the city i it's it's one of the greatest jobs ever.. i i love her. she‘s amazing. so yeah kelly yeah a little breaks before next season that would be great.‖ from his argument, slater tried to deny that he wanted that job. he violated the maxim of quality. he explained the disorts information. the flouting maxim of quality ellen: wow. and now you're doing this vegas residency, which is--when do you start and how long does it go? jenifer: yeah. it starts soon, which is scary to me a little bit, but we've been rehearsing every day since i did the amas, i think. we've been just like in there every day, like, creating the show and creating-it was being created before i got there, while i was doing "shades of blue." i was, you know, kind of working on the music and all that. and now we're just rehearsing every single day, and it's on january 20th. january 20th. are you going to come? in this dialogue, jenifer flouted the maxim of quality. when ellen asked the time she would begin do her vegas residency, language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 108 jenifer answered that it will start soon. this response did not have adequate evidence. she was not sure when it would be started. she did not tell the time exactly. and also from explanation she distorted her explanation. ellen only asked her the time, but she explained that she had been rehearsing every day. the violation and fluoting of relevance maxims used participants in the ellen degenerestalkshow the violation maxim of relevance: ellen : so here would you like to take that? slater: what do you think yeah (appendix 3, utterance 152-153) in this excerpt, ellen and slater still told about anderson who had taken over slater position in cnn. by that time ellen tried to tease slater by asking ―so here would you like to take that?‖ it meant that slater came in ellen show to be co-host for ellen. slater directly replied by giving question ―what do you think?‖ in this dialogue, slater avoids to answer the question from ellen. intentionally, slater violated the maxim of relevant because he changed the topic of question abruptly. the flouting maxim of relevance: ellen : of all time please welcome the one and only celine dion yeah. hahhhaha celine : it's impossible to come here and not dance ellen : you have to dance when you come here celine : that's right ellen : you must dance celine : seven years? ellen : yeah it's been seven years. i don't know how that is it doesn't seem like that long in this excerpt, ellen welcomed celine. ellen said that celine must dance when she came at her show. but, unintentionally celine responsed with another topic by asking a question ―seven years?‖. asking this question made celine flouted maxim of relevant because she changed the conversation topic abruptly. the violation and fluoting of manner maxims used by participants in the ellen degeneres talkshow the violation of manner maxim: ellen : you and jessica both have one timberlake: what? yes she has to generate once we have... he is amazing oh yeah previuosly, ellen asked timberlake his little boy stylist. and this excerpt, ellen wanted to ensure whether he and jessica (timberlake‘s wife) had one kid. in responding ellen‘s utterance, timberlake was pretended to be startled. he said ―what?‖ as if, he did not know. and then he kept on his statement that she has to generate once they had... in this utterance he stopped. it meant that timberlake statement was obscurity. he did not give the clear explanation. and his next statement, he said that he was amazing. we don‘t know who is ―he‖. in this case, timberlake violate the maxim of manner because he did not give the brief anwser. he gave the convoluted responses. from timberlake‘s maxim violation it implied that he just kept the warm conversation. by pretending to forget something, it caused the funny situation, the audience laughed. esterani zebua, dwi rukmini, mursid saleh. 2017. the violation and flouting of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 103—113. 109 the flouting maxim of manner: ellen : but what if there was a witch 3 would they be justin: i'd probably say mmmm ellen : what do you mean? justin: yyyya ellen : sorry? justin: sorry a little bit ellen : and then? justin: and then one mark my words in the conversation, justin violate the maxim of manner. his answer was obscurity. when ellen said what if there was a witch, would they be the theme of his song? simply justin answered that he would probably say mmmm. ellen did not understand, she confirmed what justin meant. jusitn replied yayayya. his voice was not too loud enough. the application of analysis result in spoken english teaching. speaking is one of the skills in english teaching and learning that is very necessary in expressing someone‘s idea and opinion. through speaking, people can communicate and interact with each other. hornby (1994: 398) said that speaking is expressing ideas or feelings using language. furthermore, brown (1994: 116) stated that speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving, and processing information. regarding the opinion above it can be summed up that speaking is an activity in communicating someone‘s thought, ideas, or feeling which is done in an interactive process that presupposes the ability to process information and language. in applying this research result in teaching speaking, teacher may use some of the utterances which were violated and flouted by participants as the examples for teaching speaking, especially for the beginner of english department students. in this case, the teacher can show and explain that in a real conversation or dialogue, speakers and hearers do not have to co-operate each other all the time. by doing violation and flouting, it can help locutor and interlocutor to extend the topic and to avoid the awkwardness. this thing is very important to train the students in using english to speak. beside that the teacher can use the excerpt of the talk show conversation as teaching speaking materials. in this case, the teacher can ask the students to read the diolaguetrancript to practice their pronunciation. other things, talk show could be implemented as an instructional strategy in teaching skill in the classrroom. in this case, the students are those who are interested to know everything meaning that the students and talk show are correlated to each other. talk show is believed to maximize the potential skill among audience through formal and informal words distributed in the certain program about their daily issues. talk show has some typical charactertistics such as using universal and general casual language that discusses about important trend issues or news. in the program, the audience could attract and collaborate to know everythings, therefore the audience would participate comprehensively without worrying about how and what things are communicated. as a result, talkshow could improve their participation through their own languages. additonally, the program could stimulate and motivates everyone to participate. in addition, this research topic has ever been also conducted by wulandari (2009). her research showed there is language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 110 significant correlation between talkshow and students‘ achievement. it means that her study proved significant influence of talkshow on the student‘s achievement. it meant that talkshow could be implemented to every school. regarding to the research question, the researcher wanted to explain the way of the male and female participants violated and flouted the fourth of the maxims. based on the analysis, it found that male and participants violate the maxim of quantity when they conveyed their idea more than required by ellen (host of ellen degeneres talk show). sometimes they answered the question not to the point, they did circumlocution and their responds were uninformative. mostly, they did the violation because they wanted to safe thier face, to keep the hearer‘s feeling not to be hurted and to satisfying the audience. then, the male and female participants violate the maxim of quality when they delivered their opinion, as if they denied the topic even they tended to be lied and some of them distorted the topic. in this case thier violation aimed to make the audience laugh or to cheer the hearer and also they wanted to hide the truth. for the violation of maxim of relevance, the male and female participants done it when they answered the question from ellen, they intentionally changed the topic abruptly. even, they avoided to discuss the question. it purposed to built their selves confidence. and the last, in violating the maxim of manner, male and female violated the maxim of manner when they gave the obscurity statemement. they did not convey the clear and brief answer. even they gave the confusing response. and from this violation, they gave the implied meaning that they only kept the warm conversation. by pretending to forget something, it caused the funny situation, the audience laughed. another case, in flouting the maxim of quantity, the male and female participants did it when they spoke too much and they did circumlocution unintentionally. they tried to give much information more than required. the maxim of quantity is also flouted when the speaker produces the utterance in the form of overstatement. in this case, the speakers use exaggerated statement to convey their opinion which is too strong and appears worse than the really they are. therefore, the information becomes more or too informative than is required. another purpose to flout this maxim was to build their self confidence. they gave more explanation in order the audience satisfied and to comfirm the real information toward the negative thinking of audience at the previous time. moreover, the maxim of quality was also flouted when the speaker produces the utterance in the form of rhetorical question. in this case, the speaker signified that it was not a sincere question. it meant that the speaker asked a question without expecting any answer and it tended to break a sincere condition on question, namely that the speaker wanted the hearer to provide him with the indicate information. besides, the maxim of relevance also can be flouted when the speaker produced the utterance that was not relevance with the topic of what the speaker told about. however, the maxim of manner was also flouted when the speaker produced the utterance indirectly, ambiguously, and excessively. in this case the speaker intended to inform to the hearer about something but the speaker used indirect statement that implies for something. esterani zebua, dwi rukmini, mursid saleh. 2017. the violation and flouting of cooperative principles in the ellen degeneres talk show. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 103—113. 111 comparing with some studies that have been carried out, some of them aimed to investigate the overall concept that the violation or flouting of cooperative principles can create humor, this study also found that result in generally. for example, khosravizade and sadevandi (2011) focused on the fact that the less the social status, the more the flouting or violation of the maxim of quantity would occur by a character. the present study is in line with this study in that they both investigate violation and flouting and they both came to the conclusion that such violations and floutings contribute to humor creation. though, what was not considered in the present study was the social status of its characters and that is because of the nature of this program, since all are friends and are nearly of the same rank and social position. the present study emphasized the four maxims which were more or less violated or flouted by all the characters mainly for creating laughter. this is of course done in delicate situations like when characters wanted to show they are idiots or pretending they are ignorant, as well as to create a kind of irony or sarcasm in their speech. this is what kalliomaki (2005) has confirmed in his study when he concludes that language plays and language misuses are done by characters where they flout the maxims of quality and manner and this consequently gives rise to some language using techniques like repartee, insults, sarcasm, lies and absurdity. further, huda in his research entitled conversational implicature found in dialogue of euro trip movie concluded that the speaker and listener often flout conversational maxim informal communication. the occurence of flouting maxim often happens because the speaker and participants do not prior to the regulations of communication, but they tend to be more prior on how speaker‘s meaning can be understood by the listener. in this research, the writer concludes that although the flouting of the maxims often occurs in formal communication, but it can express in neither polite nor impolite way. conclusion from sixteen participants‘ utterances in the ellen degeneres talk show that have been investigated, it revealed that the total of violation and flouting of cooperative principles used by male and female are 51. where the total of violation and flouting were done by male was 27, in which 10 violation and 17 flouting. while the total violation and flouting were done by female was 24, in which 13 violations and 11 flouting. based on the analysis, the male mostly did the flouting than violating. from the overall of violation and flouting they done, quantity maxim was dominantly flouted by male participants. it occurs 10 times. this finding signed that male partcipants mostly use exaggerated statement to convey their opinion which is too strong and appears worse than the really they are. therefore, the informations become more or too informative than is required. another purpose to flout this maxim is to build their self confidence. they gave more explanations in order the audience satisfied and to comfirm the real information toward the negative thinking of audience at the previous time. besides, in female utterances‘ analysis, it found that they violate the maxim of relevance dominantly. they tend to avoid talking about something. they change the topic of conversation and do not give well responses to the partner. this thing happen because they are in talk show, there are many the audiences. not only that, their discussion language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 112 also will be published in american televison. that is why they have to be carefull in giving coments by violating the maxim of relevance. suggestion at the end of this study, the researcher gives some ideas for the next language researchers who are interestes in investigating such topic: 1. based on the findings of this research, the researcher suggests that this study will be the one of additional references in the field of pragmatic and discourse studies. the researcher also suggests the next researchers to use the grice‘s theory to do a research in the same field and to use other relevance theories to investigate different topics in the same area of the research 2. it is expected to the next researchers who interested about gender implicature, to have more concern in participants‘ psychological factors. 3. the focus of the study can also be investigated to the other ways of nonobservance of the maxims such suspending the maxims, opting out the maxims, or infringing the maxims. references alduais, a. m. 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(1996). pragmatics. new york: oxford university press. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 165 surrealism in budi darma’s laki – laki pemanggul goni (the man carrying the sack): a comparative study melania shinta harendika universitas brawijaya malang, indonesia email: harendika@gmail.com received: 20 december 2017. revised: 31 january 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract laki – laki pemanggul goni is one of budi darma‘s short stories. it was firstly published in kompas, 26 february 2012, and was then translated by andy fuller in 2015. lontar foundation published the translated version along with the other translated budi darma‘s short stories in a book entitled conversations. budi darma is famous of his surrealist work. it is reflected also in laki – laki pemanggul goni. therefore, this study was intended to find whether its‘ english version conveyed exactly the same characteristics of surrealism as it was in the original version. bassnett‘s translation as comparative studies, popovics‘ types of translation equivalence, and breton‘s surrealism in literature were implemented as the theoretical framework. this study found that both versions did not convey precisely the identical characteristics of surrealism. the indonesian version‘s surrealism is stronger than it is in the english version. it might occur because of the cultural gap between the author‘s and the translator‘s. keywords: surrealism, translation, comparative studies, cultural gap, translation equivalence how to cite: herendika, m. s. (2018). surrealism in budi darma‘s laki – laki pemanggul goni (the man carrying the sack): a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 165—172. introduction budi darma is one of indonesia‘s appreciated authors. his short stories are popular with surrealism.thus, fuller (in darma, 2015) stated that darma‘s works are so unique that he called their characteristics as budi darmaesque. because of his popularity as a writer and awards that he received (satya lencana cultural award and southeast asia literary council award – in darma, 2015, p. 152), lontar foundation, then, translated seventeen of his short stories into english to catch more readers internationally. unfortunately, when his short stories are translated into english, the sense of surrealism might change. this could be found in one ofhis short stories entitled laki – laki pemanggil goni, which was translated into the man carrying the sack. its indonesian versionwas firstly published in kompas, 26 february 2012. it was then translated into english by andy fuller and published by lontar foundation in 2015. this short story is about karmain, an indonesian who lived overseas to study. he always had a desire to peer down from his apartment to look at a man carrying a sack. oddly, the sack-carrying-man always disappeared when karmain tried to find him. one day, the sack-carrying-man,all of a sudden, appeared in karmain‘s room where he then warned karmain about life. he and karmain then had an argument in which karmain told that there were two different sack-carrying men: one was the real one, while the other was satan who camouflaged as a sack-carrying-man.there was no mailto:harendika@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 166 conclusion at the end of the story whether the man was a real sack-carrying-man. methodology translation as comparative studies at present, more than a few indonesian literary works were translated into english. it is for the reason that indonesians are passionate to globalize their culture through literature. this fact is identified by lontar foundation as its objectives that are to (1) encourage further development of indonesian literature; (2) make indonesian literature easily reached by an international audience; and (3) preserve indonesia's literary record for upcoming generations (http://www.lontar.org/ en/home/about/welcome). for that reason, translations are needed to be done and to be studied (lefevere, 1991).what is more, bassnett (2002) stated that no two languages are sufficiently alike to be considered as representing the equal social reality. therefore, this study is to compare how similar (or different) the translated work to the original one is. in doing so, popovic‘s theory (in basnett, 2002), which distinguishes four types of translation equivalence, is implemented. they are (1) linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of both sl and tl texts, i.e. word for word translation; (2) paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of the elements of a paradigmatic expressive axis‘, i.e. elements of grammar; (3) stylistic (translational) equivalence, where there is ‗functional equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity‘; (4)textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape. those four types of translation equivalences are implemented to compare how surrealism is depicted in budi darma‘s lelaki pemanggul karung goniand in fuller‘s the man carrying the sack. surrealism in literature as stated by fuller (in darma, 2015), darma‘s works are rich with black humor, mythical references, and irony. those characteristics, also referred as surrealism, are also found in lelaki pemanggul karung goni. in finding how its english version carries the same degree of surrealism, it is noteworthy to understand the detailed features of surrealism in literature as defined by breton (as cited in singh, 2011), as follows. 1) surrealism is dedicated to revising our definition of reality. referring to this feature, for the surrealists, the conditions of life can and must be changed. moreover, for the surrealist, art is the means of provoking a fundamental revolution of the consciousness; 2) surrealism tries to express what is hidden in mind by showing objects and events as seen in dreams, etc. 3) surrealism has the use of imaginary anecdotes, unusual events, rejection of sensibleprocesses, concern with essential problems of way of life, use of comedy as a dialectical statement of truth. reseults and discussion the followings are the sequence of events and literary elements in darma‘s laki – laki pemanggul goni (the man carrying the sack) presenting the characteristics of surrealism. karmain’s desire to look at the sackcarrying-man “setiap kali akan sembahyang, sebelum sempat menggelar sajadah untuk http://www.lontar.org/%20en/home/about/welcome http://www.lontar.org/%20en/home/about/welcome http://www.lontar.org/%20en/home/about/welcome herendika, m. s. (2018). surrealism in budi darma‘s laki – laki pemanggul goni (the man carrying the sack): a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 165—172. 167 sembahyang, karmain selalu ditarik oleh kekuatan luar biasa besar untuk mendekati jendela, membuka sedikit kordennya, dan mengintip ke bawah, ke jalan besar, dari apartemennya di lantai sembilan, untuk menyaksikan laki – laki pemanggul goni menembakkan matanya ke arah matanya.” (darma) ―before rolling out his prayer mat, karmain is always overcome by a desire to open the curtain a bit and peer down from his ninth floor apartment to look at the man carrying the sack staring up at him.‖ (fuller) this event obviously displays one of the elements of surrealism as identified by breton (cited in singh, 2011), that this is odd and irrational. the situation that karmain had a desire to open a curtain without any certain trigger was something illogical. both of the indonesian and the english version display this. however, the indonesian version has “ditarik oleh kekuatan luar biasa besar”expression which is then translated into ―overcome by a desire‖. ―desire‖ (longman dictionary of contemporary english, 2001) means a strong hope or wish. it means that in the english version, what karman did was to some degree more active, it was done for the reason that he wished it. in indonesian, “ditarik oleh kekuatan luar biasa” means that karmain didsomewhatpassive; he was pulled by an immensepower. he was the ―object‖ of the externalpower.as a result, it can be understood that from this occurrence, the translated version does not have precise linguistic and textual equivalence since it does not have a word-bywordtranslation;consequently, the form and shape are dissimilar. the stylistic equivalence islikewisealteredbecausethe event is stranger in the indonesian version (karmain isdragged by the externalpower). furthermore, one expressionin the indonesian excerpt is not translated into english; it is “setiap kali akan sembahyang”. in addition, several expressions have unalikesense. the expression ―menembakkan mata” is not precisely identical as ―staring‖ but it is stronger than that.therefore, it can be said that its linguistic and stylistic equivalence are not exactly equal.however, karmain‘s desire to look at the sackcarrying-man is one of surrealistexpressions, which becomes one of the stepping-stones of the overall story. a weird indication of the presence of the sack-carrying-man “..., korden jendela seolah – olah terkena angin dan menyingkap dengan sendirinya. maka karmain pun bergegas mendekati jendela, dan menyaksikan di bawah sana, di tengah – tengah jalan besar, laki – laki pemanggul goni berdiri membungkuk mungkin karena goninya terlalu berat, sambil menembakkan matanya ke arah dirinya. kendati lampu jalan tidak begitu terang, tampak dengan jelas wajah laki – laki pemanggul goni menyiratkan rasa amarah, dan menantang karmain untuk turun ke bawah” (darma) ―..., he saw that the curtain had opened as if by itself and was moving in the breeze. karmain hurried to the window and saw the man carrying the sack in the middle of the road staring up in his direction. he was hunched over, perhaps because his sack was too heavy, language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 168 and his gaze was full of rage, challenging karmain to come down.‖ (fuller) there is alinguistic dissimilarity found in the previous excerpts because particular expressions are not translated. ―sudah melewati tengah malam”; “lalu membersihkan tubuh untuk sembahyang”; “kendati lampu jalan tidak begitu terang,”;for example, are not translated. furthermore, the translator does not meet a stylistic equivalence for the reason thatthe expressive identity is not perfectly alike. by not translating those expressions, the sense of surrealism is less felt in the translated version. as an example, “ketika sudah melewati tengah malam”is simply translated into ―one night‖. the surreal condition is in fact the appearanceof the sack-carrying-manafter midnight, whichcan be noted asthe characteristic of budi darma–esque (fuller in darma, 2015). unexpectedcome and go of the sackcarrying-man the next unrealsituation is that the sack-carying-man always disappearedevery timekarmain tried to find him. “karmain dengan tergesagesa turun, lalu mendekati semak – semak dekat trotoar, tetapi laki – laki pemanggul gonipasti sudah tidak ada lagi. dan ketika karmain bertanya kepada beberapa orang apakah mereka tadi melihat ada seorang laki – laki pemanggul goni, mereka menggeleng.” (darma) ―... karmain had rushed down to the sidewalk when he had seen the man carrying the sack staring up at him. by the time he reached the sidewalk, the man carrying the sack had disappeared. when he asked people on the sidewalk whether they had seen a man carrying a sack, they all shook their heads.‖ (fuller) the aboveexcerpt shows a strangeevent, whichis the disappearance of thesackcarrying-man, and how other people never see him, except karmain. this absurdity turns out to be the strong point of surreal literary work.however, theindonesian and the english versions do not have linguistic equivalence because it is not a word-to-word translation. it can be seen from the word ―semak – semak‖ that cannot be found in the english version. conversely, the stylistic and textual equivalence are found there because the purpose of both texts is the same: telling the readers of the sack-carrying-man‘s sudden come and go. another discussion concerning this element can also be found in the following quotations: “ketika karmain tiba kembali di apartemennya, ternyata laki – laki pemanggul goni sudah ada di dalam, duduk di atas sajadah, melantunkan ayat – ayat suci, sementara goninya terletak di sampingnya.” (darma) ―when karmain got back to his apartment, he saw the man sitting on his prayer mat reciting verses from the qur‘an. his sack was placed beside him.‖ (fuller) this sequence shows abizarre condition because the sack-carrying-man was suddenly in karmain‘s apartment. a difference can be seen from the translation of “ayat – ayat suci” into ―qur‘an‖. those expressions are unequal because “ayat – ayat suci” does not herendika, m. s. (2018). surrealism in budi darma‘s laki – laki pemanggul goni (the man carrying the sack): a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 165—172. 169 always mean qur‘an verses. the translator might translate ―ayat – ayat suci”into qur‘an because he assumed that karmain was a moslem because of the word ―sajadah” or ―prayer mat‖, that is usually used by moslem during their prayer. however, the functions of both expressions are equal: showing the sudden appearance of the sack-carryingman. thus, it can be seen that both versions has stylistic equivalence. the sack-carrying-man’s familiarity on karmain’s life setelah selesai berdoa, tanpa memandang karmain, laki – laki pemanggul goni berkata lembut: “karmain, kamu sekarang sudah menjadi orang penting. kamu sudah menjelajah dunia, dan akhirnya kamu di sini, di negara yang terkenal makmur. bahwa kamu tidak mau kembali ke tanah airmu, bukan masalah penting. tapi mengapa kamu tidak pernah lagi berpikir tentang makam ayahmu? tidak pernah berpikir lagi tentang makam ibumu. makam orangtuamu sudah lama rusak, tidak terawat, tanahnya tenggelam tergerus oleh banjir setiap kali hujan datang, dan kamu tidak pernah peduli.” (darma) after finishing his prayer, without looking at karmain, he spoke softly. ―karmain, you have become an important person. you‘ve travelled the world, and now you are here, in a rich country. that you don‘t want to come back to your homeland is no problem. but why don‘t you care for your father‘s grave? you have never thought about your mother‘s grave. their graves are neglected, damaged. their graves sink further into the ground each time it rains and you have never cared about this.‖ (fuller) this passage displays one of the strange situations in budi darma‘s laki – laki pemanggul goni. it can be seen by the fact that the sack-carrying-man recognizesthe whole thing about karmain‘s life. the evidence is that the man knew that karmain never cared about his parents‘ grave. according to breton (in singh, 2011), surreal literary work believes that life condition must be changed. by advising karmain to take care of his parents‘ graves, the sack‘carrying-man desired to change karmain‘s life. this event is unusual, nevertheless, for the reason that karmain did not know the man. accordingly, the surreal condition is clearly seen from this sequence of event. the translation implements word-toword translation, as a result, we can say that the translation and the original texts have linguistic equivalence. the sentence structures of both texts arelikewise identical. as a result, it can be said that both texts have paradigmatic equivalence. the stylistic and the textual equivalence are also found the same in both texts. the sack-carrying-man’ ability to take someone’ssoul “tahukah kamu ke mana sahabat – sahabatmu itu pergi?” “tidak.” “mereka saya ambil. saya tahu, kalau mereka tidak saya ambil, pada suatu saat kelak dunia akan gaduh. gaduh karena, kalau tetaphidup, mereka akan mengacau, membunuh, dan menyebarkan nafsu besar untuk berbuat dosa ...” (darma) language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 170 ―do you know where your friends have gone?‖ ―no.‖ ―i‘ve taken them all. i knew that if i didn‘t take them, there would be trouble. if they kept on living, they would create chaos, kill, and spread a great desire to sin....‖ (fuller) this sequence of event shows surrealism. it is seen that the sack-carryingman was able to predict the future. he knew that in the future, karmain‘s best friends would commit sin. this event, therefore, depicts one of the characteristics of surrealism because it is believed that life condition must be changed. a linguistic un-equivalence is found in the translation of ―...dunia akan gaduh‖ which was translated into ―trouble‖. ―gaduh‖ is something more than just a trouble. according to https://kbbi. kemdikbud.go.id/entri/gaduh, ―gaduh‖ means ―rusuh dan gempar karena perkelahian (percekcokan dan sebagainya); ribut; huruhara.‖ from https://id.oxforddictionaries. com/terjemahkan/indonesia-inggris/gaduh, the most appropriate translation for ―gaduh‖ is ―commotion, noisy, or uproar.‖ therefore, it can be concluded that from this excerpt, there is a bit problem in the stylistic equivalence because of lack linguistic equivalence. myth about satan who disguised as a sackcarrying-man “wahai laki – laki pemanggul goni,” kata karmain setelah terdiam agak lama. “ibu dulu saya pernah berkata, ada laki – laki pemanggul goni yang sebenarnya, ada pula pemanggul goni yang sebetulnya setan, dan menyamar sebagai laki – laki pemanggul goni.” darma) ―oh, sack-carrying-man,‖ said karmain after a moment. ―my mother once told me that there is the real sackcarrying-man and there is also the sack carrying-man who is actually satan disguised as the sack-carrying-man,‖ (fuller) in the above excerpt, karmain said the possibility of false sack-carrying-man. this is a surrealist characteristic for the reason thatit expresses what is hidden in mind (breton in singh, 2011). ―satan‖ is to some degree abstract. it is not a physicalobject. in addition, in darma‘s lelaki pemanggul karung goni, it is expressed that there is a probability for the satan to pretend to be a sack-carrying-man. in an actual world, it is impossible. hence, this event is considered surreal. in terms of equivalence, in those two versions, there is no word-to-word translation, or we might say that those versions do not have linguistic equivalence. as a proof, the word ―goni‖ is translated into ―sack‖. goni is a special material, i.e. a plant fiber (corchorus capsularis, that is very common in asia and africa (https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/corchorus_capsularis). the translator might find problems in finding the word-byword translation. however, the function of the two versions is identical. it is to inform the readers on the possibility of a fake sackcarrying-man. therefore, we can say that those versions have functional equivalence. the sack-carryng-man’s presence in karmain’s past life dan karmain ingat benar, dulu menjelang kebakaran hebat melanda https://en.wikipedia.org/ herendika, m. s. (2018). surrealism in budi darma‘s laki – laki pemanggul goni (the man carrying the sack): a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 165—172. 171 kampung burikan, kata beberapa orang saksi, laki – laki pemanggul goni datang. lalu kata beberapa saksi pula, laki – laki pemanggul goni masuk ke rumah karmain, kemudian bergegas – gegas ke luar, dan melemparkan bola – bola api ke rumah karmain. dan setelah api berkobar – kobar ganas menjilati sebagian rumah dikampung burika, beberapa orang dari kampung burikan dan kampung barongan sempat melihat, laki –laki pemanggul goni melarikan diri di anatara lidah – lidah api yang makin membesar.( darma) and karmain remembered, before the fire in burikan, several witnesses said that the man carrying the sack came. then, several witnesses said, the man carrying the sack visited karmain‘s house and then quickly hurried out, throwing fireballs toward karmain‘s house. and after the flames had burned down the kampong of burikan, several people from burikan and barongan saw the man carrying the sack running away from the growing flames. (fuller) this event is odd because at the end of the story, karmain remembered that the person he met abroad was the similar person from his past life. it is also strange because it is revealed in the plot that the sack-carryingman was in fact an evil person. he had burned karmain‘ house. this condition is in contrast with what is expressed in the previous event that the man was religious, and he directed karmain to change his life. this translation is not a word-to-word translation. it can be seen from the word ―ingat benar‖ that was translated into ―remember‖ which had less sense than the original version. another example was the words ―kebakaran hebat‖ which was translated into ―fire‖ which again had less sense than the original vesion. therefore, it can be concluded that the linguistic equivalence is not found in those excerpts. however, the stylistic equivalence is found there because the event‘s purpose is the same in both the original and the translation version. conclusion darma‘s laki-laki pemanggul goni and its‘ english version: the man carrying the sack expresses surrealist characteristics. they both tell that life condition, i.e. karmain‘s, must be changed. this can be seen from the sackcarrying-man who warned karmain on the fault he had done previously. it as well expresses what is hidden in mind (represented by the possibility of satan who disguised as a sack-carrying-man). moreover, the sequence of event is also irrational shown by the sackcarrying-man‘s sudden come and go. both versions do not have a perfect linguistic equivalence, however, since it was not an exact word-to-word translation. some of the expressions are untranslatable, such as goni, and some others are dismissed or are translated in different senses in the english versions. conversely, they have the stylistic equivalence since the functions of both versions are the same. it can be seen by the same plot and idea of both versions. in brief, the surrealism might be a bit stronger in the indonesian version than in the english one. the untranslatable specific indonesian terms are the reason of it. this untranslatability might occur because of the cultural gap between the author and the translator. overall, the english version is still able to bring the budi darma-esque. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 172 references corchorus capsularis. retrieved on 28 january 2018 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ corchorus_capsularis darma, b. (2015). converstations. jakarta: lontar foundation. lontar foundation. (retrived on 20 october 2017) from http://www.lontar.org/en/home/ about/welcome indonesian oxford living dictionaries. retrieved on 26 january 2018 from https://id.oxforddictionaries.com/terjemahkan/indonesia-inggris/ kbbi online. (retrieved on 26 january 2018) from https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/ lefevere, a. (1991). translation and comparative literature: the search for the center. languages and cultures in translation theories, 4(1). retrieved from https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/037086ar. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/037086ar longman. (2001). dictionary of contemporary english 3rd ed. harlow essex: pearson education limited. singh, s.k. (2011). surrealist movement. greener journal of art and humanities, 1(1), 021022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%20corchorus_capsularis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%20corchorus_capsularis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%20corchorus_capsularis http://www.lontar.org/en/home/%20about/welcome http://www.lontar.org/en/home/%20about/welcome http://www.lontar.org/en/home/%20about/welcome https://id.oxforddictionaries.com/terjemahkan/indonesia-inggris/ https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/037086ar http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/037086ar language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x cultural diversity in the use of action verbs in indonesian senior high school english e-textbooks: a qualitative content analysis jennifer sanata dharma university, indonesia. email: keisdhi.jennifer@gmail.com ouda teda ena sanata dharma university, indonesia email: ouda@usd.ac.id abstract having a purpose of providing all indonesian students with cheap but qualified textbooks, the e-textbooks should be culturally inclusive, which are able to make the students engage with the texts, and later be motivated to learn. ena (2013) and wulandari (2019) found cultural biases in english e-textbooks for senior high schools in indonesia, which could demotivate students from certain cultural groups, which were underrepresented or represented unfairly. thus, aiming to elaborate to what extent diversity is represented in the action verbs of the e-textbooks studied, qualitative content analysis was chosen for this study. the reseachers were the main instruments, followed by categorizations and interraters. the results showed there was ethnicity bias. there was no melanesian animal subjects using action verbs at all in all the e-textbooks and melanesian human subjects never dominated any e-textbook, while foreign subjects, who in reality are less in number than the melanesian, dominated the etextbook for grade x. since there was ethnicity bias in the e-textbooks, all the parties involved in the creation of the e-textbooks should either vary the writer team’s ethnicities or vary the texts’ cultural settings and make them in line with the population rank of ethnicities in indonesia. keywords: linguistic category model, qualitative content analysis, gender, ethnicity, e-textbook perspectives. (ena, 2013, p. 34) materials are culturally relevant if they represent learners wisely. in ena’s (2013) research, biases are found in english e-textbooks for senior high schools in indonesia. the e-textbooks do not represent the two cultural aspects of indonesian learners wisely. nevertheles, according to national education minister’s regulation number 2 in 2008, textbooks are mandatory references for elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, and higher education “in order to develop faith, piety, noble characters, and personality; mastery of science, knowledge and technology; and to develop sensitivity, aesthetic abilities, kinesthetic and health abilities which are compiled based on national education standards” as textbooks are mandatory for schools in all provinces of indonesia which are culturally diverse; the textbooks, especially 2013 curriculum textbooks which are issued by the government, must include as many cultural aspects as they can and represent all the cultural aspects wisely because cultural representations in textbooks affect students’ motivation to learn (ena, 2013). this study attempts to examiintroduction in terms of diversity, indonesia is proven to be diverse in ethnicities and gender roles. parker & hoon (2013) and mavridis (2015) conclude that there are more than 300 ethnic groups and 700 living languages in indonesia. meanwhile, ananta et al. (2015) in arifin et al. (2015) re-classify more than 600 ethnic groups from the raw data of 2010 population census. it proves that indonesia is one of the most diverse in terms of ethnicity. there is a gap between men and women who do not have school certificates, i.e. men 14.34% and women 19.66%. (hakiki & ulfa, 2018, p. 22) in rural areas, the number of women who do not have school certificates is 6,37% higher than that of men. (hakiki & ulfa, 2018, p. 22) ena (2013) further explains that women are often discouraged when it comes to education. considering the great diversity in indonesia, all parties concerning in indonesian education are challenged to provide culturally relevant learning materials which affect students’ intellectuality, social lives, emotion, and political language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 212 her study to subjects in general. having the same concern with the previous studies, after candrawati et al. (2014) and wulandari (2019) studied the subjects in the e-textbooks, there was a need to study other semantic roles, so the study of action verbs was chosen. action verb is a verb which is executed by an actor usually due to a will e.g. kick, start, drink, eat, help, discover, talk, read. (greifeneder, bless, and fiedler, 2018, p. 178; jackson, 2013; kratzer, 1996; olsen, 2014) this study is the elaboration of agents and its effects on diversity representation and linguistic intergroup bias, which can relate to candrawati’s et al. (2014) and wulandari’s (2019) studies, due to jackson’s (2013) theory that a subject (the previous studies mentioned are about subjects) can be agentive or non-agentive. up to 2009 (candrawati et al., 2014), textbooks and e-textbooks are still not aware of sociocultural aspects. according to celce-murcia (2007, p. 46), foreign and second language teachers tend to be far more aware of grammar than sociocultural behaviors. not many teachers teach their students to be aware of social and cultural context when communicating. (celce-murcia, 2007; amri, bin-tahir, and ahmad, 2017) indonesian students, who live in a multicultural country, should be taught values of multicultural education, e. g. human values, inclusive values, and equality values. (tilaar, 2009) teaching values of multicultural education will not succeed if the e-textbooks used for learning contain marginalization of certain sociocultural backgrounds and cultural stereotypes. regarding this fact, this study aims to elaborate to what extent ethnic diversity and gender role diversity are represented in the action verbs of the english e-textbooks of 2013 curicculum (the newest e-textbooks of the newest curriculum) for high school in indonesia. this study is vital to raise society’s awareness of applying values of multicultural education in textbooks, including e-textbooks, and of the current multicultural qualities the newest e-textbooks possess. society is expected to keep comparing the ideal representations of cultural diversity, a part of multicultural qualities, with the actual representations of cultural diversity in the current e-textbooks issued by the government. methodology the subjects of this study are: (1) bahasa inggris sma/ma/smk/mak kelas x (revised edition, published in 2017); (2) bahasa inggris sma/ma/smk/mak kelas xi (revised ne whether 2013 curriculum english textbooks for senior high school represent all the cultural aspects wisely. only few researchers studied indonesian textbooks and e-textbooks even though according to national education minister’s regulation number 2 in 2008, textbooks are the main source of learning. ena’s (2013) study on how diversity was signified in the visual images showed that the cultural representations in the english e-textbooks, which were published in 2008 and followed 2006 curriculum, were inequal. the etextbooks, appointed to indonesian senior high school students, also enclosed gender roles stereotypes. because of the inequality, ena (2013) argues that students whose cultural backgrounds are marginalized tend to lose their motivation to study. ena’s (2013) study needs to be replicated due to the change of curriculum and studies on representations of diversity in e-textbooks need to be extended. ena’s (2013) study elaborated only visual images. linguistic aspects in e-textbooks were not elaborated yet. in candrawati, nitiasih, and seken’s (2014) study, linguistic aspects and sociocultural aspects were elaborated. the e-textbook studied was an english e-textbook for students of grade twelve in senior high school. the e-textbook was published in 2009. the e-textbook follows 2006 curriculum. candrawati et al. (2014) found that the age group appearing in the e-textbook was appropriate for the students using the e-textbook. however, the e-textbook was male-oriented, and it contained a few sexist words. it can be concluded that the e-textbook still contains inequal representations. candrawati et al. (2014) conducted a research deeply on one e-textbook. this study elaborated two aspects of cultural diversity in all the e-textbooks for senior high school students. all the e-textbooks were the e-textbooks of 2013 curriculum (the newest curriculum) which were published in 2017 (the newest edition) for senior high school. in candrawati’s et al. (2014) study, linguistic aspects elaborated as means of representations were mostly subjects. for example, when expounding gender, candrawati et al. (2014) paid greater attention to the number of male and female subjects. another research on subjects in e-textbooks is wulandari’s (2019). wulandari (2019) uses miller’s (2001 in wulandari, 2019) theory of subjects, which are defined as “the agent in the situation described” (miller, 2001, p. 88 in wulandari, 2019, p. 18), which is elaborated more by jackson (2013) that a subject can be agentive or non-agentive, but wulandari’s (2019) limited language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 213 edition, published in 2017); (3) bahasa inggris sma/ma/smk/mak kelas xii (revised edition, published in 2018). they are in a form of authentic and complete documents. they can be accessed by schools or institutions on bse.kemdikbud.go.id/ qualitative content analysis, chosen as the methodology of this study, was what synthesizes theories of diversity and action verbs. the framework of qualitative content analysis used in this study was mainly the framework which the writers got from drisko and maschi (2016). qualitative content analysis is defined as an interpretive research methodology whose purpose is to analyze contents by using systematic, valid, replicable, and transparent techniques. (bengtsson, 2016, p. 9; cho & lee, 2014, p. 1; drisko & maschi, 2016, p. 7; elo et al., 2014, p. 18; krippendorff, 2004, p. 18; moretti et al., 2011, p. 420) drisko and maschi (2016) collect and condense theories of qualitative content analysis and point out the essential rigors which make qualitative analysis different from quantitative analysis, which are replicability instead of reliability and transparency instead of objectivity. the thing on the surface that makes the difference between qualitative content analysis and quantitative analysis clearly visible is that a writer’s personal consideration regarding categorizations and inference from the categorized data is taken into account, highlighting the value of intersubjectivity as a way of describing social phenomena. (drisko & maschi, 2016; krippendorff, 2004; neuendorf, 2002) the ethnic and gender role diversity was converted into cultural categorizations as one of research instruments in this study. the writers’ personal considerations were needed to identify the clause subjects’ cultural backgrounds (ethnicity and gender role) in the e-textbooks and afterwards to categorize them into cultural categorizations. after having qualitative content analysis and diversity frameworks, the action verb framework enriched the study well because the action verb framework was a part of linguistic category model, which was often used to elaborate intergroup discrimination phenomena. (rubini et al., 2007; semin, 2008) action verb is a verb which is executed by an actor usually due to a will e.g. kick, start, drink, eat, help, discover, talk, read. (greifeneder et al., 2018, p. 178; jackson, 2013; kratzer, 1996; olsen, 2014) in this study, firstly, action verb had three categories, namely positive e.g. help, negative e.g. hurt, and neutral e.g. eat. after the data collection, the categories were changed into 1) positive to neutral action verbs and 2) negative action verbs. this study’s purpose was mainly to elaborate how many positive to neutral and negative action verbs were used for clause subjects who belong to various ethnicities and gender roles. the categorization or coding processes were also elaborated in order to validate the instruments and the results. the first instrument is the researchers and the second instrument is the categorizations. the second researcher (ouda teda ena) sorted all the verbs in the e-textbooks into action verbs. the first researcher coded the action verbs into positive, neutral, or negative; and at the same time classified the subjects of that of action verbs into the gender role categories (male, female, unidentified) and the ethnicity categories (austronesian, melanesian, foreign). multiple coding was done by the first researcher in order to maintain consistency. the first coding was coded j1 and the second coding (taken a month afterward) was coded j2. the third instrument is interraters. a rater is somebody who rates data based on categories. interraters were needed to counter the potential bias of the first researcher’s categorization and interpretation. what can be replicated from interraters as an instrument is the process of how interrater reliability or interrater agreement is achieved. once it is achieved, the use of interraters as an instrument can be deemed to be valid. four interraters were employed in this study. the first two interraters were employed to sort action verbs from 800 sentences (11.11% of the total sentences containing verbs as a word class in all the e-textbooks studied, considering ari, jacobs & sorensen’s (2010) argument that at least the random 7% of the total linier data should represent the whole data). the first two interraters’ initials are ik and aw. afterward, the second two interraters were employed to sort the subjects of the action verbs into cultural categories made by the researchers but new categories could be added along the process of coding. the second two interraters were given 8 chapters of the e-textbook for grade x (first grade), which contained 23.53% of the total sentences containing action verbs in all the e-textbooks studied. the second two raters have different backgrounds from each other and from the first researcher. they have different gender and different ethnicities from the first researcher. the first researcher’s gender and ethnicity are female and javanese respectively. both cultural interraters are males. one of them is indonesian-chinese (whose initial is ehs) and the other is alorese (whose initial is kn). language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 214 due to the need of multiple raters whose cultural backgrounds differ from the first writer’s, the rating or coding process done by multiple raters has to reach agreement. therefore, interrater agreement is needed in this study. shrout and fleis (1979, p. 420) also point out that human judgements often encounter errors which can seriously affect analyses and interpretations. thus, it is important to assess interrater agreement. interrater agreement is assessed by using percent agreement by holdford (2008); gisev et al. (2013). percent agreement is used in (1) baveye, dellandréa, chamaret, and chen (2015); (2) cavazos-rehg, krauss, sowles, connolly, rosas, bharadwaj, and bierut (2016); (3) jenkins, yang, ramalingam, yu, patel, weston, hodge, cantarini, jänne, mitsudomi, and goss (2017); (4) tixier, hallowell, rajagopalan, and bowman (2016). agreement between each rater and the first researcher was tested by using percent agreement (holdford, 2008; gisev, bell, and chen, 2013). agreement between two raters was also tested. the formula of the percent agreement is as follows. if the percent agreement is more than 70%, the categorizations are valid. (drisko and maschi, 2016, p. 107) similar to drisko and maschi (2016) landis and koch (1977) argue that in order to be substantial, percent agreement should be 61 to 80% and in order to be almost perfect, percent agreement should be 81 to 100%. landis and koch (1977) still consider percent agreement of 41 to 60% to be moderate, but in this study, the researchers consider only percent agreement of 70% or more than 70% to be valid. results and discussion results research results describe the number of positive, neutral, and negative action verbs, which referred to certain gender roles (female and male) and certain ethnicities (austronesian, melanesian, and foreign ethnicities). the research results are divided into two parts, i.e. action verbs representing gender roles and action verbs representing ethnicities. in both parts, the explanation is divided again into two parts, i.e. sentences whose subjects are humans and sentences whose subjects are animals, and in each of those parts, the explanation is divided again into three parts, i.e. grade x, grade xi, and grade xii. the explanation of sentences whose subjects are humans and sentences whose subjects are animals had to be separated since some animal subjects have unidentified gender roles and or ethnicities, which then made a new category, the unidentified. different from wulandari’s (2019) thesis, this study does not discuss inanimate objects because no action verbs referred to inanimate objects. the findings in each grade of e-textbooks had to be separated since they had different writers and different total number of action verbs. the percent agreement between the second researcher and ik regarding the categorization of the verbs was 77.27%, and the percent agreement between the second researcher and aw was 90.91%, which made the verb categorization valid because the percent agreement scores were more than 70%. (drisko & maschi, 2016, p. 107) after cultural categorizations were done by the first researcher, the first researcher left the data for one month and re-categorized the data by using new blank tables. this technique, called multiple coding (ena, 2013), was used to evaluate the consistency of categorizations. the researchers then employed two raters to categorize all the subjects having action verbs into the cultural categorizations. the percent agreement between j1 (the first researcher’s first coding) and ehs, who was male indonesian-chinese, was 83.66%; the percent agreement between j1 and kn, who was male alorese, is 49.08%; the percent agreement between j2 (the first researcher’s second coding) and ehs was 43.97%; and the percent agreement between j2 and kn was 87.71%. considering the bizarre of the cultural categorizations, the writers scrutinized the raw data and separate the negative action verbs from the other action verbs, and then calculated the percent agreement of the negative action verbs between j1, j2, ehs, and kn. the percent agreement between j1 & j2 was 77.77% j1 & ehs was 88.89% j1 & kn was 77.77% j2 & ehs was 83.33% j2 & kn was 100% and ehs & kn was 83.33%. action verbs representing gender roles the explanation of action verbs representing gender roles is divided into 1) action verbs representing gender roles in sentences whose subjects are humans, and 2) whose subjects are animals. animal subjects are explained separately from human subjects because in some animal subjects, the gender could not be identified. in the e-textbook for grade x, the ratio of language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 215 all action verbs whose subjects were female to all action verbs whose subjects were male was almost balanced. however, male subjects had almost twice more negative action verbs than the female. the female subjects had only 6.61 % of negative action verbs, while male subjects had 12.2 % of negative action verbs. the percentage of negative action verbs belonging to male subjects might lead to gender bias. however, to claim this argument, more in the e-textbook for grade xi, the number of all action verbs whose subjects were female dominated the e-textbook, while in the e-textbook for grade xii, the number of all action verbs whose subjects were male was only slightly higher than the number of all action verbs whose subjects were female. in both the e-textbook for grade xi and xii, the ratio of negative verbs whose subjects were female to negative verbs whose subjects were male was not a big deal. in conclusion, generally there was no gender bias in action verbs representing gender roles in sentences whose subjects were humans. the high number of negative action verbs belonging to male subjects in the e-textbook for grade x is discussed in discussion of the e-textbooks studied. in the e-textbook for grade x, the ratio of all action verbs whose subjects were female to all action verbs whose subjects were male was perfectly balanced, while in the e-textbook for grade xi, the number of all action verbs whose subjects were male dominated the e-textbook. contrary to those e-textbooks, in e-textbook for grade xii, the number of all action verbs whose subjects were unidentified gender roles dominated the e-textbook, followed by the number of all action verbs whose subjects were female. considering the alternation of the domination, in conclusion, like in sentences whose subjects were humans, generally there was no gender bias in sentences whose subjects were animals. action verbs representing ethnicities the difference between the total of all action verbs representing gender roles and the total of all action verbs representing ethnicities was due to: 1) the gender roles of some subjects could be identified but their ethnicities could not be identified and vice versa 2) some subjects e.g. “we” referred to two gender roles, namely male and female, so “we” was categorized into one male subject and one female subject, but “we” referred to the same ethnicity, e.g. austronesian ethnicity (western indonesia), so “we was categorized into one austronesian ethnicity. in the e-textbook for grade x and xii, clearly, melanesian ethnicity was way too underrepresented. in the e-textbook for grade xi, compared to foreign ethnicity, melanesian ethnicity was equally represented, even though austronesian ethnicity clearly dominated the e-textbook. austronesian ethnicity dominated the e-textbooks for grade xi and xii, while the e-textbook for grade x was dominated by foreign ethnicity. in terms of negative action verbs, as shown in the table, only foreign ethnicity in the e-textbook for grade x was represented by negative action verbs with the percentage of more than 10%. table 1. action verbs representing gender roles in sentences whose subjects were humans cultural variables language variables gender roles t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs female male a ct io n v er b g ra d e o f e -t ex tb o o k + n f em al e t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n m al e t o ta l o f a ll a cti o n v er bs x 118 108 16 242 49.59% 121 95 30 246 50.41% 488 xi 13 16 2 31 68.89% 6 7 1 14 31.11% 45 xii 33 22 2 57 45.97% 31 35 1 67 54.03% 124 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 216 however, the percentage of negative action verbs belonging to the subjects whose ethnicity was foreign in the e-textbook for grade xii was 0%. the negative action verbs belonging to the subjects whose ethnicity was foreign are discussed further in discussion of the e-textbooks studied. in sum, unlike austronesian and foreign ethnicities, melanesian ethnicity never dominated any e-textbooks studied. mostly, austronesian ethnicity dominated the e-textbooks studied. generally, there was ethnicity bias in sentences whose subjects were humans. there was no melanesian animal subject in all the e-textbooks studied. like in sentences whose subjects were humans, melanesian ethnicity was way too underrepresented in sentences whose subjects were animals. austronesian ethnicity dominated the e-textbook for grade x, while foreign ethnicity dominated the e-textbook for grade xi. even though unidentified ethnicities dominated the e-textbook for grade xii, most action verbs used were negative. if the negative action verbs were omitted, the e-textbook for grade xii was dominated by foreign ethnicity. in sum, foreign ethnicity had a tendency to dominate the e-textbooks studied, while melanesian ethnicity had no chances to be represented in sentences whose subjects were animals. generally, like in sentences whose subjects were humans, there was ethnicity bias in sentences whose subjects were animals. discussion of categories discussion of categories; which is divided into two sub-sections, i.e. positive and neutral action verbs as categories, and negative action verbs as a category; elaborates how and why certain action verbs were deemed to be positive, neutral, and negative; how valid the categories are; and how the categories reformed. positive and neutral action verbs as categories positive and neutral action verbs are discussed together in one section because there was some invalidity in positive and neutral action verbs as categories. the percent agreement between j1 and kn was 49.08% and the percent agreement between j2 and ehs is 43.97%. even though according to landis and koch (1977), those percentages are still deemed to be moderate, according to drisko and maschi (2016), only percentages of more than 70% are considered to be valid. in chapter 3, it is mentioned that an instrument including a categorization must be replicable, systematic, and transparent in order to build trustworthiness. positive action verbs and neutral action verbs failed to be replicable due to the invalidity when tested with interraters. what made j1 and j2 (multiple coding) have different classification results (41.12% of percent agreement) was the first researcher’s table 2. action verbs representing gender roles in sentences whose subjects were animals cultural variables language variables gender roles t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bsfemale male unidentified gender roles a ct io n v er b g ra d e o f e -t ex tbo o k + n f em al e t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n m al e t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n u n id en ti fi ed g en d er r o le s t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs x 1 1 0 2 40 % 1 1 0 2 40 % 0 1 0 1 20 % 5 xi 0 0 0 0 0% 2 7 0 9 10 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 9 xii 0 2 0 2 40 % 0 0 0 0 0% 0 1 2 3 60 % 5 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 217 emotional state at the time the categorization processes were taken. the first coding, labeled j1, was when the first researcher was optimistic due to certain medication; while the second coding, taken a month afterward, was when the first researcher was not as optimistic as she had been due to the end of medication. even though some action verbs, e.g. get married, are verbs whose connotations depend heavily on cultural background, some verbs do not have a clear cultural border of positive and neutral connotations, so a person’s emotional state plays an instrumental role in that of classification process. in places where marriage is deemed to be noble, get married tends to be labeled as a positive action verb. in places where marriage is merely a choice and there is no nobility attached to it, get married tends to be labeled as a neutral action verb. however, in sentences such as: (a) she told me that you sent her an email telling her that you would like to have more pen pals from the us; (b) hannah told alia that she was very happy; (c) caroline introduces alia to hannah; the verbs tell and introduce, although considering the sentence contexts, still do not have a cut-clear cultural border of positive and neutral connotations. in order to find further elaboration regarding this matter, the researchers gathered 11 random sentences from all e-textbooks and asked the interraters to categorize the action verbs in the sentences into positive, neutral and negative action verbs. having a bright and optimistic personality, ehs easily classified told in she told me that you sent her an email telling her that you would like to have more pen pals from the us into a positive action verb, while kn classified the word told in the same sentence into a neutral action verb. kn said that the word told in the sentence table 3. action verbs representing ethnicities in sentences whose subjects were humans cultural variables language variables ethnicities t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs austronesian melanesian foreign a ct io n v er b g ra d e o f e te x tb o o k + n a u s. t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n m el . t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n f o r. t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs x 87 97 12 19 6 38 .8 9% 28 30 4 62 12 .3 0% 95 12 4 27 24 6 48 .8 1% 50 4 xi 4 21 2 27 48 .2 1% 10 3 1 14 25 % 6 8 1 15 26 .7 9% 56 xii 33 43 2 78 60 .9 4% 12 9 1 22 17 .1 9% 14 14 0 28 21 .8 8% 12 8 cultural variables language variables austronesian ethnicities melanesian foreign a ct io n v er b grade of e-textbook austronesian total of negative action verbs melanesian total of negative action verbs foreign total of negative action verbs x 12 (6.12 %) 4 (6.45 %) 27 (10.98 %) xi 2 (7.41 %) 1 (7.14 %) 1 (6.67 %) xii 2 (2.56 %) 1 (4.55 %) 0 (0%) language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 218 table 4. action verbs representing ethnicities in sentences whose subjects were animals cultural variables language variables ethnicities total of all action verbs austronesian melanesian foreign unidentified ethnicities un. total of all action verbs a ct io n v er b g ra d e o f e te x tb o o k + n a u s. t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n m el . t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n f o r. t o ta l o f a ll a ct io n v er bs + n x 1 1 0 2 66 .6 7% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 1 0 1 33 .3 3% 3 xi 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 2 7 0 9 10 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 9 xii 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 2 0 2 40 % 0 1 2 3 60 % 5 was “still neutral”. in this study, a person’s emotional state and personality are not discussed, since this study only focuses on cultural aspects. therefore, positive and neutral action verbs as categories have to be reconsidered. considering the first phenomenon in preliminary study that positive action verbs and negative action verbs were not enough as the only categories used as the instrument, and also considering the phenomenon that in many cases, there was no boundary between positive and neutral action verbs, the writers suggest the proper category to be neutral to positive action verbs. negative action verbs as a category negative action verbs as a category was a valid category because the percent agreements of the negative action verbs between the first researcher and all interraters were no less than 77.77%. as mentioned in positive and neutral action verbs as categories, after processing the data from all raters, the writers sent another 11 random sentences from all e-textbooks to the interraters in order to elaborate further the categorization processes done by the interraters. in the 11 random sentences, all raters agreed on all the negative action verbs, but often disagreed on positive and neutral action verbs. therefore, negative action verbs remained to be a category and the writers suggest the future researches about action verbs utilizing linguistic category model theory should use two categories, namely 1) neutral to positive action verbs 2) negative action verbs. discussion of the e-textbooks studied after discussing the categories, the connection between valid and trustworthy instruments, research results, and theories related to the reality has to be discussed. due to the reconstruction of categorizations, i.e. 1) neutral to positive action verbs 2) negative action verbs, the writers focused only on the total number of action verbs and negative action verbs. regarding gender roles, nowadays, the number of men and women in indonesia is almost balanced (hakiki & ulfa, 2018, p. 7). in the research results, the same as wulandari’s (2019), in all the e-textbooks studied, the representation of men and women in the use of action verbs was relatively balanced. the high number of negative action verbs belonging to male subjects in the e-textbook for grade x was due to the colonizer characters in chapter 9 the battle of surabaya and chapter 11 cut nyak dhien who were all males. the colonizers played an antagonistic role in those chapters, so that male subjects had many negative action verbs in the chapters. outside those two chapters, generally, there was no gender bias in all the e-textbooks studied. the gender language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 219 roles in all the e-textbooks studied were well represented in line with the reality. in the e-textbooks studied, in sentences whose subjects were humans, austronesian ethnicity had a tendency to dominate the e-textbooks; while in sentences whose subjects were animals, foreign ethnicity had a tendency to dominate the e-textbooks. the negative action verbs belonging to the subjects whose ethnicity was foreign in the e-textbook for grade x were also due to chapter 9 and 11. ironically, although represented negatively in the two chapters of the e-textbook for grade x, foreign ethnicity still dominated the e-textbook in sentences whose subjects were humans. in sentences whose subjects were animals, foreign ethnicity had a chance to dominate the e-textbooks for grade xi and xii, while melanesian animals had no chances to be represented at all. the same as wulandari’s (2019) research results, the results of this study showed that melanesian ethnicity was way too underrepresented. the rank of ethnicity domination in all the e-textbooks studied was austronesian, foreign, and melanesian ethnicities. regarding ethnicities, nowadays, the highest population in indonesia is austronesian, followed by melanesian and foreign ethnicities (sudoyo et al., 2017). therefore, the ethnicities in all the e-textbooks studied were represented different from the reality. conclusions the validity of the methodology was achieved due to the maintenance of transparency of the process of systematic interpretation and the replicability of all instruments was rechecked and there was no problem. the researcher’s interpretation, the categorizations, and the interrater agreement were all replicable because all of them were learnable and doable by everyone. having valid research instruments, the five major research results could be presented. the first major result was there was no gender bias in action verbs representing gender roles in sentences whose subjects were humans (it represented the reality). the second major result was there was no gender bias in sentences whose subjects were animals. the third major result was in the e-textbook for grade xi, in sentences whose subjects were humans, melanesian ethnicity was almost equally represented as foreign ethnicity, but never dominated any e-textbooks unlike austronesian and foreign ethnicities, even though in reality, the population of melanesian ethnicity was larger in number than the population of foreign ethnicity. the fourth major result was there was no melanesian animal at all in all the e-textbooks studied. the final major result was negative action verbs made the subjects blamable. inclusive learning materials should not marginalize any social groups and should be relatable to the students in order to maintain students’ engagement with that of materials (ghosh & galczynski, 2014, p. 137). according to aziz (2011, august 26) the function of e-textbooks is to provide cheap or even free school textbooks for all indonesian students without exception. if the e-textbooks were meant to be textbooks for all indonesian high school students, the representation 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(unpublished) language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 321 english teachers’ pedagogical competence in regard to understanding the students hasriani g english department fbs unm hasriani@unm.ac.id abstract this research aimed at identifying the english teachers’ pedagogical competence in understanding the students. the profile of english teachers’ pedagogical competence in understanding the students was based on the national standard of education, in section 28, sub-section 3 point a. the researcher employed descriptive evaluative method. the subjects of this research were four english teachers from different schools of madrasah aliyah in kabupaten enrekang. the purpose of the research was to describe the teachers’ pedagogical competence in understanding the students. based on the result and discussion, the four teachers have different quality in terms of pedagogical competence especially in understanding the students. the score of teacher 1 and teacher 4 was 3 (good). they both could understand the students’ cognitive ability, whether the good or the poor students. they also paid attention to the different characteristics or ability of the students. besides, they already paid attention to the students’ prior knowledge. they used to review the lesson in the previous meetings before coming to the next material. in another hand, the result showed that the score of teacher 2 and 3 was different from teacher 1 and teacher 4, that was 2 (poor). in understanding the students, teacher 2 and teacher 3 ignored one point, which is paying attention to the students’ prior knowledge. they never reviewed the last material before coming to the new material. based on the result and discussion, it could be concluded that the four teachers had different quality in terms of pedagogical competence in regard to understanding the students. since the teachers’ quality is the most important point in developing the students’ learning proficiency, the four english teachers still need more improvement. because in indonesia, the teachers who meet the standards of being professional teachers are the ones who have the required qualifications and truly understand what to do, whether inside or outside the classroom keywords: [english teachers, pedagogical competence, understanding students] introduction there are some factors making teaching and learning processes possible to take place, which is exclusively called the four perennial truths, namely teacher, students, material, and context of time and place (rasyid, 2009:19). in certain time and place, the teacher has to exist in teaching and learning process because he/she is the one who teaches and the students have to exist because they are the ones who are going to be taught. in the same time, the material must be available because it is the matter to be learnt. in short, those four factors are linking with each other. if one of them is not available, there will be no teaching and learning process, though the learning process itself may still take place. among of those factors, the teacher has important role because he/she is responsible to educate and transfer knowledge to the students. the teacher is motivator, facilitator, and there are still many other roles of the teachers. thus, teacher must have four competences obligated by permendiknas no. 16/2007; pedagogical competence, personal competence, social competence and professional competence (soedarmawan, 2009). in relation to the teachers’ competence, the success of the implementation of teaching and learning process is influenced mostly by pedagogical competence of the teachers. pedagogically, the teachers have to apply their knowledge, skills and attitude in managing the students’ learning in order to maximize the learning process and increase the students’ learning result. that is why the teachers are expected to be able to facilitate the students in increasing their proficiency. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:hasriani@unm.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 322 to develop the quality of teacher’s pedagogical competence, the government has an effort named certificate program lasting from around july 2007 until now. in 2007, the program was executed in the form of portfolio then changed into plpg around october 2010 until 2017 and changed again into ppg until now. for the teachers who cannot pass through portfolio, they will get training program, while for the teachers who cannot pass through plpg and ppg, they have to face the remedial program. another activity is in the form of mgmp, as the forum in which the same subjects’ teachers of certain regions gather to discuss about their subjects and share their ideas in implementing the curriculum in teaching. mgmp continues to play its role in providing opportunities for teachers to share ideas and experiences. however, if the teachers are willing to develop themselves, then the teachers will be qualified because of constantly looking for opportunities to improve their own quality. ideally, the government, teacher associations and education units have to facilitate teachers to develop the cognitive skills of understanding and knowledge, affective form of attitudes and values, as well as performance in the form of actions that reflect an understanding of the skills and attitudes. those efforts are important as it is a way enhancing the pedagogical competence of teachers, and it was claimed that the best english teacher has to meet the profile expected by permendiknas no. 16/2007 (sagala, 2009:31 and soedarmawan, 2009). a lot of efforts have been made to improve english teaching: curriculum, methodology, and technical aspects such as classroom, textbooks, and the media. but the result is still unsatisfactory (risan et al., 2021). identifying the english teachers’ pedagogical competence should be considered as the expectation of the improvement of the teachers’ competence in order to meet the national standard of education in indonesia, in which the teachers should keep teaching with a good knowledge, skills, and attitude. pedagogical competence of the teachers is obviously performed in three teaching and learning phases, that is before, during and after teaching. in these three phases, the teachers should understand the students’ cognition, personality and prior knowledge; they should have a good plan before teaching; they have to be able to implement the teaching and learning process based on the curriculum; they have to know the appropriate way to evaluate the result of the students’ learning. besides that, the teachers should also be able to facilitate the students in developing their potency. when the teacher can apply those things effectively, hopefully the students gain the learning objectives (risan, 2021) pedagogical competence pedagogical competence is the wish and ability to regularly apply the attitude, the knowledge, and the skills that promote the learning of the students in the best way (apelgren & giertz, 2010: 30). in the national standard of education in section 28 subsection 3 point a, it is explained in the indonesian constitution that pedagogical competence deals with subcompetences which are: the teachers’ competence in understanding the students, the teachers’ competence in planning the teaching and learning process, the teachers’ competence in implementing the teaching and learning process, the teachers’ competence in evaluating the students’ learning outcome, and the teachers’ competence in developing the students’ potency. the teachers’ competence in understanding the students the teachers’ competence in understanding the students is the first sub-competence of pedagogical competence. mulyasa (2009:79) stated that there are at least three things should be understood by the teachers related to this competence. they are the learners’ coginitive development, the learners’ personality, and the learners’ prior knowledge. 1. the learners’ cognitive development intelect is another word of thinking. it gets developed as the development of brain goes. basically, thinking shows the function of brain, so intelectual ability is generally called ability of thinking. when the brain gets mature, a person http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 323 will get his/her ability of thinking. the ability of thinking will continually develop following his/her knowledge about outside world and learning process that they have experienced before. the development of ability of thinking is also called cognitive development. in relation to teaching and learning process, teacher should understand his/her students’ cognitive development. possibly, there are some students getting slow in thinking to understand the material given, and there are also some who get fast in thinking to understand the material. whatever the student’s cognitive development is, the teacher should understand it and is responsible to help the students. 2. the learners’ personality it is also very important for the teacher to know about the learners’ personality in order that he/she can apply appropriate way in teaching the students with the different personality. according to bean in (1996: 39-40) engaging ideas, the students’ personalities are various, they are: a. extrovert, a person who enjoys using class discussions or small groups to explore their ideas. b. introvert, a type of person who likes to be in solitude situation. c. sensing type, a person who likes to write assignments with very detailed instructions and guidelines. d. intuitive type, they rebel against prescribed patterns and like open-ended assignments with the opportunity to be creative and personal. e. thinking, a person who excels at writing logical things, well-organized essays requiring analysis and argumentation. they can use reason and evidence and stay personally detached from the issue. f. feeling, a person who prefers assignments that allow for personal voice, conviction, and emotion. they would like putting their personal experience in a paper or using a narrative approach. g. judger, the one who tends to arrive at a thesis quickly and are bored with journals. h. perceiver, a person who likes to play with ideas endlessly and have trouble deciding on a thesis unless a deadline forces them to make a decision. 3. the learners’ prior knowledge in teaching and learning process, teacher needs to understand the learners’ prior knowledge. this is for students to keep remembering the previous material. by understanding the students’ prior knowledge, the teacher will also recognize how to relate the previous material and the new material which will not make the students difficult in receiving the new material given. general directorate of the quality improvement of teachers and education personnel (2010) decided that the first sub competence of pedagogical competence, that is understanding the students, covers several characteristics. those specific characteristics are written as the instrument to assess the teachers’ pedagogical competence, especially for the first sub competence. those characteristics are: 1. teachers can identify the individual characteristics of their learners. 2. teachers ensure that all students have the same opportunity to participate actively in the learning activities. 3. teachers can set the class to provide the same learning opportunities for all students with disabilities and different learning abilities. 4. teachers try to find the cause of the behavioral deviation of learners in order to prevent such behavior not to harm other students. 5. teachers help developing the potency and overcoming the students’ weakness. 6. teachers pay attention to the students with certain physical weakness in order to follow the activity of learning, so they are not marginalized (excluded, vmocked, insecure, etc.)] methodology this research employed descriptive evaluative method. in this research, the researcher provided the description of english teachers’ pedagogical http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 324 competence in understanding the students at madrasah aliyah in kabupaten enrekang. there were four english teachers from different schools as the subjects of this research. those four english teachers were certified english teachers. the researcher used two kinds of instruments, namely classroom observation checklist and interview guide. classroom observation checklist was used by the researcher to obtain the data by simply watching the participants during the teaching and learning process. the researcher used observation matrix referring to pedagogical competence. the observation matrix covered some criteria that were scored with final score 1 to 4. each score can be categorized as: 4= high (very good), 3= medium (good), 2= low (poor) and 1= very low (very poor) (mulyasa, 2009:214). in conducting observation, the researcher used video recorder as the observation device. in this research, interview was a purposeful interaction in which the researcher tried to obtain information from the teachers and the students to clarify and support the data from observation. the interview questions consisted of some structured questions about pedagogical competence. the interview was semi-structured interview in which the researcher asked questions that was previously structured and would be continued by asking other questions related to the teachers’ answer to get the deep data about the variable (arikunto, 2006:227), in this case the profile of english teachers’ pedagogical competence. the researcher used a recorder as an interview device. descriptive analysis was used in analyzing the data, in which the researcher analyzed the data collected through the instruments previously mentioned. firstly, the researcher collected the by observing the teaching and learning activity in the classroom, and next the researcher interviewed english teacher and the students. secondly, the researcher analyzed the data through data reduction in which the researcher summarized, chose the main things, and focused on the important points. after reducing the data, the next step was data display, in which the researcher analyzed and described the data qualitatively. miles and huberman in sugiyono (2009:249) stated that looking at displays helps us to understand what is happening and to do some thing-further analysis or caution on that understanding. the last step was conclusion (drawing/verifying) in which the researcher took the conclusion about the result of analyzing the data.] result and discussion according to the data collected during observation and interview, there were some important points that the researcher found related to the profile of english teachers pedagogical competence in understanding the students of madrasah aliyah in kabupaten enrekang. teachers’ competence in understanding the students a. teacher 1 teachers’ ability to understand the students covers three important points. based on the observation conducted by the researcher toward the first teacher, the result showed that the first teacher’s score is 3 (good). that score was gained by calculating all scores of each point as written in the observation matrix. it indicated that the first teacher had good competence in understanding the students. however, observation was not the only one way to see the teacher competence in understanding the students. some supporting data were gained from interview and those were clarified in the following findings. in understanding the cognitive ability of the students, the supporting data gained from the interview indicated that the teacher tried to understand her students, not only the good students, but also the poor students. when she found a student got problem in learning english, she used to care and try to help the students. r : “jadi bagaimana cara ibu untuk mengatasi atau apa tindakan ibu untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut”? (“so how do you solve that problem or what will you do to solve that problem”?) t1:”………….caranya adalah membiasakan dia untuk mengerjakan pekerjaan dan bertanya apabila ada kendala yang dihadapi. caranya adalah dengan melakukan pendekatan secara persuasive kepada anak http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 325 tersebut, menanyakan apa masalahnya dan seterusnya, akhirnya dia tidak lagi canggung untuk bertanya dan ikut andil kalau diberikan tugas”. (“…………the way is to accustom him to do the task and give question if he faces problem, by approaching him persuasively, asking about his problem till he will not be reluctant anymore to ask question and participate in doing assignment”) based on the data above, besides understanding the students’ cognitive ability, the teacher also tried to help the students who got problem in learning. she approached the students persuasively then tried to solve the problem. it was supported by the data from the observation. the teacher could arrange the classroom atmosphere to give chance to all students to actively participate in the teaching and learning process. she also paid attention to the different characteristics or ability of the students. she said that there were two students who tended not to socialize with the other students. probably it was caused by their low iq, so they just kept silent in the class. “… ada dua orang siswa yang saya lihat dia cenderung menyendiri, mungkin iq-nya dibawah ratarata jadi dia kurang bersosialisasi dengan siswa yang lain, cenderung diam di tempat dan apabila dikasih tugas dia diam saja…” (“…there are two students who like being alone, probably their iq is under average so they do not want to socialize with the others, they tend to keep silent and when they are given task they do not do anything…….”) however, the teacher has the solution in facing such students. she said that her way successfully changed those students to be better because finally they could actively participate in the teaching and learning process. not only understanding the students’ cognitive ability and individual differences of the students, but the teacher also considered that it is important to know the students’ prior knowledge. r: “apakah ibu menganggap penting untuk mengetahui pemahaman siswa terhadap pelajaran sebelumnya sebelum memulai pelajaran yang berikutnya”? (“do you think it is important to know the students’ prior knowledge about the material in the previous meeting”?) t1: ”iya penting” (“ yes, i do”) r: “kenapa bu”? (“why”?) t1: “karena kita kan harus memastikan bahwa siswa itu, paling tidak beberapa siswa sudah mencapai tujuan sebelum kita melanjutkan pembelajaran berikutnya”. (“because we have to make sure that at least some of the students have reached the learning objective before we move to the next material”) the data gained indicated that the teacher understood the students who still needed explanation about the previous lesson before continuing the next lesson. by understanding the students’ prior knowledge, the teacher can decide whether she can directly continue the next material or keep explaining the material of previous meeting to avoid making the students confused so that they will understand the lesson well. based on the observation, it was proved that the teacher really paid attention to the students’ prior knowledge. by the beginning of some meetings, she used to review the lesson in the previous meeting. the students’ attitude that could hamper the other students was also the point that the teacher paid attention to. she had her own way in facing the student who used to disturb his friends in order that the other students could focus to study. based on the data, the teacher also paid attention to the things that probably could disturb the teaching and learning process in the classroom, including the naughty students. the teacher could recognize then handle the naughty students. she could solve the naughtiness in her classroom. the naughty students could be better students if the teacher could approach them well. r: “kalau yang agak naughty begitu mam”? (“what about the naughty students mam”?) t1: “……..caranya yang saya berikan adalah saya memberikan kepercayaan kepada untuk bertanggung jawab atas keadaan kelas pada saat saya mengajar, jadi saya berikan tanggung jawab, “akbar, kamu harus bertanggung jawab atas kelas ini, kalau kelas ini rebut maka kamu yang akan kena ganjaran”, yah, otomatis dia akan berubah sendiri, jadi yang tadinya cuma mengganggu, sekarang dia malah menegur http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 326 temannya kalau ada yang mengganggu”. (“……the way i use is giving his responsibility to control the class when i am teaching, so i give him responsibility and say “ akbar, you have to be responsible for the safety of this class, if it gets noise it means you will get punishment”. automatically he will think twice to disturb his friends, he even reprimands his friend who disturbs the others.”) supporting data about the teacher competence in understanding the students was gained from the result of observation toward the teacher in teaching and learning process. the teacher used to ask the students’ understanding about the material explained and discussed. besides that, the data was also gained by interviewing one of the students. the data gained could prove that the students even admitted that their english teacher could understand the students in teaching and learning process. the teacher attitude toward her students was very good. she focused on whole students, not only certain students. when some of the students still did not understand about the material, she would explain it again until most of them understood before moving to the next material. based on the observation result, commonly, in teaching and learning process, the teacher behaved kindly to all students. she gave the same chance to the students to participate actively in the classroom. she never focused only on certain students. in terms of understanding the character of the whole class, the teacher had been interviewed by the researcher, and the data proved that the teacher could identify the characteristics of the students in whole class. she taught not only class x, but also class xi and xii. she said that every class had different characteristics. however, she could handle those different classes with her own way. in terms of understanding the character of the whole class, the teacher has been interviewed by the researcher, and she stated the following explanation. r : “bisakah ibu menjelaskan karakteristik umum dari kelas yang ibu ajar”? (“could you explain the characteristic of your class”?) t1 : “ok,, jadi ada karakter siswa, misalnya di kelas xa, xa itu adalah x ungulan, nah di kelas itu cara mengajarnya sangat asyik karena hampir 100% anak focus belajar, begitupula dengan kelas 3ipa1 dan kelas 2ipa1. tetapi kalau dibandingkan sih memang kelas unggulan lebih. kemudian ada xh. xh itu adalah kalau boleh saya bilang adalah kelas yang paling, terlalu kasar mungkin kalau kelas yang paling hancurhancuran, bobrok……….” (“well, so there are students’ characteristics, like in class xa, xa is superior class, in which it is enjoyable to teach in that class because nearly 100% of the students focusing on studying, just like class xii natural science 1 and xi natural science 1. comparing with the other class, the superior class is the best. next, class xh. xh is the worst class, broken class.”) b. teacher 2 the second teacher was observed by the researcher for four times. in terms of pedagogical competence, the research findings indicated that the second teacher was not as good as the first english teacher. the following explanation presents the profile of the second english teachers’ pedagogical competence in terms of the first subcompetence. based on the observations conducted by the researcher toward the second teacher, the result showed that the second teacher’s score was 2 (low). it indicated that the second teacher was not as good as the first teacher. nevertheless, it was not only one way to see the competence of the second teacher in terms of the first subcompetence. the first sub-competence covers some points, which are understanding the students’ cognitive ability, the students’ personality and the students’ prior knowledge. in understanding the cognitive ability of the students, the data gained from the interview indicated that the teacher used to understand the students’ ability, not only the good students, but also the poor students. she had the way to face both the good and poor students. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 327 t2:“untuk siswa yang pintar, siswa yang pintar saya kasih motivasi semacam eee… “seharusnya kamu setiap hari practice in english yah”, dia harus kembangkan bahasa inggrisnya, saya kasih metode-metode yang lain,… kemudian di sekolah saya sering, kalau saya sapa dia saya menggunakan bahasa inggris…….. kemudian siswa yang kurang ini dalam kelas saya selalu dekati dia, saya dekati, ketika saya kasih tugas maka saya bertanya, bagaimana, apakah sudah faham atau tidak bisa, kalau memang tidak bisa, tidak faham, maka saya bimbing lagi, saya bimbing ditempatnya supaya dia bisa seperti dengan teman-temannya yang lain. (“for the good student, i give motivation like “ you should practice your english everyday”, she has to improve her english, i give her some methods,…. when i meet her i speak in english…… while for the poor student, i usually approach his in the classroom, when i give the students assignment, i usually ask whether he understands or not, if he doesn’t understand, i guide him again, i guide him in his seat so that he will be able to be same as the other students”) the data above showed that the second teacher could understand her students’ cognitive ability and use her way in facing those students. the teacher should also give attention to the naughty students. this second teacher stated that she also paid attention to the naughty students. t2:“ ketika saya lihat dia mengganggu ya pertama saya tegur, saya tegur kemudian saya berikan peringatan, “kalau misalnya kamu selalu mengganggu temanmu, maka saya kasih tugas, atau saya kasih berdiri didepan,” dengan hal itu maka dia akan merubah sifatnya”. (“when i find him disturbing the others, firstly i reprimand him, i reprimand him then i give warning, “if you always disturb your friends, i will give you assignment, or i let you stand in front of the class”, by doing that he will change his attitude”) based on data above, the way she used in facing the naughty students was giving the students warming about the punishment they will get when they disturb their friends. giving punishment is one of the ways to get the students attentions back. besides understanding the students’ cognition and attitude, the teacher also paid attention to the calamity faced by the students. this second teacher said that she had once found her student whose parent passed away. it could be seen from the interview data that the teacher could see the effect of that calamity for the student and she had the way to motivate the student. she had her way in motivating the students whom were in calamity. she said that as a muslim, she had to give religious sermon for the students who faced calamity, so that they could get more spirit. in terms of learning english, she motivated her student, gave spirit, mentioned his/her name, and did many other efforts to encourage the students to learn as well as usual. in the first sub-competence of pedagogical competence, not only cognitive ability and the students personality were the main points, but paying attention to the students’ prior knowledge was also very important. based on the observation, the second teacher did not show her good competence in understanding the students’ prior knowledge. the teacher never reviewed the last material before coming to the new material. however, the student interviewed by the researcher admitted that his english teacher had good competence in understanding her students in teaching and learning process. s2 : “menurut saya sudah bagus yah, karena cara guru mengajarkan bahasa inggris tidak selalu menggunakan bahasa inggris, dia sering menggunakan bahasa indonesia juga, setiap ada bahasa inggris toh dia sering mengeluarkan artinya jadi kita cepat mengerti”. (“in my opinion it is good enough, because the way the teacher teaches english, she doesn’t always use full english, she usually also uses bahasa, every english statement is translated by her so we can understand it”) the data above showed that the student admitted that his teacher taught them by using bahasa in order to make the students easier in understanding the lesson. even though she http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 328 explained the material in english, she used to translate it into bahasa, so the students could understand it well. in understanding the characteristics of whole class, the second teacher explained that she saw the students whom she taught were mostly smart, creative and good. most of them were good students. however, she used to find some students who liked disturbing their friends. r : “bisakah ibu menjelaskan karakteristik umum siswa-siswa di kelas yang ibu ajar”? (“could you explain the characteristics of the class you teach”?) t2 : peserta didik yang saya ajar selama ini yah ada yang cerdas, kreatif juga, tapi mereka sih rataratanya baik, rata-rata baik dalam kelas. (“the students i teach are some smart, creative, but they are averagely kind in the class”) c. teacher 3 observations conducted by the researcher toward the third teacher resulted that the third teacher’s score was 2 (low). it indicated that the third teacher was the same as the second teacher. since the first sub-competence covers some points, the third teacher’s competence for those points was described as follow. in understanding the cognitive ability of the students, the data gained from the interview indicated that the teacher used to understand the students’ ability, not only the good students, but also the poor students. t3:“dari semua kelas satu yang saya anggap paling bisa, salah satu siswa saya ada namanya ct kemudian yang paling kurang diantaranya adalah id”. (“from all first grade student, the one who i assume good is namely ct, then the poor one is id”) not only understanding the cognitive ability of the students but the third teacher also tried to increase the students’ proficiency. based on interview, the teacher explained her effort in increasing the students’ proficiency. t3 : “ya kalau untuk siswa ct itu saya rasa kita harus berikan pengayaan-pengayaan, pengayaan untuk lebih memperhatikan, lebih meyakinkan bahwa bahasa inggris itu memang perlu dan saya usahakan bagaimana cara untuk melanjutkan ya sebagai generasi sayalah sebagai seorang guru. dan untuk anakda id saya hanya berusaha memberikan remedial-remedial, pengertianpengertian bahwa bahasa inggris itu sangat dibutuhkan………..”. (“well, for ct i think i have to give repetition to make her more focus, ensure her that english is very important and i try to continue, as the next generation of me as a teacher. meanwhile, for id i just try to give remedial, understanding that english is really needed”) the data could prove that the third teacher knew about what to do in increasing the students’ proficiency, whether the good students or the poor students. evaluation was used to defend the ability of good students and giving remedial was the way to increase the ability of the poor students. besides that, she also gave understanding to the students about how important learning english was. the teacher even appreciated the effort of the students in learning, however the students’ achievement was. t3:“yah, sekecil apapun saya tetap menghargainya walaupun dia hanya, seumpamanya saya mau memberikan tugas untuk membuat kalimat, nah walaupun hanya satu kata yang benar dalam kalimatnya itu ya saya memberikan jempol”. (“yeah, however their achievement is, i always appreciate it, even though they only, for example, i want to assign them to arrange sentences, even though there is only one correct word in a sentence, i always appreciate it”) the data showed that the teacher really appreciated the students’ effort. by doing such a thing, the students would not be reluctant in learning. they would be motivated to be active in learning process without feeling underestimated. this phenomena was proved from the observation that the teacher used to appreciate the students effort in which she never underestimated the students who did the exercise or task incorrectly. another point of understanding the students is the students’ prior knowledge. the teacher gave her information from the interview that she paid http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 329 attention to the students’ understanding about the previous material. she said that she would not move to the next material if the current material was not understood by most of the students yet. although she admitted paying attention to the students’ prior knowledge, based on the observation for several meetings, the researcher did not see any evidence. she never asked the students about material in the previous meeting before starting the new lesson. understanding the characteristics of whole class is also important for the teacher to know. in interview section, the third teacher explained that the students were absolutely different from one another. she realized that no one of the students who were definitely same. some of them were smart and some others were also creative. for them who were not creative in learning, the teacher had her effort to encourage the students to be better and the smart students as well. t3 : “………diantara siswa-siswa kita tidak mungkin sama semua, pasti ada yang cerdas, ada yang biasa-biasa saja, ada yang kreatif. namun yang tidak kreatif dan tidak cerdas itu yang kita usahakan bagaimana caranya sifat kekurang kreatifannya itu dikurangi, dan yang memang cerdas kita juga berusaha bagaimana cara untuk menambah kecerdasan anak didik tersebut”. (“……….among the students, they must not be all the same, some of them are smart, some others are common, and some are creative. however, the ones who are not creative and smart, i try to reduce those weakness, and for the ones who are smart, i also try to increase their achievement”) commonly, the teacher could understand her students in learning. based on the observation, when the students got confused, the teacher tried to help them by answering the question or explaining the material. it was also admitted by one of the students whom interviewed by the researcher. it could be seen in the data from interview toward the student that the student admitted her teacher could understand the students well. the student said that by the end of every lesson, the teacher used to clarify whether the students understand or not about the material she had presented and explained. when most of the students still needed more explanation, the teacher explained the material again. d. teacher 4 the result of observation toward the fourth teacher is same as the first teacher’s score that is 3 (medium). it means that the fourth teacher has good competence for the first sub-competence. since the data gained was not only from the observation, the researcher elaborated the data gained from observation with data from interview. in understanding the cognitive ability of the students, the data gained from the interview indicated that the fourth teacher knew and understood her students well. to indicate that the teacher understood her students’ personality was to know all the students’ names. based on the observation, the researcher saw that the teacher could recognize all the students by directly mentioning their name in teaching and learning process without seeing the attendance list. the teacher also could identify all students, whether the best, good or poor students. since the teacher could identify the students, she also had her way in handling the students, whether the good students or the poor students. the data showed that the teacher could understand her students well. she had the effort to defend the ability of the good students and effort to motivate the poor students. she used to give assignment and exercise to the students to foster them to learn actively. t4 :”ya memancing dengan mengerjakan soal. jadi untuk memancing siswa yang kurang, saya biasa mengambil nilai secara langsung, langsung naik ke papan tulis. jadi disitu bisa tercover betulbetul, apakah dia bisa mengerti………”. (“by encouraging them with some exercise. so, to encourage the poor students, i usually score the students directly, directly doing the exercise on the whiteboard. so i can see whether they really understand it or not…….”) http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 330 understanding the students’ characteristic is one of the points in the first sub-competence of pedagogical competence. the researcher asked the questions related to understanding the students’ characteristics. one of the students interviewed by the researcher also admitted that his english teacher could understand her students’ characteristics. another important point in understanding the students is giving the same chance to all students to be involved in the teaching and learning process. based on the observation, the teacher gave the same chance to all students to actively participate in the classroom activities. she did not tend to focus on certain students. besides that, she used to help the students in understanding the material discussed and facilitated them with some media, such as interesting pictures. in terms of understanding the previous knowledge of the students, the fourth teacher also realized that it was very important to identify the previous material and the students’ understanding toward that material. t4:”sangat penting, karena kita bisa… apa, mengetahui sampai dimana pemahaman siswa sehingga kita bisa memberikan lagi pemahaman yang lebih sampai batas kemampuannya terhadap materi yang kita ajarkan”. (“yes, it is very important because i can know to what extent they understand the material so i can give more explanation based on their ability to understand the material given”) the teacher also admitted that she used to review the lesson in the last previous meeting before coming to the new one. based on the data, the teacher understood how important to know the students’ previous knowledge about the last material. she thought that it was something she must know because by knowing how far the students understand, she could explain again about the material for the students who still needed clarity about the previous material before continuing to the next material.] conclusion [based on the result and discussion, it could be concluded that the four teachers had different quality in terms of pedagogical competence in regard to understanding the students. since the teachers’ quality is the most important point in developing the students’ learning proficiency, the four english teachers still need more improvement. because in indonesia, the teachers who meet the standards of being professional teachers are the ones who have the required qualifications and truly understand what to do, whether inside or outside the classroom.] references apelgren, karin et.al. (2010). pedagogical competence – a key to pedagogical development and quality in higher education. uppsala university. arikunto. s. (2006). prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: pt. rineka cipta. bean, j.c. (1996). engaging ideas: the professor's guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. retrieved from http://web.presby.edu/writingcenter/newsle tter/studentpref.html. direktorat tenaga kependidikan depdiknas. (2005). peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia, nomor 19 tahun 2005 tentang standar nasional pendidikan. jakarta: depdiknas. direktorat tenaga kependidikan depdiknas. (2003). standar kompetensi guru smu. jakarta: depdiknas. eken, d. k. (1999). through the eyes of the learner: learner observations of teaching and learning. elt journal, 53(4): 66-80. gall, j.p, et al. (2005). applying educational research: a practical guide. united stated: pearsoneducation. gay, l.r, et al. (2006). educational research, a practical guide. new jersey: pearson prentice hall. kementerian pendidikan nasional. direktorat jenderal peningkatan mutu pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan. (2010). pedoman http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://web.presby.edu/writingcenter/newsletter/studentpref.html http://web.presby.edu/writingcenter/newsletter/studentpref.html language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 331 pelaksanaan penilaian kinerja guru (pk guru). jakarta. www.bermutuprofesi.org mulyasa, e. (2009). standar kompetensi dan sertifikasi guru. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya. oxford, l. r. (1990). language learning strategy: what every teacher should know. new york: newbury house publisher. rasyid, m. a. (2009). tefl i lecture materials. english education department. risan, r. (2021). journal of english language teaching students ’ perspective toward english learning for non-efl students in higher education. journal of english language teaching, 10(3), 494–506. https://doi.org/10.24036/jelt.v9i3.114388 risan, r., hasriani, h., & muhayyang, m. (2021). the implementation of ctl method in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang. language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v16i1.31158 sadilia, s. (2011). the students’ perception toward english teachers’ pedagogical competence. thesis of fbs unm. sagala, s. (2009). kemampuan profesional guru dan tenaga kependidikan. bandung: alfabeta. sugiyono, (2009). metode penelitian dan kualitatif dan r & d. bandung:alfabeta. undang-undang republik indonesia. 2005. undang-undang nomor 14 tahun 2005 tentang guru dan dosen. jakarta: depdiknas. walter, e. (2008). cambridge advanced learners’ dictionary 3rd edition. cambridge university press. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://www.bermutuprofesi.org/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa50de1119b • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 61 the effectiveness of project based learning and problem based learning for teaching biography text writing to highly and lowly motivated students meike imeda wachyu meikeimelda@gmail.com semarang state university dwi rukmini wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com semarang state university received: 20 june 2015. revised: 10 august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 abstract the aims of this study were (1) to find out the effectiveness of using project based learning compared to problem based learning to teach writing biography texts to highly motivated students, (2) to find out the effectiveness of using project based learning compare to problem based learning to teach writing biography texts to lowly motivated students, (3) to find out the effectivenessin teaching writing biography texts through control group to highly motivated students,(4) to find out the effectivenessin teaching writing biography texts through control group to lowly motivated students.(5)to explain the significant difference between students high motivation in writing competence and students low motivation in writing competence taught using project based learning compared to problem based learning (6) to explain the interaction between learning models, students‘ motivation, and writing biography texts. keywords: writing; project based learning; problem based learning; biography texts how to cite: wachyu, m.i. and dwi rukmini. 2015. the effectiveness of project based learning and problem based learning for teaching biography text writing to highly and lowly motivated students. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction in indonesia, english language teaching and learning has been implemented in schools‘ curriculum. the indonesia government has nationally implemented the competency based curriculum (kbk) of english subject for senior high school since 2004. right now the ministry came with a new concept of school curriculum 2013. in 2013 curriculum, english language teaching and learning is developed by adopting school based curriculum where the goal of teaching and learning english is the students are expected to be able to communicate in spoken and written language (agustien, 2013: 42). english for communication purposes integrated all four macro skills. the students of senior high school are focused on mastering four language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing. listening and reading are receptive skills while speaking and writing are productive skills (harmer 2004: 60). all of the skills are to be improved in the process of teaching and learning english. mailto:meikeimelda@gmail.com mailto:wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 62 in the process of teaching and learning english, writing is the most difficult and complicated language skill to be learned almost by the students in every level of education. the students have to organize ideas, produce meaningful and structured sentences. there are various stages in writing should be done by the students such as drafting, reviewing, redrafting and writing. helmi in dewi(2014) defines several problems that are mostly faced by students in writing, they are: (1) limited vocabulary, (2) difficult in organizing to write about something, (3) no motivation to write, and (4) lack of confidence in grammar to write based on my own detailed-observation, in state senior high school 2 indramayu, some of teachers still used teacher-oriented approach, where the teachers only focused on their explanation without considering the students‘ understanding. the students did not understand what the teachers explain. it can be seen from the mean score of english in midterm test of the first semester tenth grade 2014/2015 is 2.00 (65.00) and the mean score in final test is 1.00 (60.00), while the standardization score in state senior high school 2 indramayu is 2.66 (75.00) (ministry instruction no. 104 section 9 verse 2) it can be concluded that the students‘ achievement is low. there are many factors causing low student‘s achievement, such as learning motivation, teaching learning methods, etc. the first factor is motivation. motivation influences the success of learning and teaching progress. increasing and directing motivation is one of the teachers‘ responsibilities.they try to ensure that motivation is engendered as a result of a good rapport for the students. the second factor causing low students‘ achievement is teaching learning method. the teacher should have the competencies: pedagogical competence, personal competence, professional competence and social competence. as mentioned in pp no. 19 tahun 2005 tentang standar nasional pendidikan pasal 28 (3) menyatakan bahwa seorang guru harus memiliki kompetensi sebagai berikut: kompetensi pedagogic, kompetensi kepribadian, kompetensi professional dan kompetensi sosial. one of the competences is the pedagogical, the ability of the teachers to determine and to design learning methods in their teaching to become a qualified teacher. the quality of language teaching will improve if teachers use the best available approaches and methods. (richards& rodgers 2007:15). good teaching is regarded as correct use of the method and its prescribed principles and techniques. based on the background above, it is important for the teachers to make the various teaching model. the teachers are free to use an approach that is relevant to the student. the students are expected to learn through ―experiencing‖ not by ―memorizing‖ the subject matter in their learning. the theories of scientific approach suggested in curriculum 2013 constitutes the students not only to learn the knowledge by memorizing it but also to construct the knowledge through several inquiry steps such as observing, questioning, experimenting, associating, communicating (kajianstandar proses kurikulum 2013:3). scientific approach in english language teaching can be realized through several techniques; problem based learning, project-based learning and discovery learning. meike imelda wachyu & dwi rukmini. the effectiveness of project based learning and problem based learning for teaching biography text writing to highly and lowly motivated students __________________________________________________________________________________________ 63 there are several techniques can be implemented in language teaching from piaget it leads to problem based learning and from vygostsky it leads to project based learning. regarding this, the implementation of two approaches suggested in scientific approach that emphasizes the process and content of writing, which was discovered by klein (2009:8) projects build on authentic learning tasks that engage and motivate students, middle school is an ideal time to integrate project-based learning. projects encourage students to encounter, and struggle with, important and ―big‖ ideas. state senior high school 2 indramayu is one of the pilot school project 2013 curriculum which have implemented 2013 curriculum for three semesters should continue the 2013 curriculum.the documents, such as the syllabus and the supporting materials were provided by the ministry office in jakarta. the syllabus containing the target competencies and the curriculum was supposed to be developed by the schools. according to the curriculum in state senior high school 2 indramayu, writing in the tenth graders student is taught into 3 kinds of texts, there are: recount, narrative, and descriptive. in this study the researcher used writing biography texts as one of the types recount texts to be analyzed. on my preliminary observation in state senior high school 2 indramayu, there were still many students who have difficulties in writing. the problems are caused by several things. they are limited vocabulary, difficulty in organizing to write about something, no motivation to write, and lack of confidence in grammar and inappropriate models used by the teachers to teach the materials. based on the background above, this study attempted to address the following statements of the problem: 1) how effective is project based learning compared to problem based learning to teach writing biography texts to highly motivated students?,2) how effective is project based learning compared to problem based learning to teach writing biography text to lowly motivated students?, 3) how effective is teaching writing biography texts through control group to highly motivated students?, 4) how effective is teaching writing biography texts through control group to lowly motivated students?, 5) how significant is the difference between students with high motivation writing biography texts and students with low motivation in writing biography texts taught by using project based learning compared to problem based learning?, 6) is there any interaction between variables for the students with high motivation in writing biography texts and students with low motivation in writing biography texts taught by using project based learning compared to problem based learning? writing is one of productive skills in language learning (harmer 2007:246). writing is viewed as the process of gathering ideas and working with it until they are presented in a manner that is polished and comprehensible to the reader, it is the combination of process and product (linse, 2006; harmer 2007; sokolik, 2003). the competency in writing requires the students to be able to express meaning in short functional text and simple essay acceptable in real context. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 64 teacher has played an important role in writing. he or she asks students to write many numbers of topics and then asses the information content in the message. the clarify of the message conveyed the mechanics of writing such as spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, content and meaning (glazer and brown, in o‘malley 1993:136). another view states that writing integrated two components, such as: cognitive and linguistic components. cognitive components include process how writers use their knowledge to construct meaning through words. the meaning is indicated from clearness of ideas that can make the reader grasp the points of writing. meanwhile, linguistics components, which involve the writing mechanism, support the ideas in order to construct the whole intended meaning. to encourage process writing, teacher can model the selection of topics or writing process itself. three stages of the writing process are: (1) pre writing, or motivation, discussion, and concepts development. the students can formulate the topic before writing, (2) writing, which takes place in classroom or at home so students can rely on both teachers and students for feedback and support, (3) post writing, in which students share their writing other, read aloud what they have written, or exchange writing with other students (gebhard, in o‘malley 1983:139). scientific approach is an approach that is newly introduced in 2013 curriculum.in the teaching and learning process, scientific approach offers several steps such as observing, questioning, experimenting, associating, communicating (kemedikbud 2013:3).scientific approach in english language teaching can be realized through several techniques; problem based learning, project-based learning and discovery learning (arends, 2008: 46) those techniques are expected can be implemented in english teaching in order to make the students achieve the learning activity by scientific approach.agustien as cited by hapsari (2014) presents that 2013 curriculum suggests scientific approach moreover, steps suggested by 2013 curriculum principals in teaching all subject, including language subject. it is also similar to genre based approach which was applied in the previous curriculum. the fundamental theories of scientific approach in this study proposed from vygotsky and john dewey (arends, 2008:47). vygotsky states that learning happens when the student works or learn to handle the task that never learnt before. those tasks are still in their capability range or so called in zone proximal development (zpd) located between the levels of children‘s development. it is also known as the ability of problem solving. john dewey encourages teachers to engage students in a variety of problem-oriented projects and help them investigate the important social and intellectual issues. (arends, 2008:46) project based learning is one of the learning models that can be used by the teachers through scientific approach. students do not only get the knowledge but also gain the skills and attitudes needed in later life. when learning to use the projectbased learning model, students can practice inductive reasoning. as one of the model of scientific approach, project-based offers several steps such as observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking. (education and culture minister act no. 65 year 2013). meike imelda wachyu & dwi rukmini. the effectiveness of project based learning and problem based learning for teaching biography text writing to highly and lowly motivated students __________________________________________________________________________________________ 65 in this project-based learning, students do active learning by observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking. they are really active through physical activities, as well as minds on through the activities of thinking/mentally. project-based learning is an instructional method centered on the students. they learn best by experiencing and solving real world problems. klein (2009:9) states that projectbased learning is the instructional strategy of empowering learners to pursue content knowledge on their own and demonstrate their new understandings through a variety of presentation modes. vygotskyin arends (2008:47) states that learning happens when the students works or learn to handle the task that never learnt before. those tasks are still in their capability range or so called in zone proximal development (zpd) located between the levels of children‘s development. it is also known as the ability of problem solving. in problem-based learning classrooms,the teacher acts as a coach for or facilitator of activities that students carry out themselves. the teacher does not simply present information or directly control the progression of work. instead, the teacher provides students with appropriate problems to work on, assists them in identifying and accessing the materials and equipment necessary to solve the problems. from the explanation above problem based learning (pbl) serves contextual, authentic and meaningful problem to the students (arends, 2008:41). the students learn to solve the problem in real world situation. to help students work on the given problem, teachers should make available a variety of resources. some people might consider project based learning similar to problem based learning. nevertheless, moursund as cited by sawitri (2012) states that project based learning constitutes a broader category of instruction than problem based learning. while project may address specific problem, it can also focus on areas that are not problem. a key characteristic of project based learning is that the project does not focus on learning about something but focuses on doing something. the texts that are expected to be mastered for students in senior high school grade ten,such as recount text and descriptive text. as stated on syllabus of 2013 curriculum in basic competency point 3.9 menganalisa fungsi social, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan pada teks recount sederhana tentang pengalaman/ kejadian/ peristiwa, sesuai dengan konteks penggunannya. analyzing the social function, text structure and linguistic features in recount texts in form of people experience according to the use of the context. in the next point 4.14 menyusun teks recount lisan dan tulis sederhana tentang pengalaman/ kegiatan/ kejadian/ peristiwa, denga nmemperhatikan fungsisosial, strukturteks, dan unsur kebahasaan, secara benar dan sesuai dengan konteks (making the recount text in form of people experience) in recount text, the students are expected to be able to write their past experiment by learning recount. it can be their personal diaries, letters and biographies. even though recount text had been studied since junior high school, sometimes students had problems in writing recount text. recount language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 66 text provides information about what it happened, when it happened, where it happened and who was involved. recount has a social function to retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining the reader. according to sudarwati (2013:197) according to sudarwati (2013:197), the types of recount are: (1) personal recount, this usually retells an event that the writer was personally involved in. (2) biography recount, this usually retells accounts of a person‘s life. (3)factual recount, this records an incident, e.g. a science experiment, police report. (4) imaginative recount, the writer writes an imaginary role and giving details of events in the recount, e.g. a day in the life of a pirate; a story of a mango tree. (5) historical recount, this retells historical events in the past. the characteristics of recount text (sudarwati 2013: 203) are listed below.a recount text has a social function of retelling events for informing or entertaining. it is organized chronologically and is built of three elements. (1) orientation: tells who were involved in the story, when, where, and why the story happened. (2) events: tells what happened in chronological order. (3) re-orientation: concludes the experience. language features of recount are1) the use of nouns and pronouns, (e.g.david, we, her),2) the use of action verbs (e.g. went, run, played),3) the use of past tense (e.g.we went for a trip to zoo),4) the use of time conjunction (e.g. that, first, next, then),5) the use of adverbs and adverbs of phrases (e.g. in my house, two days ago, slowly),6) the use adjectives (e.g. beautiful, slow). a recount text has logically sequenced stages. supporting students to order their thoughts chronologically and develop circumstances will assist them to produce recount texts. biography text is one of the types recount texts. biography presents a subject‘s life story, highlighting various aspects of his or her life, the details of experience and event of the analysis of personality (sudarwati2013:193). a biography also portrays a subject's experience of these events. biographical works are usually nonfiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. the purpose of a biographical recount is to inform by retelling past events and achievements in a person‟s life. methodology the research design that used in this study is factorial design because it has two independent variables. according to cohen (2007:280) factorial design is used when study has two or more independent variables acting on the dependent variable. shuttle (2009: 1) also states that factorial design is often used by scientist wishing to understand the effect two or more variables upon a single dependent variable. it can be used to identify the simultaneous as well as separate effects of independent variables states (tuckman1978: 136) so later, it will be known how one of the variable interact with others. this study is a quasi-experimental research uses purposive random sampling technique and factorial design, since it uses more than one independent variable (project based learning or problem based learning and motivation). meanwhile, in experimental design, a researcher randomly chooses two groups, they are the experimental or control group, and administers a preand post-treatment test (nunan, 1992: 27). factorial design, meike imelda wachyu & dwi rukmini. the effectiveness of project based learning and problem based learning for teaching biography text writing to highly and lowly motivated students __________________________________________________________________________________________ 67 known as the development of experimental design, is a design used by adding a new independent variable, called as moderator variable (saleh, 2011: 24). in this design, before the treatments, the writer gave pretests to both control and experimental groups are given to know the initial condition or the real achievement of each student in both groups. then, the control and the experimental groups were given treatments. the control group was taught by usingproject based learning, while experimental group was taught by using problem based learning. after giving the treatments to the control and the experimental groups, the writer gave posttest to both groups. the population of this research was the tenth graders of state senior high school 2 indramayu. the samples of this research were 34 students of x mia 2 (17 highlymotivated students 17 lowly motivated students) and 34 students of x mia 3(17 highlymotivated students and 17 lowlymotivated students). the two classes got same subject matter based on the same curriculum, the same level and was not classified on rank. they were taken through purposive sampling technique. there were three kinds of variables in this research. they were independent variable, dependent variable, and moderator variable. independent variable is a variable which influences the other variable (darmadi, 2013: 19). in this research, the researcher used project based learning and problem based learning models as independent variables. dependent variable is a variable which is influenced by the other variable (darmadi, 2013: 19). the dependent variable in this research was writing skill. moderator variable is a variable which influences the relationship between dependent variable and independent variable, so it is also called as the second independent variable (darmadi, 2013: 19). the moderator variables in this research were highly and lowlymotivated students. the main instruments used in this research were pre-test and post-test. before doing the experiment, the researcher decided the experimental and control group. class x mia 3 was chosen as control group and class x mia 2 was chosen as experimental group. in choosing the two classes, the researcher also considered the last writing test which has the same language feature with recount text, using past tense; that is narrative text. in deciding the two classes for the research, the researcher chooses the classes which were parallel-balance by having normality and homogeneity test of the last writing test. the two classes were considered for similar characteristics or homogeny. results and discussion paired samples t-test of experimental group for highly motivated students. from the table of paired samples t-test, it could be seen that the significant value was 0.000 with the degree of significance (α) = 5% (0.05). it indicated that 0.000 < α = 0.05. further, it could also be seen that tcount>ttable (0.05)(11) or 9.487 (negative was ignored) > 2.200. therefore, ho was rejected and ha was accepted. it could be concluded that there was a significant result of using project based learning model to teach writing of biography texts to highly motivated students. in other word, project based learning model was effective to teach language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 68 writing of biography texts to highly motivated students in experimental group. paired samples t-test of experimental group for lowly motivated students. from the table of paired samples t-test above, it could be seen that the significant value was 0.000 at the degree of significance (α) = 5% (0.05). it indicated that 0.000 < α = 0.05. further, it could also be seen that tcount>ttable (0.05)(11)or 9.929 (negative was ignored)>2.200. therefore, ho was rejected and ha was accepted. it could be concluded that there was a significant result of using project based learning model to teach writing of biography texts to lowly motivated students. in other word, project based learningmodel was effective to teach writing of biography texts to lowly motivated students in experimental group. paired samples t-test of control group for highly motivated students. from the table of paired samples t-test, it could be seen that the significant value was 0. 000 with the degree of significance (α) = 5% (0.05). it indicates that 0. 000<0.05. furthermore, the table shows us that tcount>ttable (0.05)(11) or 7.003 (negative was ignored) > 2.200. therefore, ho was rejected and ha was accepted. it could be concluded that there was a significant result of using problem based learning model to teachwriting of biography texts to highly motivated students. in other word, problem based learning model was effective to teachwriting biography texts to highlymotivated students in control group. paired samples t-test of control group for lowly motivated students. from the table of paired samples t-test, it could be seen that the significant value was 0.000 with the degree of significance (α) = 5% (0.05). it indicated that 0.000< α = 0.05. furthermore, it could also be seen that tcount>ttable (0.05)(11) or 11.687 (negative was ignored) > 2.200. therefore, ho was rejected and ha was accepted. it could be concluded that there was a significant result of using problem based learning model to teachwriting of biography texts to lowlymotivated students. in other word, problem based learning model was effective to teachwriting of biography texts to lowlymotivated students in control group. the significant calculation of control and experimental groups for mixed high and low motivated students. from the table of paired samples t-test, it could be seen that the significant value was 0.017 with the degree of significance (α) = 5% (0.05). it indicated that 0.017 < α = 0.05. therefore. ho was rejected and ha wasaccepted. it could be concluded that there was significant of students writing between students who taught byusing project based learning (experiment) and those who taught by using problem based learning (control). the interaction between project based learning and problem based learning models and students‘ motivations. from the table of tests of between-subjects effects above, it could be seen that the significant value of biography texts writing in the control and experimental classes (motivationtechnique) was 0.267with the degree of significance (α) = 5% (0.05). it indicated that 0.267> 0.05. further, it could also be seen that fcount>ftable (0.05)(46) or 1.252< 2.82.it could be concluded that ho was accepted and ha was rejected there was no significant interaction among learning models techniques, students‘ motivations and writing of biography texts. in other word, there was no interaction project based meike imelda wachyu & dwi rukmini. the effectiveness of project based learning and problem based learning for teaching biography text writing to highly and lowly motivated students __________________________________________________________________________________________ 69 learning and problem based in enhancing writing biography texts. conclusion and suggestion from the results of data analysis, the writer draws some conclusions as follows: 1) project based learning model, implemented in the experiment, and problem based learning model, implemented in the control group, are effective to teach highly and lowly motivated students in writing biography texts, 2) there wasa significant difference of using problem based learning and project based learning models to enhance writing of biography texts for both highly and lowly motivated students, 3) there was nosignificant interaction among learning models, students‘ motivations and writing of biography texts. for teachers. teacher should consider the advantages of project based learning in biography texts writing and apply in the classroom. teachers and students should consider the grammar intensively, especially for the use of past verb form. furthermore, in teaching, a teacher also should consider the other factors of students‘ psychology, such as motivation. it is done to have the effective teaching and learning process. as one of alternatives, project based learning technique can be used by the teacher in teaching biography text writing for highly and lowly motivated students. for students. the students should be active in every teaching learning process to achieve the better results; in learning process students learn in depth investigation about certain topic. project based learning using authentic, real-world project, based on a highly motivating and engaging question, task, or problem to teach students academic content inthe context of working cooperatively to solve the problem. ‖ (barell, baron,grant 2012) for other researchers. the other researchers can find out the effectiveness of the two learning models to other language skills or based on the students‘ backgrounds; the other researchers can use the similar method of study to find out the effectiveness of another kind of learning model with deeper and more complete results. for the next researchers, they may consider the other moderator variable to find the interaction between the techniques and the moderator variable since in this research, there is no interaction between the strategy and motivation. hopefully, the other researchers may find more beneficial advantages for the teaching and learning process. references agustien, 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to direct students in writing a research proposal.unpublished thesis. semarang: semarang state university language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x exploring undergraduate students’ motivation-regulation strategies in thesis writing krismalita sekar diasti universitas sanata dharma, indonesia email: krismalita.sekar@gmail.com concilianus laos mbato universitas sanata dharma, indonesia email:cons@usd.ac.id abstract self-regulation is an ability that helps the students to maintain their effort in achieving their goals. in self-regulation, students can plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning process. self-regulation encompasses many aspects. one of them is motivation. motivation is considered as one of the important aspects of the learning process. concerning the educational context in indonesia, thesis writing course is a compulsory course. however, students are required to do the task independently. therefore, students have to be self-regulated learners during the process of thesis writing. this study aims to investigate students’ motivation-regulation strategies in thesis writing. there were 9 participants involved in this study. the participants were students of english language and education study program of sanata dharma university. this study belongs to mixed-method research. questionnaire and interview were used as instruments to collect the data. the results of this study revealed that the participants used some motivation-regulation strategies, namely, self-consequating, environmental structuring, goal-oriented self-talk, interest enhancement, and attribution control. additionally, the majority of the participants were apt to procrastinate writing their thesis. the implications are provided for undergraduate students, thesis advisor, and future researchers. keywords: self-regulation, motivation-regulation, motivation-regulation strategies tors is motivation. motivation is an important factor that determines students’ successfulness as motivation will keep students on the right track to achieve their goals (ellis, 1994; mcdonough, 1983; mali, 2015). although the goal has already been determined by the university, motivation still holds an important role to engage the students in achieving the directed goal. many students do not finish writing their thesis on time because they are unmotivated to write it. factors that can affect students to become unmotivated come from internal and external. internal factors can be a willingness to finish writing thesis as soon as possible, curiosity to explore more about the topic since the topic is interesting for the students and thought that writing thesis will be beneficial for their future. motivation that comes from external can be support from parents, friends, and lecturers. both internal and external factors can support the students to finish writing their thesis. in thesis writing course, students are required to finish the process individually. the lecturer is only the facilitator and not the main determinant for the students to graduate on time. introduction with regard to educational context in indonesia, writing a thesis is a compulsory course which students should pass to graduate from a university. students who graduate on time are considered successes in attaining their bachelor’s degree (amin, indahwati & angraini, 2013). students who graduate on time are those who finish their studies less or exactly four years (amin et al., 2013). on the other hand, students who graduate not on time are those who graduate for more than five years (amin et al., 2013). to guarantee the quality of a university, every university continuously monitors and evaluates the quality of graduates especially the stipulated time for graduating. in english language education study program, henceforth called elesp, of sanata dharma university, students must write a thesis or research paper as a requirement to graduate. many students can finish writing their thesis on time while others need more than four years to finish it. there are several factors influence the students in writing their thesis. one of the faclanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 177 riences.” students who are self-regulated will be more successful in their achievements (hallberg & olsson, 2017). self-regulation encompasses many aspects. for instance, motivation, attitude, volition, feelings, atribution, learned helplessnes and self-efficacy (mbato, 2013). this study focuses on motivation-regulation. motivation-regulation centralizes on activities to initiate or maintain students’ willingness to accomplish a task (wolters, 2003a). motivation-regulation can also be addressed as regulation of motivation. regulating motivation is important as it can maintain or even increase the students’ motivation (grunschel et al., 2016). as wolters and benzon (2013) state that motivation-regulation can be defined as students’ active participation in maintaining or improving their motivation. dornei (2005) also defines that regulation of motivation is the way how we manage our motivation. it is believed that if a student can preserve their motivation, h/she can learn better and accomplish a task successfully (mukti, 2017). it can be concluded that motivation-regulation includes the behavior to maintain students’ effort and persistence in completing a task. students need to be self-regulated learners in managing their motivation. it is found that students who use some motivation-regulation strategies will have an increasing effort management (schwinger, steinmayr, & spinath, 2009). the researcher focuses more on the regulation of motivation strategies stated by wolters (2003a) although all the strategies are not included in this study. there are six strategies used as theoretical bases. the first strategy is self-consequating. this strategy is used when students give rewards to themselves after finishing the task. for instance, they will treat themselves with a delicious meal or go to the cinema. on the other hand, students will give themselves consequences when they have not finished doing the task in the target time. the second strategy is environmental structuring. in this strategy, the students attempt to construct their surroundings as a comfortable place for them to do the task. environmental structuring includes efforts to avoid destructions occurred in completing the task. for instance, students will choose a quiet room to study, listen to music while doing the task or even scold people who bother them. the third strategy is goal-oriented self-talk. goal-oriented self-talk is students’ thought which underlies why they should finish doing the task. the fourth strategy is interest enhancetherefore, students should have the capability to regulate their learning. based on the theories of self-regulation, a person is successful in the learning process when he can monitor and evaluate his learning process independently (oates, 2019). students do not always have high motivation in writing their thesis. the low motivation for completing a task can be a hindrance in self-regulated learning (grunschel, schwinger, steinmayr & fries, 2016). therefore, students need to increase or maintain their motivation to attain the goal. motivation plays a crucial aspect in the learning process (rofi, rukmini, & hartono, 2014; budiana & djuwari, 2018). motivation is believed as one of the paramount factors in attaining a goal. in a classroom, students are diverse and have different differences. the differences can be seen from their motivation as well (apriliyanti, warsono, & mujiyanto, 2018). syafiq and saleh (2012) claim that motivation is an important factor which can influence students’ success or failure. according to long, min, and chen (2013), motivation is a drive which directs into the goal. in line with gilakjani, leong, and sabouri (2012) who claim that “motivation is the impulse that generates the action.” defina and sundari (2016) also share the same point of view that motivation is something which direct and maintain students’ behavior. in brief, motivation is a boost which emerges both from oneself and others. there are two types of motivation, namely, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. intrinsic motivation is a form of motivation driven by pleasure, desire, attitude, interest, and the internal factors of an individual (handriana, ismail & mahdum, 2013). extrinsic motivation can be found in praise, prizes, grades, and fun learning environment that encourage the students to learn (handriana et al., 2013). motivation is one of the aspects in selfregulation (mbato, 2013). self-regulation is an ability which “individuals are metacognitively, motivationally and behaviorally active in their own learning” (zimmerman, bonner, & kovach, 1996). metacognitively means that individuals are able to use their metacognition skills (plan, monitor and evaluate) in their learning process. motivationally is when students have the desire to engage in the learning process. behaviorally means that individuals show their efforts to achieve their goals. zumbrunn, tadlock, and roberts (2011) share the same point of view that “self-regulation can assist the students in managing their thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to successfully navigate their learning expelanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 178 ment. interest enhancement is a strategy used to increase students’ intrinsic motivation such as making the learning process more enjoyable or interesting (e.g. through game). the fifth strategy is self-handicapping. students elude obstacles that occurred before or during completing the task. for instance, the students avoid procrastinate the task or cram the night before the test. the sixth strategy is attribution control. this strategy is used when the students intentionally select factors which cause them to be succeeded or fail in completing a task. attribution control can maintain, increase or even decrease students’ motivation in doing a task. self-regulation is the most discussed topic by the previous researchers. nevertheless, little research has discussed self-regulation in thesis writing course, especially in motivation (mbato & cendra, 2019). according to mbato and cendra (2019), motivation-regulation is a paramount aspect for students in thesis writing course as it helps the students to maintain their motivation as well as assist them to find help when it is needed. this topic is relevant to the educational context in indonesia as writing a thesis is a requirement for the students to graduate. to fill the gap, the researcher conducts this study focusing on motivation-regulation strategies. this study aims to examine students’ motivation-regulation strategies in thesis writing course. the recommendations for students, thesis advisors, and future researchers are provided as well in this study. methodology the researcher employed mixed method to collect and analyze the data. mixed method is an approach that collects, analyzes, and mixes both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study (creswell, 2012). there were nine participants involved in this study. two out of nine participants were those who finished writing their thesis intime whereas, the others were those who have not done writing their thesis. the participants were elesp students batch 2014. the samples were chosen by using purposive sampling. purposive sampling allows the researcher to find participants who are willing to give information related to the study (mulyana, 2018). the considerations were that students who were graduated in-time, students in the eleventh semenster who took a thesis course and students who were willing to be the participant of this study. triangulation was used to crosscheck the data through different instruments. the instruments employed in this research were questionnaire and interview. the researcher calculated the data from questionnaire and found the mean of them. the results of the questionnaire were presented in the table. then, the researcher interpreted the data and supported with the data from interview session. results and discussion in this subchapter, the researcher elaborates on the findings obtained through questionnaire and interview. this subchapter is divided into six parts based on motivation-regulation strategies. self-consequating self-consequating strategy is used to provide an extrinsic reward or consequence for students’ commitment in accomplishing a task (zimmerman & pons, 1986; wolters, pintrich & karabenick, 2005). for instance, a student will treat himself a delicious meal after completing a task. besides, the students can give themselves a consequence if they do not make any progress or do not accomplish a task. the results of the questionnaire reveal that most of the participants give reward or consequence in the process of writing their thesis. the rewards and consequences are diverse. the findings of open-ended question show that the participants treat themselves to buy an ice cream, go to the salon, watch videos on youtube, or travel around if they have significant progress in writing their thesis. however, some of them do not play their smart phones or hang out with their friends as the consequences of not completing their target. based on the result of the interviews, p9 states, “kalau aku ada progres aku bakal pergi ke salon buat refresh pikiraku supaya bisa semangat lagi pas nglanjutin nulis skripsi (if there is a progress, i will go to salon to refresh my mind so i can be eager in to continue writing my thesis).” p1 also claims that “ya paling beli es krim atau nonton film gitu kalo nggak ya main game biar enggak stress aja (i will buy an ice cream, watch a movie or play games just to make me feel less stress).” p2 share the same point of view as well. p2 states that “aku suka ngasih reward dalam bentuk apapun misalnya aku bisa melakukan apapun yang ku mau kalau aku memenuhi targetku (i give reward to myself in any kind of form. for instance, i will allow myself to do anything if i can achieve my target).” these findings are supported by grunschel et al., (2016) who language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 179 claim that the strategy of self-consequating will increase the chance of performing the same behavior again. the results of the interviews also present that the participants have timeline schedule in writing their thesis. however, they do not apply the timeline schedule. therefore, the cannot achieve their target. environmental structuring in completing a task, we tend to make our environment as comfortable as possible. our effort to make the environment become comfortable can be defined as environmental structuring (zimmerman & pons, 1986; wolters et al., 2005). the actions to make the environment become pleasant can be done in various ways. for instance, listening to music when accomplish a task, choosing a quiet room to study, or scolding people who bother them. the results of the questionnaire reveal that the participants use several strategies to create a comfortable place to write their thesis. based on the table 2, the participants prefer to write their thesis in a quiet room. some of the participants listen to music while writing their thesis. in the interview session, p2 expresses that “ya aku milih lingkungan yang sunyi sih, kalaupun enggak sunyi ya asal mereka enggak ngrecokin aku ya aku enggak masalah tapi kalau udah berisik banget ya aku tegur mereka (i prefer to choose a quiet environment, if it is not quiet as long as other people do not bother me then i do not mind about it but if they are too noisy then i will scold them).” p3 conveys that “tempatnya harus tenang supaya bisa fokus contohnya di perpustakaan walaupun banyak orang tapi tetap tenang. kalau mengerjakan di kampus malah berisik (the place should be quiet so that i can be focus. for instance at the library. although there are a lot of people the place is still quiet. if i do that at campus, it will be too noisy).” the findings from the interview session are in line with grunschel et al., (2016) who emphasize that environmental structuring can be done by eliminating the distraction. moreover, wolters and rosenthal (2000) claim that environmental structuring strategy is used to arrange students’ environment which can support them to accomplish a task without interruption. it can be done by choosing a quiet room or ask other students to quiet down (wolters et al., 2005). goal-oriented self-talk to regulate motivation, students can affirm reasons why they would like to achieve a particular learning goal (wolters et al., 2005). students will highlight their important reason. in this motivation-regulation strategy, students will use their thoughts or verbal statement to foster their engagement in achieving a particular goal (wolters et al., 2005). the findings reveal that the participants use this strategy to maintain their motivation. the participants use their thoughts to remind themselves that they should attain their goal. the findings of the questionnaire show that most of the participants employ goaloriented self-talk strategy. the participants always remaind themselves to continue writing their thesis. moreover, they also convince themselves about the importance of completing their thesis. the findings from the interview session also indicate that the participants use this strategy in the process of writing their thesis. as wolters (2003a) states that goal-oriented table 1. students’ self-consequating strategy statements sd d n a sa i promise myself i can do something that i want after completing my thesis chapters. (0) (0) (0) (6) 66.7% (3) 33.3% i give myself consequences when i have not made any progress in writing my thesis. (0) (2) 22.2% (4) 44.4% (2) 22.2% (1) 11.1% table 2. students’ environmental structuring strategy statements sd d n a sa i prefer to write my thesis in a quiet room. (0) (0) (1) 11.1% (4) 44.4% (4) 44.4% i like listening to music when i write my thesis. (1) 11.1% (2) 22.2% (1) 11.1% (2) 22.2% (3) 33.3% when writing my thesis, i try to make sure that i have a few destructions as possible. (0) (0) (2) 22.2% (3) 33.3% (4) 44.4% language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 180 self-talk strategy is used to reinforce a certain behavior and keep persisting in achieving a particular goal. this statement is in line with the findings of the interview session. p1 mentions that “eemmm, ya soalnya ini udah tahun keberapa jadi tidak boleh yang namanya nyerah, orang tua juga sudah mengoyak-oyak hehe (um, yeah because this is already the umpteen year so i cannot give up, my parents have already remind me as well).” p1 adds more information “ya biasanya diingetin juga sih sama temen atau sama orang tua diingetin atau enggak liat di instagram foto-foto liburan wah enak ayok ndang hehe (my friends and parents always remind me or i got tempted by vacation photos on instagram and i need to get rush).” p3 also shares the same idea “pas aku lagi males biasanya orang tua mengingatkan jadi aku sadar dan harus segera menyelesaikan (when i am lazy to write my thesis, my parent reminds me and i realize that i should finish writing my thesis as soon as possible).” interest enhancement students will intrinsically be motivated in attaining a learning goal if they are interested in certain activity (wolters, 2003a). however, students will not always have high level of interest in something. therefore, this strategy can be used to maintain and increace students’ motivation in accomplishing a task. based on the results of the questionnaire, some participants have interest in writing their thesis. some other participants do not interested in writing their thesis. based on the results of the interviews, it can be concluded that the participants have interest in writing their thesis. they find that writing thesis is a fun activity to do. p1 mentions that “ya biasanya sambil dengerin musik sih (i usually listen to music while writing my thesis).” as wolters and rosenthal (2000) claim that interest enhancement strategy can increase students’ effort on completing a task by creating enjoyable situation. for instance, making learning into fun activity by creating a game (grunschel et al., 2016). however, they encounter some problems which can lower their interest. the results of the interviews are in line with the point of view shared by hallberg and olsson (2017) who emphasize that students will encounter some difficulties in writing an academic paper. p1 states that “menyenangkan sebenernya hehe cuma apa ya karena dosennya tidak mau memberi tahu kesalahannya di mana jadi ya males ngerjain juga (it is actually interesting but my advisor does not want to tell my mistake. then, i feel lazy to complete writing my thesis).” p2 adds that “menyenangkan sih karena kan aku tertarik sama topik yang aku teliti (it is actually fun because i am interested in the topic that i chose).” additionally, p3 reveals that “sebernernya ada interest tapi aku enggak biasa nyomot perkataan ahli jadi susahnya disitu (actually, i have an interest but i cannot cite experts’ opinion so that is the hardest part).” self-handicapping based on the results of the questionnaire, there are two participants who finished writing their thesis in-time tended not to procrastinate in completing their thesis. there are seven out of nine participants who have not done writing their thesis. the participants who have not done writing their thesis opt to procrastinate writing their thesis chapters. these findings are supported by wolters (2003b) who underlines that “high levels of procrastination appear inconsistent with the behaviors typically attributed to self-regulated learners.” it can be concluded that high level of procrastination correlates to low level of self-regulation. all interviewees mention that they tend to table 3. students’ goal-oriented self-talk strategy statements sd d n a sa when i want to give up, i convince myself to keep writing by thinking about completing my thesis. (0) (1) 11.1% (3) 33.3% (4) 44.4% (1) 11.1% i remind myself how important it is to finish writing my thesis. (0) (0) (3) 33.3% (2) 22.2% (4) 44.4% table 4. students’ interest enhancement strategy statements sd d n a sa i always try to make writing thesis as fun as possible. (0) (2) 22.2% (4) 44.4% (1) 11.1% (2) 22.2% language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 181 procrastinate on writing their thesis. they provide the reasons why they procrastinate as well. p1 states that “ya pernah, karena males terus banyak revisi (yes, i have. i am just lazy because of too much revision).” p2 mentions “iya, aku hanya mengulangi patternnya emm jadi ngerjain terus habis-habisan diralat terus balik lagi (yes, i just repeat the pattern um so i write and then get the revision and repeat the same activity again).” p3 revelas that “sering, alasan aku suka nunda skripsi ya karena aku kesulitan untuk bahas sendiri jadi aku butuh temen untuk kaya diajak apa namanya katakanlah tuker pikiran dan sebagainya (i often put off writing my thesis. the reasons why i put off writing my thesis because i find difficulty so i need a friend to discuss and brainstorm and so on.)” the findings of this motivation-regulation strategy indicate that the participants do not use this motivation-regulation strategy. in line with grunschel et al., (2016) who state that the more students use motivation-regulation strategies the lower will the procrastination on finishing the task be. however, the findings reveal that the students still procrastinate on completing their thesis. procrastinate is the crucial aspect in completing a task since it can hinder the students in acomplishing a task. therefore, students need to regulate themselves and avoid putting off the task. attribution control attribution is defined as a primary factor which can influence students’ motivation (sutantoputri & watt, 2012). students can attribute something from external or internal factors as the causes of their success or failure. students tend to attribute external factors such as other people or the task given when they encounter failure (weiner, 1986). students need to address the causes appropriately. appropriate attribution can be defined when students select the internal factors as the cause of their success or failure (wolters, 2003). this appropriate attribution refers to controllable factors which students can handle to overcome it. for instance, their effort in accomplising the task. in this motivation-regulation strategy, the participants have appropriate attribution control. they attribute themselves as the causes when they do not have progress in writing their thesis chapters. the results of the interviews support the findings of the questionnaire as well. all the interviewees express the same idea. p1 claim that “ya kalo aku enggak ada progress ya lebih nyalahin ke diriku sih (if i do not make any progres then i will blame myself).” p2 expresses “emang bisa nyalahin siapa lagi hehe itu pasti salahku lah (who else should i blame, of course that is my mistake).” p3 adds, “condong menyalahkan diri sendiri sih karena kan kalo aku nunda ya pasti karena akunya males atau memang ada hal lain yang lebih penting buat aku kerjaiin (i tend to blame myself. i procrastinate writing my thesis mainly because i am lazy or i have another urgent thing which should be done quickly.).” these findings are supported by weiner (1986) who asserts that students should avoid blaming external factors for the causes of their success or failure. the findings of this motivationstrategy present that the participants have already attributed the causes of their failure or success appropriately. students have to address appropriate attribution as attribution control plays an important role in sharpening students’ motivation (dornyei, 2005). conclusion research on students’ motivation-regulation strategies has not been examined by the previous researchers. this topic is relevant in indonesia educational context. writing a thesis is one of the requirements for students to graduate from university level. this research has done to explore students’ motivation-regulation strategies in thesis writing course. table 5. students’ self-handicapping strategy statements sd d n a sa i avoid procrastinating on writing my thesis chapters. (1) 11.1% (2) 22.2% (4) 44.4% (0) (2) 22.2% table 6. students’ attibution control strategy statements sd d n a sa i blame myself when i do not make any progress in completing my thesis chapters. (0) (0) (4) 44.4% (2) 22.2% (3) 33.3% i attribute other people as the causes of my failure in completing my thesis chapters. (3) 33.3% (1) 11.1% (4) 44.4% (1) 11.1% (0) language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 182 motivation-regulation plays an important aspect in thesis writing course. motivation-regulation is believed to help the students in mantaining and increasing their motivation to accomplish writing their thesis. this study focuses on motivation-regulation strategies used by undrgraduate students. based on the findings, there are two conclusions elaborated in the following. first, the participants only use five strategies of motivation-regulation, namely, self-consequating, environmental structuring, goal-oriented self-talk, interest enhancement, and attribution control. second, most of the participant still procrastinated to write their thesis. the findings of this study are supported by previous studies (wolters, 2003b & grunschel et al., 2016). previous studies reveal that pocrastinating can affect students’ motivation-regulation. procrastination makes the students become unmotivated to continue writing their thesis. in addition, the researcher provides three implications. first, students need to regulate themselves in writing their thesis. the deadline of thesis writing course is unclear. therefore, each student has different timeline. students have to be self-regulated, especially in maintaining their motivation. students need to manitain or increase their motivation-regulation as it can drive them in achieving a certain goal. second, the thesis advisor have to encourage the students. encouragement from thesis advisor can boost students’ motivation in completing their thesis writng task. third, this study has a limitation. this research was conducted in a small sample size. future researchers who are interested to examine similar area need to include a larger sample. references amin, f. n. a., indahwati, & angraini, y. 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(1986). development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. american educational research journal, 23(4), 614-628. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x the role of malcolm x’s speeches in solidifying his autobiography ammar aqeeli american literature, jazan university, saudi arabia email: ammar383@live.com abstract this paper demonstrates how a literary text can be approached through a linguistic framework to enhance one’s reading and interpretation of it. it aims at examining the power of the autobiography of malcolm x: as told to alex haley by analyzing the narrator’s description of his early speeches. i draw upon the appraisal framework, and i focus on malcolm’s utilization of affect, judgment, and appreciation in a number of his speeches that he reported in the book. in those speeches, malcolm adopts resources from the appraisal framework to align his audience with his position. his performance of affective stance to construct the entire problem of race in america contributed to the success of his book for more than 50 years since its publication. keywords: appraisal; black power; civil rights; malcolm x; racism  vement in criminal activities during his younger years is exaggerated. the aim of this study is not to reassess this claim but to examine malcom’s adoption of linguistic strategies as an effective way to give his book an ongoing appeal to a wide african american reading public. as is the case with most autobiographies, the autobiography of malcolm x contains fictional elements, commonly “self-invention,” which is a successful strategy for him “to reach the most marginalized sectors of the black community” and to give “justification to their hopes” (marable 2011, prologue, life beyond the legend). within malcolm’s goal of bringing hope to the disenfranchised black population, is what is described as actual excerpts from his speeches, whose accuracy could also be called into question. however, whether these speeches were accurately reported or not, they were incorporated into the book to reflect malcolm’s desire to free the black minds from the effects of the inferiority complex largely imposed by the oppressor. i argue that malcom’s employment of some linguistic elements was to show how his speeches work well to mesmerize his readers and get his message of black liberation across to them. at the core of the autobiography of malcolm x is a discourse of conversion that malcolm wanted to share with his readers. the goal of his work, so as is with many works of literature by african american writers, is to indict racism and its psychological consequences for black people. in the book, malcolm’s condemnation of white racism in mainstream america comes through narrating his religious conversion. he portrayed his renouncement of christianity and introduction malcolm x, originally named malcolm little, was born on 19 may 1925 in omaha, nebraska. he changed his last name to x, which signifies an unknown, as an act of rejection of his “slave” name. malcolm was an influential african-american civil rights leader and a prominent figure in the nation of islam (noi) (which was founded in detroit, michigan, united states in 1930 by wallace d. fard muhammad. it is a black nationalist organization whose goal was to uplift and liberate black people in america). its leaders rejected integration and preached black supremacy and racial separation. his father, earl little, a baptist minister and a member of marcus garvey’s universal negro improvement association, was arguably killed by a streetcar when malcolm was only six years old. however, malcolm strongly believed that his father had been murdered by the black legion who placed his body on the trolley tracks to make it look like an accident. coming from a very poor family, malcolm became involved in criminal activities such as robbery, drug dealing, and hustling on streets, which sent him to jail for six years. however, his time in prison led him to a complete change and a positive perception of his race through the teachings of elijah muhammad (who was the leader of the nation of islam from 1934 until his death in 1975). a number of critics have questioned the accuracy of malcom’s vivid account of his life story in his autobiography. manning marble (2011) asserted that malcolm’s narration of his invollanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 131 life before and after his embrace of the noi’s teachings takes up three-fourths of the book. in so doing, malcolm wanted to emphasize the transformative power of the noi’s message and its potential to expose the historical and contemporary devaluations of the humanity of black people. the power of malcolm’s narrative lies in his early speeches that he claims he delivered while he was a minister in the nation of islam. these speeches are intended to dismantle the combined “interrelationship” between the oppressor’s linguistic forms and “the surrounding semiotic media to express macro-level messages of power, control, racism, hegemony, dominance and discrimination” (strauss & feiz, 20013, p. 316). indeed, at the center of these speeches is the notion of raising black consciousness that racial integration inhibits black self-determination. for malcolm, integration makes black people dependent on the white man, which perpetuates the idea that he is superior over them. for almost one century since the abolition of slavery, african americans kept seeking recognition of their humanity from their oppressor, but they are not even allowed to formulate a positive self-defined black identity. the result was that black people in america were trapped by “double consciousness,” a “sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others” (du bois, 1994, p. 2). malcolm’s message in his early speeches call for awakening black people racial consciousness and for transforming their distorted reality. the effectiveness of these speeches can be attributed to the fact that they express the words that are on the minds and in the hearts of thousands of oppressed african americans. moreover, malcolm’s reliance on a variety of linguistic resources maintains the strong relationship that he develops with his audiences throughout the book. methodology the data selected for this study are samples from malcolm x’s speeches during his early years as a minister in the nation of islam. these speeches are very important in achieving his goal of opening “the eyes of his brainwashed black brethren to some truths about the black race” (x & haley, 1992, p. 185). however, his success in increasing the number his followers was not easy. for instance, malcolm reports that each time he invited black people to mr. muhammad’s teachings, they “rebuffed and even ridiculed” him (p. 205). malcolm knows that “the nation of islam’s strict moral code and discipline was what repelled them” (p. 225). despite all this, and after several his conversion to the black muslim teachings as the first right step to help african americans in their struggle with anti-black racism: “the holy bible in the white man’s hands and his interpretations of it have been the greatest single ideological weapon for enslaving millions of nonwhite human beings” (x & haley 1992, 277). for malcolm, christianity, as interpreted by the oppressor, will not bring justice to people of color in america. he emphasizes the importance of his religious conversion as it mitigates the negative consequences of oppression manifest in the psyche of african americans. malcolm speeches that describe his conversion and urge his audiences to join the nation of islam work as models of “psychological changes,” through which their dignity and worth are affirmed (franklin 19989, 296). in the book, malcolm (1992) describes his first contact with mr. muhammad. he proclaims that he used to love being around the whites in prison before his exposure to mr. muhammad’s message. he believes that mr. muhammad’s teachings influenced him and changed his attitude toward his black “brothers.” mr. muhammad stressed the importance of blacks not to buy into the idea that they are “inferior.” his rhetoric emphasized the glorious pre-slavery history of black people as a strategy to destroy the negative images their oppressor constructed about them. as a result, malcolm x informs his readers that he decides to devote much of his time searching for more details about black history. he spends most of his time reading books about black people’s history. he reads wonders of the world, which contains pictures of archeological finds and statues depicting non-european people. he also reads carter g. woodson’s negro history, which opens his “eyes about black empires before black slave was brought to the united states” (p. 178). malcolm (1992) states that mr. muhammad taught him about the forgotten civilizations of black people, such as coptic christian empires, ethiopia, “the earth’s oldest continuous black civilization” (p. 178). he demonstrates that he got attached to the belief that the black man was the “original man” after he read gregor mendel’s findings in genetics. malcolm declares that his life in prison gave him the desire to open the eyes of his “brainwashed black brethren to some truths about the black race” (p. 185). the goal of this study is to examine how malcolm’s early speeches in his bestselling the autobiography of malcolm x have contributed to popularizing his book for more than 50 years since its publication. malcolm’s description of his language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 132 speeches, malcolm (1992) claims that his followers increased from only 400 members to around 40,000 members from 1952 to 1960, (p. 417). in addition, malcolm expresses his excitement about the fact that millions of people worldwide were listening to his speeches and interviews on radio and television (p. 205). the ideas derived from these speeches address the realities of everyday black people, and they demand to affect socio-economic change through which the condition of black people in america can be improved the interpersonal function of language derived from m.a.k. halliday’s (2015) systematic functional linguistics (sfl) suggests that speakers use language as a means of their own intrusion into the communication events. they set up relationships between themselves and the audiences through expressing their attitudes, evaluations and comments. they express their own attitudes and judgments and seek to influence the attitudes and behavior of others. according to m. a. k. halliday (2015), “the speaker adopts for himself a particular speech role, and in so doing assigns to the listener a complementary role which he wishes him to adopt in his turn.” (p. 246). speakers play an important communicative role through language to maintain social relations. the interpersonal function of language is important to establish and maintain all human relationships. through language, social groups and individuals are identified, integrated and reinforced. generally speaking, the interpersonal function of language is concerned with the way humans bring themselves into being through language. inside the interpersonal function of language, the appraisal framework demonstrates the ways speakers/writers identify themselves with other individuals in their society or other social groups. according to martin (2000), appraisal refers to “the semantic resources used to negotiate emotions, judgment and evaluations, alongside resources for amplifying and engaging with these evaluations” (p. 145). the appraisal framework focuses on the social function of language conveyed in the communication events, through which speaker/writer “engage with sociallydetermined value positions and thereby align or dis-align themselves with the social subjects who hold to these positions” (white, 2011, p. 14). they also take stance and express emotions and feelings to influence the reaction of their potential respondents and construct an ideal audience for their discourses. according to martin and white (2005), the appraisal framework is centered upon the concept of stance (p. 40), which largely depends on michael stubbs’ (1986) argument that “whenever speakers (or writers) say anything, they encode their point of view towards it” (p. 1). i rely on the appraisal framework and focus on malcolm’s affect, judgment, and appreciation, which are reflected in his speeches during his activities as a civil rights leader. martin and white (2005) proposed three resources for the appraisal framework: attitude, engagement, and graduation. attitude, which is divided into affect, judgment, and appreciation, refers to “our feelings, including emotional reactions, judgments of behavior and evaluation of things” (p. 35). technically, affect refers to the resources for expressing emotional states, judgment is the “resources for judging character,” and appreciation is the “resources for valuing the worth of things” (p. 35). these resources can be classified into inscribed or invoked evaluations. inscribed resources state the ideological position of the speaker explicitly. for example, malcolm calls white man “devilish.” in doing so, he explicitly asks the audience to share this evaluation. the invoked evaluations draw the audience towards the speaker’s position, which is explicitly expressed by the inscribed attitude. since stance is an interpersonal experience, affective stance in malcolm speeches reveals different levels of positive and negative emotional involvement such as sympathy, hate, sadness, and anger. moreover, attitudes “can be more or less intense, that is they may be more or less amplified” (martin & rose, 2003, p. 23). in other words, they are gradable in that “their volume can be turned up and down depending on how intensely we feel” (p. 23). the resources that the speakers use to display the degree of their reactions’ strength are called amplification. also, the attitude can be attributed to the speaker or it may be attributed to some other source. in other words, who else does make attitudes besides the speaker? one very common way to make evaluative attitudes is “to create another voice in the story, by using direct or indirect speech” (p. 23). in addition, people express their feelings in two different ways. they can express good feelings or bad feelings, which martin and rose (2003) called negative and positive affect. moreover, affect can be expressed directly, or it can be inferred indirectly from the way people behave. these expressions of feelings are labeled as indirect or implied affect. results and discussion qualitative analysis of malcolm speeches examines how affective stance constructs or fralanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 133 mes the entire problem of race in america. it also examines how the whites as the enemy are generally represented and how the blacks as the victims are represented. in his efforts to draw his audience to question the humane and moral images that the white man constructed about himself, malcolm reminds them of the traumatic episodes of slavery and its effects on their ancestors. in this way, malcolm is trying to evoke an emotional reaction from his listeners, which is standing up with him against the systematic injustice against black people. in his speech in 1953 in detroit temple number one, malcolm (1992) asks his audience to “think of that black slave man filled with fear and dread, hearing the screams of his wife, his mother, his daughter being taken – in the barn … being raped” (p. 206). within this speech, malcolm provides negative evaluations of the activities of white slaveholders. indeed, since affect is regarded as an emotional reaction to phenomena like slavery, it is normal that malcolm constructs the activities of slaveholders with negative emotions. in their representations, malcolm explicitly states that the actions of white slave masters make them controlling, “rapist,” emasculating and threatening. these evaluations clearly express negative affect in that they express anger, fear, sadness, and disapproval. in the same speech in detroit temple, malcolm says: “this white man always has controlled us …[that] rapist slavemaster who emasculated the black man … with threats, with fear … until even today the black man lives with fear of the white man in his heart” (pp. 205-06). these negative evaluations are examples of inscribed attitudes and are employed to explicitly express malcolm’s judgment, which also has the invoked attitude potential to secure the audience’s judgment to align with the speaker’s position. malcolm’s narration of some of the horrific episodes of slavery to his black audience functions as a tactic to involve them in their ancestors’ feelings. he displays sympathy and empathy to those who were exploited by the institution of slavery, the most oppressive legal structure in american history. malcolm (1992) expresses the slaves’ emotions as follows: think of the black slave man filled with fear and dread, hearing the screams of his wife, his mother, his daughter being taken – in the barn, the kitchen, in the bushes! think of it, my dear brothers and sisters! think of hearing wives, mothers, daughters, being raped! and you were too filled with fear of the rapist to do anything about it! and his vicious, animal attacks’ offspring, this white man named things like “mulatto” and “quadroon” and “octoroon” and all those things that he has called us – you and me – when he is not calling us “nigger”! (p. 206) what malcolm narrates about the oppression of slaves is very tragic. therefore, most of the feelings are negative as one would not like to feel fear and dread or want to be anguished watching one family member being raped and doing nothing about it. malcolm also employs direct expressions of feelings. he uses words that name specific emotions to directly describe a mental state such as “fear” and “dread.” he also refers to the slaves’ emotions physically, describing behaviors that also directly express emotion. for example, “hearing wives … being raped” and “hearing [their] screams,” describe a dreadful experience that involves an agonizing mental pain and emotional torment of the victims. according to malcolm, both the slaves and their family members were experiencing physical and mental torment simultaneously. moreover, malcolm (1992) creates another voice in the same speech to attribute feelings by using direct speech. he quotes terms that whites coined and used to judge blacks negatively. these words are “mulatto,” “quadroon” and “octoroon.” this intermediate source of judgment in malcolm’s speech is important in that it stirs his audience’s emotions to condemn their oppressor. indeed, these quoted terms are derogatory and came into use during slavery and used by whites to classify children of black and white parents. for instance, “mulatto” is a term comes from a spanish word for mule, which is a cross between a horse and a donkey, a very ugly comparison. in other words, mixed-race were considered inferior and “vicious offspring.” they were offspring of illegitimate non-consensual relationships, yet they had to endure white scorn. these terms like “mulatto” are evaluative judgments of a character but at the same time they evoke negative emotions such as anger and disapproval. same as affect, according to martin and rose (2003), “judgments of people’s character can be positive or negative, and they may be judged explicitly or implicitly” (p. 28). martin and rose divided judgment into two types: personal judgments, which refer to the judgments of admiration and criticism, and moral judgments, which refer to the judgments of praise and condemnation. in malcolm early speeches, he expresses both personal and moral judgments in different ways to represent differences between the black and white people. these representations serve to raise awareness among his black audience of how important that they need to realize the value of language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 134 their race and themselves if they want respect and prosperity. these are basic rights that malcolm (1992) believed the white man would not allow his people to have unless they separate themselves entirely from whites. according to malcolm’s speech in detroit temple one in 1953: we did’t land on plymouth rock, my brothers and sisters – plymouth rock landed on us! … give all you can to help messenger elijah muhammad’s independence program for the black man! … this white man always has controlled us black people by keeping us running to him begging. ‘please, lawdy, please, mr. white man, boss, would you push me off another crumb down from your table that’s sagging with riches …’ (p. 205) in the speech above, malcolm uses metaphor to construct implied criticism of white european pilgrims. according to david k. clark and robert v. rakestraw (2008), the pilgrims found america for “white, anglo-saxon protestantswasp.” in other words, non-wasps were not welcomed and they “[came] on wasp terms, with wasp permission, and must adapt to wasp culture” (p. 264). according to clark and rakestraw (2008), the reason malcolm said, “we did’t land on plymouth rock, my brothers and sisters – plymouth rock landed on us,” was because africans were identified by their skins and “faced obstacles at every turn” (p. 264). indeed, the african slaves were brought to the new world by force and against their will. yet, this white, anglo-saxon protestant kept increasing oppression and discrimination each time the black man desired liberation. therefore, instead of the africans landed on plymouth rock, which is a symbol of america, by their will and warmly welcomed and treated with dignity, the plymouth rock metaphorically landed on them, thus crushing their hopes and dreams for any prosperous future. moreover, there is an implied moral judgment of condemnation in malcolm’s use of plymouth rock’s metaphor. according to martin and rose (2003), metaphor plays a role in constructing emotions (p. 27). in fact, these emotions, which come in the form of implied condemnation, express malcolm’s feelings of disappointment, hurt, anger and sadness. malcolm’s metaphor implies a moral condemnation of christians who justified slavery as a moral necessity despite the fact that slavery was contrary to christian practice. instead of defending those who were unjustly brought to america, many christians believed that they had a religious duty to convert slaves to christianity as a way of furthering god’s kingdom. according to john b. boles (1998), “[one] justification for slavery was that it was a providentially designed institution christianizing and civilizing the “heathen” of africa” (p. 37). malcolm also seems to condemn christian denominations in america for not being quick in condemning slavery, which implies a covert endorsement of the practice. according to junius p. rodriguez (2007), “among the protestant religious communities in the united states, slavery did not emerge as a key moral concern until the 1850s” (p. 115). malcolm’s (1992) condemnation of the white slave master is clearly manifested in an earlier speech at temple one in detroit: this is white man’s christian religion used to brainwash us black people! we have accepted it! we have embraced it! we have believed it! we have practiced it! and while we are doing all of that, for himself, this blue-eyed devil has twisted his christianity, to keep his foot on our backs… to keep our eyes fixed on the pie in the sky and heaven in the hereafter… while he enjoys his heaven right here… on this earth… in this life. (p. 205) in the speech above, malcolm expresses negative moral judgments by condemning the morals of the white christian. he condemns him as a liar who “twisted his christianity” and as a “devil” who endorsed the plight of black slaves. in the same speech that has “plymouth rock” metaphor, malcolm (1992) indirectly criticizes his audience, implying the necessity of separation. he is not directly blaming the blacks. instead, he is condemning white america for the racial status quo. such a speech tactic serves to represent whites as the enemy and blacks as the victims. at the same time, it urges his audience to stop running to the white man, “begging. ‘please, lawdy, please, mr. white man, boss, would you push me off another crumb down from your table that’s sagging with riches …’” (p. 205). malcolm hopes his people wake up and join his separatist movement if they want respect and prosperity. although the white man has been controlling black people, malcolm seems to imply that his people also share the criticism if they still have faith in this white man and his religion after all he had done to them. therefore, according to malcolm, his black audience has no excuse to stay brainwashed and at the mercy of white man. malcolm (1992) also expresses positive judgments to his audience. in the same speech in temple one in 1953, he calls his audience, “my beautiful, black brothers and sisters” (p. 205). malcolm explicitly expresses his admiration for the beauty of his people. he also judges them as language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 135 “brothers and sisters,” which signifies the closeness, unity, and strength they should adhere to and maintain like biological siblings. the word “beautiful” can also be utilized as a positive appreciation of their race and color. although there are no superior races, malcolm sends an explicit message to his small congregation to value the beauty and “superiority” of the black race. malcolm’s attitudes had the potential to affect those among his audience who had been frustrated by the white man’s methods of control and oppression. one of the speech tactics that malcolm adopted in his early speeches was his awareness to speak “in terms that the people could understand.” in june 1954 in temple seven in new york, malcolm (1992) noticed the “heavy preponderance” of attendees were christian women. therefore, he decided “to offer something special for them” (p. 225). malcolm speaks: beautiful black woman! the honorable elijah muhammad teaches us that the black man is going around saying he wants respect; well, the black man never will get anybody’s respect until he first learns to respect his own women! the black man… needs to shelter and protect and respect his black women. (p. 225) malcolm tailored his speech to show the female attendees how important they were in mr. muhammad’s teachings. when most of the attendees were males, malcolm judged them positively and admired them as “beautiful” brothers. however, when the majority of the attendees were women, malcolm admired them as “beautiful black woman.” at the same time, he criticized the black men as disrespectful to their women. in this speech, malcolm utilized positive and negative evaluative judgments to align with the black female attendees who were mistreated by their men, hoping that they would also align with his ideological position. conclusion in this study, the appraisal framework demonstrates the social function of language conveyed in malcolm’s early speeches, to secure his audience’s position in alignment with his own. it concludes that malcolm takes stance and expresses emotions and feelings to influence the reaction of his potential respondents and to construct an ideal audience for his discourse. malcolm’s early speeches during his career as a minister in the nation of islam prove his good persuasive skills. trough analyzing the stance-making elements in malcolm’s speeches in the autobiography, it becomes clear that the book intends to be read and reflected upon by african americans of different generations. the linguistic forms applied in these speeches contribute to giving malcolm’s book an ageless appeal and value among his audiences. in fact, the narrator in the book brags about how these speeches were appealing to thousands of young black men and women because of his persuasive communicative skills. moreover, he claims that mr. elijah muhammad trusted his efforts and moved him between different temples across the country to get them “organized” (p. 219). in addition, malcolm (1992) expresses his excitement about the fact that millions of people worldwide were beyond radio and television were listening to and watching him (p. 205). these speeches expose the historical and contemporary devaluations of black people by institutional racism in america. they also address the dreadful cruelty against black people since enslaved africans brought to america until the rise of institutional violence in the form of police killings of unarmed black men and women. readers in the twentieth-first century can relate with the autobiography, and they can get mesmerized by the performance of its narrator while he is delivering his speeches. the narrator portrays black people’s suffering in america as a seemingly never-ending tragedy. the police killings of unarmed african americans, such as eric garner, tamir rice, michael brown, and many more, in recent years affirm such tragedies as realities that happen over and over again. references boles, j. (1998). masters and slaves in the house of the lord: race and religion in the american south 1740-1870. lexington: university of kentucky. clark, d. & robert r. (2008). readings in christian ethics: issues and applications. grand rapids, mi: baker publication. du bois, w. (1994). the souls of black folk. new york: dover thrift. franklin, v. p. (1998). african americans and jews in the twentieth century: studies in convergence and conflict. kansas city: university of missouri press. gallagher, c. & cameron l. (2014). race and racism in the united states. an encyclopedia of t h e american mosaic. vol. 1. santa barbra: greenwood, 2014. marable, m. (2011). malcolm x: a life of reinvention. london: penguin. martin, j. r. (2000). beyond exchange: appraisal systems in english. in s. hunston & g. thompson (eds.), evaluation in text: authorial stance and the construction of discourse: language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 136 authorial stance and the construction of discourse (pp. 142-175). oxford: oxford university press, uk. martin, j. r. & david r. (2003). working with discourse: meaning beyond the clause. london: continuum. martin, j. r. & p. r. r. white (2005). the language of evaluation: appraisal in english. basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. rodriguez, j. (2007). slavery in the united states: a social, political, and historical e n c y c l o p e d i a . santa barbara, ca: abc-clio. rucker, w. & james u. (2015). encyclopedia of american race riots. westport: greenwood. strauss, s., & feiz, p. (2013). discourse analysis: putting our worlds into words. london, england: routledge. stubbs, m. (1986). a matter of prolonged field work’: notes towards a modal grammar of english. applied linguistics, 7(1), 1-25. webster, j. (2015). the bloomsbury companion to m. a. k. halliday. london: bloomsbury. white, p. (2011). appraisal. in j. zienkowski, j. östman, & j. verschueren (eds.), discursive pragmatics. amsterdam, netherlands: john benjamins publishing. x, m. & haley, a. (1992). the autobiography of malcolm x. new york, ny: ballantine books. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 the rendering of ideology in the english-indonesian translation of brontё‟s jane eyre khalida ash shofa universitas negeri semarang, indonesia khalidashofa@gmail.com issy yuliasri universitas negeri semarang, indonesia yan mujiyanto universitas negeri semarang, indonesia ysnmujiyanto@mail.unnes.ac.id abstract this study deals with the rendering of ideology found in the english-indonesian translation of brontё‘s jane eyre. the main objective of this study is to investigate the rendering ideology in brontё‘s jane eyre from english into indonesian which is realized in the vocabulary and grammar choices used by the translator in translating ideology in jane eyre from english into indonesian. it used descriptive qualitative approach. moreover, critical discourse analysis (cda) proposed by fairclough (1989) is used as the framework of the study. the data obtained were taken from ‗jane eyre‘ by charlotte brontё and it is translated by lulu wijaya entitled jane eyre. the unit of analysis of the study was ideological content including word, phrase, clause, sentence, and paragraph contained in jane eyre and its translation.the results showed that there are 120 ideologically loaded-data which is categorized into ideology. they are ideology as tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems. meanwhile, there are 32 (27%) data which are not lexically equivalent in the indonesian translation. thus, the remaining data represent the ideology of the source text in the same way. based on those findings, the writers concluded that most of the ideologically-contested words, nominalizations, and voices are rendered into indonesian. there are no ideological differences between the source text and its translation. furthermore, the translators mostly expressed ideology of the source similarly by means of selecting similar lexical choices. it means that translator‘s ideology in the source text and their translation in the target text reach ideological equivalent. introduction translation has a great importance in the world nowadays. it plays an important role in communication. it is used to convey the culture and literature from one nation to another (al-nakhalah, 2013). several studies showed that most researchers mainly focused on sentence translation without paying attention to the influence of ideology. hartono (2016) states that translating a text from one language to another is a very difficult and complicated activity (p. 593). however, recently, translation is viewed in different ways and theories of translation are more focused on factors that influence translators‘ decision making. in this perspective, translation is not just a process of substituting lexical and grammatical equivalences (yazdanmehr & shoghi, 2014), it is seen as a process in which the translators are involved are in selecting among the wide varieties of lexical and grammatical choices. since the work of the translator consists of not merely transferring lexical units from source text (st) into target text (tt), importantly the work of the translator is rewriting or mailto:khalidashofa@gmail.com mailto:ysnmujiyanto@mail.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 manipulating original texts (lefevere, 1992: 16), hence, translator‘s choices are related to his/her ideological. this is in line with schaffner‘s statement (2002) that idea that each translation is a product of an ideology, and ideological aspects of a translation can be extracted and analyzed in lexical (vocabulary) and grammatical levels. however, in translating novels, especially children novel, it has a striking difference when compared to translate nonliterary texts (hartono & priyatmojo, 2015, p. 183), it is found that it is not a straightforward matter, there are several problems connected with the actual translation process because of the forces of manipulation (khwira, 2010). in addition, because of the limited experience and background knowledge about children, translators encounter an array of problems adapting the target text to the level of children‘s understanding. cultural differences between the source text (st) and the target text (tt), which may even lead to censorship that should also be considered. such cultural and ideological differences among indonesian and other cultures can result in mistranslations and likely breakdowns. in this regard, sertkan (2007: 6) points out that ―the act of translation is not an innocent one since the translator is influenced by his/her own cultural values and his/her ideology, which causes him/her to ―manipulate‖ the source text by making some additions, omissions, adaptations. however, the translated children literature may cause breakdowns concerning morals, ideologies, and social customs, especially if the source and target cultures have little in common. reviewing the problem related to the translation of ideology, especially translation of ideology in children literature, this study attempts to shed light on the relationship between language and ideology involved in translation in general, and more specifically, to uncover the underlying ideological assumptions invisible in the text, both source text (st) and target text (tt), and consequently to find out whether or not translator‘s ideology is imposed in the translation. through the translation of ideology, it can be seen translator‘s intervention in the process of translation. the ideology needs to be investigated to find out translator‘s belief and to reveal the potential manipulation of ideological elements in the translation. moreover, apart from the attempt to uncover implicit ideology, this study aims to investigate the rendering ideology and the adopting critical discourse analysis (cda), based on fairclough‘s cda approach (1989). it is also supported by puurtinen (2000) idea that critical discourse analyses (cda) aims at revealing how ideology affects linguistic choices made by a text producer and how language can be used to maintain, reinforce or challenge ideologies‖ (p. 178). moreover, cda is considered the most appropriate approach for this study to uncover the relationship between discourse and manipulation. language serves to construct particular positions. these particular positions entail unequal relations of power. as a result, it can be said that language has a function in the construction of ideology. in this study, the writers use cda which should pass three stages (fairclough, 1989). those three stages are description, interpretation, and explanation of the text. the description is the stage which is concerned with formal properties of the text. interpretation is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction. whereas explanation of the text is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 the data of this study is a novel entitled ―jane eyre‖, it is one of children literary works written by charlotte brontё. it has been translated into ―jane eyre‖ by lulu wijaya. the reason for taking the novel as the data source of this study because jane eyre novel ranks as one of the greatest and most perennially popular works of english fiction. however, there are some problems in translating novel, especially in translating ideology. there have been a number of studies which supported this study, such as the study of karimnia (2012) entitled ―the impact of ideology on lexical choices in literary translation: a case of a thousand splendid suns.‖ it discovers ideological differences between hosein‘s novel a thousand splendid suns and its two persian translations, by ganji and soleimani and ghebrai. according to fairclough, ideology in discourse is encoded in the lexical, grammatical, and textual items and changes in these items indicate different ideology. hence, lexical choices of the source book and the two translations were analyzed based on fairclough‘s approach to investigate ideological differences between them. the result of chi-square revealed that there were no ideological differences between the source text and its two translations. moreover, the translator selected similar vocabularies for representing the ideology of the original author. the study is conducted by mujiyanto (2011). it is entitled ―nonequivalence in the english-to-indonesian translation of behavioral clauses‖. the study is directed to deliberately analyze a written text in english and its translation in indonesian. the object of this study is the translation, indonesian text as a result of a rendering task from english. for this purpose, it has deliberately chosen j.k. rowling‘s harry potter series and their indonesian counterpart which is done by l. srisanti to be the object of the study. the data are clauses in indonesian and their counterpart in english which are drawn from the source. this study gives the writer input regarding how to achieve correspondence as well as equivalence. it is found out that formal nonequivalence may occur in word, phrase, and clause levels. such formal nonequivalence has, however, facilitated the effort of achieving functional equivalence at clause level. moreover, in order to materialize functional equivalence at the clause level, the translation has been conducted by means of retaining behavioral clauses or restructuring them to form material clauses, mental clauses, or verbal clauses. another study is written by puurtinen (1998) entitled syntax, readability and ideology in children‘s literature. this study aims to compare different linguistic realizations of ideology in english and finnish texts, investigates particular micro and macro-linguistic strategies which reflect ideology, for example, implicit assumptions, beliefs and power relations in english and finnish children‘s novels, and to reveal the potential manipulation of ideological elements in translation. the findings indicate that some linguistic forms which carry ideological meaning may reduce readability in a children‘s book, ideology, and readability are related each other, and more complex syntax is a sign of greater confidence in children‘s linguistic abilities and a more tolerant, ―nonchalant‖ attitude towards children‘s literature. moreover, it seems that this study is more interesting than the previous studies because it explores deeper and wider areas. this study will focus on vocabulary and language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 grammar choices used by the translator in translating ideology in jane eyre from english into indonesian, the stage focuses on description of the text, interpretation of the relationship between text and interaction, and explanation of the relationship between interaction and social context. methodology the form of research used is descriptive research, it is aimed to describe systematically a situation or something factual and accurate. this is also supported by rusmiati and sofwan (2010), ―descriptive method is to describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and accurately and it is more focused on data of understanding efforts and descriptive to draw conclusion. by using descriptive qualitative research, this study focuses on identifying kinds of ideology that are found in jane eyre from source language into target language, describing accurately and factually indonesian translation of ideology in jane eyre from english into indonesian, and investigating vocabulary and grammar choices made by the translator in translating ideology in jane eyre from english into indonesian. the kinds of ideology will be categorized by hatim and mason‘s theory. hence, in this study, the kinds of ideology are reflected as tacit or implicit assumptions, system of beliefs, and value system. moreover, the vocabulary and grammar choices of the source text and the translation are analyzed by using cda because it is the most appropriate design to explain the relation between linguistic choice and ideology. moreover, this study uses fairclough‘s framework for cda. the questions are used to cover aspects of vocabulary analysis within cda model namely ideologically contested words, the other aspects of grammar analysis (such as nominalization, and active or passive sentences) are also examined. moreover, in the stage of discourse analysis based on fairclough‘s approach, there are three stages, namely description, interpretation, and explanation, thus, this study focuses on those three stages. in collecting data, the researcher used observation checklist. it is a table to put the ideological content found in the source text and their translation in the target text. to validate the data, the writers apply triangulation by theory/perspective, in this type of triangulation, the writers use some theoretical perspective to examine and interpret the data and the writers referred back to the theories of conducting cda. those theoretical perspective are: the phenomenon can be regarded as ideology based on hatim and mason‘s theory, critical discourse analysis by fairclough (1989), and elements of vocabulary and grammar structures (ideologically contested words, nominalization, and active or passive sentences) from fairclough (1989). therefore, corroborating the findings in this study with their perspective and theories ensured that an account is rich and comprehensive. furthermore, the writers use peer debriefing. according to guba (1981) peer debriefing ―provide inquirers the opportunity to test their growing insights and to expose themselves to searching questions‖ (p. 85). moreover, it is the process whereby a researcher calls upon a disinterested peer, a peer who is not involved in the research project, to aid in probing the researcher‘s thinking around all or parts of the research process. this probing includes, but is not limited to, methodology, interpretation, and analysis of data. as such, it is regarded as one of a complement of techniques used to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 qualitative research through the use of external peers. findings and discussion the result of the study shows that there are 120 data of utterances containing ideology that are manifested in ideologically-contested words, nominalizations, and active and passive sentences identified in the novel. the data are presented in both source language, english and in the target language, bahasa indonesia. the ideological terms—words, phrases, clauses, and sentences—are analyzed to the level of lexical item, grammatical item. the ideological contested words and their translation are classified into categories as proposed by fairclough and analyzed the ideology descriptively. after the analysis, the novel is also analyzed to know how the ideological terms, nominalizations, and active and passive sentences are translated into indonesian. after identifying and analyzing the categories of translation, it is easier to find whether or not the ideological contested words, nominalizations, and active and passive sentences are rendered into indonesian translation. moreover, the ideology contained and in their translation is analyzed to know whether or not they have ideological equivalence. there are 120 ideologically-loaded data in brontё‘s jane eyre, out of 120 data, 89 data are rendered from english into indonesian, while 31 data are shifted when they are translated into indonesian. therefore, most of ideologies found in the brontё‘s jane eyre are rendered into indonesian. for clarification, the chart below describes the percentage of the rendering of ideology in the english-indonesian translation of brontё‘s jane eyre: figure 1. the rendering of ideology in the english-indonesian translation of brontё‘s jane eyre figure 1 describes the ideologies which are rendered from source text into target text, there are 74% data which are rendered. however, there are 26% data which are shifted. although it is not dominant, this reveals that there are changes made by the translators, either intentionally or unintentionally, the changes are related to the selection of lexical items and syntactic structures in comparison to those in the source text. such differences between ideology in st and tt is due to the translator is influenced by her own cultural values and her ideology, which makes her manipulate the source text. nevertheless, based on the percentage presented in the figure above, most of ideologies are rendered in the indonesian translation, it means that the indonesian translator reflects the ideological content of the source text in the target text. thus, the translator retained his ideological content in order to reflect the source text ideology in the target text. the ideologically-loaded utterances in the english novel and their translations. 74% 26% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% renderred shifted renderred shifted language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 hatim and mason (1997) state that ideology encompasses ―the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social groups.‖ there are 120 data closely related to ideology as tacit assumption, beliefs and value systems which is identified. one sample is taken as examples of the analysis. it is presented as follows: sample 1 st: i felt it a misfortune that i was so little, so pale, and had features so irregular and so marked. (page 85) tt: aku merasa sungguh malang nasibku bahwa aku begini kecil, begini pucat, dengan bagian-bagian wajah begitu tak teratur dan m encolok. (page 148) bt i felt it really unfortunate my fate that i am so little, so pale, with parts of the face so irregular and marked. note st: source text; tt: target text, bt: back-translation the context of situation is when jane is preparing herself on her first day to teach adele (her new student), she is not confident of being not beautiful. this included ideological sentence since the author wants to uncover the ideology by mentioning jane‘s physical appearance. the sentence above is included as tacit assumption because this statement shows the author‘s assumption by the negative point of view of jane‘s appearance. the rendering of ideologically-contested word in english-indonesian translation of brontё‟s jane eyre by looking at the lexical choices, the words which are ideologically contested can be seen. ideologically contested words itself is certain words and phrases that signify an ideological stance or another. there are 120 ideologically contested words found. among the data, one datum is taken as the example of the analysis. it is presented below: sample 2 st: for it becomes my duty to warn you, that this girl, who might be one of god‘s own lambs, is a little castaway (page 56) tt: karena telah menjadi tugasku untuk memperingatkan kalian, bahwa gadis ini, yang semestinya bisa menjadi salah salah satu domba tuhan sendiri, adalah anak buangan (page 99) bt: for it has been my duty to warn you, that this girl, who should be one of god's own lambs, is a castaway child. the context of situation is when brocklehurst mentally tells jane to submissively stand on a stool before her peers and humiliates the hell out of her while she stands helplessly for a half hour enduring it all. the use and selection of the lexicalization that has ideological value is the verb warn. warn in tt is succesfully translated into the verb memperingatkan. in this context, mr. brocklehurst warns the children to avoid and exclude jane. the use of the word warn is associated with jane‘s behavior that does not fit to the people in lowood, so there is a need for a warning to the children to anticipate jane‘s bad behavior which can influence them. the verb warn in sentence for it becomes my duty to warn you, that this girl, who might be one of god‘s own lambs, is a little castaway is rendered in the indonesian translation. it depics that mr. brocklehurst, a heavily religious figure in the novel, as a tyrannical and evil man. the author very deliberately made the reader associate the cruelty of brocklehurst (along with the language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 harshness and rigidity of lowood) and the religious upbringing in general. based on the analysis above, it can be concluded that in the sentence for it becomes my duty to warn you, that this girl, who might be one of god‘s own lambs, is a little castaway is lexically equivalent in the indonesian translation and shares same ideology. as stated above, this study uses fairclough‘s framework for cda to find out whether or not the ideologicallycontested words are rendered. ideologicallycontested words is defines as a word in the text that is immediately noticeable as being ideologically contested (atkins, 2002: 9). the result shows that there are 93 ideologically-contested words which are rendered into indonesian. in other hand, the number of ideologically contested word which are shifted when they are translated into indonessian are 27. hence, most of ideological words found in brontё‘s jane eyre are successfully rendered into indonesian. this result is supported by barnes‘ (2014) study that the result of the study shows that ideological-laden texts or ideologically-contested words of the source text and target text mostly the same. the rendering of nominalization in english-indonesian translation of brontё‟s jane eyre according to fairclough (1989: 109-139), nominalization can be used to obscure agency, responsibility and causality because it allows deletion of participants from the sentence. there is one instance of nominalization found, the representative datum is presented in the following: sample 3 st: there is something truly forbidding in a child taking up her elders in that manner (page 3) tt: lagi pula sungguh tidak menyenangkan ada anak-anak yang suka membangkang kepada orang yang lebih tua (page 8) bt: moreover it is really unpleasant there is child who is rebellious to the elders. in the sample 3, the term ‗forbidding‘ in st (nominalization of the verb ‗to forbid‘), the effect of using nominalization of the words in brackets is to separate the action from the actor. in this example, the author used nominalization to hide the identity of the characters that are forbidding people not to have a bad manner to the elder, the author only describing the actions. therefore, by impeding clarity within this word, it is possible for the author to obscure meaning by removing agent and the accountability for the action resulting in an ideological use of nominalization is to remove responsibility for the action from the agent. in other hand, the term forbidding is translated into tidak menyenangkan, it should be translated into terlarang instead of tidak menyenangkan, hence, although the translator adapts a new word, the meaning of term forbidding in st is shifted in tt, by using the term tidak menyenangkan, the reader still can not make any guess about the actual involvement of an actor. below is the result of nominalization that is found in the english-indonesian translation of brontё‘s jane eyre. table 1 nominalization in englishindonesian translation of brontё‘s jane eyre no st tt 1. forbidding tidak menyenangkan language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 2. violence keributan 3. poverty kemiskinan 4. beauty anak yang cantik 5. suffocating cengkeraman 6. serenity kedamaian 7. refined propriety sopan –santun terdidik 8. controlling untranslated 9. sense akal sehat 10. judgment otak 11. class orang yang sederajat 12. moaning sound bunyi mengerang 13. the sight melihat 14. anxious gelisah 15. excitement semangat berlebihan 16. obscurity kegelapan 17. conscience hati nurani 18. look tatapan 19. rebellion pemberontakan 20. suffocating tercekik table 1 indicates that both in st and tt, twenty nomalized constructions are utilized. there are thirteen nominalizations which are rendered equivalently into indonesian, there are seven nominalizations which are shifted into indonesian. hence, mostly nominalizations in the source text is rendered equivalently into indonesian target text. the result of this study is in line with the related previous study stated in chapter two by barnes (2014) in his study entitled ideology in translation: cs lewis‘ the lion, the witch, and the wardrobe which states that the linguistic elements, such as nominalizations of both source text and target text are dominantly the same. the rendering of voices in englishindonesian translation of brontё‟s jane eyre in the grammar choice, the use of passive and active voices in the source text and target text can lead different ideological point of view. the representative datum is taken as the example of the analysis. it is presented as follows: sample 4 st: i dislike you the worst of anybody in the world except john reed (page 29) tt: kau orang yang paling kubenci di seluruh dunia ini. (page 53) bt: you are the one i hate the most in the world in the st, i dislike you the worst of anybody in the world except john reed belongs to active voice sentence, the agent (i) is prominent. whereas, it is translated into passive sentence kau orang yang paling kubenci di seluruh dunia ini in the tt, the action (yang paling kubenci) is prominent. hence, from the example above, it can be said that when active voice sentence is translated into passive voice sentence, the action will be important. this type of optional shift will produce an ideological value. as the comparison of voices (active and passive sentences) in the source text and target text provide considerable results from ideological point of view. the result shows that there are four changes in rendering voices from english into indonesian. they are activeactive, active-passive, passive-passive, and passiveactive. there are 107 active sentences that are translated into active sentences and five active sentences which are translated into passive sentences. meanwhile, there are four passive sentences that are translated into passive sentence, four passive sentences which are translated into active sentences. the percentage is, there are 89% language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 of active-active change, 4% of active-passive change, 4% of passive-passive change, and 3% of passive-active change. hence, it shows that the dominant change in rendering voices in the english-indonesian translation of brontё‘s jane eyre is active-active change. it is in line with the previous study which is discussed in chapter two conducted by savola (2006) in her study an analysis on the language and structure of general election manifestos of the british labour party 19832005 which states the majority of the writing in the manifesto in which she is analyzed is in the active voice. therefore, the result of both studies shows the purpose of the manifestos and the novel (and its translation) are mostly to seek compassion and to identify the writers or the agent. conclusion first, the aim of this study is to determine through a process using elements of critical discourse analysis, the examination of linguistic elements within the source and target texts, and other ideological issues related to jane eyre, and whether the indonesian translator reflected the ideological content of the source text in the target text. different ideological issues within the different textual segments are identified by means of critical discourse analysis based on an integrated model by fairclough, examining ideologically contested word, nominalization, and voices (active and passive sentences). second, regarding the rendering of ideology found in the novel jane eyre and its translation, there are 120 data of utterances containing ideology that are manifested in ideologically-contested words, nominalizations, and voices (active and passive sentences). out of 120 data, 93 ideologicallycontested words are rendered into indonesia, thirteen nominalizations which are rendered equivalently into indonesian. moreover, in the rendering of voices, there are 107 active sentences that are translated into active sentences and five active sentences which are translated into passive sentences. meanwhile, there are four passive sentences that are translated into passive sentence, four passive sentences which are translated into active sentences. it can be said that the result from vocabulary and grammar choices shows that there are no ideological differences between the source text and its translation. furthermore, the translators mostly expressed ideology of the source similarly by means of selecting similar lexical and grammatical choices. hence, translator‘s ideology in the source text and their translation in the target text reach ideological equivalent. third, in the novel jane eyre and its translation, some categories of ideologies are found and investigated. there are 107 data which are identified, they are classified into three categories, ideologies as tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems. most of the ideologies are classified into ideologies as system of belief, the second rank is ideologies as value system, while the least ideologies are classified into ideologies as tacit assumption. the ideologies of system of belief found in the novel refers to religious teaching, racism, and feminism, ideologies as value system refers to inequalities, norm, and independence, while ideologies as tacit assumption refers to logical argument, and judgment. in one hand, the dominant ideologies found in the novel is regarding religious teaching, it is rendered in the target text because the translator is a christian, and being a christian herself make it easier for her to understand christian terms, themes, or symbols used in jane eyre novel, and it makes her reflect the ideology of the source language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 text in the same way. in other hand, the ideologies regarding norms is mostly shifted from the source text into target text, because it is found in the source text a taboo and rough words, the translator manipulates the term by using more polite words and careful consideration in translating the text for its accepatance in target text. hence, in sum, it can be said that the differences between ideology in st and tt is due to the translator is influenced by her own cultural values and her ideology, which makes her manipulate the source text. suggestion translating is not merely changing words, phrases, or sentences into different languages, it has to do with culture. moreover, it is assumed to be a communicative performance engaging with the production of a new target text in a new target context through cda framework. theoritically, a translator must be aware and careful in rendering the author‘s lexicalizations because they represent his/her ideology. hence, it is suggested that a translator should have deep understanding of the source and the target language lexically and grammatically. furthermore, since this study focused only on vocabulary and grammar choices used by the translator, in this case, jane eyre translated by lulu wijaya, pedagogically, it is suggested for students, researchers, and scholars who are interested in conducting a study on translation to find another translated novel of brontё‘s jane eyre. the next study can compare the two indonesian translators of brontё‘s jane eyre, which one of indonesian translation is ideologically much more similar to the source book and whether or not there are ideology differences between two indonesian translated version and the source book. in addition, since practically this study is expected to give contribution for those who are interested in translation, it is suggested to implement the whole part of vocabulary and grammar choices in the description stage of fairclough‘s (1989) critical discourse 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(2007). the ideology of lexical choices in the turkish translation of oliver twist. unpublished ma thesis, university of dokuzlylul. retrieved from https://id.scribd.com/document/55707639/54722340-sertkan-ma-thesis wijaya, l. (2010). jane eyre. jakata, indonesia: gramedia pustaka utama. yazdanmehr, e., & shoghi, s. (2014). guidelines for effective tap (translation for academic purposes) tutorial courses. international journal of english language & translation studies 2(1), 69-78. retrieved from http://www.eltsjournal.org https://works.bepress.com/arabworldenglishjournal-awej/209/ https://works.bepress.com/arabworldenglishjournal-awej/209/ https://scholar.najah.edu/sites/default/files/all-thesis/815.pdf https://scholar.najah.edu/sites/default/files/all-thesis/815.pdf https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj&hl=en http://www.erudit.org/documentation/eruditpolitiqueutilisation.pdf http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej http://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/35955 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.012 https://id.scribd.com/document/55707639/54722340-sertkan-ma-thesis http://www.eltsjournal.org/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 the analysis of pure borrowing technique in indonesian translation of “does my head look big in this” novel badriyah ulfah indo global mandiri university, palembang, indonesia email: badriyahulfah@uigm.ac.id abstract the process of translation is beyond finding equivalents in the target language (tl) or conveying the general meaning of the source language (sl). for having an acceptable and understandable rendering, some techniques and strategies should be selected as the basis of translating. in ‚does my head look big in this‛ novel the translator used some techniques but this study only aimed at analyzing the pure borrowing technique. it is a technique in the translation to take a word directly from the sl into the tl without any adjustment. the data of this study were collected by selecting the pure borrowing words found in all chapter of the novel. the result of the analysis shows that there are 85 pure borrowing words used in this novel. the words consist of 4 word classes namely noun, verb, exclamation, and adjective. the calculation mentions 88 % of the pure borrowing words are nouns, 6 % are adjective, 4 % are verb, and 2 % are exclamation. applying appropriate techniques such as pure borrowing in translating might be needed in order to make the translation product reliable and acceptable for the reader but the translator must consider some aspects that might be related to the translation works itself key words: source language (sl), target language (tl), novel, pure borrowing technique introduction ‚does my head look big in this‛ novel was written by randa abdel-fattah. it was released in australia, by pan macmillan australia, on august 1st, 2005. it won the australian book industry award and australian book of the year award for older children. this novel was so unique because it brings the muslim in general and middle east culture in specific into the novel. the other unique thing is that the place told in the story is australia. in short, the story revolves around (and is told from the view point of) a sixteen-year-old muslim girl living in australia who decides to wear the hijab, a religious veil, full-time. her decision leads to different reactions from her friends, family, and peers.so this book is mostly buzzing around the mixture of muslim and australian culture. this book seems closed to the writer life which is a muslim and lives in australia. this book is so famous as one of the refference for children literacy because it brings a lot of moral value especially in respecting other people’s belief. in indonesia this novel is also famous in the teenagers because it also contain with the story which face by most of teenager in general. as the mixture of two very different culture and way of life, the translator might get a lot of difficulties in translating the novel into indonesian language. so the writer used a lot of technique of translation in the book. as it was said by fadaee (2011) that the process of translation is beyond finding equivalents in the target language (tl) or conveying the general meaning of the source language (sl). for having an acceptable and understandable rendering, some techniques mailto:badriyahulfah@uigm.ac.id language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 and strategies should be selected as the basis of translating.in line with fadaee, srikandi (2010) concluded thatthe term of translation has three meaning (1) the science generally, (2) product (text which has been translated, and (3) process (the action in translation production), usually we call it translating. translation is identical with communicate the message or idea, that is written in original text. basically, translation is a change of form. when we talk about the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs, which are spoken and written. it consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. furthermore venuti (2004:84) divided translation process into two terms. there are direct translation and oblique translation. it contains seven procedures of translation which classify the new variety of language. these procedures in order to control the translator work. borrowing, calque, and literal translation are direct translation and transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation are oblique translation. those two term of translation process can be linked to the translation strategy namely foreignization and domestically. direct translation may be assumed as part of foreignization strategy. foreignization itself was defined by yang, l (2013) as a term to designate the type of translation in which a tt (target text or target-language text) is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. furthermore hatim, b & munday, j (2004) defined it as the strategy where the translation seeks to preserve ‘alien’ features of a stin order to convey the ‘foreignness’ of the original. the translator still keeps holding on the source language in order to introduce the source text culture or it might happen that the target language doesn’t have the equivalent words. meanwhile literal translation may be assumed as part of domestication strategy. domestication was defined by hatim, b & munday, j (2004) as a translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in orderto minimize the foreignness of an st. from the seven procedures proposed by venuti, this article only focuses on borrowing procedure. borrowing is the simplest of all translation procedures. it is a process of transferring the sl (source language) into the tl (target language) in which the words of the text become ‚loan words‛ because there is no change of form when transferring sl text into the tlthe term of borrowing means a word taken directly from anotherlanguage(satriadi, 2014). borrowing is used by every translator in order to create stylistic effectinstead of analizing all the technique used by the translator. a’yun (2013) mentioned borrowing as a word or expression straight from another language and it can be pure(without any change), e.g., to use the english word lobby in a spanish text, or it can be naturalized (to fit the spelling rules in the tl), e.g., gol, fútbol, líder, mitin. in bahasa pure borrowing can be found in the common noun such as editor, golf, bank, film, villa,etc. in the proper noun such as november, cinderella, papa, anzora, etc. in adjective such as mental, junior, modern,etc. the naturalized borrwing in bahasa can be found in noun such as aktris, sel, komisaris, juni, sekretaris, aktor,etc. in adjective such as teknis, tropis, politik, romantis, misterius, etc. because there are two kinds of borrowing, this article focuses on pure borrowing technique in the translation of ‚ does my head look big in this‛ novel. methodology siregar (2016) defined translation procedures as methods applied by translators when they formulate equivalence for the purpose of transferring elements of meaning from the language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 116 source text (st) to the target text (tt). furthermore venuti (2004) described jean-paul vinay and jean darbelnet’s view in 1950s that translators can choose from two methods of translating, namely direct, or literal, translation and oblique translation. vinay and darbelnet proposed seven methods or procedures namely (1) borrowing, (2) calque, (3) literal translation, (4) transposition, (5) modulation, (6) equivalence, and (7) adaptation. borrowing is usually used in terms of new technical or unknown concepts, to overcome a gap, usually a metalinguistic one. borrowing is the simplest of all translation methods. borrowing is mostly applied to introduce the flavor of the source language color is a matter of style, but at the same time it may have a significant effects on the message contained. calque is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression from another, but the translator translates literally each of its elements. the result is either a lexical calque i.e. one which respects the syntactic structure of the target language while introducing a new mode of expression. literal translation is a direct transfer of the source text into grammatical and idiomatically appropriate target text. transposition is a procedure which involves replacing one word class with another class without changing the message. there are two types of transposition, namely obligatory and optional transposition. obligatory transposition occurs when the target language has no other choices because of the language system. modulation is the varying of the language, obtained by a change in the point of view, this change can be justified, although literal even transposed. there are two types of modulation, namely free or optional is generally adopted because of nonlinguistic reason. it is mostly used to stress the meaning, to affect coherence or to find out natural form in the tl. equivalent is often desirable for the translator to use an entirely different structure with different meaning from that of the source language text so long as it is considered appropriate in the communicative situational equivalent to that of the source language text. adaptation is the extreme limit of translation which is used in cases the translator has to create a new situation that can be considered equivalent. some of the source language data do not have exact equivalents in the target language because of the different cultural backgrounds between the source language and target language. therefore, not all of the source language terms can be translated into the target language if the source language terms are considered as not having the equivalents. from those seven procedures, borrowing is the simplest of all translation procedures. hadithya (2014) mentions that this task refers to a case where a word or an expression is taken from the source language and used in the target language, but it in a ‘naturalized’ form, that is, it is made to conform the rules of grammar or pronunciation of the target language. moreoverborrowing in translation is not always justified by lexical gap in the target language, but it can mainly be used as a way to preserve the local color of the word, or be used out of fear from losing some of the semiotic aspects and cultural aspects of the word if it is translated. from the explanation it can be assumed that borrowing can be divided into two kinds namely pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing. pure borrowing is a technique in the translation to take a word directly from the sl into the tl without any adjustment. the words are taken purely, it occurs in noun category in the sl which is translated into the tl. meanwhile naturalized is one of the language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 techniques used by the translator to equalize the meaning of the target language towards the source language by borrowing the source language‘s term, then the spelling and the pronunciation is adjusted with the target language such as the words plastik, informasi, aktris, aktor, and boss which comes from english of plastic, information, actress, and boss. findings and discussion the pure borrowing technique in the translation is analysed based on word categories and the novel chapter.for the word classes there are four categories found in the novel; those categories are noun , verb, adjective, and exclamation. based on the data analysis it was found that there were 85 borrowing words existed in the novel. it consisted of 75 nouns, 3 verbs, 5 adjectives, and 2 exclamations. in the analysis the word class of noun is divided into two namely common and proper noun. there are 46 common nouns and 29 proper nouns. meanwhile, based on the chapter of the novel, there were 45 chapters written in the novel. the highest number of borrowing words are in chapter 1 and chapter 9 with 8 borrowing words and the lowest number of borrowing words which do not contain any borrowing words belong to some chapter namely chapter 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20 , 22, 26, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, and 41. most of the chapters only contains noun for the borrowing words but some chapter such as chapter 1 contains noun and verb, chapter 3 contains noun and adjective, chapter 6 contains noun and verb, chapter 9 contains noun, verb, and adjective, chapter 21 contains noun and adjective, chapter 24 contains noun and exclamation, chapter 28 contains noun and adjective, and chapter 31 contains noun, adjective, and exclamation. below is the chart of the total number of the borrowing words per chapter. based on the chapter, it could be seen that the use of borrowing words in this novel is fluctuative. the translator sometimes uses a lot of borrowing words but in other times did not use it at all. but the chart showed that the translator mostly used the borrowing words in the beginning of the novel. the chart might be fluctuative but it shows the reduction use of borrowing words. in the first chapter, it touches 8 total of words meanwhile at the end of the chapter it is found 1 word only. it can be assumed that when the translator start to 0 2 4 6 8 10 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 t o ta l w o rd s chapter pure borrowing words based on book chapter language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 118 translate, she still got a lot of difficulties in understanding the novel but then in the process of the translation she started to comprehend and reduce the use of borrowing words. in other cases, the analysis of the borrowing words based on the word classes is also important. the result is quiet unbalanced between four word classes that contains in the novel. the total number of noun could reach 75 words where it consists of 46 comon noun and 29 proper noun. meanwhile there are only 3 verbs, 5 adjectives, and 2 exclamations words and the above chats show the percentage charts of total number of borrowing words based on the word classes. so as it is counted there are 88% from all the borrowing words which belongs to nouns, 6% of all borrowing words are adjective, 4 % of all words belongs to verbs and the lowest percentage, 2% belongs to exclamation. as it is divided into some categories of classes, the borrowing words found in the novel are as follows. 1. noun common noun proper noun treadmill, full-timers, bad hair day, homeroom, power-walker, bumper, bacon, concealer, foundation, pull-over, food-court, snooze, skydiving, white-lie, gym, hall-offame, conditioner, eyeliner, headphone, mood,girls, loungeroom, strawbery tart, mudcake,e-mail, fashion design, kisser, dressing salad, dad, chilli, football, cinnamon, scone, fish and chips, mug, rollerblade, burger fillet, man, superglue, parliament house, alumunium foil, chat, rating, lipgloss, watercress, sunblock yoghurt, tabouleh, hippy, burgundy, salad, buffet, copacabana, barbeque, sambusa, sheekon, migraine, beanbag, pantyhose, salad crispy, fetta cheese, savoy cracker, daffodil, stiletto, fairdinkum, crikey, mate, vegemite, sandwrich gorgonzola, salami, dabke, gokart, maklobe, fortelillini, souvlaki 88% 4% 6% 2% total words of borrowing based on word classes noun verb adjective exclamation language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 119 in some of the translation words which borrowed the source text, it is gotten some of them actually had equivalent word with target language and it could be changed into target language, indonesian words. all of these words come from common noun. 1. mood = suasana hati 5. football = sepak bola 9. chat = percakapan 2. girls = cewek-cewek 6. cinnamon=kayu manis 10. kisser = pencium 3. dad = ayah 7. mug = mangkuk 11. rating = penilaian 4. chilli = cabai 8. man = laki-laki meanwhile all the proper nouns are unable to be translated to the target language because most of them are kinds of food which is only found in the source language culture. 2. verb 1. kenyataan itu menghantamku saat aku sedang power-walking diatas treadmilldirumah(pg 9) 2. simone, tenang sajalah‛ kataku, ‚give your self a break, oke?‛ (pg 71) 3. dad baru menemukan lelucon-lelucon di internet dan mem-forward e-mail (pg 97) there are only 3 borrowing verbs founded in the novel. the first word is ‚powerwalking‛. the verb have an –ing suffix which shows that the tense used in the sentence is continuous. the translator couldn’t find the equivalent word in bahasa for this verb. moreover if it is translated into indonesia,the word power-walking should be conected to the next word i.e treadmill. the root word is walking which means berjalan, power means all the abilities of a person’s body. so the word power-walking means that a walking activity which needs all the abilities of the subject who do it and it is done in the treadmill. in bahasa it could be said be berjalan cepat di atas tredmill (an excercise machine that has a moving surface that you can walk or run on while remaining in the same place) the second word is a verb phrase. the word ‚give youself a break‛ actually has an equivalent word to the target language namely beristirahatlah. but the translation does not do this because it will change the translation shift of the word. the unit shift will be considered as downword. the use of this translation will also be called as textual equivalence because the shift changes from verb phrase into imperative form. it is assumed that the translator used borrowing technique because of those reasons. the last verb is the most common word that could be found in computer vocabulary. the word forward in bahasa is mostly translated into meneruskan. it would be quite confussing when it got back translation because the word meneruskan is continue in english. meanwhile forward and continue is in different terms. so that is why the translator choose to borrow this word. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 120 3. adjective 1. aku sudah memilih kerudung biru laut dan ikat kepala katun baby blue supaya cocok dengan jins dan kardigan biruku (pg 32) 2. benar-benar macho dan segalanya waktu di kelas dan bersama cowok-cowok (pg 107) 3. ‚benar-benar full penampilan religius sekarang, ya?‛ (pg 180) 4. aku kepingin mencukur alis adam dan menempelkan bulu-bulu pink dengansuperglue di sana. (pg 233) 5. kita sedang diruang chat perjodohan turki online (pg 257) the first adjective in the borrowing word is talking about color. here the translator still used the word baby blue instead of biru bayi in bahasa. the translation will be so strange if the translator used the term biru bayi in the novel so that the borrowing technique is the good way to be chosen. meanwhile the other adjective which is related to the color is the word ‚pink‛. it is quite different from the word baby blue because the color pink has the equivalent word in indonesia namely merah muda. the translator should try to use this equivalent word instead of borrowing. the other adjective word which also has an equivalent word in indonesia is the word full. the translator could use the word penuh instead of full. this word is so common in indonesian language. meanwhile the other two adjective namely macho and online are so common borrowing words in indonesian language. these two words have been so closed to indonesian culture. even those two words have been part of the indonesian language. conclusion from the analysis of domestication and foreignization of the source data ‚ does my head look big in this‛ novel (chapter 1 – 45) it can be concluded that most of the time the translator used borrowing technique especially pure borrowing. there were 85 borrowing words founded in this novel. those 85 words are within 72 sentences which spread in 45 chapters of the novel. there are two chapters that contain the most borrowing words within namely chapter 1 and chapter 9 which have 8 words. there are also 19 chapters that do not contain borrowing words at all.the use of the borrowing word in the chapter is assumed fluctuative. but the chart get lower as it comes to the end of the story. in short when the novel is readed, the taste of foreignization is so strong as there are a lot of borrowing words used by the translator. the borrowing words in this novel can be divided into 4 kinds of word classes namely noun, verb, adjective, and exclamation. noun isthe most founded word in the novel. there are 75 nouns which consisted of 46 common nouns and 29 proper nouns. in contrast there are only 3 verbs, 5 adjectives, and 2 exclamations. in percentage it is calculated that from te total number of the borrowing words 88 % of them are noun, 6 % are adjective, 4 % are verb, and 2 % are exclamation. in analysing the data it is also found that there are some borrowing words which actually have the equivalent words in the target language. there are 14 words which consist of 11 nouns, 1 verb, and 2 adjectives that could be translated into target language without any borrowing technique. so that it can be suggested to the translator to use the target language instead of the source language. overall the translator can be assumed to use foreignization strategy in translating this novel because most of the time the translator language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x used the source language, so the culture of the source language could be felt by the reader since they read it. references a`yun, i.q. (2013). translation techniques of the complex sentences in bilingual textbook biology 1 for senior high schoolyear x published by yudhistira. journal of english language teaching, 2(2). bassness, s. (2002). translation studies. newyork : methuen & co. ltd fadaee, e. (2011). translation techniques of figures of speech: a case study of george orwell's "1984 and animal farm". journal of english and literature, 2(8), 174-181. hadithya, o. (2014). translation procedures used in translating computer terms from english into bahasa indonesia.vivid journal, 3(2). hatim, b., & munday, j. (2004). translation: an advanced resource book. newyork: routledge newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. great britain :wheaton & co. ltd siregar, r. (2016). translation procedures analysis:english – indonesian motivational book. iosr journal of humanities and social science, 21(5), 51-57. siregar, et al. (2015). domestication and foreignization in the process of translation of the 8 the habit by stephen r. covey into bahasa indonesia. iosr journal of humanities and social science, 20(4), 53-63 srikandi, c.n. (2010). borrowing in the translation of d.h.lawrence’s lady chatterley’s lover into indonesian. (undergraduate thesis, university of north sumatera). retrieved from http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/13423/10e01100.pdf?sequence= 1&isallowed=y yang, l. (2013). cultural factors in literary translation: foreignization and domestication on the translating of main characters’ nicknames in two translations of shui hu chuan. international journal of business and social science, 4(13), 35-43 venuti, lawrence (ed). (2004). the translation studies reader. london: routledge. http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/13423/10e01100 language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 93 hidden motives behind the white’s defence towards the black in grisham’s a time to kill anna sriastuti annasriastuti@yahoo.com language and literature faculty satya wacana christian university indonesia received: 10 july 2015. revised: 10 august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 abstract the purpose of this study is to reveal the hidden motives of the white behind race and class struggles in carl lee‘s case of murdering two local young white men who had raped his 10 years old daughter, tonya, and left her bruised and bloodied. lee, a black man, who used to have good relations with the white stood against the white at the court when he decided to kill the rapists in his own hands as his revenge to his daughter. the story was not simply telling readers about the races and classes struggles between the black and the white but another important point to notice was the wilingness of some white people who posted themselves in lee‘s side that led further conflict of the white against the white. keywords: motives, race, class how to cite: sriastuti, anna. 2015. hidden motives behind the white‘s defence towards the black in grisham‘s a time to kill. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction literature can give us something to learn about life. it can be used to portray all the things that occur in reality. there are fictions, which are made, based on true story and have a close relation with reality. besides, there are also fictions that tell us about love, war, poverty, and all the things that we can actually seen in the real world. pickering and hoeper (1969:11) say that fiction is the relationship between the created world of the given work and the real world art objective experience. novel a time to kill by john grisham is a story about race discrimination between the white and the black which happened in 1960‘s in america, this novel was written based on the event that happened that time as grisham got inspired by a true story os a teenage girl. it became the starting point of the novel when a tenyears black girl, tonya hailey, was raped by two young white men and left negleted in a terrible condition. grisham‘s background in law practices seemed to stir the plot of the story in which he came out with an idea of the revenge of the raped-girl father toward the rapists which then led the conflicts into law matters happened in and out the court. the purpose of this paper is to find out the hidden motives of the defence of the white toward the black who took revange toward mailto:annasriastuti@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 94 two white rapists. the setting of the story, mississippi, was both influenced by the place where unequal treatment applied to the black by the white and also it was the place where grisham himself got his degree on law from mississippi state university. identifying and analyzing the root of the main problem that was the revenge of the rape iself would led to the next analysis toward the motives of the defence. likumahua (2001:78) noted that life was not complete unless there were conflicts. it was supported by bohner (1986:2) that stated no conflict mean no growth, no movement, even no story. theories about conflict was used in identifying conflicts experienced by carl lee hailey. hailey‘s conflicts in order to get justice for his daughter put him into a serious crime which aroused both hate and sympathy from the white. some of the white people sued him with death penalty whereas others stood for lee and struggled to get him released. the war of the white against the white in which each party of these white people stood for their own motives became a very interesting issues to be analyzed. what were the motives behind their acts? analysis revenge led to a death penalty conflicts seem to be an inseparabe part of human lives. everybody in this world has their own conflict, no matter how, is also one element that completes our life. conflicts helps us to shape our ways of thinking and also have better understanding our life. “conflict is not only important but also inventible, that is it can make a story become interesting”. (likumahua, 2001:81). moreover, kirzner and mandell (2000:67) state that ―conflict is the struggle between opposing forces that emerged as the action develops”. carl lee hailey‘s conflict started internally when he got his daughter raped. he was coming home when he found a crowd huddled above a small figure lying on the couch. he was shocked when he saw his little daughter‘s condition. “her face was bloody pulp covered with knots and lacerations; both eyes were swollen shut and bleeding from ankles to forehead‖ (p.7). he could not believe that something horrible had happened to her daughter. one of his wife‘s cousins and some people who fished down by froggy creek saw tonya lying in the middle of the road and calling her daddy‘s name. this conflict shocked carl lee, his mouth kept silence while carrying his daughter to the hospital. he failed his words and never spoke from the first time he arrived at the hospital. he could not sleep because of all the tragedy that happened to his little daughter. it was beyond his imagination and understanding that people could did such an immoral and nasty thing toward a child which happened to be his daughter. it made him confused, and instead of saying a word, he only stared blankly at his daughter. it showed that carl lee hailey really had a bad traumatic feeling and he could not accept it, “he had difficulty sleeping, subdued; motionless, unable to do anything but stare blankly at the small figures surrounded by machines, tubes and nurse”(p.26). just because of some teenagers got drunk and smoke mariyuana caused his daughter badly injured and having deeply traumatic and lost her future. handling this case himself to revenge for his daughter was the most logical action since let the rapists arrested would not guarantee that the fair justice would be earned. after anna sriastuti. hidden motives behind the white‘s defence towards the black in grisham‘s a time to kill __________________________________________________________________________________________ 95 the rapists got arrested, carl lee started to find a way to make revenges. although his lawyer forbid him from doing it, but he stayed to his decision to kill the rapists in the towncourt. ―i have no choice, jake. i‟ll never sleep till those bastards are dead. i owe it to my little girl, i owe it to myself, and i owe it to my people. it‟ll be done”(p.48). it indicated that hailey really hated those boys badly, that he wanted to kill them for what they had done to his little daughter. to take the revenge, he made up his mind to kill those boys in the towncourt and waited there until the boys walked through the alley and surprised them from the janitor‘s closet door and kill them with a gunfire.“carl lee hailey sprung from the darkness with an m16 and he opened fire, loud, rapid, clapping, popping gunfire shook the courthouse and explode the silence” (p.72). his revenge toward the rapist was successful. he killed those boys and leaf them with a laughing voice full of satisfaction. he felt relief and satisfied, because his revenge had paid off. he was willing to take the consequences and was sentenced to death. the other external conflicts toward carl lee hailey happened at the court room between him and the jurors. though the policy of freedom for slaves was declared in 1865, the real freedom was never earned by black people. the oppression of white people as the powerful party that had happened for centuries did not automatically end was hardly removed. white people still claimed themselves as higher class people or superior race toward the black. even though the practice of black enslavement, the selling and whipping of slaves had been outlawed, black people still found it hard to live a good life. oral laws placing black people in lower racial caste and legal segregation had given them no choices expect to work as blue collar workers who depended a lot on white landlord and burdened by everlasting debts and often got unfair punishments in case of crime. some of the black people managed to socialize well with white people and got some respect from them. like in this novel, it was told that in his neighborhood many people knew carl lee hailey as a person who liked to interact with other people. almost the entire neighborhood knew carl lee hailey and his family, because when hailey interacted with other people he never chose with whom he would like to interact whether is it white or black person. one of the white person he liked was jake brigance, his lawyer. he loved jake because jake knew all carl lee‘s family and jake represented them. “sure. know carl lee well. i know all the haileys and i represented most of them”(p.23). that fact, however, did not guarntee that he would get special treatment after he murdered the white rapists. even after he knew that more of the jurors were white, he knew that he would not have a fair trial. “some prospective jurors were white and some were black, there would be more white ones in ford county than the surroundings counties”(p.236). in his trial he found many difficulties from other white people because in this situation he was black and was standing in white court trial. it made his position became worse and it was hard for hailey to have any ease for his case. moreover, all the mass media already knew about the cases and it made unfair trail, because many of white people were mad at him. they could not accept the fact of a black man murdering two white boys in front of them, failing to notice of what the language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) ___________________________________________________________________________ 96 boys had done to lee‘s daughter. “well, i watched as much of it as i could. there were news report from the local stations in memphis and tupelo. so i watched the news out of new york, chicago and atlanta, just about every channel had something about the shootings and the arrest, there was footage from the courthouse and jail. it was a biggest thing that ever happened in clanton, mississippi” (p.243). two white opposing parties a black commiting a murder toward white men could be categorized as a fatal crime since it lighted racial war between the black people and the white people. for white people, if this case was not taken into account seriously it could be a negative trigger of the black‘s struggle toward the white. the previous long terms domination over black people has strengthened the higher position of the white. naturally, white people claimed themselves as the ‗good‘ or ‗right‘ party and the black as the opposite party. murdering white men in a white course was no longer a matter of killing the rapists, it was more about underestimating, furthermore humiliating white people in general as a race. what made it worse was that hailey also ttacked the deputy of the town. those two incidents were fatal for lee. deputy was a symbol of law himself. attacking him meant attacking the law which same as attacking the white. it became obvious why the jurors who mostly white decided hailey must stand trial and sued him with the death penalty which observed further was not a matter of taking one‘s life but more to gave model for other black as a declaration of what might happen to black people if they dared to go against white people. then, this was about maintaining power and class of a race. through this description, it was clear that there was a party of the white whose motif was maintaining power as rulers from higher class to the lower one. a different party of white people stood for carl lee hailey, the black murderer, were jake brigance and his crew. jake was a lawyer and once was successfully won three cases for three back murderers though he knew that to help black people did not give him a great deal of money to earn which at the same time he got his family to support. he was still willing to be lee‘s attorney since he knew that this case was a mass scale which led hm to popularity and profit. the payment he wanted from his client was nothing compared to the attention he got from one interview after the others. to win over this case, jake planned a claim of insanity over his client. his motive was clear that was to win the case. the interesting point here was jake cared about saving lee from any possibility of unfair judgement from the white or gaining his own fame. at least he admitted to his wife, carla, that he urged for more popularity and financial orientation. there were some interesting things of jake‘s plan to win the case which became interesting to be analyzed. first was his smart but risky idea of having dr. bass, a psychiatrist, who will prove hailey was insane at the time of the shooting. this was brilliant because there seemed to be no other way out to bring carl lee hailey out of the court alive after killing two white men and wounding a deputy. however, the psychiatrist had stopped practicing for a long time which meant his validity of his words were hardly proven right and worse was that he was a drunken man himself. jake was so determined to win anna sriastuti. hidden motives behind the white‘s defence towards the black in grisham‘s a time to kill __________________________________________________________________________________________ 97 the case that he took a risk to hire a drunken psychiatrist to gave a professional proof toward hailey‘s insinity. having dr. bass was not the only think step he took, he also asked his lawyer friend‘s help, harry rex vonner, to pick up the jury for his client‘s trial. although voner was a lawyer, his speciality was handling divorce cases so once again jake took another risky and haphazarded step to win this case. a further analysis about jake‘s risky steps would be about the involvement of these two men to the case. firstly, it was the psychiatrist himself. having a conviction from a drunken doctor whose practice licence was not valid could not be said as a legal action. under the influence of alchohol, one probably could not state responsible statements. the worse was the plan to make the doctor give a false statement of hailey‘s insinity that drove his crazy murder. apart from his revenge, hailey was guilty of commiting murders. he deserved a punishment since it was not a self defence. it became bias to see who took advantages toward the other; was it hailey who wished to be freed from his punishment or was it jack who wished to be famous and got some financial reward after winning the case. apart from it, asking a lawyer‘s help whose speciality was not in criminal cases was not a guarantee of winning a case. then what would be jake‘s consideration of making up his choice of this lawyer; was it all about frienship since he was his friend or was it all about hiring cheaper help? the obvious conclusion was that jake seemed to be blinded with his goal of winning the case that he permited all efforts regardless the truth. there was a great possibility that he broke the codes of a prominent lawyer. along with jake, ellen roark, a student of law would also take a benefit of this by offering to be jake‘s law clerk for free as his way of gaining expensve but free experience of a tough criminal case. hailey was then becoming a willing victim od others‘ needs and interest. from the previous explanation, it was clear that there two opposing parties of the white people; one party went against hailey and arranged a plan to their own benefits. it became puzzled to know where hailey‘s position was. he was trapped in the middle of two opposing parties, both taking advantages on him for their own needs. conclusion in the novel a time to kill, tonya hailey was not the only victim. her family was all suffering from the incident where tonya was the victim of the rape. her father who took a revenge for her was jailed and sued for a death punishment by a big group of white people who thought that his action of murdering two white young men in the town trial was a humiliation of the black race toward the white race. other white people who were willing to defend him sued him a big deal of money hailey could afford to win his case and made his case a golden ticket to gain fame and experience. the last shot would be a bit of focusing tonya‘s mother who also suffered from taking a family burden after her husband was imprisoned, “the job is gone. the money is gone. his wife must now find a job to support them, and she have to beg and borrow from friends and relatives in order to survive”(p.162). analyzing john grisham‘s a time to kill ones need to be sensitive on hidden factors laid beyond the rape and the murder. one of them is the motives of the white people who support language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) ___________________________________________________________________________ 98 and go against carl lee hailey, the black suspect. references bohner, c.h. 1989. short fiction: classic and contemporary. new jersey: prentice hall. inc. forster, e.m. 1962. aspect of the novel. harmonds worth: penguin. grisham, john. 1989. a time to kill. press wynwood: arrow edition. koesnosoebroto, m.a, basuki, s.1988. the anatomy of prose fiction. jakarta: dept pendidikan dan kebudayaan. kirzner and mandell. 2000. literature: reading, reacting, writing. forth worth: compact fourth edition. usa: harcourt college publisher. likumahua, n.a. 2001. sastra.. suatu sarana pendidikan informal. salatiga: karya mandiri. perrine, laurence. 1978. structure, sound and sense. 3 rd ed. usa: harcourt brace jovanovich. roberts, e. v., jacobs, h. e. 1989. an introduction to madding and writing, 2 nd ed. new jersey: precentice hall. http:// www.answers.com/topic/ racism# racial-dicrimination. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 143 the learning model of happiness through french literature appreciation mohamad syaefudin universitas negeri semarang, indonesia email: m_syaefudin@mail.unnes.ac.id emzir emzir universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia email: emzir.unj@unj.ac.id ninuk lustyantie universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia email: ninuk.lustyantie@unj.ac.id received: 20 december 2017. revised: 21 february 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract this study aims to (1) develop learning models of happiness in learning french through literary works, and (2) to describe the application of learning models of happiness in learning french through literary works. the study applied a qualitative approach with two designs in exploratory research (1) to produce a learning model of happiness and (2) action research to evaluate the implementation of the learning model in the field. data collection techniques are conducted through (1) in-depth interviews with french experts, (2) literary experts; and (3) psychologists to gain an important point of learning happiness. then from the results of in-depth interview was compiled draft learning model of happiness through focus group discussion this research was conducted at universitas negeri semarang, with research time from march to october 2017.the results of this research are the model of happiness teaching with assure model which includes analyzing the students, formulating specific learning objectives, choosing methods, media, and teaching materials, utilizing media and teaching materials, requesting student response, and evaluation. keywords: teaching, happiness, literature, french how to cite: syaefudin, m., emzir, e., & lustyantie, n. (2018). the learning model of happiness through frenchliterature appreciation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 143—152. introduction foreign language learning through the media of literature appreciation has been widely done, however, there are less researchers or teachers who attempt to implement the newest knowledge to the learning process. most of the literature appreciation sees literary works from the perspective of the work itself. citing from fananie (2001, p.63), there are elements in the literary works, namely the intrinsic and extrinsic elements. the intrinsic element sees a literary work from the perspectives of elements which build it, such as: the social condition of the society, the philosophical thoughts, as well as various forms of human psychological phenomena. the second aspect has not been explored much, especially when it is related to the newest discovery of science. relating the foreign language learning with the learning of happiness is considered as a breakthrough since it brings the literary work closer to the other developed social science knowledge which is the positive psychology. the reason behind the idea of relating the learning of happiness with the positive psychology is because the idea of mailto:m_syaefudin@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:emzir.unj@unj.ac.id mailto:ninuk.lustyantie@unj.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 144 seeking for happiness has been done since the era of ancient greek through the idea of aristoteles and plato which has been widely discussed and proven to be relevant to be done even up to this millenial era. when modern society is suffered from any forms of social problems, higher demands of life, as well as inside and outside pressure, then one will start to think whether they are happy with his life. then, when it is seen from the educational perspective, happiness is usually far from the field. whereas, the trully aim of education should be giving significant contribution towards individual and communal happiness. in order for the learning of happiness to be accepted easily, a media that is able to bring the message of happiness is needed, which is supposed to be free from the impression of teaching or lecturing. therefore, literary work as a form of message conveyer is considered to be effective in bringing the message since it has the power of persuasing, from the ability of the author to illustrate the persuasiveness through the interesting characters and plot which build the story. in the end, the reader can understand the meaning of happiness seeking and is hoped to be able to change the perception of happiness. layard (2007) delivers the idea that the world of education has to be able to have the new teacher figure who is trained to teach value and ways to achieve happiness. it is in line with the idea which was also delivered by rijavec (2014) who states that to teach happiness at school, it can be based on variety of reasons, such as (1) the high level of depression among youngsters from all over the world; (2) the tendency of life satisfaction degradassion during the half end of this century; (3) the low student satisfication towards school services in many countries. furthermore, rijavec also gives the example of positive education model as the main source of learning model of happiness as part of the implementation of positive psychology as one of the school‘s thorough appoach which six main targets of happiness are made, including, positive emotion, positive involvement, positive achievement, positive aim, positive relationship, as well as positive health with the focus lays upon the character power. thus, we can assume that learning of happiness is relatively relevant to be given to students with the problems listed above. however, all the time, the learning model of happiness hasnot been developed in indonesia yet, especially in teaching foreign language through literature appreciation. since the learning of happiness approach through literature has not been implemented in the french study program at universitas negeri semarang (abbreviation: unnes) yet, therefore, it is considered to be needed to form a learning model of happiness through french literature appreciation. the literary work chosen as the learning media of happiness in this study is a novel entitled l‘homme qui voulait être heureuxor a man who wants to be happy by laurent gounelle. this novel tells about a french man who learns about wisdom from balinesse people to understand the meaning of life happiness. it is packed with the knowledge of psychology and moral value through an interesting plot and is possible to be used as the learning media of happiness. this novel is chosen by researcher as a piece to be studied in this study because of several reasons. first, seeing from the title, l‘homme qui voulait être heureux, implicitly tells about the journey of happiness seeking. syaefudin, m., emzir, e., & lustyantie, n. (2018). the learning model of happiness through frenchliterature appreciation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 143—152. 145 the sentence used in the title of the literary work means ‗hope‘ in french, or the willingness to achieve happiness. second, the novel which was firstly published in 2008 received the best selling achievement of the year and was translated into 25 different languages. third, it is rare to find a french novel which tells about contemporary indonesian people after the ―une saison indonésienne‖ by jean rocher (2000). apart from these two novels which tell about indonesian people, other french novels usually tell about french‘s neighbourhood. it makes finding un homme qui voulait être heureuxto be exciting and promising since it is relevant to the place where researchers see the perspectives from. in addition to this, reading and analyzing meaning towards the idea of happiness seeking in a novel as part of positive psychology needs to be done to reveal how human has developed themselves in order to find the meaning of life. by inserting literature into the learning, it means that students are asked to be involved into the thinking of social and humanitarian problems. reading literary works allows one to gain inputs on humanity and society, so that in the same time, it will trigger the motivation to act out for the betterment of both humanity and society (djojosuroto, 2006, p.87). besides, with the knowledge acquired by the students, they might gain pleasure and intellectuality from the literaty work. the need of aesthetical meaning seeking and the intellectual meaning will correlate positively with the students‘ need in developing the intellectual and emotional maturity. therefore, literature can act as a means of meaning digging if it is correctly taught. through the literature learning, students of french study department of unnes are expected to be able to find out the moral, educational, aesthetical, and social values, as well as other benefits which are educational from the france culture or broader from francophonie. besides, based on the aim of introduction to french course in indonesia, the teaching of french literature in university is supposed to be realized in a proper and correct way, so it might bring benefits to the students, especially in adding new knowledge, new experience, and thoughts about life and being alive. nurgiyantoro mentions two types of novel, the serious and the popular. the serious type of novel is a kind of novel which is considered to be able to give insights of every possibility in life. it is the actual meaning of literature. in order to understand a serious literary work, high level of concentration is required which also supposed to be supported by the willingness to do so. experience and problems of life which is shown in the serious type of novel is seen and revealed up to the core of the essence of life that is universal in nature. for the serious novel, besides it gives entertainment, it also implicitly gives the valuable experience to the readers or at least to invite readers to grasp and truly reflect the problems raised in the literature. on the other hand, the popular type of novel is a kind of novel which takes popular problems in its era and is highly demanded by society, especially teenagers and the youth. the popular type of novel shows actual and up to date problems. popular novel does not show the problem of life intensively and not even attempt to analyze the essence of life deeply (nurgiyantoro, 2006, pp.16-17). seeing from the types of the novel, therefore, the novel language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 146 entitled l‘homme qui voulait être heureux used in this study belongs to the novel that follows the flow of conciousness or the serious one. therefore, problems raised in the study are (1) how to develop the learning model of happiness in the french learning through french literature is, and (2) how to implement the learning model of happiness in french learning through literature is. methodology this research applies the research designs of qualitative approach: (1) exploratory research to produce learning models of happiness and (2) action research to evaluate the implementation of the learning models in the field. meanwhile, data collection technique is done through (1) deep interview with french language expert, (2) literature expert; and (3) psychology expert to gain the important point of learning models of happiness. then, from the results of deep interview, learning models of happiness draft is arranged through focus group discussion by implementing learning models of assure. the assure model has been invented by heinich, et al. since 1980 and still being developed by smaldino, et al. until now. the name of assure model is not taken from the founder, but based on the first letter of model design steps, those are: analyze learner (analyzing students); state objectives (formulating the specific learning goals); selection of media on materials (choosing methods, media, and learning materials); utilize media and materials (using media and learning materials); require learner‘s response (asking for students‘ responses); evaluate (evaluation). after the learning models were formulated, the researchers conducted the trial and error to the french department students, universitas negeri semarang (unnes) to understand the implementation of the model during the learning process. this research was held in universitas negeri semarang and universitas negeri jakarta, from march 2017 to october 2017. respondents that were involved in this research werethe french lecturers; psychology experts, and literature experts from universitas negeri semarang, universitas negeri jakarta, and universiatas gadjah mada. this research also involved the students of french department of universitas negeri semarang. results and discussion results every learning model design has different components from the other models. therefore, component is an important aspect in a learning model design. the existing component draws aspects and activities that should be done in designing a learning process. basic components used in learning model designs are: learner or student learner is the party that becomes the focus of a learning design. the most needed information to be found are their characteristics, initial ability or precondition. the third semester students of french language education who take litérature française module in study group 1 in the academic year of 2017/2018 are nine students. learning objectives (general and specific) the formulation of learning is the explanation of competencies that are supposed to be mastered by the students if they have done and succeed in mastering certain learning materials. learning objectives in big scope is considered as the general objectives, while the objectives that are achieved for specific skills syaefudin, m., emzir, e., & lustyantie, n. (2018). the learning model of happiness through frenchliterature appreciation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 143—152. 147 that can be observed is considered as specific objectives. learning analysis learning analysis is the process of analyzing the topics or materials that will be learned. topic analysis is related to the initial ability, if it is needed. therefore, the learning media designer can predict the steps of their own material categories. learning analysis is done to trace and anticipate the big obstacles such as level of difficulties or initial behavior that has not been mastered yet by the students. learning strategies learning strategy is an effort that is done by the designer to determine the message delivery technique the methods and media, the flow of learning content, and the interaction between lecturers and students. learning strategy can be developed in macro or micro learning strategy. macro learning strategy is a strategy which is applied in one year or one semester period. meanwhile, micro learning strategy is developed for one teaching and learning activity (one meeting). learning strategy is done through: (1) media utilization, (2) media selection, (3) time allocation, and (4) interviewee allocation. learning materials learning material is a material format that is given to the students. the format can be related to the specific media, handouts or text books, games, and other things. learning assessment learning assessment is related to the measurement of ability and competence that has been mastered or not yet mastered by the students. the assessment is not only related to some specific numbers as a learning result which shows the learning achievement, but also an input for the designers and lecturers to understand what factors influence the success or failure of the learners‘ achievement. 1) oral assessmentin the form of questions and answers during the learning process. 2) written assessment through questions presented in the assignment. the assessment in learning of happiness materials through literature appreciation is done through the verbal questions to check the language ability of the students. further, the assessment is given after the materials are completely given to the students with the questions related to the identity of literature, the content, the message from the author (moral value), and the students‘ reflection towards the idea of the happiness seeking. discussion skills expected to be acquired by the students after attending the french literature course are: 1) having the knowledge about categories and characteristics of french literature 2) having the knowledge about famous french literature works and its authors 3) having the ability to understand the simple french literature works 4) having the knowledge about categories and characteristics of francophonie literature 5) having the knowledge about famous francophonie literature, its authors, and its origin 6) having the ability to understand the contents of simple francophonie literature. before the six components in learning of happiness are explained, semester plan is presented in the following. it is taken from french literature module of french education language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 148 study program in universitas negeri semarang. figure 1 the semester plan of french literature modul of french education study program of universitas negeri semarang learners or students the practice or implementation of learning of happiness is given to the students in the third semester of french education study program who take littérature française module as one of their course. the students belong to study group 1 who consist of 5 students who have mastered french competence which unable them understand the basic french language. therefore, the students can follow the course. learning objectives (general and specific) in general, learning objectives of learning of happiness are to find out the happiness concept in literature works. moreover, students are able to mention the happiness elements of the character, ways to achieve that happiness, and reflection towards the learner itself. it is expected that after learning about this topic, the students can find the essence of happiness that is told by the author in the literary works. the story then becomes theaspect of comparison for the students‘ real condition in searching and syaefudin, m., emzir, e., & lustyantie, n. (2018). the learning model of happiness through frenchliterature appreciation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 143—152. 149 fighting for the happiness in their real life compared to learning analysis learning literature appreciation in french education study program is given limitedly. it only covers two credits in the third semester. therefore, the literature appreciation course here is only given as an introduction. there are theme classifications in the material, such as the french literature in the middle century, the 16 th centuries, and the contemporary literature, as well as francophonie literature that is created by the authors from outside europe, usually from africa, in french. this happiness theme can be added to the french contemporary prose literature appreciation. therefore, it has a correlation with the current life. learning of happiness is an effort in connecting the learning of literature with the psychology study. happiness becomes one of the specific studies in the psychology world. introducing the students to this field can give them more actual knowledge perspectives. besides, connecting the learning to learner‘s psychological problem adds more value to the meaningfulness in the higher education. through the literature appreciation in french literature module, students are invited to see the problem of life and searching for the solution through literature appreciation of the ceritain figure‘s journey in gaining the happiness. learning strategies to teach the happiness theme, one should first decide the delivery method through lecture, that is by telling the story sequences which illustrate happiness as the theme.the researchers select a french novel entitled l‟homme qui voulaitêtreheureuxby laurent gounelle as an example of literature appreciation that contains the message of happiness seeking. the learning process is started by asking about the cover of the novel and trying to dig up what is in the novel‘s cover. the questions delivered to the students are about what the title of the novel is, what the meaning of the titleis, who the writeris, when the novel publishedis, and where the setting of that novelis. the illustration of the cover can also be explored as the course‘ initial depth learning: what kind of the illustration that is being used, why it uses specific colours, and so on,in order to build the presumption about the new material that is being taught. the lecturer then opens the first page, ask the students to read one paragraph and ask the others to translate, while the others also are also asked to check the meaning accuracy. after finishing the first round, the lecturer explains meaning and implication of the sentences that is being read by the students related to the theme. lecturer then continues with the main idea of the novel while sometimes ask the students to check the specific pages. the choice of page is also initially selected based on the author‘s idea about happiness that wants to be delivered by the lecturer. in revealing the meaning of the character, sometimes, more explanation is needed, considering that: 1) some expressions used are quite complicated to be understood fast, therefore, it needs to be read many times. 2) the difference of point of view in placing the specific idea as a happiness marker that maybe not common to be felt by the reader from the different social background. therefore, the lecturer gives more times to students to find this kind of findings. learning materials language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 150 the main learning material used is an original document in the form of novel entitled l‟homme qui voulait être heureux. figure 2 cover of the novel entitled l‟homme qui voulaitêtreheureuxby laurent gounelle besides, media of picture contains various people expression is also used to stimulate students‘ thought about various emotional perceptions and expressions.the media will then give more understanding towards various human emotions. learning assessment to understand the feedback of happiness learning, the researcher gives mini-test that consists of five questions about the content of the novel. the questions are about the theme, character, setting, time, and content of the literature. from five respondents who join the class, results show that all main components of the novel can be understood by the students. first, question about the novel‘s theme. the respondents answer the happiness theme (has), the happiness seeking (dm), and the experience of happiness (frm). among all respondents, only one who gives the title of the novel as the answer. it means that respondent already understands the theme in the novel entitled l‟homme qui voulaitêtreheureux. second, question about two central characters in the story. all respondents can give the correct answers, they are julian and samtyang. those characters are the dominant characters in the novel. third and fourth are questions about place and time settings. all respondents take bali as the answer or more specific in ubud, bali area. it is indeed correct place where the author sets the location. for the time setting of the story, many respondents answer 2008 which is actually the wrong answer. 2008 is the publishing year of the novel. the novel itself is based on the creation of the author who visited bali around the end of 90s, and kept writing the novel until it is published ten years later. fifth is question about the moral value that they found in the novel. the answers of respondent: 1) this novel tells about indonesian‘s kindness from the perspective of french people (apl); (2) do not see people just from their physical characteristics (has); (3) if we want to be happy, we have to always think positively (dm); (4) happiness is a quality (iak); (5) happiness does not come easily, it needs to be searched (frm). sixth is the respondents‘ opinion about the novel that is appreciated. based on respondents, (1) the story gives pictures on how indonesian is seen from the perspectives of foreigners visiting our country (apl); (2) the novel is a great novel since it teaches us on how to sacrifice to achieve happiness (has); (3) the story is great since it teaches us that happiness actually comes from our own selves (dm); (4) the story is able to syaefudin, m., emzir, e., & lustyantie, n. (2018). the learning model of happiness through frenchliterature appreciation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 143—152. 151 motivate ourselves (iak); (5) the story is good since it inspires us who are still seeking for happiness. by using bali as the setting, that story also can indirectly promote indonesia (frm). therefore, it can be seen that the assessment of all respondents towards l‟homme qui voulaitêtreheureux are positive. they appreciate the moral value and happiness seeking as parts of message intended to be delivered by the author. seventh, respondents receive lesson/ wisdom/ value from the novel. those are: (1) ―if we believe in something, then that believe will give the impact to ourselves.‖ (apl).; (2) do not judge someone just from his/her physical appearance, willing to sacrifice to get what you want (has); (3) positive mindset will bring happiness; if we want to be happy, sacrifice should be made (dm); (4) in achieving the happiness we have to be willing to sacrifice something (iak); and (5) in searching for happiness and interest, there are things that should be sacrificed (frm). eighth is the opinion about the characteristic of happy people. respondents assess that happy people are (1) able to finish their responsibility and achieve their goals (apl); (2) able to control their selves and their minds, so it can walk hand in hand, and create happiness to their selves and others (dm); (3) able to have determination that one can change from unable to be able (iak); (4) able to think positively and ableto be always feel grateful upon what they have (frm). ninth, self-assessment as a happy people, especially related to french learning in general or french literature in more specific context. respondent claims that they are happy, because he is from papua are able to be a student in french education study program (apl); he is not happy since he is easy to forget and he finds many vocabularies need to be remembered during the course (has); happy, because he can gain new knowledge that other people might never have. he also can give information to other people about what he has already learned during the time when he learns french (dm); he is a happy person because can learn french literature and learn about the habit of french people and the french‘s history that is different from the history of indonesia and the habit had by indonesian people. moreover, he gets more knowledge (iak); yes, he feels happy (frm). tenth is the condition that can make people happier, related to french learning. respondents answer that they are happier (1) because they can be with people from other places in french education study program and very happy because the lecturers are kind and amazing (apl); (2) direct communication practice with the native of french to make them able to understand the oral characteristics from the source (has); happiness that can make them happier by learning french is to be able to receive more beneficial knowledge, to receive grades, and to achieve better resultswhich keep improving every semester. also, receiving the easiness in learning french (dm); they can share the knowledge with people surrounded them (iak); achieving comfortable learning atmosphere which is not too serious but understandable; being able to practice (speaking) directly with the french native (frm). acknowledgement sincere gratitude is sent to the indonesian ministry of research, technology, and higher education that has granted me with funding under the category of disertation grant in the year of 2017, and to all lecturers and students of french education study language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 152 program of unnes, who have given us supports and kinds of help during the research. conclusion the research result is presented in the form of learning model of happiness by using assure as the research ‗s learning model comprises analyzing the students, formulating the specific learning objectives, selecting the method, media, and the learning materials, utilizing the media and learning materials, asking for responses from students, and evaluating. moreover, the implementation of learning model of happiness had been done to the students of france education study program who took litterature française as one of the course of the semester. results show that students are interested in the theme of happiness delivered by the lecturer. they understand the theme, character, setting, and moral value in seeking for happiness that are told throughout the plot of the story. besides, the respondents also create self-reflection about the condition of self-happiness and other things that can trigger or improve the level of happiness. references djojosuroto, k. (2006). analisis teks sastra dan pengajarannya. yogyakarta: penerbit pustaka. fananie, z. (2001). telaah sastra. surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. gilpin, j.m. (2008). teaching happiness: the role of positive psychology in the classroom. pell scholars and senior theses. paper 24. http://digitalcommons.salve.edu/pell_theses/24 haryadi. (2014). gangguan psikis tokoh-tokoh dalam novel-novel karya iwan simatupang (sebuah kajian psikoanalisis). disertasi universitasnegeri jakarta. hassanzadeh, r., & mahdinejad, g. (2015). relationship between happiness and achievement motivation: a case of university students. journal of elementary education, 23(1), 5365. retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/home/ journal/36/ v_23_no_1_%202013.html. layard, r. (2007). happiness and the teaching of values. centrepiece, 12 (1). 18-23. nurgiyantoro, b. (2007). teori pengkajian fiksi. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. noddings, n. (2003). happiness and school. cambridge: cambridge university press. rijavec, m. (2015). should happiness be taught in school? croatian journal of education, 17(1), 229-240. doi: 10.15516/cje.v17i0.1487 rocher, j. (2000).une saison indonésienne: roman. paris: kailash éditon seligman, m.e.p. (2002). authentic happiness: using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. new york: free press. http://digitalcommons.salve.edu/pell_theses/24 http://pu.edu.pk/home/%20journal/36/%20v_23_no_1_%202013.html language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 11 pedagogical strategies and content knowledge of the teacher of english for maths in the context of content-based instruction ayu fitrianingsih faculty of language and art, ikip pgri bojonegro e-mail: fitria.ayutenan@gmail.com syahrul udin faculty of language and art, ikip pgri bojonegro e-mail: syahruludin@gmail.com received: 20 july 2017. revised: 25 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract teacher is a key person in teaching and learning process. the teacher must have good strategies to teach, they also have to know the goals to reach success and how they set the students realizing those goals. besides, content knowledge is crucial owned by a teacher to create meaningful learning for students especially in content-based instruction teaching and learning context. it becomes an issue once new idea to maximize the learning process and results. this study was intended to find the pedagogical strategies applied by the teacher in the teaching learning process and to know teacher‘s content knowledge, how teacher need to understand the subject matter taught. this study was carried out in english for maths subject of mathematics education study program ikip pgri bojonegoro which involved the teacher and the students as the respondent. this study is under qualitative case study. in collecting the data, questionnaire, observation and interview were conducted to get detail information of the issues. the result reveals: 1) the teacher combines some methods such as cooperative learning, problem-based learning and task-based learning to get the students enthusiasm; 2) based on teacher‘s educational background, although the teacher graduated from bachelor degree of english education but she was able to combine english teaching through mathematics content very well. it can be concluded that teacher‘s pedagogical strategy and content knowledge is very important in the application of content-based instruction teaching and learning. keywords: content-based instruction, content knowledge, pedagogical strategy. how to cite: ayu fitrianingsih & syahrul udin. 2017. pedagogical strategies and content knowledge of the teacher of english for maths in the context of content-based instruction. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 11—17. ________________________________________________________________________________ introduction content-based instruction is a powerful innovation in acquiring and enhancing a language. in its best form, language lessons are blended with stimulating content. the students focus on the subject matter than the language learning process. supporting students‘ success by engaging them in challenging and innovative activity helps them learn complex skills. the students learn mailto:fitria.ayutenan@gmail.com mailto:syahruludin@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 12 language automatically. keeping the students motivated and interested in the language training is the profound advantage of cbi. when students are interested and motivated in the material they are learning. they make greater connections to life situations, learning language becomes a fun and easy activity, information is retained for long time. cbi supports contextualized learning; students are taught useful language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than as isolated language fragments (duenas, 2004). teaching the content-based approach requires a large amount of work and energy. the teacher has to fulfil several roles, such as being a good language teacher and in addition having an appropriate knowledge of the subject matter.teachers‘ education a complex issue in cbi and students in a cbi class is supposed to learn the target language and some concept related to the content at the same time. it means that the teacher should be knowledgeable in the two areas and effectively combine language and content instruction (crandall, 1999). according to crandall (1999), teacher who are teach the target language with cbi have to be trained in the place where specialized teacher training normally is conducted. moreover, the integration of pedagogical strategy and content knowledge in content-basedteaching is a highly complex cognitive activity in whichthe teacher must apply knowledge from multiple domains (resnick, 1987). teachers with differentiatedand integrated knowledge will have greater ability than those whose knowledgeis limited and fragmented, to plan and enact lessons that help students developdeep and integrated understanding. given the importance of teacher knowledge for studentprogress, teacher education can be regarded as a key targetand lever of educational reform. however, the understandingof how teacher education programs affect the developmentof professional knowledge remains limited (cochran-smith&zeichner, 2005).based on the requirement that in content-based instruction teaching and learning, the teacher should hasenglish background of education, they have to be able to mastery the content subject. but sometimes their background education isn‘t suitable with the subject matter which is taught. professional teachers are they who have good pedagogical strategies and also content knowledge. ball & bash (2003) stated that teacher with good strategies can be seen from the kinds of questions teacher ask, the way they respond to student, their expectations of and attitudes toward students, their classroom management technique, their teaching methods, and their teaching general behavior. good teachers should have good strategies, they have to know the goals which they plan to reach success and how they set students realizing those goals. based those facts, teachers are required to create good strategies in the preparation of teaching and the process of teaching itself. every teacher has to arrange teaching strategies, so learning interaction in classroom can be interactive, inspiring, interesting, challenging and motivating for students participate in the classroom, and learning goals can be achieved. then, teacher also should have a good content knowledge. the term was first introduced by lee shulman. content knowledge, describes a teacher‘s understanding of the structures of his or her domain. according to shulman (1986),the ayu fitrianingsih & syahrul udin. 2017. pedagogical strategies and content knowledge of the teacher of english for maths in the context of content-based instruction. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 11—17. 13 teacher must further understand why it is sowhich implies that teachers‘ content knowledge should represent a deep understanding of the material to be mastered by the students. in this case, content knowledge is a teachers‘ understanding about the subject matter that he or she taught. content knowledge is crucial to be owned by a teacher to create meaningful learning for students. it becomes an issue once new idea to maximize the learning process and results. this study was intended to identify the pedagogical strategies which the teacher applying in the teaching learning process and to know teacher‘s content knowledge which deals with how teachers need to understand the content or matter which is taught. this study is carry out in english for math subject and involves the first year students mathematic study program of ikip pgri bojonegoro in 2016/2017 academic years. methodology the design of this research was a qualitative case study. the data were dig upfrom the teacher and the first year students in english for mathsclass of mathematic study program ikip pgri bojonegoro. here, the data were obtained from observing two meetings in june 2017 to get the data of pedagogical strategy, interviewed the teacher and some students that randomly choosen, and also distributing the questionnaire to know the content knowledge. the researcher used an interactive model of analysis proposed by miles and huberman (1994). in analyzing data, the three main components were data reduction, data display, conclusion drawing/ verification. in this research there were some strategies used to obtain the trustworthiness of the data. those strategies were used to check accuracy or validity the findings of the research. creswell (2007) mentions eight strategies of verifying the trustworthiness of the research. from the eight strategies proposed, the researcher used data and method of triangulation. results and discussion pedagogical strategies after the observation and interview conducted, there are three strategies which often used by the teacher in teaching english for maths, they are; cooperative learning, problem based learning and inquiry learning strategy. cooperative learning. one of the teaching strategies which used by the teacher is cooperative learning. cooperative learning has been proven to be effective for all types of students, including academically, because it promotes learning and fosters, respect and friendships among differs group as students.in the teaching and learning activities the teacher divide the students randomly (heterogen). one group consists of two until three member. through the division of the group, the assessment applied against the groups. the teacher will give a reward for the first three groups whom able to finish the problem correctly. the teacher applied games,she gives an instruction for the rules and also give the same opportunity to the students in the games. after every member got the opportunity, the teacher give time to discuss and do the assignment together. when the discussion is going on, the atmosphere becomes crowded because the students are arguing and exchanging their ideas. problem-based learning besides cooperative learning, the teacher also usually used problem-based learning strategy in teaching english for language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 14 maths. problem based learning is a teaching strategy which is the students actively against a complex problem in real situation. during the elaboration step, the teacher often gives an individual assignment through worksheet as the main teaching materials in this subject. the content of the worksheet is the material discussed and the students‘ assignment. in learning english for maths, the students should do a lot of practices which meant here are mathematics problems which delivered in english. it is an application of ―learning by doing‖ which can improve the students‘ critical thinking and their experience. sometimes the teacher used real objects, videos, pictures, also power point presentation to make the students interested and understanding related to the topic discuss. the students doing the assignment by the guidance of the teacher inquiry-learning strategy one of the learning strategies that provide an opportunity for students to find their own knowledge and play an active role in learning so as to understand the concept well and develop the ability to think critically is an inquiry learning strategy. in this strategy, the teacher applied guessing or questions answer method. applying the right questions by teachers will stimulate students‘ creativity and help them in finding new knowledge. when the teacher asks questions, almost all students enthusiastically try to answer the question by raising his hand. then the teacher appoints several students in turn to express his ideas or opinions in english. furthermore, the teacher gives an explanation and discusses the material with the students. this learning strategy is very effectively applied in the classroom where the number of students is not more than 30 people. therefore, students are able to play an active role, thinking critically, analyze and solve their problems. content-knowledge from the observation and the questionnaire responses by the teacher, the researcher had found the research findings about content knowledge of maths teacher. there are two components are included in this findings, they are; (1) characteristics of the teacher, and (2) teacher‘s educational background. good teachers are made up of a combination of hundreds of qualities that allow them to do their job effectively in teaching. there is no denying that all teachers have their own unique natural of qualities. that why each teacher has their own characteristic in the way of teaching. characteristics of the teacher the teacher has a good discipline attitude such as she always comes in time to the school. the teacher rushes off to the class and come on time. before the teacher starts teaching, she always has a good preparation which as the implementation of teaching strategies to take students‘ prior knowledge to account when planning syllabus and teaching, also create lesson plan, determine the methods, the materials and media that will be used in teaching. in this case, the teacher as an organizer is able to organize the components of teaching and learning activities. so, the learning activities run effective and efficient. the core meaning of pedagogical content knowledge is best represented by shulman (1986, pp. 9) original definition, which states that pedagogical content knowledge includes knowledge on how best to represent and formulate the subject to make it comprehensible to others, as well as knowledge on students‘ subjectayu fitrianingsih & syahrul udin. 2017. pedagogical strategies and content knowledge of the teacher of english for maths in the context of content-based instruction. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 11—17. 15 specific conceptions and misconceptions (see also grossman, 1990). the teacher always greets with smiling and excited to start the lesson. it can melt and warm the atmosphere in the class. so, the students being ready mentally and interested to follow the learning activities. then, the teacher develop the students‘ conceptual understanding toward english and provide a widely scope inside in mathematics concept. then he always makes a connection between english, mathematics and the other discipline. he also provides a certain strategies which appropriate with mathematics lesson, they are; cooperative learning, problem based learning, and inquiry learning strategy. content knowledge, on the other hand, describes a teacher‘s understanding of the structures of his or her domain. according to shulman, ―the teacher need not only understand that something is so, the teacher must further understand why it is so‖ (shulman, 1986, p. 9), which implies that teachers‘ content knowledge should represent a deep understanding of the material to be mastered by the students. in an effort to attract attention and motivation of the students, the teacher often use some stimulus such as guessing, games, video, props, etc. she has a patient attitude in trying to provoke the students‘ responses. the teacher as a facilitator, she facilitates the occurrence of interaction as well as the teacher and the students, also the environment and other learning sources. it trains students to seek the information about the topic of the materials through exploration which students are able to deliver their ideas and the bravely in speaking english. besides, she has a good management in teaching a group of students which has many different characters. each student has a different family background, skill, gender, nature, and so on. the teacher treats all students equally that they get the same material, the same tasks as well as the facilities. but, sometimes the teacher need to give special treatment to each individual according to their character and needs so that teacher are not only able to give general treatment to each group or learning level, but the teacher is also able to give special treatment to each individual. for example in a study group there is a student who always get a low score compared to other students, and less able to follow the lesson then the teacher needs to know the difference, find out the cause, and also give special treatment to the learners so as not to be left behind with other students in terms of learn. furthermore, the teacher has a good skill while he explains and discusses the material to the students. the teacher uses english as an instructional language in teaching english for mathematics, but she can communicate with them. teacher always give more attention in determining and choosing the words that simple and always use in every day. the teacher is not bound by the textbook, she uses a worksheet as the main in english for maths. she is required to create the worksheet by himself which the worksheet was created by taking from a variety of sources, especially he always uses some books as the learning sources. teacher also uses pictures, props, videos as the media in deliver the material to make the students have a good understanding. she is also applied a variety of interesting and fun methods that often used. she is able to mix or combine two or three methods in one meeting which suitable with the topic discussed. in this case, the teacher‘s teaching skill will language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 16 always be sharpened. so, he has a good skills and high creativity to present her material. teacher‟s educational background here, it will discuss about the english for maths teacher‘s educational background related with the understanding of the subject that he taught. when teachers think the best way to improve their teaching is by developing their content knowledge, they end up with sophisticated levels of knowledge, but they have only simplistic instructional methods to convey that material. to imagine that content matters more than process is to imagine that the car is more important than the road. both are essential, what we teach and how we teach it are inextricably linked and very much dependent on one another. this is in line with findings from expertise research in other domains, which show that teachers‘ knowledge bases are usually not only more extensive than those of novices, but also more connected and integrated (chi et al., 1981; schmidt &boshuizen, 1992; simon & chase, 1973). whether or not teachers‘ pedagogical content knowledge and content knowledge are separable categories of knowledge may therefore be a function of different levels of expertise. based on the data gain from the interview conducted the researcher found that the english for maths teacher graduated from bachelor degree of mathematic education department of ikip pgri bojonegoro. based on his background education, it is far different with subject that he taught that is english. then the researcher focus to observe the teacher‘s understanding about english lesson.besides the teaching and learning activities, there are some activities that regularly done by her to improve his skill and his professionalism as english teacher. in a week, all the teachers have a routine schedules in saturday. they arrange a meeting which aims to examine and evaluate the teacher‘s teaching ability. she also has a meeting with the other english teacher from other study program to discussing and planning the teaching and learning activities, the learning strategies, learning media, and others. it is about twice until three times in a week. she also frequently attended seminars, conferences or other activities that be able to improve her skill. conclusion based on the research findings and its discussion, the researcher comes to conclude several things. the first is pedagogical strategies that used by the teacher are; cooperative strategy, problem based learning. the main goal of content-based teaching is enable the students to use english as their communication language through various learning activities and learning materials. related to that goal, the english teacher is able to use the various methods and media which interesting and fun to teach. furthermore, during the teaching and learning process the teacher show good attitudes as the ideal characteristics of teacher, they are; discipline, enthusiasm, friendly, creative, well-dressed and polite, has a good management class and time. based the background education of the teacher, although the teacher was graduated from bachelor degree of mathematics education department but she mastered english very well. it is based on the implementation of the teaching strategies used by the teacher in teaching english for maths class, the students become active learners who able to play an active role, thinking critically, analyzing and solving the problems. besides that, they can use english to communicate ayu fitrianingsih & syahrul udin. 2017. pedagogical strategies and content knowledge of the teacher of english for maths in the context of content-based instruction. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 11—17. 17 with the teacher and their friends during the teaching and learning process. references ball, d. l., & bass, h. 2003. toward a practice-based theory of mathematical knowledge for teaching.in b. davis & e. simmt (eds.), proceedings of the 2002 annual meeting of the canadian mathematics education study group (pp. 3-14). edmonton, ab: cmesg/gdedm. chi, m. t. h., feltovich, p. j., & glaser, r. 1981.categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices.cognitive science, 5, 121–152. cochran-smith, m., &zeichner, k. m. 2005.teacher education.the report of the aera panel on research and teacher education. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. crandal, j. 1999. content-centered language learning. retrieved from: eric: https://eric.ed.gov/?q=content-centered+language+learning&id=ed367142. creswell, j.w. 2007.qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. 3rd edition, sage, thousand oaks. dueñas, m. 2004. the whats, whys, hows and whos of contentbased instruction. international journal of english studies, 73-96. retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1072197.pdf. grossman, p. l. 1990. the making of a teacher: teacher knowledge and teacher education. new york: teachers college press. resnick, i,. b. 1987. education and learning to think, washington, d.c., national academy press. shulman, l. s. 1986. those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. educational researcher, 15(2), 4-14. schmidt, h. g., &boshuizen, h. p. a. 1992.encapsulation of biomedical knowledge. in d. a. evans & v. l. patel (eds.), advanced models of cognitionfor medical training and practice (pp. 265–282). new york: springer. simon, h. a., & chase, w. g. 1973.skill in chess.american scientist, 61, 394–403. miles, mb. &huberman, am. 1994. qualitative data analysis (2nd edition). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. https://eric.ed.gov/?q=content-centered+language+learning&id=ed367142 http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1072197.pdf http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=u4lu_-wj5qec&oi=fnd&pg=pr5&sig=1dfzv8ozmyjkbruayf2jgwg3loq&dq=qualitative+data+analysis&prev=http://scholar.google.com/scholar%3fq%3dqualitative%2bdata%2banalysis%26num%3d100%26hl%3den%26lr%3d language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 18 language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 73 humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high school arina isti’anah arina@usd.ac.id sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia received: 10 july 201. revised: 20august 2015. accepted: 25 august 2015 abstract the english electronic school textbooks or known as bse (buku sekolah elektronik) for senior high school are used by students in indonesia since this kind of book is downloadable free in the internet. due to that reason, this study intends to evaluate the language use in the book by means of appraisal analysis. the focus of attention will be on the representation of humanistic values in the book. the values are necessarily to promote due to the fact that textbooks become one of resources for students to build their characters as language enables humans to express their conscious awareness of emotions (dong, 2006). consequently, what the book presents influences the students‘ attitudes towards certain issues. this research attempts to find out what humanistic values are promoted in the book and how the writers‘ attitudes are represented to show the humanistic values.the analysis shows that the book presents three values: respecting others, nature and social issues. the writers‘ attitudes towards the values are dominated by affect: 87% in respecting other people and 73% in respecting social issues. to respect nature, the writers‘ attitudes are shown in appreciation, presented in 71%. keywords: textbook, humanistic values, attitude, appraisal how to cite: isti‘anah, a. 2015. humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high school. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction as a foreign language in indonesia, english is started to be taught in primary school as a local content subject so that children can recognize this international language in early times. in high schools, both junior and senior ones, english is a compulsory subject to master. this subject is also one of the subjects examined in the final examination. due to its importance, indonesian government has attempted to help students and teachers by launching electronic textbooks which can be downloaded by academicians free. launched by indonesian government and used by students and teachers throughout the country, the english electronic school textbook, or buku sekolah elektronik (bse), is expected to be able to ease the teaching learning process in schools. the affordable price of this book becomes motivation for both teachers and students to select this book as the main resource they use in classrooms. for those who are familiar with internet, this kind of book is downloadable. teachers and students just need to register in national education network and download the book free. mailto:arina@usd.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 74 used in schools throughout indonesia, the textbook is expected to promote humanistic values to students. the writers of the book have the opportunity to promote them since schools are the best place to learn academic and humanistic values. as the example, indonesia is very rich of its customs, so promoting local wisdom is potentially to make. the students can learn humanistic values from the appearance of folklore, for instance. the questions and instruction given by the textbook can lead the students‘ point of view to respond certain stories. other sources to promote humanistic values in the textbook can be found in dialogs, short paragraphs, written exercises, or even instructions. for instance, the textbook involves a topic about showing sympathy. the given situation which requires expressing sympathy can be observed in terms of how the students can express their feeling when they face certain situations. the provided expressions in the textbook will influence the students‘ characters when they face the similar situation in their real life. whether the provided feeling is positive or not also affects the students‘ character development. halliday says that language is able to influence people by means of wordings (2004). the choice of words to form meaningful written utterances in the textbook clearly reflects the writers‘ attention to certain issues, which issues are paid attention most and which are not. language can influence people, so the chosen wordings in the textbook can influence the readers, particularly students, on how to give attitudes towards the issues presented in the textbook. to understand language use, systemic functional linguistics believes that meanings can be realized within ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. halliday (2004) states that ideational function deals with the function that the speaker or writer embodies language in his experience of the phenomena of the real world. interpersonal function deals with how the speaker or writer interacts with the audience, including showing feelings and building relationship between them. textual function is about how the language use is constructed by the speaker or writer. interpersonal function will be the concern of this study. this function is to observe how the writers of the textbook interact with the readers, particularly on how they express feelings towards certain situations. language evaluation is seen as the most appropriate approach to answer the previous curiosity. martin and white (2005) offer an approach to evaluate language use by the speaker or writer, namely appraisal analysis. this is about the representation through language of favorable and unfavorable attitudes towards specific subjects (dong, 2006). the attitudinal analysis will be conducted in this study. martin and white (2005) state that this system involves three semantic regions covering: emotion or affect, ethics or judgment and aesthetics or appreciation. to identify the three semantic regions, halliday‘s systemic functional linguistics (sfl) is the main tool to conduct. as designed for senior high school, the textbook provides various topics which are realized in reading texts, dialogs, and also exercises. as a result, the textbook actually takes a big role to shape indonesian students‘ attitudes towards various issues in arina isti‘anah. humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high schoo __________________________________________________________________________________________ 75 their life. this paper attempts to find out what humanistic values are promoted in the textbook and how the writers‘ attitudes are represented to reveal humanistic values in the textbook. some similar studies have been conducted by scholars. caldwell (2009) conducts appraisal analysis in the australian football league (afl) post-match interview. from the analysis, it is found that there is a neutral stance of the journalist and footballer from the existence of high probability of equal frequency of positive and negative attitude, high probability of invoked attitude, and median probability of inscribed appreciation. pascual and unger (2010) observe grant proposals by argentinean researchers using appraisal analysis. the focus of the research is engagement, which is about the resources by which the textual or authorial voice is positioned intersubjectively (cited in pascual and unger, 2010: 263). the application of interpersonal analysis shows that the writers of grant proposals use certain language markers to position themselves and put their audiences. they use strategies to show a preference of inviting audiences than challenging their colleagues. another research on appraisal analysis is by wu (2013) who conducts attitudinal analysis of public service advertising discourse. the study attempts to find out the frequency of attitudinal types in the discourse. it is found that judgment appears the most followed by affect and appreciation. this means that the advertising discourse concerns human behavior and the objective world than emotional field (wu, 2013). the related studies summarized above show that appraisal analysis can be conducted in various data. the goal of conducting such analysis is the same: to find out how the writers or speakers build their relationship to their audience, particularly how they express their feelings. the present study is in an attempt to apply appraisal analysis in the different data. the textbook involved in this study is also observed in terms of how the writers show their feelings towards certain issues, particularly those containing humanistic values. consequently, this research will prove that appraisal analysis is applicable to conduct in various kinds of texts. methodology the observed textbook was entitled developing english competencies for senior high school (sma/ma) grade x and written by achmad doddy, ahmad sugeng, and effendi. the book was published by pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional in 2008 and can be accessed in www.kemendikbud.go.id. to initiate the analysis, the clauses in the book are broken down into those containing humanistic values. from the observation, there are three values: respecting others, nature, and social issues. to analyze the clauses, this research applied appraisal analysis, which is included as a part of discourse analysis. discourse analysis treats language as a medium for interaction and the analysis of it becomes the analysis of what people do (wood and kroger, 2000). jorgensen and philips (2002) propose that cda is about how entities such as ‗language‘ and ‗the subject‘ are to be understood. the focus of analysis in the present study is the linguistic features of the text. as this research attempts to uncover the feelings by the writers of the textbook, what martin and white (2005) develop from language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 76 halliday‘s sfl becomes the template of the analysis. the chosen clauses containing humanistic values are analyzed in terms of attitudes: affect, judgment, and appreciation. results and discussion humanistic values found in the textbook there are three domains of humanistic values which were found in the textbook. the values are about respecting others, nature, and social issues. to summarize the appearance of the three values, clauses in the textbook covering them are counted and grouped so that it can be concluded whether or not the textbook presents equal domains and promotes humanistic values proportionately. in the textbook, the appearance of those three domains can be summarized in the following table. table 1. summary of humanistic values in the textbook no domains of humanistic values number percentage 1 other people 126 72% 2 nature 34 19% 3 social issues 15 9% total 175 100% from the observation, there are 175 clauses which contain humanistic values. those clauses are found in various forms, including the instructions, reading texts, or exercises. the three domains of humanistic values in the textbook appear in different portion. table 1 above shows that the value related to other people appears the most, which equals 72%. the following dominating values are those related to nature, 19%, and to social issues, 9%. the textbook was designed for the tenth graders who do not focus on certain branch study. as a result, the textbook present the values about people, nature, and society. from the findings above, the first humanistic value the writers attempt to involve is the one related to people. the topics in the textbook are dominated by the relationship between human beings. the domination of this issue reveals that building relationship to other people cannot be separated in every day‘s life. the topics which are related to respecting others are: greeting introducing, parting; expressing sympathy, affection; making, accepting, declining invitation; making and cancelling appointment; expressions of congratulating and complimenting; expressions of gratitude, and expressions of surprise and amazement. the topics mentioned earlier are closely related to the students‘ life. the positive expressions in the textbook indirectly influence the students‘ point of view when they face similar situation as in the textbook. in short, the textbook is in an attempt to build positive characters to the students. the topics about nature and social issues are not put separately in some chapters. rather, they are integrated with the topics related to people. nature and social issues are presented in reading texts. this is arina isti‘anah. humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high schoo __________________________________________________________________________________________ 77 because the tenth graders are not designed to focus on certain branch. the students are introduced by the two topics only to broaden their critical thinking towards the issues. it is said so since learning reflection is found right after the reading texts. the writers’ attitudes to reveal the humanistic values in the textbook as stated earlier, the domains of humanistic values are separated into three, each value is broken down into its type of attitude, referring to martin and white (2005). those three types of attitudes are affect, judgment, and appreciation. the writers‘ attitudes towards humanistic values are summarized in the table below. table 2. summary of types of attitudes in the textbook domains of humanistic values types of attitudes affect judgment appreciation no % no % no % attitude to other people 110 87 16 13 0 0 attitude to nature 1 3 9 26 24 71 attitude to social issues 11 73 4 27 0 0 total 122 70 29 16 24 14 the table above shows the appearance of each domain of humanistic value in the textbook. the first domain, attitude to other people, employs affect as the type of attitude which appears the most, 87%. the value is also depicted using judgment, 13%, whileappreciation is not employed by the writers in the textbook to show attitude to other people. the second domain, attitude to nature, uses appreciation as the dominating attitude chosen by the writers, which is presented in 71%. judgment is employed in 26%, while affect is used in 3% to show attitude to nature. the last domain, attitude to social issues, is presented in 73%, which uses affect. judgment appears in 27%, while appreciation does not appear to show attitude related to social issues. in general, affect is used the most by the writers to show humanistic values, which appear in 70%. judgment and appreciation are the following tools to show humanistic values, which appear in 16% and 14%. affect martin and white (2005) assert that the realization of affect can be seen from participants and processes: affective mental and behavioral processes and modal adjunct. there are three forms of affect: affect as quality, process, and comment. as a quality, affect is observed in terms of describing participants (epithet), attributed to participants (attribute), and manner of process (circumstance). as a process, affect refers to either mental or behavioral process. as a comment, affect refers to desiderative seen from the modal adjunct. there are six factors of affect: positive or negative, behavioral or mental, reaction or undirected mood, modality (low, median, or high), realis or irrealis, and un/happiness, language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 78 in/security, or dis/satisfaction (martin and white, 2005). in the data, affect to revel the first humanistic value, respecting others, can be seen in the examples below. (1) well, it's nice to hear your story. (2) i've got a new interesting novel and vcd of a drama performance. (3) well done, don. i'm very proud of you. in (1), the relational process to entail the subject occurs. clause (1) can be paraphrased as to hear your story (carrier) is nice (attribute). the positive feeling is built up in the clause. it can be seen from the employment of the word nice which has a positive meaning. the textbook writers give an example of how to respond someone‘s story. the students can give positive feeling to someone else by showing their affection. it is also proven by the analysis of mental process as shown above. in (2), the object novel and vcd of drama performance is modified by an adjective interesting. the function of the modifier is to give information about the noun. another positive word to describe nouns is also seen in clause (2). the nouns novel and vcd of drama performance are described to be interesting. here, affect is chosen by the textbook writers to describe nouns by means of describing the quality of the nouns. in (3), a mental process occurs. i (senser) am very proud (phenomenon) of you.affect is also employed here, but it does not show the quality of something. besides, this clause shows a process of giving affection. the employment of mental process in (3) proves that the senser experiences a phenomenon, a process of being proud. affect to show the second humanistic value, respecting nature, is only represented in the only following example. (4) yesterday, on the tv news, i saw a bad thunderstorm in east java. a mental process occurs there. i (senser) saw (phenomenon) a bad thunderstorm in east java. the choice of such clause shows that the textbook writers attempt to build the students‘ character by giving examples on how to show affection on an event related to nature. the students are attracted to give opinion about a thunderstorm. indirectly, the students also develop their sensitivity and affection towards what happen in the country. affect to reveal respecting social issue can be seen below. (5) everyone knows who kartini is. in (5) a mental process referring to cognition occurs. everyone (senser) knowswho kartini is(phenomenon). the issue about woman emancipation cannot be separated from indonesian history. the heroine, r.a. kartini is the most important figure to arise the issue. the existence of this figure is chosen by the textbook writers to awaken the students‘ awareness about the issue. the use of everyone as the senser in (5) becomes the proof. the students, as important part of the future of indonesia, is also involved. the presence of clause (6) strengthens the previous discussion. (6) she is our national heroine and a great lady with the bright idea. r.a. kartini is attributed as an important lady in indonesia. she (carrier) isour national heroine and a great lady (attribute) with the bright idea (circ. of arina isti‘anah. humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high schoo __________________________________________________________________________________________ 79 manner). the clause is presented to show the quality of the participant. r.a. kartini is described as a figure who has a good quality in indonesia, shown by the relational process above. the presence of circumstance of manner also strengthens r.a. kartini‘s quality. by selecting the clause and its type, the textbook writers would like to develop the students‘ character by showing positive affection to an indonesian heroine whose characters are positive. judgment judgment deals with attitudes to people and the way they behave their character (martin and white, 2005). there are two categories on how judgment is made: social esteem and social sanction. martin and white (2005) describe that, ―social esteem tends to be policed in the oral culture.‖ on the other hand, ―social sanction is often codified in writing (martin and white, 2005: 52).‖ the realizations of social esteem are normality, capacity, and tenacity. normality is about how unusual someone is (how special), capacity is how capable they are (how capable), and tenacity is about how resolute they are (how dependable). the realizations of social sanction are veracity and propierty. veracity deals with how truthful someone is (how honest), while propierty deals with how ethical someone is (how far beyond reproach). the figure below shows how judgment is realized by means of modality. figure 1. modality and types of judgment (cited in martin and white, 2005: 54) language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 80 judgment to show respecting others can be seen below. (7) he was very friendly, and his face looked so familiar. (8) it's always hard to lose someone you love. (9) i think it will be great if we have many city parks in jakarta. in (7), the adverb very and verb looked show judgment. clause (7) is categorized as normality since it talks about how special someone is. the quality of friendly in (7) is modified by the adverb very to show that the subject he has special quality. thus, it is included as social esteem found in the oral culture. the involvement of modals in (8) and (9) is another way to show the writers‘ judgment. the modals always in (8) is to show usuality, while the modal will in (9) is to show probability. both usuality and probability are also included as social esteem in the oral culture. the textbook presents many expressions in the form of dialogs as the means to show how people build their relation to other people. consequently, it is not surprising that judgment which involves social esteem is dominating the textbook. judgment itself is sometimes understood as giving negative opinion about something. however, the textbook does not reveal the previous assumption. rather, the writers involve judgment in order to picture that in building relationship to other people, the students need to consider the results of their utterances, whether what they say is in line with the oral culture or not. the textbook is good at providing examples which are closely related to the students‘ real life. judgment to reveal respecting nature is depicted below. (10) it (bali) was a really great place. (11) the people are friendly, the food's great, and the weather's a lot better (as/than) at home. (12) the louvre, one of the world's largest art museums, draws many visitors. the adverb really in (10) shows the usuality. bali is shown as a place which is special. the choice of bali as the subject is a good way to introduce indonesian tourism place. the adjectivesfriendly and great in (11) also reveals usuality. the quality of people and food in bali is describe as unsual or special. home in (11) refers to a place in indonesia whose quality is also positive. here, the writers‘ choice to involve places in indonesia with judgment reveals that indonesia the country to love as it has good quality. however, the textbook also involves some places outside indonesia. for instance, the louvre is involved in the textbook and described as the world‟s largest art museum. the superlative adjective the world‟s largest is involved in the clause to show that the museum is also unusual. in short, usuality is chosen by the writers to give positive opinions to certain places, either in indonesia or outside the country. by doing so, the writers are in an attempt to build social esteem of indonesia. judgment to reveal respecting social issues is presented below. (13) now kartini has gone. but her spirit and dream will always be in our heart. the modal will in (13) is categorized as probability whose level is high. in judgment, probability is used to reveal social sanction. in this matter, social sanction is realizied in a form of veracity. it is about how truthful the fact is. the truth of the fact ―...her spirit and dream will always be in our heart‖ is arina isti‘anah. humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high schoo __________________________________________________________________________________________ 81 shown in the textbook. in real life, the spirit of kartini is still alive. it can be seen from the commemoration of kartini‘s birthday every year. schools are commemorating the day by holding ceremony and wearing traditional clothes. it is not about clothes actually, but the teachers‘ and students‘ awareness of how important kartini is. moreover, the textbook also arises the truth about kartini‘s spirit. appreciation martin and white (2005) propose that appreciation deals with evaluation of ‗things‘ we make and performances we give, but include natural phenomena. appreciation can be realized in three subtypes: reaction, composition, and valuation. reaction refers to whether the ‗thing‘ grabs us and quality, which refers to whether we like it. composition covers balance, whether the ‗thing‘ hangs together, and complexity, whether the ‗thing‘ is hard to follow. valuation deals with whether the ‗thing‘ is worthwhile. appreciation is summarized in table 2. table 2. sub-types of appreciation (cited in martin and white, 2005: 57) appreciation mental process type metafunction reaction affection interpersonal composition perception textual valuation cognition ideational (14) just a note to let you know that we (have) a wonderful holiday in bali. (15) how's the trip? well, it'snice and exciting. clauses (14) and (15) above are classified into appreciation. how to categorize them is by employing interpersonal analysis. based on martin and white (2005), the clauses above shows reaction. the mental process in (14) is marked by the verb know, which is categorized as cognition. the senseryou in (14) performs as the conscious being (halliday, 2004). the phenomenon in (14) is realized in the form of fact expressed in a noun clause that we have a wonderful holiday in bali. in (15) appreciation can be found by conducting ideational analysis. the appreciation in (15) is categorized as valuation, which deals with whether the thing is worthwhile (martin and white, 2005). the quality of the subject, trip, in (15) can be seen clearly through relational process. clause (15) can be paraphrased as i think that the trip is nice and interesting. the cognition process is marked by the existence of the verb think. the subject i performs as a senser who feels the phenomenon, a fact, that the trip is nice and interesting. the previous analysis clearly shows appreciation to a worthwhile experience related to nature. in the textbook, appreciation is not always realized directly in clauses containing mental clauses. however, based on the context, the clauses can be paraphrased in mental clauses. the responses given by the characters in dialogs language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 82 clearly shows the speakers‘ cognition. appreciation is revealed in a form valuation, to reveal that their experiences related to nature are worthwhile to appreciate. conclusion the textbook is dominated by humanistic value about respecting others. this finding reveals that the textbook writers attempt to focus on developing the issue of building relationship to other people. judgment is employed in the textbook to give information about how unusual or special something is, either about other people, nature, or social issue. appreciation exists to reveal how worthwhile a thing is. from the analysis, the textbook writers have positive attitudes about issues related to people, nature, and society. the domination of issues about people can be inferred that students in indonesia need to learn how to build good relationship to other people. the presented topics in the textbook are closely related to students‘ real life, which, as its effects, are beneficial for their life. the writers attitudes involve affect the most. this finding is in line with the dominating issue in the textbook. affect, which deals with expressing feelings, appears in a positive way to show how special something or someone is. references caldwell, d. 2009. appraisal in the afl post-match interview.australian review of applied linguistics, 2(2),131-137. dody, a., sudeng, a., and effendi. 2008. developing english competencies for senior high school (sma/ma) grade x. jakarta: setia purna invest. dong, a. 2006. how am i doing? the language of appraisal in design. design computing and cognition, 385-404. fairclough, n. 1995. media discourse. new york: oxford university press. halliday, m.a.k. and matthiessen, ch.m.i.m. 2004. an introduction to functional grammar: 3 rd edition. london: hodder education. jorgensen, m., & philips, l. j. 2002. discourse analysis as theory and method. london: sage publication ltd. locke, t. 2004. critical discourse analysis. london: continuum. liu, xiaolin. 2010. an application of appraisal theory to teaching college english reading in china. journal of language teaching and research, 1(2), 133-135. martin, j.r. and white, p.r.r. 2005. the language of evaluation: appraisal in english. new york: palgrave macmillan. matthiessen, ch., & halliday, m.a.k. 1997. systemic functional grammar: a first step into the theory. february 26, 011. http://web.mac.com/cmatthie/iweb/smmg resources/ mendoza2006 course_description_files/sfg_firststep_1.pdf. pascual, m., & unger, l. 2010. appraisal in the research genres: an analysis of grant proposals by argentinean researchers. revista signos, 43(73), 261-280. read, j., hope, d., and caroll, j. 2007. annotating expressions of appraisal in english. proceedings of the linguistic annotation workshop, 93-100. wood, l. a & kroger, rolf o. 2000. doing discourse analysis: methods for studying action in talk and text. thousand oaks: sage publications, inc. http://web.mac.com/cmatthie/iweb/smmg%20resources/%20mendoza2006%20course_description_files/sfg_firststep_1.pdf http://web.mac.com/cmatthie/iweb/smmg%20resources/%20mendoza2006%20course_description_files/sfg_firststep_1.pdf http://web.mac.com/cmatthie/iweb/smmg%20resources/%20mendoza2006%20course_description_files/sfg_firststep_1.pdf arina isti‘anah. humanistic values in english electronic school textbook for senior high schoo __________________________________________________________________________________________ 83 wu, hai-bin. 2013. appraisal perspective on attitudinal analysis of public service advertising discourse.english language and literature studies, 3(1), 55-66. xinghua, liu and thompson, p. 2009. attitude in students‘ argumentative writing: a contrastive perspective. language studies working papers, 1, 3-15. young, l., & harrison, c. 2004. systemic functional linguistics and critical discourse analysis: studies in social science. london: continuum. language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 141 the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia devy angga gunantar angga.gunantar@gmail.com semarang university, indonesia received: 4 october 2015. revised: 2 november 2015. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract this study aims to analyze the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. in analyzing the impact of english as an international language, the writer analyzed how cultural issues are presented in english textbooks, and revealed the teachers‘ perspective about learning english in indonesia. the data were collected from smp n 1 wiradesa, pekalongan. the study revealed that the english textbooks in smp n 1 wiradesa mostly represented the local cultures. some teachers of smp n 1 wiradesa preferred textbooks that deal with the life and culture of various countries around the world and the rest of them chose the content that deals with local cultures. textbooks have played a very important role in the teaching and learning process. this study shows that, basically, local cultural content has become the purpose of efl teaching as seen from the textbooks but some teachers still believe that foreign cultures are the suitable target of learning english. key words: cultural content, english language teaching, english as an international language, english in indonesia how to cite: gunantar, devy angga. 2016. the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. indtroduction the demand of english learning has risen along with english proliferation globally. the practice of english was no longer only limited to international purposes but also local communication. therefore, the trend has shifted from only copying the native speaker style to successfully communicating by using english. people who live in the countries of english as foreign language (efl) like indonesia tend to talk in english more with their friends rather than with native speaker of english. crystal (1997) stated that the number of people in the world who communicate in english with international speakers is steadily rising compared to other language speakers. this statement is supported with the fact that approximately 380 million people speak in english as an international language, such fact has proven that english is now globally utilized. moreover, english is also used by over one billion people who speak english as their second (or additional) language to communicate with other second language users regardless of different culture and linguistic features. in conclusion, the control of international use of english is now shifted from english speaking countries people to wider global community and the native speakers has turned to be the minority among english language users. mailto:angga.gunantar@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 142 this study, therefore, aims to analyze the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. specifically it analyzes whether english teachers in indonesia still teach the cultural content of native speakers (information about the culture of native speakers), or indonesian culture in english (information about indonesian culture). today, english becomes one of the most spoken languages by world citizens. it is slightly lower than mandarin with overall speakers up to 1,5 billion people. in addition, it is the most studied language in the world (crystal 2003a; crystal 2003b). there are approximately 325 million native speakers of english, around 425 million english speakers as the second language, and other 750 million people are learning english as the a foreign language (crystal 2003a: 68; crystal 2003b: 108; nettle & romaine 2000 in mckay & bokhorst-heng 2008: 18). crystal (2003a) also argued that the success of english as the most influential language has been determined by two factors; the powerful british colonialism and the skyrocketed business growth of united states of america. these factors have driven english to be the communication medium in most world regions as a native, second or foreign language (crystal 2003a; jenkins 2009). this also led to the flourish of many different styles of english than the native one because english speakers came from various background and cultures. the proliferation of english in the world can be categorized into three circles; the inner, the outer, and expanding circles (kachru 1992). the native speaker‘s countries whose mother tongue is english such as the united kingdom, the united states of america, australia, and new zealand are clustered into the inner circle. people of those countries are called as monolingual english speakers or english native speakers. in another hand, several countries like south africa, singapore, malaysia, filipina, india, pakistan, and bangladesh are counted into the outer circle. this is caused by the fact the citizen of these countries utilize english for daily communication along with their local language as mother tongue language. the last one, the expanding circle, covers the countries that view english as a foreign language. in these countries, english is only practiced in several occasions, for example, academic places, foreign offices, and particular event like seminars, conferences, and meetings and it is mainly studied at schools or language institutions. some countries like china, saudi arabia, egypt, indonesia, thailand, germany, poland, italy, and russia belong to the expanding circles (kachru 1992; crystal 2003a; kirkpatrick 2007; mckay & bokhorst-heng, 2008). as the time flows, the concept about english speakers is progressed quickly. english speakers are not only clustered into various native english speakers (such as american english versus british english), or native english speakers and non-native speakers, but also non-native english speakers and other non-native english speakers. in the level of international interaction, most people choose english as communication medium which is generally known as english as a lingua franca. this is the example of english utilization performed by many people with various backgrounds such as the speaker from english as second or foreign languages, this happened because gunantar, devy angga. 2016. the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 143 english is commonly understood by many speakers despite their native language is not english (jenkins 2000; 2009; kirkpatrick 2007; 2010). this circumstance clearly proves that the use of english is not only limited to communicate with english native speakers. in addition, in learning english particularly in expanding circles, non-native speakers should not prioritize english culture as an important point. for such stance, the writer has no any goal to blame any particular culture neither suggests that english culture is not meant to be learnt. the writer concern more on the idea that in learning english, the culture of learners is more urgent than english culture since the use of english is around on peer communication. unlike other countries, indonesia took a different stance by putting english as its foreign language while neighbor countries such as filipina, singapore, and malaysia view english as the second language. in indonesia, english is only utilized in several fields for example in foreign companies, educational institutions, and foreign offices. it is hard to find the use of english in daily conversation in indonesia. due to the notion that english is an international language and as the most spoken one by global citizen for various purposes, the government later oblige people to learn it in all secondary level schools and other private schools have actually taught english from elementary to tertiary level education or higher degree. in addition, some private institutions introduce compulsory english for students from elementary level and some other used it as instructional language in all classes (kirkpatrick 2010). it is relieving that today society starts to be aware of the significance of learning english, not necessarily because of its role in knowledge, science, and technology but more because of the role of english in economic activities and career progress. this trend is accommodated by the increase of schools that use english as teaching medium, job promotion written or published in english, and television programs like news is now broadcast in english (alip 2007: 160-161). immediately, these phenomena caused greater demand in indonesia to use and be proficient in english. nevertheless, as it has been explained in the previous part, there is demand to master english in indonesia in respect to interact with non-native speakers of english. thus, english language teaching in indonesia should be adjusted to such condition. the awareness of english as an international language and as a language of science is responded with mandatory english teaching in junior high school to varsity level. however, with the status as a foreign language, english is occasionally used outside the classroom. even during the class, instead of speaking english the indonesia students tend to speak in bahasa indonesia (indonesian language) or their local language. such situation directly affects the indonesian students‘ english mastery (lie, 2004; thalal, 2010). generally speaking, the teaching of english language in indonesia has been labeled as to be far from successful. this can be seen from the fact that after the school ended, most indonesian students cannot use english properly in their communication. in order to increase the quality of english proficiency, the students then language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 144 decided to take an english course outside their school class or joining special english training for special purposes, english conversation, toefl, or ielts, etc. it is common to find a typical indonesian student who scores very high in english proficiency test but with very least speaking skills. however, as it has been said that the target of english curriculum is mastering communication skill, we cannot undermine the ability of students to effectively use english after the learning process. therefore, encouraging the students to tell the story of local culture in english is highly recommended. by talking about their local culture, student will get two benefits; raising the awareness of their culture as well as improving their skill in using english since the topic is quiet familiar to them. methodology the type of research is descriptivequalitative and simple quantitative. rather than measuring the quantity of case, this study measured the quality aspect of a case. that is why it is called as a qualitative study. this point focused on how strong the influences of english on english teaching in indonesia through written discussion with no numerical data analysis. this means that the current study focused more on data explanation instead of presenting statistical result. the collections of data were accomplished by several methods; 1. questionnaire. the writer spread the questionnaire to english teachers in smpn 1 wiradesa. the answered questionnaires were then analyzed to compile the data. 2. the english textbooks. english textbooks were analyzed by the writer as the sources of data. the selected english textbooks were published by the ministry of education and culture. they were as follow. a) wardiman. a. dkk. (2008). english in focus (for grade vii junior high school smp/mts. jakarta: pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional. b) priyana. j. dkk. (2008). scaffolding (english for junior high school students grade viii. jakarta: pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional. c) susilohadi. g. dkk. (2008). contextual teaching and learning bahasa inggris, smp/mts kelas ix edisi 4. jakarta: pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional. results and discussion the results of this study were discussed in two parts: questionnaire analysis results and textbooks analysis results. the writer collected the data from smpn 1 wiradesa, pekalongan by giving questionnaire to all of the english teachers in that school related to english language teaching. smpn 1 wiradesa is one of national standardized school in central java, located in wiradesa, pekalongan. the writer sees that the impact of english as an international language in indonesia affected the development of english curriculum, communicative learning or communicative method in english language teaching process was being developed in english syllabus in indonesia. these appeared because of the role of english as an international language. so, the important goal of learning english in indonesia is to communicate with other gunantar, devy angga. 2016. the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 145 people around the world. in some teachers‘ perspective, the role of teacher is to create the communicative method in teaching and learning process through group work, discussion or role play. these were done as ways of increasing the students‘ communication. with regard to cultural content, in the junior high school to university level, the indonesian students are commonly required to take english as a compulsory subject. the focus of learning is on developing reading skills, translation into indonesian language and sometimes on writing in english, mostly. if english is used primarily for communication between non native speakers of english, then the cultures and backgrounds of those people become more important than any culture traditionally associated with native speakers. the english language teaching in indonesia needs to give information about cultures of native speakers. it is also important that the students must be prepared to be able to use english to talk about their own cultures. if english in indonesia and asia is used primarily for communication between non native speakers of english, then the way those people speak english becomes more important than the way native speakers speak english (kirkpatrick, 2007). in this study, the writer also analyzed the cultural content of english textbooks used as english modules in english language teaching in indonesia, especially english textbooks for junior high school students at smpn 1 wiradesa. this book is one of english textbooks recommended by ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia. in collecting, analyzing and evaluating the cultural content of english text books, the writer chose byram‘s checklist criteria. it is more comprehensive and practical. it covers almost every aspect of the culture from the spirit to the material infrastructure. criteria for text book evaluation (focus on cultural content) shown in the following list: table 1. the analysis of english text book (english in focus for grade vii junior high school) no byram‘s criteria details position number percentage 1. social identity and social group what is your name? what should i buy? what do you do? my hobby page 1 page 57 page 101 page 139 4 33,33% 2. social interaction greeting and introducing asking and giving information describing people asking and responding clarification expression page 8 page 27 page 107 page 143 4 33,33% 3. belief and behavior work out page 123 1 7,69% 4. social and language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 146 political institutions 5. socialization and life phrase let‘s go to school family life page 39 page 83 2 16,67% 6. national history 7. national geography things around us page 19 1 7,69% 8. stereo types and national identity total 12 100% based on the byram‘s criteria, for the english text book entitled english in focus for grade vii junior high school, the discussion about indonesian cultures are displayed on the page 1, 57, 101, and 139, the focus of the discussion is about personal identification, the percentage of it is about 33,33%. social interaction is also discussed, for example about greeting, introducing, asking and giving information, describing people, etc. this discussion reaches 33.33% the next point is about belief and behavior which are also presented in this text book. there is around 7.69% of the total cultural points being discussed in the text book which focuses on belief and behavior. the writer did not find any discussion about social and political issues in this text book. however, the discussion about socialization and life reaches around 16.67%. the example of this discussion is about family life and going to school or school life. national historical issues are also not available in this text book. however, there are around 7.69% portion for discussing national geographical issues, it is covered in the discussion about things around us. the other point which is not covered in this text book is stereo types and national identity. table 2. the analysis of english text book (scaffolding, english for junior high school students grade viii) no byram‘s criteria details position number percentage 1. social identity and social group describing things and animals my gorgeous idol my unforgettable holiday my first experience once upon a time a friend in need is a friend indeed page 1 page 21 page 61 page 79 page 141 page 161 6 46.15% 2. social interaction asking for, giving and refusing goods and services agreeing and disagreeing something asking for and giving opinions starting, extending and ending a conversation on the telephone page 1-20 page 41-60 page 62-79 page 103 4 30.77% 3. belief and behavior life performances page 103 1 7.69% 4. social and political institutions celebration around the world page 123 1 7.69% gunantar, devy angga. 2016. the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 147 5. socialization and life phrase 6. national history 7. national geography wonderful places page 41 1 7.69% 8. stereo types and national identity total 13 100% based on the byram‘s criteria, for the english text book entitled scaffolding english for junior high school students grade viii, the discussion about indonesian cultures are discussed on the page 1, 21, 61, 79, 141, and 161, the focus of the discussion is about describing something, the percentage of it is about 46,15%. social interaction is also discussed, for example about asking for something, giving and refusing goods and services, agreeing and disagreeing something, asking for and giving opinions, etc. this discussion reaches 30.77% the next point is about belief and behavior which is also presented in this textbook. there is around 7.69% of the total cultural points being discussed in the text book which focus on belief and behavior. the writer found any discussion about social and political issues in this text book, there is around 7.69%. the example of this discussion is about celebration around the world. however, the discussion about socialization and life phrase did not find in this text book. national historical issues are also not available in this text book. however, there is around 7.69% portion for discussing national geographical issues, it is covered in the discussion about wonderful places. the other point which is not covered in this text book is stereo types and national identity. table 3.the analysis of english text book (contextual teaching and learning, bahasa inggris, smp kelas ix) no byram‘s criteria details position number percentage 1. social identity and social group are you sure? how do you do it? what a pity? what are they? really? what is it like? could you? long long time ago, there was page 1 page 24 page 41 page 55 page 71 page 90 page 107 page 121 8 72.73% 2. social interaction expressing and responding to doubt, asking for repetition, showing concern, showing surprise or wonder. expressing and responding to bad news. responding to good news and expressing opinions page 2 page 42 page 72 3 27.27% 3. belief and behavior language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 148 4. social and political institutions 5. socialization and life phrase 6. national history 7. national geography 8. stereo types and national identity total 11 100% based on the byram‘s criteria, for the english text book entitled contextual teaching and learning bahasa inggris sekolah menengah pertama kelas ix, the discussion about indonesian cultures is displayed on the page 1, 24, 41, 55, 71, 90, 107, and 121, the focuses of the discussion are about personal identifications, the percentage of it is about 72.73%. social interaction is also discussed, for example about expressing and responding to doubt, asking for repetition, showing concern, showing surprise or wonder, expressing and responding to bad news, responding to good news and expressing opinions, etc. this discussion reaches 27.27% the next point is about belief and behavior which is unavailable in this text book. the writer did not find any discussion about social and political issues in this text book and the discussion about socialization and life phrase also did not find in this textbook. national historical issues and national geographical issues are also not available in this textbook. the other point which is not covered in this text book is stereo types and national identity. the writer sees that english textbooks in indonesia, especially in smpn 1 wiradesa, have adapted the growing issue in the world. it can be seen from the way the english textbooks presented some reading texts and vocabulary. some texts are about indonesian cultures, such as borobudur, batik, etc. the vocabulary used in the texts are also related to the content of texts being discussed. it shows that the focus of learning english in indonesia is to enable students to talk about their own culture in english as the target language. it is significantly different from the previous syllabus which drove students to focus more on performing or imitating native like performance by having english speaking countries culture. it also shows that communicative ability is more important in learning english than nativelikeness. however, the syllabus still emphasizes the correctness of language such as pronunciation based on native performance, even though it focuses more enabling students to be communicative in english. with regard to the cultural content employed in the teaching process, the majority of the english teachers (based on the questionnaires) preferred cultural content that deals with the life and culture of various countries around the world and some of them chose the cultural content that deals with local culture. the use of local cultural content give reasons such as it is important to preserve the local culture especially for young people and to reinforce the values of our culture. those who supported the use of content from native english-speaking countries cited the need to know the origin of the language. finally, they preferred the use of various gunantar, devy angga. 2016. the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 149 cultures with the reasons such as this may help students feel that they can use english everywhere and in any situation, and students have a global vision of the world. related to the students‘ interests in learning english, most of teachers‘ perspective answered that the students are interested in content that deals with local places and people in indonesia, with the reason that the students can understand the culture and apply them in their daily life. talking about cultural information in english textbooks, all of the english teachers know all of the cultural information on the english textbooks well, because the cultural content of he english textbooks generally deal with local culture and local information. conclusion the writer concludes that english has now become an international language used by both native and non native speakers. so, because of this fact, english is no longer related to native english-speaking cultures only. the impact of english as an international language in indonesia has affected in the development of english curriculum, communicative learning or communicative method in english language teaching process is being developed in english syllabus in indonesia. this appears because of the role of english as an international language. so, the important goal of learning english in indonesia is to communicate with other people around the world. in some teachers‘ perspective, the role of teacher is to create the communicative method in teaching and learning process through group work, discussion or role play. this is done as a way of increasing the students‘ communication. related to the english language teaching in indonesia, and english language teaching in smpn 1 wiradesa has adapted the growing issue in the world. it can be seen from the way the english textbooks presented some reading texts and vocabulary. some texts are about indonesian culture, such as borobudur, batik, etc. the vocabulary used in the texts are also related to the content of texts being discussed. this result supports kramsch and sullivan (1996) finding which says that point out an appropriate pedagogy for the teaching of english as an international language depends upon local english language teaching professionals thinking globally but acting locally. references byram, m. 1993. language and culture learning: the need for integration. in byram. m. 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http://www.amazon.co.uk/world-englishes-implications-international-communication/dp/0521616875/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=utf8&qid=1313002973&sr=1-1 http://www.amazon.co.uk/world-englishes-implications-international-communication/dp/0521616875/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=utf8&qid=1313002973&sr=1-1 http://www.amazon.co.uk/world-englishes-implications-international-communication/dp/0521616875/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=utf8&qid=1313002973&sr=1-1 gunantar, devy angga. 2016. the impact of english as an international language on english language teaching in indonesia. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 151 mckay, s. l. 2002. teaching english as an international language: rethinking goals and approaches. oxford: oxford university press. mckay, s. l. 2003. toward an appropriate eil pedagogy: re-examining common elt assumptions. international journal of applied linguistics, 13(1), 1-22. mckay, s.l and bokhorst-heng, w.d. 2008 international english in its sociolinguistic contexts: towards a socially sensitive eil pedagogy. new york: routledge. mettler, s.k. 1991). the reactions of listeners to the discourse of non native speakers of english. college esl-journal of theory and practice in the teaching of english as a second language 1(2): 9-20 pickering, l. 2001. intelligibility in english as a lingua franca, available from http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwlup/aralproofs.pdf [26 april 2011] richards. j. and t. rodgers. 1985. method: approach, design, and procedure. in j. richards (ed.). the context of language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. uuspn/undang-undang sistem pendidikan nasional. 2003. sistem pendidikan nasional (national education system). jakarta: depdiknas. http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwlup/aralproofs.pdf%20%5b26 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x a conceptual analysis of metaphors engendering hiv and aidsrelated stigma and discrimination in kisii county, kenya geoffrey mokua maroko department of languages and linguistics machakos university, machakos email: gmaroko@mksu.ac.ke gladys nyamoita mokua department of pharmacognosy, pharmaceutical chemistry & pharmaceutics kenyatta university, nairobi email: mokuag@yahoo.com augustus onchari nyakundi department of communication studies chuka university, chuka email: augustusosoro@gmail.com meshack ondora onyambu department of pharmacognosy, pharmaceutical chemistry & pharmaceutics kenyatta university, nairobi email: mesh10200@yahoo.com abstract metaphors are mapped across two conceptual domains where a is b. metaphorical expressionsare defined by dimensions including novelty, conventionality, abstractness and concreteness. the abagusii of western kenya is a highly conservative community of bantu speakers of western part of kenya. they view hiv and aids as taboo that cannot be the subject of discussion in public. hence, people living with hiv (hereafter plhiv) are stigmatized and discriminated. the purpose of this paper is to analyse the metaphorical words and concepts that engender hiv and aids-related stigma and discrimination in kisii county. descriptive narratives were elicited from hiv support providers using focus group discussions and follow-up interviews. the narratives were analysed in terms of five attributes of stigma and discrimination within the conceptual metaphor theory. results revealed some culturally ingrained metaphors that evoke stigma and discrimination. the paper advocates for language management efforts using success stories in hiv and aids management to construct positive messages to counter the negative metaphors. keywords: metaphor, stigma, discrimination, conceptual domain, mapping according to statistics in the department of health in kisii county, the leading causes of morbidity and mortality are respiratory tract infections, hiv and aids, perinatal conditions, tuberculosis, malaria, skin conditions, accidents and diarrheal diseases. the western parts of the country including kisii county are the most affected. the county ranks fifth among the most affected counties after homabay, siaya, kisumu and migori respectively. the female gender is apparently more susceptible to hiv and aids than their male counterparts. according to a report by the national aids control council, access to anti-retroviral treatment is highest in uasingishu county averaging at 144% but ranks lowly in kisii county at only 48%. accordingly, art is being introduction according to the moh (2014), the number of new hiv infections remains high with close to 101,560 new infections reported annually. this trend has made hiv the third largest epidemic in sub-saharan africa. it is estimated that 1.6 million people are living with hiv in kenya. one of the major barriers identified in access to hiv testing and treatment, care and support services is stigma and discrimination. stigma is viewed as the devaluation of people living with or are associated with hiv and aids while discrimination is what happens when someone is treated in an unjust, unfair or prejudicial way, often on the basis of belonging to a particular group. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 138 abagusii belong to two of the 47 counties in kenya namely; nyamira and kisii. the estimated population in kisii county by 2018 was 1,406,043 comprising of 674,901 males (48%) and 731,142 females (52%) (knbs projection from 2009 census). with the population growth rate of 2.2% per annum, it is estimated that by the year 2022, the total population will be ≈ 1,533,977. abagusii believed in a supreme god called engoro, whom was understood to have created the universe and was the source of all life. abagusii culture identifies four rites of passage namely okoiborwa (birth), ogachia mache motwe (initiation), okonywoma (marriage) and ogokwa (death). each of these rites was traditionally observed under very strict codes. any violation of the codes was taboo and attracted serious repercussions including generational curses and even death. sex is a taboo subject among abagusii with anything associated with it being communicated euphemistically or metaphorically. sex before marriage or out of wedlock was considered taboo. it attracted a type of curse (amasangi) which led to the death of the perpetrator, the victim or their close relatives such as spouses and children. the society allowed sex among traditionally wedded couples. abagusii traditions socialised men to marry many wives through metaphoric expressions in the male circumcision song (esimboore). widows were also allowed to engage in sexual relations with an officially anointed person closely related to the husband such as a brother or a cousin. this was traditionally referred to as ogosoa nyomba (‘entering the house’). death was considered an “unnatural” event brought about by witchcraft (oborogi) or unhappy ancestors (chisokoro) for violating the norms and customs. abagusii believed in medicine men and women and also in the spirits of their ancestors. it is a common practice that a large population of plhiv visit traditional health practitioners and use traditional medicine especially for the management of hiv/aids. some of the reasons for shunning conventional facilities for comprehensive care include stigma and discrimination, traditional beliefs, cultural barriers, and lack of confidentiality. this therefore indicates a clear need to explore ways in which traditional medicine practitioners can be used more effectively to facilitate delivery of both western biomedical innovations and traditional therapies. the moh report (2014, p.21) outlines a raft of recommendations to address the problem of stigma and discrimination among them being the need to conduct regular studies to received by less adult individuals than expected in the top 5 counties (homabay, siaya, kisumu, migori, kisii and turkana) with high prevalence rates. the number of those in art dropped from 14509 in 2012 to 11467 in 2016 (kisii county, health at a glance report at their website). partly, this can be attributed to entrenched stigma and discrimination surrounding hiv/aids in kisii county. according to unaids (2017), stigma and discrimination is creating barriers to accessing hiv prevention, testing and treatment services and putting lives at risk. the report shows that people living with hiv who experience high levels of hiv-related stigma are more than twice as likely to delay enrolment into care as people who do not perceive hiv-related stigma. in kisii county, people living with hiv avoid going to health facilities for support for fear of having their status disclosed or of suffering further stigma and discrimination based on their hiv status. a report by unaids (2017) indicates that across 19 countries with available data, one in five people living with hiv avoided going to a clinic or hospital because they feared stigma or discrimination related to their hiv status. when people living with hiv wait until they are very ill before seeking help, they are less likely to respond well to antiretroviral therapy. the report asserts that in order to reach all people living with, or at risk of, hiv and to link them with hiv prevention and treatment services, the world must step forward and confront discrimination. the kenya hiv and aids prevention and control act (2006) safeguards the rights of people living with hiv (plhiv), promotes voluntary hiv testing, confidentiality and privacy, non-discrimination in employment and education, and unfettered access to quality healthcare services. it also calls for the integration of hiv programs in all sectors. despite this, plhiv are often confronted with the problem of stigma and discrimination. the kisii people (also known as the abagusii tribe) form a bantu ethnic group who occupy the kisii highlands in nyanza, western kenya. abagusii constitute the sixth largest ethnic group in kenya, comprising about seven percent of the national population. ekegusii is the ethnic language of abagusii. according to guthrie (1964), ekegusii is labeled zone e42 narrow east african bantu language group in kenya. the language has two dialects; rogoro and maate, but we used the rogoro dialect which has more speakers and considered to be more prestigious (bosire, 1993). language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 139 measure,monitor the levels and underlying causes ofhiv related stigma and discrimination and providelocalised evidence-based interventions to addressthe situation. this paper hypothesizes that stigma and discrimination are anchored in the linguistic metaphors that are used to depict hiv and aids. therefore, the aim of the paper is to establish the forms of hiv and aids-related stigma and discrimination, identify the linguistic metaphors that entrench stigma and discrimination, and finally to unpack their meanings and connotations with a view to highlighting how they instigatestigma and discrimination in plhiv. the paper recommends a shift from these metaphors occasioned by campaign mechanisms that demystify plhiv. from the non-linguistic paradigm, wamalwa, neyole, poipoi & bitok (2015) carried out a study to determine hiv prevention knowledge and knowledge gaps among plhivs in kisii county, western kenya. a total 340 plhivs across 9 health facilities and 6 key informants, mainly hiv managers and programmers were interviewed. we found high generalized knowledge among plhivs on hiv prevention, as well as on condom use, abstinence and faithfulness to a partner as prevention methods. we however found low knowledge levels on emerging biomedical prevention methods, including treatment as prevention. similarly, despite high knowledge levels on mother to child transmission (mtct), few plhivs know exact phases in which mtct can occur pregnancy, delivery and breast feeding –with males, those depending on kin as primary income source and plhivs attending higherlevel facilities least likely to have this knowledge. media, health workers and hiv campaigns remain the most important communication channels for plhivs as regards hiv information, while peers are an important information source for males. our observations highlight the need to further promote knowledge of various hiv prevention methodologies, especially emerging prevention methods, among specific plhivs sociodemographic groups that exhibit low knowledge levels. in another study, wamalwa et al (2015) sought to establish condom use determinants and practices among people living with hiv (plhivs) in kisii county, kenya. they interviewed 340 plhivs and 6 health workers. findings revealed that although most plhivs had correct knowledge and approved condoms as effective for hiv prevention, consistent use and condom use at last sex were notably low especially among plhivs aged 18 – 24, those who depended on remittances from kin as main source of income, as well as during sex with secondary and casual partners. this study notes that knowledge on various benefits of using condoms is associated with enhanced condom use practices. non-disclosure of hiv status to secondary and casual partners remains a key barrier to condom use among plhivs. our observations highlight the need to further promote condom use among specific plhivs socio-demographic groups who continue to exhibit low condom use rates. feyissa, abebe, germa & woldie (2012) investigated stigma and discrimination against plhiv by healthcare providers in jimma zone, southwest ethiopia. the study focused on sociodemographic characteristics, hiv knowledge, perceived institutional supportand hiv-related stigma and discrimination. the study revealed that testing and disclosing test results was done without consent without the consent of the people involved. the study also indicated that clients found to be hiv positive were not only denied treatment but were unnecessarily referred to other healthcare institutions. it emerged that higher levels of stigma and discrimination against plhiv were associated with lack of in-depth knowledge on hiv and orientation to policies on stigma and discrimination. the study recommends that health managers should ensure institutional support through availing of clear policies and guidelines and the provision of appropriate training on the management of hiv and aids. to improve outcomes in hiv and aids response, this paper analyses the metaphors entrenching hiv and aids-related stigma and discrimination in the county. the conceptual metaphor theory (lakoff and johnson, 1980) provides a framework for discussing the metaphors engendering hiv and aids interventions in kisii county. it has its beginnings in lakoff and johnson’s book, metaphors we live by (1980). the theory takes metaphor as a conceptual tool for structuring, restructuring and even creating reality. a conceptual metaphor is understanding one domain of experience (that is typically abstract) in terms of another (that is typically concrete). thus, a conceptual metaphor can be viewed both as a process and as a product. the cognitive process of understanding a domain is the process aspect of metaphor, while the resulting conceptual pattern is the product aspect. metaphors have the following features. first, they are all pervasive (lakoff and johnson, 1980). this means that metaphors are ubiquitous as they can be found on tv, radio, dictionaries, routine spoken discourses, in newspapers, in language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 140 genres and, in language in general. according to mcglone(2007)linguistic manifestations can prove the presence of conceptual metaphors. second, the theory underscores the claim for systematic mappings between two conceptual domains. in this way, a conceptual metaphor is a systematic set of correspondences between two domains of experience. this implies that one domain mirrors another. thirdly, conceptual metaphor theory allows movement from the concrete domain to the abstract domain. a distinction is made between the source domain and the target domain, representing concrete domain and abstract domain respectively. in the example life is a journey (lakoff and johnson, 1980), journey is more concrete (source domain) than life (target domain). in this way, the theory proposes that more physical domains typically serve as source domains for more abstract targets. fourth, metaphors occur in thought. there is a tendency to use metaphors not only to speak about certain aspects of the world but also to think about them. conceptual metaphor theory makes a distinction between metaphors; that is, exemplars of conceptual patterns we rely on in our daily living to think about aspects of the world. for instance, what people will say about hiv and aids is a reflection of their thinking. the thinking is shaped by society, culture and is expressed metaphorically through language. fifth, conceptual metaphors are grounded in the sense that the source domain is paired with a particular target domain. in other words, there is a similarity or resemblance between two things or events. this paper makes an effort to establish how comparisons involving hiv and aids and real life as socially constructed could be entrenching stigma and discrimination thereby rendering hiv and aids interventions ineffective. in sum, it can be observed that the conceptual metaphor theory as postulated by lakoff and johnson (1980, 2008) ascribes to the conceptual and the linguistic dimensions of metaphor. there has been a spate of interest by research communities in establishing the different modalities of metaphor expression, and in particular the visual modality. such communities include marketing theory (e.g. phillips & mcquarrie, 2004; ng & koller, 2013), cognitive psychology (e.g. van weelden, maes, schilperoord & swerts, 2012), linguistics (e.g. perez-sobrino, 2016) and media (e.g. forceville, 2005). onchoke & wen (2017) conducted a cognitive analysis of woman metaphors in ekegusii language. the study indicates that a woman is perceived as an object, a plant or an animal. the study also shows that a woman can be depicted by the appropriate behavior she exhibits based on values such as immorality, selfishness, beauty, ugliness, harshness, talkativeness, age, and faithfulness. the cultural background plays an important role in the conceptualization and interpretation of these metaphors. the study recommends more research of metaphors in other languages to enable comparisons. another theoretical framework in this paper defines and categorizes stigma and discrimination (moh, 2014). the framework identifies five categories of stigma and discrimination based on a stigma index study in kenya. the purpose of the survey was to guide interventions and policies to address hiv related stigma and discrimination in order to enhance the quality of life of plhiv. the study identified five forms of stigma and discrimination and established a composite stigma rating of 45.16% in kenya which was rated high. details of the survey are summarized in table 1. patterns in table 1 indicate that three forms of stigma have recorded very high incidences. these are: experience of stigma’s negative effects (74), concern about disclosure of hiv status (70), and judgment or blame of plhiv (47). though people fearful of contracting hiv from noninvasive contact with plhiv and plhiv who experience stigma’s negative table 1. stigma and discrimination index by category form of stigma score unit value index plhiv who are concerned about disclosing their status 70.00 20.00 14.05 people fearful of contracting hiv from non-invasive contact with plhiv 18.00 20.00 3.60 people who judge or blame plhiv for their illness 47.00 20.00 9.36 plhiv who think they have experiences stigma in the last year 17.00 20.00 3.44 plhiv who experience stigma’s negative effects on themselves, the family, and the community 74.00 20.00 14.70 composite stigma rating for kenya 100.00 45.16 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 141 effects recorded lower scores of 18 and 17 respectively, the forms can still impede hiv and aids mitigation efforts profoundly. the table shows a composite stigma rating for 45.16%. in the study reported in this paper, the five categories will be used to classify the metaphors that entrench hiv-related stigma and discrimination. since stigma and discrimination have been found to undermine effective implementation of hiv and aids interventions in kisii county, this paper delves into metaphors that underpin counter-productive cultural mindsets. this could provide a targeted frontier in hiv and aids response. methodology research site the study was carried out in kisii county of western kenya. the county is among the 47 counties in kenya. it neighbours nyamira county to the north east, narok to the south, homabay and migori to the west. kisii county lies between latitude 30° and 10° s and longitude 35°38’ and 35° east. the county covers a total area of 1,317.5km2. it is divided into nine (9) sub-counties namely bobasi, bomachoge, borabu, bonchari, south mugirango, kitutu chache north, kitutu chache south, nyaribari masaba, nyaribari chache and bomachoge chache (figure 1). figure 1. kisii county map ethical considerations to anchor the study reported in this paper within acceptable ethical standards, the research proposal, data collection instruments and the informed consent form were reviewed and approved (approval number cu/ierc/ncst/18/53) by a registered institutional ethics committee. the study was then issued with research permit number nacosti/p/18/50245/24190 by the national commission for science, technology & innovation. before data collection, all respondents were fully debriefed about the purpose of the study and asked to sign an informed consent form. they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. sampling the population of the study comprised people living with hiv (plhiv) working as peer counsellors in hiv testing centres (htcs) and comprehensive care centres (cccs) in selected health facilities in the county. the study population also included women living with hiv but have never transmitted hiv to their children during breastfeeding. this category is called mentor mothers and leaders of support groups in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (pmtct) units in health facilities in the county. the study population also included hiv testing service (hts) counsellors, and clinicians. to select these groups from selected health facilities, purposeful sampling method was used. this method involves identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest (cresswell & clark, 2011). the study was interested in participants knowledgeable about hiv and aids-related stigma and discrimination and also willing and able to communicate their experiences and opinions in an articulate, expressive, and reflective manner. therefore, those who provided informed consent and produced metaphor-rich cases during interviews and focus group discussions were identified and selected as the study sample. data collection one method of data collection employed in this study was the focus group discussion. ochieng, wilson, derrick, mukherjee (2018) have recommended this method when there is need to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population. this language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 142 method was therefore deemed suitable for gaining an in-depth understanding of the metaphorical construction of stigma and discrimination in hiv and aids interventions in kisii county. support groups in the county included people living with hiv and aids of between 10 and 30 members organized according to such variables as gender, age group, and hiv viral load. the groups also included peer counsellors, hiv testing service counsellors, mentor mothers and clinicians. the focus group discussions took place during monthly meetings in facilities by support groups as they receive their anti-retroviral therapy (art). introducing ourselves as researchers from various universities and after discussing the informed consent form with them, they allowed us to participate in their discussion and collect the data we needed in the process. two active focus groups (the ante natal, lactating mothers) were used for discussions. themes covered included people’s perception of hiv and aids, disclosure of their hiv status, relationships at home, coping with medication, and hygiene. to complement focus group data, followup interviews involving caregivers of orphaned and vulnerable children, clinicians, mentor mothers and peer counsellors were carried out. dejonckheere & vaughn (2019) argue that follow-up interviews present an opportunity for collecting open-ended data and exploring participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic and delving deeply into personal and sometimes sensitive issues. it was therefore better suited to elicit sensitive hiv and aids information in unfolding and iterative interactions between us and the interviewees. each of us interviewed at least a care giver, clinician, mentor mother and peer counsellor separately guided by a pre-determined open ended interview guide. the interview allowed the respondents to narrate anecdotes coloured by metaphors engendering stigma and discrimination. we also recorded the interview sessions. later on, each of us transcribed audio texts followed by plenary sessions for joint selection of texts bearing hiv and aids metaphors on stigma and discrimination. this exercise gave us an opportunity to build consensus on metaphoric words and expressions and the stigma/discrimination meanings they espouse. data analysis analysing focus group discussion and follow-up interview data is usually determined by the research question and the purpose for which the data are collected. focus group discussion and follow-up interviews were used for an indepth exploration of metaphors instigating hiv and aids stigma and discrimination about which little is known. for such exploratory research therefore, a simple descriptive narrative approach to analysis was quite appropriate. the first level of analysis comprised qualitative processing and categorizing of data on stigma and discrimination according to the classification scheme by moh (2014). this was followed by categorization and synthesis of metaphoric words and expressions with hiv and aids stigma and discrimination connotations into source and target domains in line with the conceptual metaphor theory (lakoff and johnson, 1980). the outcome was used to present a descriptive narrative. results and discussion data from this study revealed metaphors whose underlying conceptual logic matches the cultural beliefs and psyche of the abagusii people of western kenya. the following descriptive narrative adopts the schema by moh (2014) where stigma and discrimination is classified into concern about disclosure of hiv status, judging and/or blaming plhiv for illness, plhiv who have experienced stigma in the past and plhiv who have experienced stigma in the past. the categories are discussed stepwise. concern about disclosure of hiv status one of the ways hiv and aids entrench stigma and discrimination among the people is through concern about disclosure of hiv status. people living with the condition do not want their hiv status to be known by others including their intimate partners. accounts gathered from respondents revealed that knowledge of one’s hiv status could lead to either rejection or isolation. for instance, in one of the level 4 medical facilities in kisii county, an hiv testing service counselor attested that it is hard for people living with hiv to disclose their hiv status or the possibility of infecting others. her narration is captured in text 1: text 1 “we have a case where a 19-year-old is very bitter with the mother for transmitting hiv to him. the boy contracted hiv through mother-tochild transmission. the mother has been picking arvs for the boy without explaining to him that he is hiv positive. the boy only discovered recently through provider notification. as a result, language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 143 the boy doesn’t want to see his mother. when we asked her why she couldn’t disclose the boy’s condition to him, she said: tintageti o’mwana o’ne aniinkoorwe n’abande e’sukuru. (i don’t want my child to be isolated by others in school)” in the italicized text, o’mwana o’ne (my child) and a’ninkoorwe (be abandoned and discriminated) suggest that a person living with hiv is a pariah. this means that plhivcannot mingle with uninfected people. they ought to be isolated at all times. similarly, owing to the presumptive stigma and discrimination associated with hiv and aids, a woman is in denial and does not know how to disclose her hiv status to her spouse in a level 3 hospital. an hiv testing counsellor recounted the case as follows: text 2 “a woman tested positive in this clinic. she doesn’t know how to disclose this outcome to her husband whom she claimsis very hostile. she said: aise komanya ng’a ni’ndwarete nigo a’gonseeria. (should he know that i am sick, he will send me away from my matrimonial home). she has therefore refused to own the results. she is therefore unable to begin medication for fear of being discovered by the husband. as a result, she has become weak and anaemic. she has also been attacked by tb.” in the italicized bold expressions, ni’ndwarete (i am living with hiv) and nigo agonseeria (will divorce me), show correspondence between a person living with hiv and a divorcee. the conceptual mapping can be expressed as a person living with hiv is a divorcee. another hiv testing counsellor recounted a case of a person living with hiv who had difficulties disclosing her status to her spouse for fear of the consequences. the counsellor narrates: text 3 “a 38-year-old woman tested positive for hiv in 2012 and was put on art. she has never disclosed her status to her husband. all the while, she has been taking her medication under cover. recently, we conducted a family testing exercise where she asked the hts providers not to come to their home. on a separate occasion, the husband visited the hospital for medical check-up. he was tested for hiv as per the moh policy but was found to be hiv negative. the woman said: o’mosacha o’ne amanye ng’a ni’ndwarete, ni’go a’kong’anekera mamincha y’okogania kwane. (if my husband knows that i am living with hiv/aids, he will disclose it to people against my wish). in the italicized words, o’mosacha o’ne a’manye ng’a ni’ndwarete, (my husband knows that i am living with hiv), ni’go a’kong’anekera mamincha y’okogania kwane (he will disclose my status and shame me against my wish). the ontological correspondence emerging is a person living with hiv is a public shame. another form of stigma is where a person living with hiv opts for care services in far-flung areas leaving facilities in close proximity to where they live and/or work. in a focus group discussion, an hiv testing services counsellor said the following about a client: text 4 “a 59-year old male soldier in the kdf travels all the way from west pokot which is over 400 km away to this facility for art. he has been doing this for the last five years. when i asked him why he cannot transfer to a clinic near his place of work he asked me: o’boare mbokong’u ki bobwate?(what is the problem with distance?) he challenges us to say when he has ever come late or missed to pick his medication as scheduled.” the implication in the question, o’boare mbokong’u ki bobwate?(what is the problem with distance?) is that healthcare facilities offer art services to people from far. the conceptual correspondence is a person living with hiv is a pariah at home.as such, they seek care support services very far from home. judging and/or blaming plhiv for illness another way stigma manifests itself is through the avoidance of getting tested for hiv for fear of being judged or blamed. given that hiv is taken as a deadly condition, people would rather prefer to live with it without knowing than getting tested. in a level 5 private hospital in the county, a man has been living with the fear of undertaking an hiv test both for himself and for his sickly 16-year old son. in a focus group discussion, an hiv testing counsellor in the facility narrated to us the details about him: text 5 “a man brought a 16-year son with enlarged lymph nodes. he explained that the boy has been ill on an on-an-off basis. the man refused the hts staff to test the son for hiv. he said: mo’ise ko’renga o’momura o’yo ni’go ngw’eita. (i will commit suicide if you test this boy). when probed further, the father said he was the source of the trouble the son was going through. because he had lost his wife through hiv-related complanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 144 lications, he thought he was hiv positive and suspected the son was also positive though he had not taken a test to confirm. after rigorous counselling, the man agreed to be tested with the son. they both tested negative! he couldn’t believe it.” the words mo’ise ko’renga o’momura o’yo (if you test this boy for hiv) can be mapped onto ni’go ngw’eita (i will kill myself). conceptually, it can be deduced that hiv testing is death. the perception therefore is that people will rather die than know their hiv status or that of their close relatives. in another case reported in the same facility, the same counsellor narrated: text 6 “a mother attending the ante natal clinicin this hospital was found to be hiv positive. we requested her to bring along the spouse the following day for the hiv test. she told us that when she requested the husband to go for the test, he angrily retorted:“kwendahuko! kwani ni mimi niko na mimba?” (go away! am i the one pregnant?)” in the italicized text, there is the emerging belief among men that women are responsible for the transmission of hiv and aids. in terms of the conceptual metaphor theorytherefore hiv and aids isa women affair. it is evident from this attitude that people are either ignorant about hiv and aids or they are resistant to interventions that can prevent further spread. in a broader sense, there is the perception that hiv is a problem of plhiv. this is alluded to by unaids (2002, p.9) where it is noted that stigma can cause people to perceive individuals with or at risk of hiv as the other (“them”), reinforcing the feeling that hiv “couldn’t happen to me.” another form of judging or blaming a person living with hiv involves the non-infected population discriminating the infected people thereby heightening stigma and discrimination.a mentor mother in a level 3 facility living with hiv remembers how a neighbor who was privy to her hiv status warned her friend against keeping her company: text 7 tiga go’tara n’omonto o’bwate enyamoreo. (stop keeping the company of someone with the disease that emaciates) in this text, the word e’nyamoreo implies that hiv/aids is a condition that eats up one’s flesh.the conceptual correspondence therefore would be hiv is an emaciator. this statement tiga go’tara n’omonto o’bwate enyamoreo (stop keeping the company of someone with the disease that emaciates) connotes that the stigma and discrimination that people living with hiv are subjected to is extended to those they associate with. therefore, people are warned against the company of people living with hiv. clearly, the belief that one can contract hiv by merely keeping the company of a person living with the condition is indicative of people’s discriminating perceptions. this view is reinforced by mittelberg (2007, p.34) who notes that metaphors convey the images, feelings, customs, values and thought patterns found in our cultures. in the same facility, a peer navigator recounted how a man commented about her condition to other men when she was down with pneumonia. he is quoted to have said: text 8 “rigwa riamobetire. ngotiira are.” (she has been pricked by a thorn. she is ascending to heaven) the conceptual correspondence in this text is hiv is a journey to death. there is a belief among the abagusii that once you have been pricked by a thorn, a life threatening infection can find way into the body and kill one gradually. it is therefore understood that once one contracts the hiv virus, the person would have embarked on a slow journey to death. this observation corroborates work by nyakoe et al (2014) based on the basic metaphor hiv is a journey to death. in the study, ekegusii speakers perceive a seropositive individual as a traveller on an endless journey of taking arvs or death. the perception emerges in the text above …ngotiira are (she is ascending to heaven) a 20-year-old female peer navigator in a level 4 public health facility recounted how she faces stigma and discrimination on a daily basis. she remembers how they had gone for community based hiv and aids campaigns and testing. she overheard a person say the following from the crowd: text 9 no’rora o’moiseke oria o’norete iga, na’bwate o’morero o’ria o’monene (although that girl looks fat, she has that huge fire) in this text, it can be conceptually deduced that hiv is a huge fire. a huge fire is known to consume a body into charred remains. this destructive power of fire is compared to assumed debilitating effects of hiv and aids. with cynical messages such as these, plhiv may either fail to enroll for anti-retroviral therapy or, if enrolled, fail to adhere to drug taking regimen. clearly, adlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 145 herence concerns will undermine the quality of care for plhiv. a sex worker working as a peer navigator in an hts clinic targeting key populations such as sex workers (sws), people who inject drugs (pwid), and men who have sex with men (msm) recounted a remark a person made after an encounter with a male client: text 10 “o’tachire egwayay’esitima.”(he has stepped on an electric wire) the conceptual mapping in this text can be expressed as hiv is an electric current, implying that contracting hiv and aids is a sure way to death just as happens when a person is electrocuted.the metaphor also communicates the meaning that hiv is an accident. this compares withnyakoe&yakub (2017) who observed that hiv infection employs the accident metaphor expressed in the human body is a machine metaphor and also in reference to contracting hiv is a thorn in the flesh. a middle-aged mentor mother had always freely disclosed her hiv status duringcommunity-based hiv testing outreaches. at one such event, she narrated how she was once taken ill and hospitalized. she was diagnosed with tuberculosis and found to be hiv positive. her brother in-law remarked to a visitor who had come to visit her in hospital. text 11 e’ngori yamonasire. (the noose has tightened around her neck) the conceptual correspondence in this text is summarized as hiv is the hangman’s noose. this text suggests that hiv and aids kills rapidly the way a noose kills through strangulation. the metaphor has the effect of harming plhiv psychologically and deflecting them from their social routines and work. stigma arising from such metaphors can work against hiv and aids prevention interventions (unaids, 2002). plhiv who have experienced stigma in the past another form of stigma and discrimination affects plhiv who have experienced the same before. one case in point involves a stigma-free mentor mother in an hts clinic in a dispensary in kisii county. she narrated to us how she experienced stigma and discrimination soon after losing her husband to hiv-related complications and how what she was told has affected her to this day.one day, her chicken strayed into a neighbour’s vegetable garden and, in a fit of anger, the neighbor remarked: text 12 tiga konya gotwerorera. a’ye n’omonto o’bwate e’nyamoreo. (stop the pride. you have aids) text 12 seems to allude that people living with hiv have no future. they only have to wait for death. in conceptual terms therefore we can say that aperson living with hiv is dead. the metaphor reinforces the conceptualization of stigma by unaids (2002) where it is viewed as a mark of shame or discredit on plhiv. the effects of negative metaphors on hiv and aids have a long-term effect on plhiv. the same mentor-mother narrated another incident whereher cows once strayed into the neighbour’s land. the neighbor ran towards them brandishing a stick shouting: text 13 e’nyamoreo ya’soire mo’gondo! e’nyamoreo ya’soire mo’gondo! (aids has strayed into (my) land! aids has strayed into the (my) land!) it can be inferred from the text that anything that is associated with a plhiv is connected to their hiv status. therefore, the conceptual correspondence can be expressed as: a plhiv’s possessions arecondemned. the implication of this text is that a plhiv and all that they possess are isolated and discriminated against. the word e’nyamoreo negatively describes the physical effect of emaciation due to the effects of hiv. this view is corroborated by kamau (2012) who notes that plhivin central kenya are labeled according to their physical appearance. she points out, for example, that the label “mukingo” is used to signify “long neck” and “skinny”. another mentor mother in the same facility narrated how she would be frowned upon anytime she wanted to say anything. in a particular incident, she had a little disagreement with a man who publicly alluded to her hiv status which continues to hurt her anytime she remembers. the man had told her: text 14 renda e’kere ime yao. (take care of what is in you) in this text, one may correspond hiv and aids to the deadliest condition that cannot allow plhiv to think about anything else. they should not exercise their right to expression and associalanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 146 tion or engage in any economic activity because they are dying anyway. in other words, plhiv are doomed. plhiv experiencing stigma’s negative effects this category describes how plhiv are disadvantaged because of their hiv status. data drawn from the study reveals that plhiv experience stigma’s negative effects in various ways. one such way is refusal by people to buy your wares. a mentor mother narrated as follows: text 15 i am a milk and vegetable vendor. when i go out to sell, those who know my hiv status cannot buy from me. i only sell to those who do not know my hiv status. i remember an insensitive remark which has hurt me to date: ti’nkogoria monto o’rwarete e’nyamoreo mabere. a’mabere ayio nabwate e’binyinyi (i won’t buy milk from a person living with hiv. the milk is contaminated.) the conceptual correspondence in the italicized expression is wares belonging to a person living with hiv are infected. the perception therefore is that people living with hiv can contaminate everything they handle. this therefore puts plhiv at an economic disadvantage. negative effects may also take the form of mistreatment. an hts counsellor in a level 3 hospital in kisii county recounted how caregivers of hiv positive orphaned children mistreat the children. the caregivers do this out of misinformation and ignorance about the nature and manifestation of hiv. the hts counsellor narrated as follows: text 16 a caregiver of a 5-year-old orphan brought the boy for arvs. she asked me, “sister, when is this boy likely to die?” i assured her that the boy will live a normal life if he takes medication as required and with good nutrition. i also learnt from the caregiver that the boy is not allowed to share a bedroomwith other children. he is not allowed to share a meal or even utensils with the other children. asking her why she does this, she told me: tintageti bana bane banyore o’borwaire obobe. (i don’t want my children to contract the bad disease). conceptual mapping in this text can be expressed as hiv is contagious and therefore plhiv should be quarantined if possible. a similar case involves a 21-year-old peer navigator who lost a job as a house help when her employer discovered that she was hiv positive. she narrated: text 17 one day my employer stumbled on my month’s arvs in a packet stacked under my mattress. she confronted me and asked: nigo o’bwate boria o’bonene o’tari goteeba? nigo o’tagete kong’itera abana? (you have the big one and you have never told us? do you want to kill my children?). she asked me to pack and go. sacking a plhiv is a serious form of discrimination which places affected people in poverty. to metaphorically imply that plhiv can transmit the condition to another person by mere physical proximity or contact will certainly cause them psychosocial trauma which will entrench stigma. arising from the qualitative analysis of data, metaphors engendering stigma and discrimination are marks of shame or discredit on plhiv. it is notable that stigma can manifest itself in a variety of ways, including ignoring the needs of a person or group to psychologically or physically harming those who are stigmatized. failure to control development and use of stigma-instigating metaphors may jeopardize success rates envisaged in hiv and aids programs touching on prevention, quality of care and policy. according to unaids (2002), messages targeting plhiv should be positive and devoid of blaming or stigmatizing as these can backfire by diverting people’s attention to and uptake of support services. conclusion in sum, it is logical to state that there is deep hiv and aids-related stigma and discrimination in kisii county. the words and expressions used to depict the condition are perhaps one of the greatest sources of stigma and discrimination. it is evident from the texts analysed in this paper that people structure their understanding and experiences of hiv and aids through conceptual metaphors derived from what lakoff and johnson (1980) call sensorimotor and spatial concepts learned earlier in life. therefore, it can be said that hiv and aids related metaphors are founded on the cultural norms of the abagusii people. it is imperative that plhiv who adhere to treatment regimen prescribed to them by professional healthcare providers can live normal lives. the paper recommends the county and implementing partners to develop refutational messages and counter metaphors which deny that hiv and aids are necessarily death sentences. behaviour change communication models can be used to unlearn the metaphors based on language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 147 cultural myths and misinformation and learning well-crafted messages based on success stories on hiv and aids response. acknowledgements the work reported in this paper was a result of concerted efforts for which we are greatly indebted. we acknowledge the national research fund (nrf) under grant number nrf/1/ mmc/308 for funding the project which generated data, part of which constituted this paper. we are also indebted to healthcare personnel and their clients in selected facilities who were instrumental during data collection. references bolognesi, m. 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(2016). country policy review on partner notification services. geneva. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa82eb0112a • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab22b19109d • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (october 2015) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _________________________________________________________________________________________ 19 english teachers’ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment fitri aliningsih fitria.smp3gubug@gmail.com junior high school gubug indonesia ahmad sofwan sofwan1589@yahoo.com semarang state university, indonesia received: 11 may 2015. revised: 19 june 2015. accepted: 20 july 2015 __________________________________________________________________________________ abstract this study aimedto find the english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment in the pilot project schools of the 2013 curriculum in grobogan regency. in order to achieve the objectives of the study, first, a survey was done. then, to obtain more in-depth information about the teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment, a case study research was conducted. in this case, interview and classroom observation were conducted. then, the data were analyzed through reading or memoing, describing, and classifying.the study revealed that the teachers have positive perceptions towards authentic assessment as they agreed that the assessment approach is beneficial to assess students‘ progress and achievement. however, the teachers perceived insufficient time, crowded classes, exhausting and time consuming activities, and also complicated administration as the main problems in applying authentic assessment. there were no significant differences among the teachers on the way they applied authentic assessment. in this case, they preferred written and task basedassessment, performance assessment, and also classroom observation in assessing their students. nevertheless, in some cases, they did not apply the assessment properly as they did not put the assessment principles into practices. keywords: authentic assessment; perceptions; practices; the 2013 curriculum how to cite: aliningsih, f. & a. sofwan. 2015. english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1. introduction authentic assessment has become a crucial issue in the current curriculum in indonesia. since the new curriculum was introduced in 2013, consequently teachers started to engage with the assessment approach. as it is mentioned in permendikbud no 66 tahun 2013, the 2013 curriculum explicitly suggests authentic assessment to be applied in order to evaluate the student‘s competence. in this case, authentic assessment is believed to adequately measure and evaluate the students‘ progress and achievement in all domains of competence. authentic assessment itself emerges from the constructivism approach. to support this theory, assessment should provide the students with opportunities to construct responses and to apply their competence in the authentic classroom activities. that is why assessment should be an authentic reflection of how the students apply the skills in meaningful ways. based on the characteristics, o‘malley and pierce mailto:fitria.smp3gubug@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 20 (1996:4) define authentic assessment as multiple forms of assessment that reflect student learning, achievement, motivation, and attitudes on instructionally-relevant classroom activities. while cohen et al. (2008) describe it as assessment which uses real evidence from real situation rather than through the use of tests. based on the definition above, there are some techniques which are included as authentic assessment,such as oral interviews, story or text retelling, writing samples, projects and exhibitions, experiments and demonstrations, constructed response items, teacher observation and portfolios(o‘malley and pierce, 1996). meanwhile, cohen et al. (2008) stated that authentic assessment could be applied through portfolios, self and peer assessment, observation, recording, interviews, role play, etc. as reported by many experts, authentic assessment is beneficial to provide clear and realistic information of students‘ achievement (cohen et al., 2008; hamplyons & condon, 2000; marsh & wills, 2007). in addition, winogradand perkins (1995) argue that many authentic assessment techniques such as teacher‘s observation will decrease anxiety during the assessment process. furthermore, o‘malley & pierce (1996) and brown (2001) find that some techniques of authentic assessment such as portfolios, self and peer assessment promote students‘ involvement. consequently, it will enhance students‘ participation both in learning and assessment, encourage students‘ autonomy and enhance their motivation. however, authentic assessment requires teachers to have proper understanding and commitment to use, because it needs an intensive preparation and procedures to be applied effectively (o‘malley and pierce, 1996). in this case, teachers play a significant role as the assessors who are supposed to master how to assess their students well. in contrast, the real condition shows that some teachers are not familiar enough with some techniques in authentic assessment such as self-peer assessment, project based assessment and portfolio (chan, 2006; oz, 2014). consequently, without adequate and proper knowledge and skills, some problems will almost certainly appear among teachers who apply the assessment. for that reason, this study was conducted to find out the english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment in the 2013 curriculum context. as a result, it hopefully finds out the problems, constraint and also strategies of designing, developing and applying authentic assessment in the english language teaching. eventually, it will show a clear picture to evaluate the 2013 curriculum implementation, especially in the english assessment context. methodology in investigating the english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment, a mixed quantitative-qualitative approach was utilized. firstly, a survey was conducted to 15 english teachers in 6 junior high schools in grobogan regency which implemented the 2013 curriculum. then, to obtain more in-depth information about the teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment, a case study research was conducted. in this case, three english teachers were interviewed. moreover, their assessment practices, assessment document and products were examined also. secondly, fitri aliningsih & ahmad sofwan. english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment __________________________________________________________________________________________ 21 the collected data were analyzed separately. the data which were obtained through questionnaire were coded, classified, tabulated, and described. meanwhile, the qualitative data on the interview, classroom observation and document analysis were analyzed through reading or memoing, describing, and classifying (gay et al., 2011). results and discussion the following part discusses the findings and interpretation of the teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment. besides, it would explain the influence of the teachers‘ perceptions on their practices of authentic assessment. teachers’ perceptions on authentic assessment the findings were obtained through the questionnaire completed by the 15 teachers. the survey revealed that generally, the teachers perceive authentic assessment positively. it reported thatthe majority of the respondents agree or strongly agree that authentic assessment integrates teaching, learning, and assessment activities.in other words, it is an ongoing process which emphasizes on both process and product of learning. moreover, the result also told us that the teachers are aware to the importance of authentic assessment to provide clear and sufficient information about students‘ competence.besides, the majority teachers agree or strongly agree that this kind of assessment is done through multiple techniques of assessment and through meaningful tasks in real classroom-context activities. however, the survey found that the majority teachers use some techniques of written assessment such as essay and task based assessment more often than spoken one. besides, in assessing students‘ skills, it revealed that performance assessment is used more often than portfolio and project based assessment. meanwhile, it was reported that teacher‘s observation is the most preferred technique used by the teachers to assess students‘ attitude. it indicated that although teachers have good perceptions towards authentic assessment, it did not significantly determine whether they frequently used authentic assessment in their teaching practice. in this case, it showed that the teachers apply paper and pencil test more often than the other techniques. besides, the result data on the questionnaire showed that the teachers experienced some benefits in applying authentic assessment. they got many advantages as it is effective to assess students‘ achievement in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. besides, they benefited the assessment to assess students‘ knowledge, skills, and attitude, as well as to see students‘ strength and weaknesses in learning, and to promote students‘ participation. however, their perceptions varied whether the assessment enhances students‘ autonomy, motivation, and selfesteem, and whether it lowers students‘ anxiety for learning and assessment. moreover, the findings revealed that the teachers perceived time constraint, crowded classes,time consuming activities and students‘ involvementas the main problems in applying authentic assessment. furthermore, it found that the teachers mostly have some discussion with their fellow teachers in order to share and solve their problems in applying authentic assessment. besides, they also discuss language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 22 together to develop teaching documents, and assessment tools. meanwhile, the findings through the interview showed that all the three teachers also have positive opinion towards authentic assessment as they thought that it was beneficial to apply such assessment in the 2013 curriculum. mostly, their perceptions of the assessment concept were influenced by the knowledge they got through the official training of the 2013 curriculum done by the ministry of education. besides, the interview revealed that the teachers are aware of some principles in authentic assessment. first, they highlighted the concept that the assessment is an ongoing process which should be done during the lesson. their perceptions were reported in the following statements. ―assessing students‘ knowledge is simply done during the learning activities. i give them some tasks. sometimes, i ask them to do some interviews at school or in the environment with teachers or others‖ (teacher 01) ―in my understanding, a project based assessment does not only assess the students‘ product, but it also sees the process of doing the project‖ (teacher 04) ―i often ask them to perform dialogs or conversations in front of the class in pairs. besides, i also frequently ask them some questions‖ (teacher 15) moreover, the excerpts illustrated that the teachers perceived that such assessments are applied through some meaningful tasks in order to relate the learning activities with students‘ real life. besides, it implied that the teachers do not only assess the final product, but also the ongoing process of completing it. the next findings reported that the teachers have similar perceptions on the preferred techniques of authentic assessment. the study revealed that in fact, the teachers still relied on written assessment as it was easily and simply prepared, applied, and scored. the following excerpts would clearly illustrate their perceptions. ―i usually utilize some different kinds of written tests. but, the most often… are essay, short response, and task based assessment. we know that the tasks do not need many preparations and it is easy to score the students‘ work‖ (teacher 01) ―however, i apply the written ones more often especially essay and task based assessment as they are simply prepared and applied. besides, written tasks are easy for scoring‖ (teacher 04) ―in assessing knowledge, i use written test more effectively. in this case, in the end of a lesson, usually i evaluate what competence that the students‘ achieve. then, i got the students‘ score directly. in doing so, the process does not take too much time.‖ (teacher 15) meanwhile, in assessing students‘ skills, the teachers preferred performance assessment. it was probably caused by its simplicity in the implementation too. the next statements described their perceptions in applying the technique. ―i often assess my students‘ skill through looking at their performance. by assessing their performance, i will see their language skills, especially in speaking and writing‖ (teacher 01) ―i use performance assessment more often because i want to know students‘ pronunciation, then err… what is it? … fitri aliningsih & ahmad sofwan. english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment __________________________________________________________________________________________ 23 err... i want to know how they perform the knowledge they have achieved‖ (teacher 04) so, i exactly know the students‘ language skills which are reflected through the interaction with me and their peers. i often ask them to perform dialogs or conversations in front of the class in pairs‖ (teacher 15) besides, through the interview both teacher 01 and teacher 03 claimed that they also apply portfolios and project based assessment in assessing the students‘ skill. in this case, only teacher 02 admitted that she rarely uses the technique. further, she elaborated on her reasons for doing so through the following statement. in the past, i asked each student to have their own file of portfolio. however, it is very exhausting to score all their products in many sequences, from draft, revision, final draft, revision again, etc. it is time consuming. i rarely apply project based assessment because of its complicated process and scoring. i usually apply it once in a semester only. (teacher 04) at last, the teachers implied similar perceptions that applying single self or peer assessment only would not reflect valid and accurate assessment. thus, they used observation as triangulation in assessing students‘ attitude. their opinions were described through their statements below. ―in assessing attitude… i often observe my students in the classroom. i will see how they control their feeling, how they behave, etc.‖ (teacher 01) ―in other case, if i only apply selfassessment or peer assessment, it is also not fair and valid. so, i apply the three techniques in balance, in the same proportion‖ (teacher 04) ―i select 1 student in each group as a leader. then, i give them the checklist, the scoring rubric, and the criteria to assess the members in each group. and, i myself will observe and assess them through my observation checklist i have prepared‖ (teacher 15) the next findings showed that the teachers experienced some benefits in applying authentic assessment. they argued that by doing the assessment, they would evaluate their students‘ progress and achievement easily. the opinion was stated as follows. ―at that time, i asked them to finish it in some minutes and to rearrange it as quickly as they could, and the students did the tasks very enthusiastically.‖ (teacher 01) ―the benefit is through authentic assessment we may improve the students‘ awareness of having broad knowledge, good skill, and also good attitude. that‘s the benefit. the competence is achieved through authentic assessment‖. (teacher 04) ―when i assess their skill, i can see each student‘s strength and weakness in certain competence. that is why, by applying such assessment, as a teacher i will know and understand all my students well.‖ (teacher 15) moreover, the following statements illustrated that the students‘ interest and motivation are increased when authentic assessment was applied. the teachers thought that authentic assessment is beneficial to enhance students‘ interest and participation both in learning and assessment activities. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 24 ―in my opinion, my students become more motivated to learn new knowledge. besides, they are motivated to perform their skills well and confidently‖ (teacher 04) ―and my students immediately realized that they were being assessed. they knew and were aware. so that they were motivated to cooperate and participate in their group‖ (teacher 15) meanwhile, the interview revealed an interesting finding in teacher 01‘s case. in this case, teacher 01 claimed that she had no significant problems, while the two other teachers admitted that they faced some constraints in implementing authentic assessment. in this case, teacher 01 only once stated about her disappointment. ―yes, i have ever felt disappointed. at that time, i gave an assignment which must be done in a week. when i asked them to submit it, some students haven‘t done the assignments by reasoning‖ (teacher 01) on the other hand, both teacher 04 and teacher 15 perceived that authentic assessment is complicated in some cases. their perceptions were described clearly through the following statements. ―in applying project based assessment, i think the preparation is very excessive and complicated‖ (teacher 04) ―it seems that it is very time consuming. in doing so, sometimes i cannot assess all my students because it is very exhausting, etc.‖ (teacher 04) ―honestly, it takes too much time and sometimes it becomes a burden to me. because sometimes the time provided at school is not enough to assess all students‖ (teacher 04) the above statements explicitly described teacher 04‘s difficulties as she found that complicated administration, time consuming and exhausting activities, and also large numbers of students become her problems in applying authentic assessment. likewise, the following excerpts illustrated teacher 15‘s problems in implementing authentic assessment. ―it happens as in my school, the classes are very heterogeneous. it is impossible for me to assess all the 40 students in each class. it is clear enough that our constraint is the big classes, which consist of 40 students‖ (teacher 15) ―authentic assessment is time consuming, i think. and it is also exhausting. besides, it also consumes err… takes everything. we have to pay much attention to students‖ (teacher 15) at last, through the interview, it revealed that in facing the problems in applying authentic assessment, the teachers usually benefited from teachers‘ forum discussion, especially in developing the administration. besides, they also shared their problems and experiences to solve the problems. the following statements clearly showed their strategies in reducing difficulties in applying authentic assessment. ―i have ever shared with my fellows at school or other school. at school is more often‖ (teacher 01) ―usually, we discuss about assessment, and anything related to teaching learning. when we face any problem and difficulties, we discuss and share each experience to solve the problem‖ (teacher 04) ―…, in developing a worksheet for my students i often discuss with my fellow fitri aliningsih & ahmad sofwan. english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment __________________________________________________________________________________________ 25 english teachers at school. for example, when i teach about ―notice‖, i will discuss about how to make the proper assessment tasks and worksheet‖ (teacher 15) teachers’ practices through the classroom observation, the study revealed that there were no significant differences between the public and private teachers in the way they apply authentic assessment. it revealed that teachers‘ professional status also did not take much effect in the assessment practice. however, the school management seemed to play important role in the teachers‘ practices. the data showed that the teachers in the public schools had more well organized administration than the one in the private school. the findings showed that the three teachers applied the assessment in a similar way. in assessing knowledge, they applied written techniques more often as it was simply in preparing, applying, and scoring. meanwhile, in the skills evaluation, the teachers assessed their students through performance assessment. in contrast, the use of portfolios and project based assessment were not clearly found in this study. meanwhile, the teachers preferred observation and peer assessment as they thought that self-assessment would not show a valid result of assessment. through the document analysis, it revealed the teachers‘ weaknesses in preparing the assessment tools, including developing the instruments, determining the indicators, assessment rubrics, checklist, criteria, rating scale, etc. recently, the teachers only copied the models of assessment tools provided by the curriculum document instead of modifying or adapting it to their class‘ characteristics. as a result, sometimes the tools were not appropriately match with the real class condition. thus, it revealed that actually, the teachers did not have clear understanding, enough knowledge and skill in applying an ideal authentic assessment. moreover, if examined holistically it became clear that in most cases, the teachers were simply engaging with authentic assessment on a technical level only, without engaging the students in continuous activities which would show their progress of achievement. for example, in using portfolios, the teachers only asked the students to write without giving chances to revise, and make it better. moreover, the teachers did not used proper instrument to assess the product as they directly scored it without assessing each indicator. it implied that the teachers have begun to engage with authentic assessment but still needs guidance in developing the assessment tools and applying it. influence of teachers’ perceptions on the teachers’ practices the study found that the teachers‘ perceptions towards authentic assessment had a significant effect in their practices. as they have a positive opinion towards its implementation in the 2013 curriculum, the teachers tried to fully apply it in their teaching learning process. the result of this study showed that the teachers tried to emerge from the use of conventional assessment techniques to authentic assessment approach as they started to use some new techniques of assessment such as portfolios, project based assessment, observation, self and peer assessment. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/1 (october 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 26 however, their positive perceptions were not always successfully reflected into the practice. as it was explained in the previous findings, the teachers also perceived that other factors such as limited time, big classes, complicated administration, and over-loaded work in scoring influenced the implementation of the assessment approach. besides, the teachers also thought that some techniques were new for them. as the result, their perceptions on the problems in applying authentic assessment also greatly affected their practices. in this case, the teachers tended to only apply some techniques which would not become more burden for them. for example, they applied written and task based assessment more often than other techniques. conclusion based on the result of data interpretation and discussion above, the conclusions could be drawn that the teachers have positive perceptions towards authentic assessment. however, the teachers perceived insufficient time, large numbers of students, exhausting and time consuming activities, and also complicated administration as the main problems in applying authentic assessment in the 2013 curriculum. meanwhile, the analysis of classroom observation, teachers‘ assessment documents and students‘ products revealed the teachers‘ practices of applying authentic assessment. the study showed that the teachers applied the assessment in a similar way. it revealed that they preferred written and task based assessment, performance assessment, and classroom observation since it was simple in preparing, applying, and scoring. in contrast, the use of unfamiliar techniques such as portfolios and project based assessment were not clearly found in this study. moreover, sometimes the teachers did not apply the assessment appropriately as they did not put the assessment principles into practice. in some cases, they directly assessed the students without utilizing proper instruments like question-answer, scoring rubrics, criteria, rating scale, checklist, etc. furthermore, this study revealed that the teachers‘ perceptions towards authentic assessment played a significant effect in their practices. as they had positive opinion towards authentic assessment in the 2013 curriculum, the teachers tried to fully apply the assessment approach in their teachinglearning activities. however, their perceptions on the problems in applying authentic assessment also greatly affected their practices. in this case, the teachers tended to only apply some techniques which would not become more burden for them. references brown, h. d. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy (2 nd ed). new york: pearson education. brown, h. d. 2004. language assessment: principles and classroom practices. new jersey: longman. chan, yu-ching. 2006. elementary school efl teachers‘ beliefs and practices of multiple assessment. reflections on english language teaching. 7 (1): 37-62. cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. 2008. a guide to teaching practice (5 th ed). new york: routledge. fitri aliningsih & ahmad sofwan. english teachers‘ perceptions and practices of authentic assessment __________________________________________________________________________________________ 27 gay, l. r., mills, g. e., & airasian, p. w. 2011.educational research: competencies for analysis and applications (10 th ed). new jersey: pearson education inc. hamp-lyons, l., & condon, w. 2000. assessing the portfolio: principles for practice, theory, and research. cresskill: hampton press. marsh, c. j. & wills, g. 2007. curriculum alternative approaches, ongoing issues (4 th ed). new york: pearson education ltd. o‘malley, j. m. & pierce, l. v. 1996. authentic assessment for english language learners: practical approaches for teachers. new york: longman. oz, huseyin. 2014. turkish teachers‘ practices of assessment for learning in the english as a foreign language classroom. journal of language teaching and research. 5 (4): 775785 permendikbud no. 66 tahun 2013 tentang standar penilaian pendidikan. jakarta: depdikbud winograd, p., & perkins, f. d. 1995. authentic assessment in the classroom: principles and practices. in r. e. blum & j. a. arter (eds.).a handbook for student performance assessment in an era of restructuring.(pp. 1-11). alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 193 teaching english to young learners through traditional games rusiana iraw_one@yahoo.com universitas muria kudus nuraeningsih ning_pbiumk@yahoo.com universitas muria kudus received: 23 november 2015. revised: 1 january 2016. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract teaching english for elementary level is very important for preparing students to be ready and well prepared generation to be met with the future demand like communication and technology. in the light of communication, indonesia is one of countries that join in agreement of asean economic community which uses english as the language for global market in asean. dealing with communication, it is clear that nowadays almost all modern technology using english such as computer, gadget, etc. there are more student access internets or gadget for accessing game than playing the traditional ones. that is surely not a bad thing when students are exposed much to internet. yet, being exposed to the traditional ones is also a good idea so that indonesian students would be those who are aware of their own culture. seeing those two things, the demand of being able to use english for communication and an effort of making the students aware of traditional games they have, we are interested in investigating the effectiveness of traditional games as a technique for teaching english for elementary school students. through games, teachers can create various contexts in which students have an opportunity to use english for communication, exchange information, and express opinion (wright, betteridge and buckby, 1984). the aims of this resech is to find out whether traditional games are effective to be used in english teaching and learning. this research was conducted at sdit lukman al hakim of fourth grader students with the number of students was 19. the design of the researh is quasi-experimental with one control group pre-test and post-test. the instruments are pre-test and post-test. the games which are used in this research are gedrik and betengan. the findings shows that traditional games are effective for teaching english. suggestions are proposed for englishngsinh teachers in implementing the technique in the class. keywords: english, traditional games how to cite: rusiana & nuraeningsih. 2016. teaching english to young learners through traditional games. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction curriculum 2013 impacts on the position of english in schools particularly elementary school. previously english is a local content of many schools in indonesia. because of this curriculum, english there is no room for english teaching then it becomes extracurricular. in fact, students of elementary school are those who will be living in the world of competition in which communication is necessary. indonesia is one of the members of asean community 2015 which means being agreed to use english within asean trading. yet, the curriculum seems not support on the preparation of young generations to face the demand. the 2013 curriculum puts english as an extra with only 35 minutes per meeting mailto:iraw_one@yahoo.com mailto:ning_pbiumk@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 194 once in a week. with that policy, there is a worry that both teachers and students will not be aware with the importance of english for communication. while, nowadays most of modern technology use english and students of elementary school belong to those who make use of the technology. they are exposed much with internet, television, smartphone, and others which english is there. as a matter of fact, the exposure is not in line with the competence of using english. on the opposite, children are as the object of many games on the gadget. they spend much of their time playing games online. it causes another problem that is students tend to be more familiar with modern and online games from gadget than traditional games. then there are two problems emerge from this illustration, students of elementary school are not exposed with english and traditional games. exposing students with much english can help them require target languages better. through traditional games, students are provided with real-life game that encourages interaction and communication with fellow students. why those two things important is because children are believed to love playing game. according to pellegrini (1991:241) in bennet (1998:5-6) games are defined into three categories: (1) games are as inclination, (2) games as contexts, and (3) games as attitude that can be observed. games are considered not only something fun but the result needs to be considered also. traditional games are games that are exist in certain areas based on the local culture. traditional games are fun activities for entertaining, maintaining neighborhood, and social comfortable. in other words, playing is a need for children. so, playing for children has a value and important characteristic on the progress of daily life including in traditional games (semiawan, 2008:22). a worry that children is not ready with the global demand and the shift of good values, the writers conducted a research on teaching english through traditional games in kudus regency, central java. in english teaching and learning by using traditional games, students have plenty of opportunities to interact and socialize with their mates and maintain traditional cultures as well. based on the background above, the writers conducted a quasi-experimental research entitled‖ teaching english through traditional games for elementary school students in kabupaten kudus‖. this research is aimed at knowing how effective the traditional games for learning english of the fourth graders of sdit lukman al hakim. english for elementary school has been introduced since 1998 when competencebased curriculum is applied. although it is still debatable on the importance of english to be taught in elementary level, yuvaraj (2009) argues that in early of two years until the late of puberty, children possess ―critical period‖ which is closely related to language acquisition. this argument is based on the proposition that children ability to acquire language is a genetic process supported by biology factor that ends in puberty. within that period, brain ability to memorize words is sharper than when they have been adult. (sommer, 2011) claims that the principal of introducing a language is get the kids used to be with the intonation and sound from the language. it clearly shows that introducing english in early age is not a big deal on rusiana & nuraeningsih. 2016. teaching english to young learners through traditional games. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 195 condition the english teaching bases on children development. students of elementary school are around 6 until 12 years old. according to suhartatik (2008), they belong to young learners, those aged 4 until 12 years old. she explains that characteristics of young learners are: (1) moody, (2) have short attention span, (3) highly motivated on things they like, (4) big curiosity, (5) like talking and concrete things, and (6) like physical activities. in line with that, sugiyanto (http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/ default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%2 0sd.pdf.) explains similar characteristics of elementary students like the following: a. love playing b. like moving: c. enjoy working in groups d. do or act out things direcly. based on the characteristics that have been mentioned, teachers have to design the teaching and learning process which accomodates children characteristic that is designing english teaching learning process that meet their needs. teachers should be aware that they certainly have their own world where they can play and explore their great imagination. teachers also should give oppotunities for students to move and socialize with their fellow classmates in the class. scott & ytreberg (1990) said that children love to play what they see and hear around them. further they describe that ‖their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears. the physical world is dominat at all times‖. therefore, through traditional games, young learners possibly learn english with fun because these games not only let them to move physically but also interact socially. english curriculum in elementary school based on the competence-based curriculum, english in elementary school is a local content. in the beginning of 2013, when 2013 curriculum was introduced, english then considered to be extracurriculer. sdit lukman al hakim is one of schools assigned to implement this currriculum for all classes in academic year 2015/2016. yet, when the research was being conducted, the curriculum used was still competence-based curriculum. the competences include oral communication in school context covering listening, speaking, reading, and writing. for grade iv, the standard competence for listening is understanding simple instruction with action in school context. students are expected to be able to: 1) respond the instruction appropriately in school context, 2) respond simple instruction in verbal. while for standard competence of speaking, students are expected to be able to give simple instruction or express opinion in class context. for reading, students are expected to understand simple english texts with picture, including words, phrases, and sentences and be able to read aloud with appropriate intonation, pronunciation, and stressing. for writing, students are expected to be able to copy simple words, phrases, or sentences in class context. traditional games traditional games are games that are played by certain community for generations. the games are some for children and the rest are for adults. traditional games in each area are different on the rule showing its characteristics. the purposes of playing traditional games are to get amusement, http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/%20default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/%20default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/%20default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/%20default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%20sd.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 196 spending spare time, and to be sociable. there are 3 kinds of traditional games. seriati and hayati in http://staff.uny.ac.id/ sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20 siswa%20sd.pdf, classify the games into 3: a. physical games, for example betengan, gobak sodor, setinan/gundu, engkek, bekelan, gobag sodor. b. song games for example jamuran, jaranan. c. physical and song games for example jaran lumping. the research conducted by thanh and nga (2003) shows that: (1) through games the students can be more relax and enjoy the learning, (2) games also involve friendly competition and still keep their interest to learn. it encourages the students to be involved and participate actively in learning activities, (3) vocabulary games can provide real-life into the class context and improve the use of english communicatively. azar (2012) investigated about effects of games toward strategies for teaching vocabulary for english students in iran. other research was conducted by arif (2009) about the implementation of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) in teaching science through traditional games. the result shows that there is a significant difference on the implementation of ctl through traditional games in science activities on the experimental group in which traditional games were implemented. similar research was conducted by yulianti (2012) who found that portek (portable engklek ) is effective to increase students‘ english vocabulary. methodology the present research is quasi-experimental research which aims at investigating the effectiveness of traditional games for teaching english in elementary school. it was one experimental group with pre-test and post-test group of which the instruments were pre-test and post-test. the subject of the research is 18 students of fourth grader al basith of sdit lukman al hakim kudus. actually there were 22 students altogether. yet, some of them did not join the pre-test and the others did not join the post-test. so, to make the data valid, the number of the students considered to be the object of the research was 18 students who joined either pre or post-test. the pre-test and the post-test is typical test consists of 10 items of vocabulary in multiple choice, 5 items of listening, and 5 items of speaking. before administering the pre-test, try out was conducted to test how reliable the instrument is. four graders al karim of sdit lukman al hakim was chosen to try the test out. then, by using split half technique, the writers analyzed the students‘ scores. based on the spss calculation, the result shows that r coefficient is 0.685. it means that the test has sufficient reliability. the treatment was carried out for 6 meetings of thirty five minutes by teaching them by using two traditional games named gedrik and betengan. they were exposed to learn vocabulary, and integrated skills through those two games both individually and in group. the students‘ scores in pre-test and post-test were then compared to test whether there is significant difference by using t-test. results and discussion before conducting the treatment to the research subjects, a pre-test was administered. the result is as shown in the following table. http://staff.uny.ac.id/%20sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/%20sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/%20sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/%20sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20%20siswa%20sd.pdf language circle: journal lof language and literature x/1 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x _________________________________________________________________________________________ 197 table 1. descriptive statistics of students’ english achievement minimum score maximum score mean standard deviation pre-test 50 90 71.25 11.03970 post-test 75 95 79.5 6.73528 based on the table, before getting the treatment, the students‘ minimum score is 50 and the maximum score is 90. chart 1. students’ score before being taught by using traditional games after being taught through traditional games, the minimum score is 75 and the maximum score is 95. in addition, the mean increases from 71.25 into 79.5. thus, the difference between two means is 8.25. the following chart describes the students‘ score after traditional games were implemented. chart 2. students’ score after the implantation of traditional games 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 students' score 0-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 students' score 0-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 198 after the two means were found, the next step is calculating them into t-test through psss. here is the result. table 2. the result of t-test calculation pair 1 pretest-posttest paired differences mean -8.21429 sstd. deviation 9.97249 std. error mean 2.66526 95% confidence interval of the difference lower -13.97223 upper -2.45634 t -3.082 df 13 sig. (2-tailed) .009 from the data above, we can see that the significance level is 0.009, which is lower than 0.05. therefore, it can be said that there is a significant difference between students‘ english achievement before and after being taught by using traditional games. based on the finding, it shows that through traditional games students‘ english achievement is significantly higher than before. this research result supports thanh and nga‘s study (2003) that games are effective to build students‘ vocabulary. during the treatment, the games have successfully encouraged the students in learning vocabulary subconsciously and interactively. in addition, the games also provide the students with speaking practices since they have to ask and answer questions related to the topic learnt. right after the games, students are exposed with writing practices as well. in other words the games trigger the students in learning english in a contextual situation. it is in line with what kirkland & o‘riordau (2008) who claims that games offer a medium for students to explore and interrogate information in a fun & interactive way. different from other research, this study used traditional games exist in kudus regency, i.e. gedrik and betengan. through those two games, the students are provided with some physical activities and chances to interact with their mates, which lead them to master english better. the teaching stages of using games have considered the four skill to be included in every single meeting of treatment. starting from opening which aims at getting the students‘ attention, then playing the games for icebreaking and lead them aims at getting the students‘ readiness in learning. after the material is presented, practices covering all skills are given to them. the first practice is controlledpractice such as blank filling to highlight vocabulary and grammar related to the target language. in addition, semi controlled practice such as listening to check the students‘ understanding is also given. then for uncontrolled-practice, it is provided a meaningful task that leads them to produce either oral or written work based on the material learned. from those stages, surely all skills of english are highly considered. hence, the use of traditional games rusiana & nuraeningsih. 2016. teaching english to young learners through traditional games. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 199 influences the students‘ achievement to be higher than before the treatment. it is understandable, since the games are designed in such a way so that the students learn and practice four skills of english. besides, the test administered is also considered to cover the four skills. all in all, the games are believed to be effective for teaching english. conclusion in conclusion, traditional games are effective for teaching english. seeing the result of the research, there are some suggestions are proposed to english teachers and further researchers. for english teachers, employing traditional games for teaching english can be a good idea yet some things should be considered like the kind of game, the number of the students, the crowd that the students might make while playing the game. then for further researchers, it might be another idea of having traditional games to be more specific for teaching skills for example for speaking. references arikunto, suharsimi. 1998. manajemen penelitian. jakarta: pt rineka cipta azar, ali sorayaie. 2012. the effect of games on efl learners‘ vocabulary /learning strategies. international journal of basic and applied science vol.01.no.02 october 2012. retrieved on april 28, 2014 www.insikapub.com bennet, naville. 1998. annotation: class size & the quality of educational outcomes. journal of child psychology & phychiatry/volume 39/issue 06/ september 1998, pp.97804. ersoz, a. 2000. six games for the efl/esl classroom. in the internet tesl journal. retrieved april 28, 2014 from http:/itesl.org/lessons.ersox-games.html. kirkland, o‘riordan. 2008. games as an engaging teaching and learning technique: learning or playing ? http://icep.ie/wp-content/uploads/2010/kirkland_et_al.pdf lee, j.m.1996. english games. seoul: the people publisher. pellegrini, anthony d.1991. applied child study developmental approach. hillsdale, n.j.: l.erlbaum associates peraturan menteri pendidikan nasional no.23 tahun 2006 scott, wendy a, & ytreberg, lisbeth h. 1990. teachingenglish to children. harlow: longman setiawan, cony. 2008. belajar & pembelajaran pra-sekolah dan sekolah dasar. jakarta: indeks suhartatik.2008. teaching english for young learners. paradigma, tahun xiii, nomor 25, januari-juni thanh, nguyen thi, nga, huyen khuat thi thu. 2003. the effectiveness of learning vocabulary through games. http://asian-efl-journal.com/1493/quarterlyjournal/ 2003/12/learning-vocabulary-through-games-the-effectiveness-of-learning-vocabularythrough-games/ undang-undang nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang standar pendidikan nasional http://www.insikapub.com/ http://icep.ie/wp-content/uploads/2010/kirkland_et_al.pdf http://asian-efl-journal.com/1493/quarterlyjournal/%202003/12/learning-vocabulary-through-games-the-effectiveness-of-learning-vocabulary-through-games/ http://asian-efl-journal.com/1493/quarterlyjournal/%202003/12/learning-vocabulary-through-games-the-effectiveness-of-learning-vocabulary-through-games/ http://asian-efl-journal.com/1493/quarterlyjournal/%202003/12/learning-vocabulary-through-games-the-effectiveness-of-learning-vocabulary-through-games/ language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 200 uberman, a. 1998. the use of games for vocabulary presentation & revision. forum, 36 (1), 20-27‘.retrieved april 27, 2014 from http://exchangesstate.gov/forum/ vol/vols36/ no.1/p.20.htm www.gsdu.cn/tupianshangchuanmulu/zhongmeiwangluoynyan/learning vocabulary through games.pdf.http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%20sd.pdf. yuliati, fitri. 2012. teaching english vocabulary to elementary school aged children through a modified hop-scotch games named portek (portable engklek)., http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej. retireved on april 26, 2014 http://exchangesstate.gov/forum/ http://www.gsdu.cn/tupianshangchuanmulu/zhongmeiwangluoynyan/learning%20vocabulary%20through%20games.pdf http://www.gsdu.cn/tupianshangchuanmulu/zhongmeiwangluoynyan/learning%20vocabulary%20through%20games.pdf http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/tmp/karakteristik%20siswa%20sd.pdf http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 83 digital storytelling as a teaching medium in reading classroom yentri anggeraini baturaja university e-mail: anggeraini.yentri@yahoo.com nurul afifah baturaja university e-mail: nurulafifah122@gmail.com received: 20 july 2017. revised: 25 august 2017. accepted: 20 september 2017 abstract as we know that teaching reading of short stories is to make students more understand about the material and can analyze the contents of the story including the moral value, plot, setting, and characters in the story. the objective of this study were to find out (1) what the students` initial condition on reading short stories texts before using the developed digital storytelling are, (2) how the digital storytelling developed for teaching reading of short stories students at english education study program university of baturaja is, (3) how effective the developed digital storytelling used for teaching reading of short stories is. the result of this study was this digital storytelling was developed on the basis of questionnaire results and interview result. it was found that the media of digital storytelling should cover the need of the students which has some criteria such as after reading the short stories hopefully they can increase their vocabulary, they like to read dramatic and romantic story, the suitable medias in learning reading of short stories are online reading sources and video, kinds of digital storytelling are video words and digital storytelling video clips, digital storytelling should be easy to operate and the comfortable digital storytelling is to have more voice and sound. the students revealed this improvement after applying digital storytelling for teaching reading of short stories. the materials development brings improvement on the students` scores and it can rise their interest in reading short stories. keywords: digital storytelling, teaching reading, reading of short stories how to cite: yentri anggeraini & nurul afifah. 2017. digital storytelling as a teaching medium in reading classroom. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 83—89. __________________________________________________________________________________ introduction teaching reading of short stories to make students more understand about the material and can analyze the contents of the story including the moral value, plot, setting, and characters in the story. english education study program has reading class that consists of reading i, reading, ii, reading iii, and advanced reading. in teaching reading of short stories, the lecturer should find more interactive activities that dealing with technology to make the classroom more meaning full and joyful. it deals with the literature class such as english drama, english prose, and literary appreciation, etc. those of subjects need comprehension the reading activities especially for short stories and novel before applying in action. the update technology usage and its changes come and give positive effects to us including the teaching and learning process in school practices. the use of technology in teaching enjoys, motivates, and facilitates the students in learning english. one of the mailto:anggeraini.yentri@yahoo.com mailto:nurulafifah122@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 84 examples of technogoly usage in teaching is digital storytelling. shalkhord, gorjian, and pazhakh (2013) found that the instruction of using digital stories did affect the learners‘ reading comprehension the most. they conclude that digital stories specifically may influence efl learners' reading comprehension skill, the online instruction of digital stories does have more significant impact on the learners‘ reading comprehension skill than conventional or paper-based instruction, in the internet-based instruction of digital stories, the learners listen and analyze the story independently and freely and thus comprehend it better, and in digital stories instruction, pre-reading activities such as new vocabulary explanation, questioning can influence learners‘ reading comprehension ability. mutalib, aziz, and shaffiei (2011) found that the digital storytelling is entertaining reading material that is able to invoke fun among the readers. entertaining and fun are different in meaning in which entertaining refers to anything that engage people; whether it is horror, comedy, drama, sport, war, or sad. in contrast, fun is something associate with laugh, happiness, and excitement. they are both semantics of user experience. meanwhile, menezes, 2012 clarifies that digital stories usually contain computer based images, text, recorded audio narration, video clips and music. they vary in length but in education the most used last between two and ten minutes. topics range from a wide area, covering almost everything thinkable. abdel-hack and helwa (2014) clarified different kinds of digital storytelling: 1. photo stories: they are combinations of still images and texts. students only need to know how to take photos and how to make a powerpoint presentation in which the photos will be put together with the text. 2. video words: they are combinations of words or phrases and pictures to make a film or a short and simple presentation. the teacher can take some photos and bring them to the classes and ask students to match the pictures with the words. 3. presentations: the most common storymaking process is a powerpoint presentation. a presentation is a combination of a text and pictures to present a certain topic. students have to summarize the most important ideas and present them in a certain order. they are supposed to know more information than just that which is written in the text of the presentation. students should be able to speak without notes; they should express their ideas clearly and keep the touch with audience. 4. staging: it is a kind of presentation but the students are not focused on facts but they have to find a way how to perform their feelings, actions, incidents, sayings etc. students should present the things which are familiar to them. 5. video clips: the last kind of ds is a video clip. while creating a video clip, students put pictures, words, recorded conversations or narrations and music together to make a meaningful story which covers all kinds of digital stories mentioned above. a video clip talks about a certain topic which is familiar to the story-makers and which reflects his or her personal point of view. pardede (2011) mentioned that four advantages of using short stories for language teachers. first, short stories are practical as their length is long enough to cover entirely in yentri anggeraini & nurul afifah. 2017. digital storytelling as a teaching medium in reading classroom. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 83—89. 85 one or two class sessions. second, short stories are not complicated for students to work with on their own. third, short stories have a variety of choice for different interests and tastes. finally, short stories can be used with all levels (beginner to advance), all ages (young learners to adults) and all classes (morning, afternoon, or evening classes). the research revealed that a majority of the respondents basically found short stories interesting to use both as materials for selfenjoyment and of as components language skill classes. most of them also agreed or strongly agreed that the incorporation of short stories in language skills classes will help learners achieve better mastery of language skills. using the digital storytelling is one of was as the implication of the technology used. robin (2011) defined digital storytelling simply as the practice of using computer based tools to tell stories. it includes multiple forms of media: images and/or video, music, text and narration. based on the explanation above, the writer developed the digital storytelling for teaching reading of short stories at english education study program university of baturaja. methodology the writer used research and development (r &d) design developed by borg and gall in 1983. this writer used only sixth of those ten steps which included research and information collecting, planning, develop preliminary form of product,preliminary field testing, main product revision, evaluating the product because the main concern of the study is to answer the two questions in the problem formulation as mentioned previously. those sixth steps are considered enough to carry out the research as well to answer the problem formulation offered. the product revision was done once based on the evaluation‘s questionnaire. besides, this research was conducted only to design a product as the media in teaching reading of short stories. the subjects of the study are (1) the second semester students; (2) english lecturer as english teaching experts. data are mainly obtained by means of giving assignment to the students and asking the above respondents by using questionnaire containing the questions related to product being develop. in conducting such study, the writer did some steps: first, the writer employed ten items of the questionnaire that covers the analysis of the lesson and the classroom management. then, the writer did observation to support the data about the student` initial condition on reading short stories. second, the writer did interview. the lecturer and second semester need analysis results were used as the basis for developing the digital storytelling. in this process the writer was helped by the lecturer and it expert judgment in developing this digital storytelling. the last, the writer provided pre test, post test and some exercises attached in the digital storytelling. the writer checked the students` understandings in reading short stories and wants to know whether the students can understand short stories well and they can improve their ability in reading from the analysis of the test result. results and discussion the students` initial condition on reading short stories before using the developed digital storytelling it was found that for the students‘ difficulty in reading short stories, 86% of students said that they are hard to understand the story and language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 86 the rest argued that they need much time to read. for the second question about students`common hopes after learning reading short stories, it showed that 71 % of the students argued that by reading they can increasy their vocabulary mastery. for the third question about students` motivation in reading alot, it showed that 64 % of the students argued that they read because they do assginment form the lecturer, 22 % percent of the students argued that they read because they want to pass the exam, 14 % of them argued that they read to pass the exam. for the fourth question about kinds of reading topic they like to read, 57 % of the students argued that they like to read dramatic story and 43 % of them argued that they like to read romantic stories. for the fifth question about students` purpose in reading short stories, 60 % of the students argued that their purpose in reading was to do task from the lecturer. for the sixth question about students` opinions about suitable media in learning reading of short stories, 57 % of the students argued that online reading sources was the suitable media in learning reading and the rest argued that video was suitable one. for the seventh question about suitable and interesting activities should be delivered in the reading of short stories class, 60 % of the students argued that doing reading task in group discussion was the intesting activities and the others argued that reading and answering the question was the interesting activities. for the eighth question about kinds of digital storytelling they like most, 86 % of the students argued that they liked video words and the rest they liked ds video clips. for the ninth question about their opinion about good criteria of digital storytelling instruction, 93 % of the students argued that easy to be operated was the good criteria of digital storytelling. for the last question about the comfortable digital storytelling category, 72 % of the students argued that having clear text was the comfortable ds category and the others argued that having more voice and sound was the comfortable ds category. for the interview, it was about the teaching of reading in english education study program in university of baturaja including the preparation, materials, and the media used in teaching and learning process. the interview result showed that most of the students and the lecturer had not been familiar with digital storytelling. the had just been familiar with the storytelling. they argued that it deals with technology. for the material, the lecturer used the handbook form study program and other relevant sources. the process of the developed digital storytelling for teaching reading of short stories at english education study program university of baturaja there are some steps in creating the digital storytelling. basically, the writer did need analysis by searching some information related to the students` interest of the short stories. it was done by going to the field directly and having some interview both with the lecturer and those students. after getting information of the teaching and learning process of reading and based on the students` need in learning reading of short stories, the writer offered digital as the teaching media. the discussion ended in an agreement to apply storytelling in teaching reading of short stories. in composing this digital storytelling, the writer discussed a lot with the lecturer and was helped by it programmer. here are the steps in composing this digital storytelling: firstly, the writer browsed the short stories yentri anggeraini & nurul afifah. 2017. digital storytelling as a teaching medium in reading classroom. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(1), 83—89. 87 that are relevant to the students` interests and reading level. after taking discussion with the lecturer, the writer used eight short stories which were : 1) never forget, 2) god sees the truth but waits, 3) the flower at the door, 4) the last leaf, 5) story hour, 6) be aware of the dog, 7) the girl with no firend, and 8) eva is inside her cat. all of the part of the stories were included in the program. these eight short stories were new for the students and are chosen on the basis of level of vocabulary similiarties that are used in the short stories. in this step, the wirter is not only searching the appropriate short stories but also the searching the music intruments to support the process of digital storytelling. secondly, after creating the video ,the writer combined the video to swf application and then, the writer put ―swf‖ extension into folder data of digital storytelling. the menu can be shown in the picture below. in order to operate the program, just click the button. there are a number of buttons; they are eight short stories, question section,programmer instruction, and exit. each button of the title of stories, you will read the stories followed by music intrument and the speaker of the short stories reading. for the expert validation results about the attractiveness, the clearness of the direction to use digital storytelling and the aese in suing the media, three experts in teaching reading in university level and one expert in it programmer was involved in gathering the data. the result showed that two experts agreed that opening page of digital storytelling was very good in attracting visitors. the others suggested that all of the instructions were written in english. dealing with the clearness of the directions to use media, three experts except one lecturer agreed that this media had already been very good in providing clear direction. and in the case of th ease in using digital storytelling, all experts considered the digital storytelling was as very good. it is easy to operate the digital storytelling by clicking the button. language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 88 the effectiveness of developed digital storytelling used for teaching reading of short stories paired samples test paired differences t df sig. (2-tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 posttest pretest 21.429 9.288 2.482 8.633 13 .000 the paired sample test shows the comparison of pretest and posttest of experimental group displayed the difference between scores. the value of t-obtained was 8.633 and the standard deviation was 9.288. it was identified that sig. (2-tailed) or p value (0.00) was less than alpha value (0.05). there were some progress happened after the students had been taught by using digital storytelling. conclusion this digital storytelling was developed on the basis of questionnaire results and interview result. it was found that the media of digital storytelling should cover the need of the students which has some criteria such as after reading the short stories hopefully they can increase their vocabulary, they like to read dramatic and romantic story, the suitable medias in learning reading of short stories are online reading sources and video, kinds of digital storytelling are video words and digital storytelling video clips, digital storytelling should be easy to operate and the comfortable digital storytelling is to have more voice and sound. after being taught by using developed materials through digital storytelling, the reading score of short stories increased which 64 % of students were in very good category and 36 % of the students were in good category in the posttest result. it was different with the pretest result that there were 7 % students were in very good category and 14 % students were in good category. the students revealed thsi improvement after applying digital storytelling for teaching reading of short stories. the materials development brings improvement on the students` scores and it can rise their interest in reading short stories. in line with the conclusions of this study, the suggested presented below may be proposed into a similar study as well as lecturers who are going to apply this materials development in the classrooom. : the product of this study is practical as one of groundwork in developing teaching-learning materials by using available school facilities. generally, teachers who apply the product should try it first before conducting teaching learning process . specially, further writer are able to develop materials through other kinds of digital storytellingand other approaches for teaching reading of short stories for other language skills and focusing on the crtital reading of the students references language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(1) october 2017 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 89 abdel-hack, e.m., & helwa, h.s.a.a. 2014. using digital storytelling and weblogs instruction to enhance efl narrative writing and critical thinking skills among efl majors at faculty of education. international research journal, 5(1), 8-41. borg, w.r., & gall, m.d. 1983. educational research: an introduction. ny: longman inc. menezes, h. 2012. using digital storytelling to improve literacy skills. iadis international conference on cognition and exploratory learning in digital age, 229-301. mutalib, a.a.,aziz, n., & shaffiei, z.a. (2011). digital storytelling makes reading fun and entertaining. international journal of computer applications,18(1), 20-26. pardade, p. 2011. using stories to teach language skills. the journal of english teaching,1(1), 14-27. robin, b. 2011. the educational uses of digital storytelling website. retrieved from http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu. shalkhord, s., gorjian, b., & pazhakh, a.(2013). the effect of digital stories on reading comprehension: an internet-based instruction for iranian efl young learners. international journal of language learning and applied linguistics world, 4(4), 111124. http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/ language circle: journal of language and literature 12(1) october 2017 90 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 27 the challenges and difficulties in teaching listening: an exploratory research in a junior high school in kudus slamet utomo muria kudus university slamet.utomo@umk.ac.id sri endang kusmaryati muria kudus university sri.endang@umk.ac.id titis sulistyowati muria kudus university titis.sulistyowati@umk.ac.id abstract the objectives of this study are describing the process of teaching english (listening) and identifying the difficulties in teaching (english) listening in a junior high school in kudus. this research uses exploratory research design. i will explore qualitative data to analyze the process of the teaching and learning english in kudus and to identify the need of the learning materials. the subjects of the research are five english teachers’ from a junior high school in kudus, they have been teaching english for more than ten years. they have been teaching from different classes, class 7, class 8, and class 9. this study has discovered the challenges and difficulties in learning and teaching in junior high school in kudus. most teachers feels that time management become their major challenge in organizing classroom. they have set lesson plan, but sometimes the lesson does not work exactly the same. they have to work with mixed-level students, with students with learning difficulties, and with learners who are coming from different backgrounds. teachers should be aware that it is part of teachers’ primary duty to cope with every student. most students can learn a foreign language to some level, but there are many reasons why their improvements are not achieved significantly. key words: listening skill, challenges, difficulties, and teaching listening introduction for the speakers of other languages, learning english is a challenging process. there are many aspects that influence the success of learning english. one of the essential aspects is the learning material. although the access to international communication is widely open on line through internet, there is no clear rule or regulation on how to use those facilities for language education. in communicating by using foreign language, the efl learners in indonesia need some efforts in understanding and responding on the words they have just listen to. they need time before they could grasp the meaning of the words, especially if they are not in the level of the language proficiencies. limitation of vocabulary has become their major difficulties in listening comprehension. brown (2007) states that in teaching is on the awareness of teachers to teach language not only on the level of linguistics rules and definition, but they should encourage student to communicate spontaneously and meaningful. to be able to communicate spontaneously and meaningful, students should have appropriate language competence. nunan (2002) says that listening as one of the language skill is essential not only as a receptive skill but also to the development of spoken language proficiency. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 28 there are obviously many differences among the students all over the world. concerning to the background differences, the students also have different attitudes in the classroom. thomson (2005) says that some teachers find that their students are often busy talking and chatting among others and do not concentrate on the listening subject. in listening students need full concentration on the audio being played, otherwise they may not catch the messages from the audio. some students have low motivations because they are forced to be in the class and because they are not willing to learn. some of them have problem on concentration and find listening is more difficult than other subjects. students simply turn off when listening to spoken english as it is seem too difficult follow without high level of concentration. cahyono and widiati (2009) state many aspects need to be considered in teaching listening in indonesia. the first, efl listening is integrated language skill. it is done integrated with other skills; speaking, reading and writing. the second, listening activities are designed to improve students listening ability. this concerns the development of various teaching and listening techniques that have been applied in english classrooms or in english language laboratories. the third is language teaching media used to teach efl listening. the types of media may vary from the use of tape or cd players in the classroom to the use of multi-media language laboratory. for language teachers in indonesia, the aspects mentioned above can be the problems in the teaching processes. this may because the limitation of the listening resources and supportive facilities. in some cases, the main problem of listening courses can be from the listening course book itself. to follow directly the course book they have selected without any adjustment can cause listening problems. if teachers cannot adopt, edit or adjust the listening activities with the students listening level, the listening process may create the high tension and anxiety for students. listening in the level of junior high school in indonesia is considered at the level of beginner. the listening activities start from the word level, sentence level and meaning based level. yavuza, degirmencia, akyuza, yılmaza, celika (2015) claim that the exercise types those early level pupils can be given are repetition which they are only expected to repeat what they hear, asking if what they hear is english or not and to decide if they hear the same or different utterances. following a written text facilitates the students both read and listen to texst and see how words are pronounced or have the chance to see the actual listening and hearing of a native speaker. the english teaching in junior high school level in indonesia seems pay less attention on the listening activities, most of the english text books are applying paper based design which are not equiped by audio aids. this research is done to explore the need of the listening material which is suitable for the early level students. as the part of the need analysis, we explore the process of the current teaching process and identify the difficulties and challenges faced by the english teacher. therefore this research focuses on (1) how is the process of teaching english (listening) in a junior high school in kudus? (2) what are the teacher’s difficulties and challenges in teaching (listening) in a junior high school kudus? theoretical review teaching listening listening skill of second language is not derived naturally; it needs some processes of learning. the processes of listening in the classroom involve active interaction between teachers and students. in listening classroom, teacher can be the source of the listening itself or becoming the intructor and the manager language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 29 when they use other listening cources. a lot of listening materials are derived from recorded extract, for instance on cd, tape record, video and others. probably the main source of listening for students is the voice of their teacher. individual voice of the teacher also can be called as the source of listening, because in teaching learning process, teacher talk as he is giving some instructions should also be understood by their students. but in fact the students need variety in listening then just listen to the teacher’s voice. instead of doing listening activity in the classroom, the students should also practice their listening skill outside of the classroom. this kind of activity can be more challenging and fun. they can find any others materials everywhere, often on cds, on mp3 players, videos or on the internet-should consist of text that they can enjoy listening too, because they more or less can be understood although without any intervention from their teacher for their do such kind of activity and practice their listening unconsciously. probably the easiest way of practicing listening is by listening to songs. many of the students enjoy sons very much, they will be curious on understanding the lyric as it may reflect his or her feeling. another way is by watching english movie, as they see the set on the screen and listening to the dialogue. although they may not understand the whole dialogue, at least they will know some parts and they will absorb the language gradually. richard (2008) sees listening in two different perspectives; listening as comprehension and listening as acquisition. listening for comprehension is the traditional nature of listening. this views listening as the process of understanding the meaning in a spoken discourse, while listening for acquisition focus on listening as the process of deriving other shill such as speaking. in understanding text as spoken discourse, richards (2008: 4-7) introduces two different kind of processes. they are often referred to as bottom-up and top-down processing. bottom-up processing refers to the use of the incoming input as the basis for understanding the message. comprehension begins with the received data that is analyzed at the levels of organization – sounds, words, clauses, sentences, texts–until meaning is derived. comprehension is viewed as a process of decoding. while top-down processing, on the other hand, refers to the use of background knowledge in understanding the meaning of a message. whereas bottom-up processing goes from language to meaning, top-down processing goes from meaning to language. the background knowledge required for topdown processing may be previous knowledge about the topic of discourse, situational or contextual knowledge, or knowledge in the form of “schemata” or “scripts”–plans about the overall structure of events and the relationships between them. buck in richards (2008) identifies two kids of strategies in listening. the first is cognitive strategy. it relates to comprehending and storing input in working memory or long term memory for later retrieval. comprehension processes are associated with the process of linguistics and non linguistics input. storing and memory processes are associated with the storing of linguistics. using and retrieval processes are associated with assessing memory, to be ready for output. the next is metacognitive strategy. it refers to conscious or unconscious mental activities that perform an executive function in the management of cognitive strategy. this strategy involves assessing the situation, which is taking the surrounding of the language task by assessing one’s own knowledge. next is monitoring the effectiveness of one’s own and another performance. the last is self evaluating performance after engaging in the activity and self testing the performance to determine the effectiveness of one’s own language use. listening o’malley and chamot in vandergrift (1999) have differentiated and categorized the range of cognitive activity in language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 30 language learning into two main types: metacognitive and cognitive strategies. metacognitive strategies oversee, regulate, or direct the language learning process. these strategies, which involve thinking about the learning process, include planning, monitoring, and evaluating. cognitive strategies manipulate the material to be learnt or apply a specific technique to the learning task. a third category, socio-affective strategies, was added to describe learning that happens when language learners cooperate with classmates, question the teacher for clarification, or apply specific techniques to lower their anxiety level. rost (2011: 2-4) purposes four listening orientation; receptive, constructive, collaborative, and transformative. 1. the first orientation is receptive. it deals with receiving and catching what the speaker actually says. it focuses on getting idea, decoding the message, unpacking the content from the speaker. it involves the process of attending to, hearing, understanding and remembering aural symbols. listening is receiving the transfer of images, impressions, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and emotions from the speaker. 2. the second is listening for constructing and representing meaning. listening means reframing the speaker’s message in a way that’s relevant to the hearer, understanding why the speaker is talking and noticing what is not said. listening is the process by which oral language is received, critically and purposefully attended to, recognized and interpreted in terms of past experiences and future expectancies. 3. the third orientation is collaborative. listening is negotiating meaning with the speaker and responding. it is the process of negotiating shared information or values with the speaker. listening is signaling to the speaker which ideas are clear and acceptable. it involves haring the emotional climate. in conclusion, listening is the acquisition, processing, and retention of information in the interpersonal context. 4. the last listening orientation is transformative. listening is creating meaning through involvement, imagination and empathy. it is creating a connection between the speaker and the listener. listening is the process of creating meaning in the speaker. listening is the process of altering the cognitive environment of both the speaker and the listener. methodology this research uses exploratory research design. we explore qualitative data to analyze the teaching and learning english in a junior high school in kudus and to identify the need of the learning materials. in analysing the data we use inductive approach. inductive approach in this research involves the research pattern from observation and the development of the explanations from the subject of the research. we are not introducing theories or hypotheses in this inductive study at the beginning of the research. we possess the freedom in terms of creating the direction for the study after the research process had concluded. this research is intended to draw theories as the conclusion of the research. the subjects of the research are five english teachers’ from islamic state junior high school in kudus, they have been teaching english for more than ten years. they have been teaching from different classes, class 7, class 8, and class 9. instrument of the research are questionnaires, interview and documentations. we use questionnaires to get the data of the teaching activity in a junior high school in kudus to answer the first research questions. the questionnaires are in form of teachers’ reflection sheets. we conduct interview with the english teacher to identify the difficulties in teaching listening. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 31 the data of this research are analyzed through several steps. the first is exploring the process of teaching english and identifying the difficulties in teaching english (listening). in this step we do interviews with the teacher in order to identify the difficulties faced by the teachers and to discuss the solution than can be used to overcome the problems. this data gain from open ended questionnaires to record the activities in class and semi structured interview to identify the challenges and difficulties. to analyze the whole data we classify them into two categories. the first step is calculating the percentage of the close ended questionnaires which explore the process of teaching and learning. the second step is coding and classifying the qualitative data which show the difficulties in teaching english in general and in teaching listening. findings and discussion finding all teachers have already followed the steps of doing proper teaching and learning process. the activities range from the apperception, whiles teaching and closing. in doing apperception teacher prepare the students by rearranging the seat and dividing the group. the seating arrangements usually are changed at every occasion based on the learning purposes. the teachers also consider the students capability in dividing them into groups. in giving apperception, teachers usually give questions related to the material given and also the purposes of the teaching and learning. the questions are varied depend on the students competence, some can be analytical one. this activity is used to motivate the students and to raise the students’ enthusiasms. in whiles teaching phase, teacher give the material and tries to understand the material well. they also extend the material by making some adjustment to the students’ daily context. the teachers also guide the students in doing the task. they guide them by providing clear instruction, both verbal and nonverbal instruction in order to make the students to do the task well. in explaining the material, teachers also focus on the students understanding. explanation is done by maximizing the use of verbal and nonverbal language. teachers also adjust the volume of their voice base on the condition of the classroom, to control the students and to maintain interaction. in the lesson plan, the teachers include the objectives of the lesson and arrange all the activities to adjust the time allocation, although sometimes the teaching and learning may be not happened exactly the same due to the time allotment. the material given during the lesson has already supported by technology, like the equipment which support audio and video playing. the teaching aids usage depends on the need of the learning material. these aids should be able to be used to support the success of the learning outcome. this aid should also facilitate the students’ enthusiasms. in building the students report, teachers try to distribute the same chances to students to participate in the classroom activities. they show openness to respond to students who actively raising questions when they get difficulties. teacher also appreciates the students who answer questions correctly and honor the students’ willingness to participate. they stimulate the students’ confidence in participating classroom discussion and manage students’ anxiety by creating comfortable atmosphere. the closing activities are done by summarizing and concluding the lesson to check the students’ understanding on the subject. teachers also give the students some assignment as remedial assignment or to extend their understanding. this has purpose to connect the learning material into the students’ context. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 32 table 1. the result of the teacher questionnaires pre teaching preparing the students by grouping and organizing the seats yes doing apperceptions by introducing the materials yes whiles teaching delivering the material preparing the material well yes giving instruction clearly yes delivering the material well by using clear language and gesture yes manage the quality of voice (to make the students listen to the teachers’ voice yes creating the teaching and learning base on its purposes yes managing the teaching and learning base on the time allocation yes the use of media as learning sources using media appropriately and effectively yes using media base on the teaching material yes using media which create the students’ enthusiasm yes building students rapport giving students chances to participate yes showing open attitudes to students critics yes creating students’ fun and enthusiasm for students learning environment yes closing doing reflection and making conclusion base on the students’ involvement yes making follow up by using clear instruction, students’ activities, or remedial as additional assignment yes the teachers claim that they do have many difficulties in preparing the listening material based on syllabus, because the material has not been prepared by the government. although the material has already available, it seems that students still need adjustment. the students have limited vocabulary to understand the listening text. furthermore students have limited time to listening exposure. their listening exposure is still at the level of words and sentences. table 2. the result of teachers’ difficulties in teaching listening listening difficulties answer yes no sometimes difficulties in preparing the listening material based in syllabus. 100% students have difficulties in understanding vocabulary 60% 40% classroom facilities do not support the listening activities 60% 40% limited time allocation in listening activities 60% 40% language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 33 discussion the teaching process the teaching activities in junior high school in kudus start from the pre teaching activity. before beginning the class the teachers usually start by using apperception to start up every student in the classroom. in this section, teacher reminds the student about the lesson given in the previous meeting. teachers try to prepare the students psychologically and physically to study by asking about the previous meeting. the main goal of this activity is to connect the previous lesson to the next lesson. teachers inform the students what they are going to learn today and how important it is for their daily activity. teacher gives motivation to the students with explanation how important to study it. because the class consists of many students it occasionally becomes necessary to divide them into groups. teachers manage the students into groups to make the lesson runs effectively. the teachers realize that students have different capability and ability, therefore it needs to be arranged base on the purpose, whether they have to be in group with the same or combination of level of proficiencies. teachers have been trying out this concept to classes with huge number of students. because students also need to work in groups on a full time basis, the sitting arrangement should also be adjust to make sure that every student has a chance to participate and sit in their most comfortable zone. during the teaching process, teachers also use various techniques in teaching. it is meant to avoid students’ boredom because technique really influences students’ interest. the technique which is applied by the teacher to teach english is varied. the media is concerned with deriving new vocabulary item in text. in teaching, the teacher uses some islamic approach and national character education to build students’ characteristics. the local values are also becoming the main issues to be introduced and instilled to the students. so in the process of teaching, the teachers always use islamic approach to build students’ characteristics. it is because the socio culture in kudus is based on islamic culture. islamic approach is approach that considered and adopted from islam. national character was also used because this school also used the curriculum set by the indonesian government. the characteristics building in this school is an important thing because it is also one of state islamic school in kudus. the students do not only learn science and knowledge but the school also educates and develops students to have good personalities. before the lesson begins, teachers do some preparation by designing lesson plan. teachers try to follow the plan, but it is not always happened exactly the same. sometimes the teaching and learning do not run exactly like the lesson plans. it is happened when the students curious to know other materials by giving many critical questions. therefore a teacher should made preparation by understanding the material well, in order to make the teaching and learning process run successfully. by making the lesson plan, the teachers have an outline to keep the lesson work as it is supported by the government. grossman (1990) states that teaching must be planned in such a way that learning became an interesting, even at time entertaining process. so, the preparation before teaching is needed to make the process of teaching successful. in starting the class, the teachers always start the lesson by greeting the students based on islamic culture. they say ‘salam’ and all students answer the teacher. while the teacher enters the class, all students have been ready to study. before starting the lesson, the teacher always asks the captain of class to lead the prayer. it is the culture of this islamic school, so before starting the lesson language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 34 they should pray first and after that teacher explains the lesson. in teaching process, at first the teacher explains by using english and then they sometimes repeat it into indonesian to avoid misunderstanding. in explaining the lesson, teacher uses code mixing because not all students understand english well. the use of l1 is dominating the class, in order to adjust the students’ language and culture. to stimulate the classroom english, the teacher tries to make the students used to listen english and also makes them used to speak using english so they will be able to understand english and produce english by speaking. in applying teaching technique, the teacher sometimes uses audio visual to improve the students’ listening comprehension. they use media to attract students’ attention namely video on many different texts. in junior high school level, it is difficult to give the students listening experience, none of the book give listening section. the materials tend to emphasize on the reading and writing only, therefore teachers should be active in creating listening material for their students. audio video is used by the teacher to make them memorizing vocabulary they need to master which is used in the video. the use of audio for introducing some vocabularies to students will help the students and teachers to learn pronunciation. it is hoped that the students can pronounce the word correctly because they have the right model of pronunciation. besides giving suitable teaching material, giving assignment, and joke, the teacher also give students motivation. in giving students motivation, they used various ways. because each student has unique characteristics, in giving motivation teacher also use specific ways. young students like to be appreciated in every way they do in the lesson, therefore teachers used many appraisal, like well done, great, good job, or just simply say thanks. these words give them such a joyful atmosphere in following the lesson. after the process of teaching and learning, the teachers summarize the materials by making question and answer session. this activity gave the teacher illustration of learning evaluation to know the success of the teaching and learning. this evaluation showed the result of teaching and learning which has been done. by giving evaluation, the teachers evaluate their success in delivering material. in giving evaluation, the english teacher used two kinds of evaluation; theoretical and practical evaluation. in theoretical evaluation, the teacher gave some questions to students and they had to answer the question. the result is in form of direct question and answer and questions and answer sheets. the teacher also asked students to practice, for instance, pronouncing words on video and making conversation with the teacher. the evaluation intended to make students able to produce english both written and oral. related to the national character education, this school has applied character based national education in teaching. it is stated in lesson plan and then applied in the process of teaching. in applying character national education, this school combined it with islamic character so students have strong guidance in building their good characteristics. to make the teaching process run successfully, teachers should understand about the students’ character. by understanding the characteristics of each student, they will know how to treat them appropriately. every student has different character and learning style, and as professional teachers, they should aware. teachers should try to understand what students want. in teaching listening, the teacher was expected to be creative. the teachers can create a condition in which the students relax and enjoy the learning activities. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 35 to connect the learning materials to context of situation and society, teachers give real example and relate those to students’ daily activities. it was very interesting since young learners are easy to understand by providing them the real example. contextual teaching method will help the students to apply their knowledge into useful communication. to create comfortable atmosphere in the class, the teacher should avoid of frightening or threatening them. in the process of teaching listening, the teachers usually interact with students in the questions and answer session. it uses to build their confidence around of their friends during the class. to build up the students’ rapport, the teacher often gave a joke to students if they look bored. when the students laugh, it indicates that the learning process is no longer stressful and frustrating. the students will find a way how to connect themselves with the material and also with the teacher as their supervisor. as a supervisor, in improving students’ ability in listening and speaking english, the teacher used to guide them directly. it means that the teacher give more attention to the students’ difficulties. by giving the students appreciation teacher also show good willingness and attitudes. teaching difficulties and challenges the interview was conducted to explore deeper information about efl teachers’ difficulties at junior high school in kudus in teaching english. there is actually one major question of this research: what are efl teachers’ difficulties in teaching english at junior high school schools? the findings of the study revealed the facts that there were many challenges faced by efl teachers at junior high level in teaching english. there are three major problems with the practice of teaching and learning english at the research sites, including finding out appropriate material: insufficient time, resources, and materials and other problems; limited time, limited resources, limited facilities, and difficult materials. some teachers feel that preparing students to work in group sometimes it takes more time. they need to think whether they would like to group the students with the same capability of with different capability. each student has different characteristics and not every student is willing to work with other students. this group work might offer the students chances to learn from each other, but it may also create new problem like personal conflict. there are many factors influence the quality of working together in group project. the first problem is trust. trust is crucial in teamwork, and it starts with students knowing each other. team members need to be connected, both professionally and personally. sometimes members do not understand each other, they do not want to engage because there might be students’ personal problems among members. this kind of problem may as an effect of individual way of thinking. when the students become very enthusiast the class turns to be very noisy and overcrowded. the participants mentioned that their classes are over-crowded consisting more than 30 students. this condition affects the teacher’s feeling and expectation. they shared that they did not enjoy teaching the class, and the situation led to ineffective classroom atmosphere. in addition, the participants also emphasized the further effect of too many students in the classroom, such as being noisy and loud. in managing the class situation, teacher admits that they need more energy. teachers need to adjust the voice to make the students listen to the teachers’ voice clearly. in a large class, the situation can be very crowded and confusing. to be able to control the class, teachers should be able to turn up the volume of their voice without shouting or giving over threatening tone. the students limited vocabulary also becoming one of the problems in teaching english. to be able to understand the english language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 36 students just listen, the students need to increase their vocabulary mastery. vocabulary development plays an important role in improving the students’ level of language proficiency, but many students appear to have reached limited vocabulary. this may be seen in the overuse of simple vocabulary and failure to acquire new complicated vocabulary. in terms of the quantitative dimension of vocabulary learning, vocabulary development in junior high school in indonesia can be thought as in a low level of achievement. teacher should stimulate students’ vocabulary in different different text types. learners build up vocabulary related to their own needs and fields of interests, there are some listening activities which are done by the teachers. repetition is the simple way of practicing pronunciation through listening activities, the teacher do such kind of activity to stimulate the students’ vocabulary and speaking ability. other activities with similar purpose are completing missing part. teachers give the transcription to the students and omitting some words to let the students fill the gap. listen and answer the questions activities can be done to check the students understanding on the what, where, why, and when. wh-questions will explore the students understanding on specific information in the text. group discussion is set up to create chances to the students to be able to share their ideas and thought. to give the students to produce response to a certain topic, teachers ask them to present their thought. the process of listening is the process of acquiring other skill. listening and speaking are considered as receptive and productive skill in language learning. a presentation and discussion in the class will provide the opportunity for the students to communicate and share their prior knowledge. a suitable listening material presented for the students should deliberately improve the students’ comprehension and students’ language acquisition. as the students learn the new knowledge, students will learn the form of the english expression in the video or audio recording. conclusion based on the result of interview, and teachers’ reflection, it was found that teaching listening on oral text using video is a new technique. the school uses kurikulum 2013 as the curriculum. school has followed the government’s rule to apply national character in lesson plan. based on the result of observation about implementation of teaching english at junior high school in kudus, it was found that in teaching english, the english teacher adjust the learning with the lesson plan. before they start teaching and learning, teachers prepare the lesson plan based on the format which has been design by the government. they apply the lesson plan in the classroom which some adjustment based on the current situation. this study has also uncovered the challenge and difficulties in learning and teaching in junior high school in kudus. most teachers feel that time management become their major challenge in organizing classroom. they have set lesson plan, but sometimes the lesson does not work exactly the same. they have to work with mixedlevel students, with students with learning difficulties, and with learners who are from challenging backgrounds. teachers should be aware that it as part of teachers’ primary duty to cope with every student. most students can learn a foreign language to some level, but there are many reasons why their improvements are not achieved significantly. suggestion the educational policy in the country has decided that the ministry of national education is establishing a new curriculum by july 2013. the curriculum is intended to emphasis the character building of the students to correspond to the principles of the language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 37 state, pancasila and the 1945 national constitution. competencies as well as basic competencies has been design and apply in the lesson plan of the english teachers in junior high school. the implementation of this curriculum for english subject has been applied at all junior high school level. however there are many aspects which might not be able to directly apply in the classroom doe to limitation of human resources and natural resources. therefore some adjustment should be done based on classroom evaluation. the students’ proficiencies improvement should be the main consideration to design classroom learning activities. the listening module draft can be design based on the four listening orientation; receptive, constructive, collaborative, and transformative. the design will also adopt the listening approaches suggested by richard, they are top-down and bottom up listening approach. the listening activity in the module will be started by applying bottom-up approaches. this is intended to stimulate the students’ understanding by focusing on word meaning. the top-down approaches is done to introduce the topic to the students. it is done by using other visual aids, such as pictures. this approach also intended to give variation on language learning to connect the information in the text with the students’ actual life. references brändström, c. (2011). using the internet in education – strengths and weaknesses. retrieved on august 1st on: http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:438827/fulltext01.pdf brown, h. d. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: longman brown, h. d. (2007). principles of language learning and teaching. usa: longman cahyono, b.y., & widiati, u. (2009). the teaching of efl listening in the indonesian context: the state of the art. teflin journal, 20(2), 194-211 doughty, c., & williams, j. (1998). focus on form in classroom: second language acquisition. melbourn: cambridge university press flori, f.d. (2014). using information and communication technology to enhance language teaching and learning: an interview with dr. a. gumawang jati. teflin journal, 25(1), 139-146. grossman, p. (1990). the making of a teacher. new york: teachers college press. harmer, j. (2007). how to teach english. edinburg gate: longman. harmer, j. (2007). the practice of english language teaching. edinburg gate: longman nunan, d., & miller, l. (2002). new ways in teaching listening. illinois: tesol inc richards, j.c. (2008). teaching listening and speaking: from theory to practice. new york: cambridge university press rost, m. (2011). teaching and researching listening. edinburgh gate: pearson education limited suarcaya, p. (2011). web-based audio material for efl listening class. teflin journal, 22 (1), 5971 thomson, k. (2005) helping teen to listen. bbc british council. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/listen/teen_listen.shtml. (accesssed 4th october 2017) language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 38 vandergrift, l. (1999). facilitating second language listening comprehension: acquiring successful strategies. elt journal, 53(3) (file:///d:/engl%20teaching%20article/facilitating_second_language_listening_c.pdf) retrieved january 1st 2019 yavuza, degirmencia, akyuza, yılmaza, celika. (2015). problems and activities in listening skills in efl classrooms; from tradition to a more comprehensible input. social and behavioral sciences, 197, 930 – 932 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 59 one book one teacher program for upgrading teachers’ writing competence (a descriptive survey) rudi hartono universitas negeri semarang, indonesia rudi.hartono@mail.unnes.ac.id bambang purwanto universitas negeri semarang, indonesia bambangpurwanto@mail.unnes.ac.id seful bahri universitas negeri semarang, indonesia seful.bahri@mail.unnes.ac.id abstract writing competence is one of significant and basic demands for teachers in delivering their profession as educators. many teachers feel that writing a book is a pride but it is too difficult for them to do. many factors influence them not to start to write, such as inner motivation, institution supports, ideas, materials, and opportunities. for examples, many of them are lack of motivation to be confident course book writers, their institutions do not support their efforts and facilitate them well, they have no idea what they are going to write, they are not accustomed to provide their own lesson materials for their daily instruction—only copying from books or other resources, and most of them do not have any opportunity at all to write a course book. therefore to create teacher-writers and produce course books in one school, one book one teacher (obot) program comes as a solution. obot is a program designed for teachers to be a course book writer at schools. recently we revealed that obot has potential activities as an integrated program in preparing teachers to be professional course book writers. in this study, to dig up their responses on course book writing activity and obot implementation in their school, we conducted a descriptive survey and observation on 13 teachers in senior high school bina amal semarang. we distributed questionnaires, tabulated, analyzed and interpreted the data, then drew the conclusion. the research results show that significantly obot encouraged teachers to write course book actively and led them to be productive course book writers. keywords: one book one teacher, writing competence, writing skill, course book introduction writing competence is one of significant and basic demands for teachers in delivering their profession as educators. many teachers feel that writing a book is a pride but it is too difficult for them to do. many factors influence them not to start to write, such as inner motivation, institution supports, ideas, materials, and opportunities. the objectives of the study are to encourage and facilitate teachers to be able to develop teaching materials for their teaching demands, guide and foster teachers to create course-books that can support teaching and learning activities, improve teachers’ competence in writing and developing learning media. the course book we mean in this study is books that refer to the syllabus of learning, so they are used as the main teaching language by teachers (trimansyah, 2018b). the problems found in the school cover many teachers are lack of motivation to be confident course-book writers, schools do not support their efforts and facilitate them well, they have no idea what they are going to write, they are not accustomed to provide their own lesson materials for their daily language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 60 instruction—only copying from books or other resources, they do not have any opportunity at all to write a course book. to overcome those problems we offer the program which leads teachers active and productive to write course books. one book one teacher (obot) program comes as a solution. in other popular term we have the term sagusabu (satu guru satu buku) (maslani, 2017; rahayu, 2017; ihsan, 2018; kompasiana, 2018). it is a program designed for teachers to be course book writers. this program has potential activities as an integrated program in preparing teachers to be professional course book writers. this program can motivate and increase teachers’ creativity in developing their lesson materials into a course book (oebaidillah, 2017). in this research operationally we define obot as a program of writing course-books or other books for teachers who have teaching materials or important ideas to be written in printed and electronic books as a source or reference for teaching and learning activities in the classroom or reading materials for students and the general public (hartono, 2019b). the followings are the steps of obot program (hartono, 2019b). 1) introducing the procedure of writing a course book; 2) preparing teaching materials in accordance with the lesson plan, syllabus, and current curriculum; 3) writing initial drafts; 4) checking the initial drafts according to the contents and rules of course book writing; 5) editing and revising the initial drafts to the final drafts; 6) preparing book covers and other additional page formats; 7) submitting manuscripts to publishers; 8) publishing manuscripts or doing selfpublishing. to have a good and standardized course, a writer should follow the process of course book writing. there are five steps of course book writing process. see the figure 1. there are five stages of the course book writing process: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing (trimansyah, 2018a, pp. 24-26; 2019b, p. 15). figure 1. the process of course book writing in the prewriting stage we can do the following activities: 1) doing a literature review, 2) conducting a comparative literature study, 3) interviewing experts, 4) listing information, 5) using research results, and 6) using experience (trimansyah, 2019d, pp. 5-6). in the drafting stage we can put ideas down to paper (trimansyah, (2019b, p. 32). that is the command line to describe drafting. draft or blurry is a one-time made writing. when writing a draft, you are advised to write down whatever you think about—of course related to the chapter or sub-section you compiled—and do not do the editing when writing. meanwhile, trimansyah language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 61 (2019a; 2019c) proposed things that we need to be considered in editing. they are four main aspects that need our concern in editing process. 1) typographical error; 2) linguistics: sentence order, and paragraphs; 3) accuracy of data and facts; 4) legality (related to plagiarism) and propriety. in relation to the teachers’ task in this program, we prepare a course book anatomy for them to do. the course book anatomy consists of four main parts: cover, preliminaries, text mater, and postliminaries (putra, 2007; setiati, 2012; nurdiansyah, 2016). methodology in this study we used a descriptive survey (zurmuehlen, 1981). it attempts to establish the range and distribution of teachers’ responses on course book writing productivity and obot program implementation to upgrade their writing competence. there were 13 teachers of sma it bina amal semarang as the research respondents. to have information of their responses, we distributed two sets of online questionnaires powered by surveymonkey application. the first online survey is about teachers’ course book writing and publishing experiences while the second one covers their responses on the obot program implementation. after we took the first online survey and recognized their responses tabulated in the table 1 about yes or no response, describing their responses on course book writing and publication experience, we trained them how to write a course book well. each of them was assigned to write a course book based on their subject mastery. the tasks that they had to do were preparing lesson materials, writing course book units or chapters, revising and editing course book drafts, and publishing of their course books. this activity was conducted during six months. the course books were assessed and evaluated based on the criteria of english textbook (hartono, 2015). to achieve the goal of obot program, we set the research steps controlled month by month. the steps were organized by the researchers and school staffs (hartono, 2019b). the following 1) checking need analysis; 2) setting the obot program; 3) designing a book according to the latest curriculum; 4) implementing the obot program; 5) mentoring the obot program; 6) publishing the books; 7) evaluating the obot program. to analyze the data of questionnaire 1, we use formulation calculated automatically in surveymonkey system while to calculate the data of questionnaire 2 we use likert scale formulation. first, to calculate the score of each respondent’s response, we used the formulae t x pn. t means total number of respondents who responded while pn means likert score option. second, to interpret the assessment of respondents' interpretation of the obot program, we use the formulae index formulation % = total score/high score x 100. to see the criteria of score interpretation, we use the following intervals: 1) score 0% – 19,99% = strongly disagree 2) score 20% – 39,99% = disagree 3) score 40% – 59,99% = don’t know 4) score 60% – 79,99% = agree 5) score 80% – 100% = strongly agree findings and discussion based on the research result, there are two main data as findings taken from two questionnaires. questionnaire 1 is about teachers’ experience of writing course book before obot program while questionnaire 2 digs up teachers’ responses after the program. both data are calculated, distributed, tabulated, and displayed in the tables. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 62 table 1 describes teachers’ responses on course book writing experience before the obot program. based on the research it was found that there are 9 teachers (69.23%) dislike writing and 4 teachers (30.77%) like this activity, 4 teachers (30.77%) have ever written a handout while 9 teachers (69.23%) have done yet, no teacher have ever written, developed, and self-published a course book (100%), 2 teachers published their course books (15.38%) and 11 teachers (84.62%) did not, 12 teachers were difficult to write a course book (92.31%) and 1 teacher was not, 5 teachers got a course book writing workshop (38.46%) and 8 teachers did not get it (61.54%), all teachers (100%) agreed to write and produce a course book in a year. the finding from the questionnaire 1 has a close relation to what several sabusabu developers and practitioners found in the real life that teachers are lack of experience of writing course books and they agreed that all teachers should have inner motivation to do this effort ((maslani, 2017; rahayu, 2017; ihsan, 2018; kompasiana, 2018). table 1. data of questionnaire 1 no question response (%) yes no 1. i like writing. 69.23 30.77 2. i have written a handout. 30.77 69.23 3. i have written a course book. 0 100 4. i have written a coursebook developed from a handout. 0 100 5. my coursebook is self-published. 0 100 6. my coursebook is published by a publisher. 15.38 84.62 7. i am difficult to write a coursebook. 92.31 7.69 8. i have got a workshop of course book writing. 38.46 61.54 9. i must be able to write a coursebook. 100 0 10. i will produce coursebooks at least one book in a year. 100 0 in table 2 we have data taken from the likert scale-based questionnaire. this questionnaire sets the positive scale system with the score range from 5 to 1. the scales are strongly agree/sa (5), agree/a (4), don’t know/dk (3), disagree/da (2), and strongly disagree/sd. the data in the table 2 use the number of respondents. the numbers listed in the table are the number of teachers responded the questionnaire. table 2. data of questionnaire 2 no question response/score sa a dk da sd 5 4 3 2 1 1. the obot program is a very important program for teachers to produce coursebooks. 11 2 0 0 0 2. the obot program is very interesting for us to follow. 8 5 0 0 0 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 63 3. the obot program is a very challenging program for teachers to produce coursebooks. 10 3 0 0 0 4. the obot program can lead teachers to be active, creative, and productive coursebook writers. 11 2 0 0 0 5. obot is very much in line with the character of 21st century teachers. 9 4 0 0 0 6. the obot program is very easy for teachers to follow and implement. 3 8 2 0 0 7. the obot program requires self-readiness, completeness of materials, and patience to implement it. 8 5 0 0 0 8. obot program requires good and regular time management, so that all writing targets are achieved. 11 2 0 0 0 9. the obot program must be supported by the government, institution, and school. 9 4 0 0 0 10. the obot program can improve the teachers’ welfare and enrich the school libraries. 8 4 1 0 0 based on the teachers’ responses on questionnaire 2 in table 1, for question 1 it was found that 11 teachers strongly agreed the obot program and 2 teachers agreed. it means that 63% of teachers agreed the program. according to question 2, 8 teachers strongly agreed and 5 teachers agreed the program. it means that 60% of teachers agreed the program. question 3 indicates that 10 teachers strongly agreed and 3 teachers agreed the program. it means that 62% of teachers agreed the program. question 4 shows that that 11 teachers strongly agreed and 2 teachers agreed the program. it means that 63% of teachers agreed the program. question 5 describes that 9 teachers strongly agreed and 4 teachers agreed the program. it means that 61% of teachers agreed the program. question 6 indicates that 3 teachers strongly agreed, 8 teachers agreed, and 2 teachers did not know the program. it means that 53% of teachers did know whether the obot program was easy or not for them to follow and implement. questions 7 shows that 8 teachers strongly agreed and 5 teachers agreed the program. it means that 60% of teachers agreed the program. question 8 describes that 11 teachers strongly agreed and 2 teachers agreed the program. it means that 63% of teachers agreed the program. question 9 indicates that 9 teachers strongly agreed and 4 teachers agreed the program. it means that 61% of teachers agreed the program. finally question 10 shows that 8 teachers strongly agreed, 4 teachers agreed, and 1 teacher did not know the program. it means that 59% of teachers did know whether the obot program could improve the teachers’ welfare and enrich the school libraries or not. conclusion based on the findings and discussion above, it can be concluded that there were very high responses of writing course book through obot program. furthermore, it significantly can improve the teachers’ competence of writing course books better. the obot has the potential to increase the teachers’ writing competence and improve their writing product of course books though some of them were not sure that the program was easy or not for them to do and could increase their welfare or not. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 64 references hartono, r. (2015, may 10). evaluating the criteria of english textbook [powerpoint slides]. semarang, indonesia: english dept. unnes. hartono, r. (2019a, july 20). english material development: the standardization of english textbook [powerpoint slides]. semarang, indonesia: pkm unnes. hartono, r. (2019b, july 20). implementasi one book one teacher program bagi guru sma islam terpadu bina amal kota semarang [powerpoint slides]. semarang, indonesia: pkm unnes. ihsan (2018). satu guru satu buku (sagusabu) bersama media guru. retrieved from http://ihsan.gurusiana.id/article/satu-guru-satu-buku-sagusabu-bersama-mediaguru5295313 kompasiana (2018). panggilan menulis "satu guru satu buku". retrieved from https://www.kompasiana.com/thsalengke/5b0e3daacaf7db7850549c92/panggilan-menulissatu-guru-satu-buku maslani (2017). literasi dan gerakan satu guru satu buku. retrieved from https://blog.igi.or.id/literasi-dan-gerakan-satu-guru-satu-buku.html nurdiansyah, b. (2016, october 26). mari menulis buku ajar, inilah format penulisan buku ajar yang baik [blog post]. retrieved from https://www.duniadosen.com/mari-menulis-bukuajar-g028/ oebaidillah, s. (2017). tingkatkan literasi, guru diminta kreatif menulis buku. retrieved from http://mediaindonesia.com/read/detail/105878-tingkatkan-literasi-guru-diminta-kreatifmenulis-buku putra, r.m.s. (2007). how to write your own text book: cara asyik mambuat buku ajar yang powerful! bandung: penerbit kolbu. rahayu, s. (2017). guru penulis, satu guru satu buku. retrieved from http://www.jurnalasia.com/opini/guru-penulis-satu-guru-satu-buku/ setiati, s. (2012, juni 20). anatomi dan struktur buku ajar [powerpoint slides]. pelatihan buku ajar kopertis wilayah vi. jawa tengah, indonesia: ditjen dikti kemendikbud. trimansyah, b. (2018a). menulis saja: insaflah menulis sebelum menulis itu dilarang. jakarta: pt. inkubator penulis indonesia (ipi). trimansyah, b. (2018b). catatan anti bingung menulis buku ilmiah: membedah pedoman dikti dan lipi dalam penulisan-penerbitan buku ilmiah. jakarta: pt. inkubator penulis indonesia (ipi). trimansyah, b. (2019a). editing pedia: segala hal tentang editing naskah yang perlu anda ketahui. jakarta: pt. inkubator penulis indonesia (ipi). trimansyah, b. (2019b). konversi kti non buku menjadi buku [handout]. jakarta, indonesia: inkubator penulis indonesia (ipi). trimansyah, b. (2019c). tentang penulisan buku dari hasil penelitian dan sertifikasi penulis buku [powerpoint slides]. semarang, indonesia: unnes press. trimansyah, b. (2019d). penulisan buku ajar [handout]. semarang, indonesia: jurusan bahasa dan sastra inggris, fbs unnes. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 65 zurmuehlen, m. (1981). working papers in art education. iowa research online. 1(1), 54-63. doi: 10.17077/2326-7070.1025 language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 the code of literature of acehneseoral literature in jugi tapa saga yulsafli serambi mekkah university of banda aceh, indonesia burhanuddin ag serambi mekkah university of banda aceh, indonesia ismawirna serambi mekkah university of banda aceh, indonesia email: yulsafli@gmail.com abstract jugi tapa saga is oral literature in sawang district. north aceh regency, aceh province. this saga tells the story of the main character named leubee muda. then, leubee muda became a heretic because he opposed his teacher named teungku lhok drien. after his heresy, he was called jugi tapa, who became the title of this saga. one day, his teacher asked him to deliver a book to teungku jambo haji. the teacher advised him not to read the book. however, leubee muda violated the mandate of his teacher, he read and practiced the entire contents of the book. because of his intelligence, in a short time, he can master all the knowledge contained in the book. to perfect his magic, he must meditate and marry one hundred beautiful women, some of whom are king's wives and daughters of dignitaries. jugi tapa had married eighty-eight beautiful women. amat banta's mother, king sadon's wife from kuala diwa, was his 99th wife. he needs one more woman as his hundredth wife as a condition of perfecting his power. before obtaining a hundred women, he could not have sex with a woman,andhe continued to meditate in the palace which he made with magic. his 99thwife was putro bunsu, the wife of king sadon of the kingdom of kuala diwa, having a son named amat banta. when jugi tapa brought his mother, amat banta was three days old. the mother left a ring in the swing of her little son. later that ring was the proof that he was her son she had left behind. based on information from bing pho in indonesian called kepiting uca (fiddler crab), amat banta looked for his mother to blang laka (in the current known as bener meriah regency), where jugi tapa collected ninety-nine women, including amat banta's mother. with the help of amat banta ’s mother who had obtained the secret of jugi tapa's magic from jugi tapa's mouth, amat banta managed to kill jugi tapa. several messages canbe taken from the story of jugi tapa, both as symbols, indexes,and icons. first, good deeds do not always get good replies. therefore, every good work must be done sincerely so that we are not disappointed later on. second, women should not be kept secret. third, we cannot fight the teacher. keywords: jugi tapa saga, literature code, literacy, transliteration introduction literature is a reflection of people's lives. through literary works, an author reveals the problems of life that the author himself is in. literary work receives influence from the community and is also able to influence society. the community often determines the value of literary works that live in an era, while the author himself is a member of society who is bound to certain social status and cannot avoid the influence he receives from the environment that raises and forms it at the same time. (luxemburg: 1991) mailto:yulsafli@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 literature is a human creation, and creation is not merely an imitation. literary work as a form and outcome of creative work is necessarily a medium that utilizes language to express human life. therefore, a literary work generally contains problems that surround human life. the birth of literature is motivated by the human urge to express his existence. the disclosure of human existence is expressed verbally and in writing. (teeuw: 1995). traditional literature is part of a culture that grows and develops in the midst of society. traditional literature life, especially saga, can be said to still revolve around folk literature because the literary text is still very little recorded. oral literary texts are partly stored in the memories of parents, which are now diminished in the modern environment. saga is an old prose-shaped literary work that contains stories, laws, and genealogies that are fictional, religious, historical, biographical, or a combination of these qualities. the saga is read for solace, a fighting spirit, or to enliven the party. (endraswara: 2009). saga is a genre of oral literature that is the most numerous in aceh, both regarding the number and extent of its contents. until now, it is not knownprecisely how many acehnese sagas has ever existed (ever been created or ever written) and that is still found today. generally,the saga was initially created in an oral tradition, memorized by its creator and by people who were accustomed to hearing it. that is how this tradition took place from generation to generation in acehnese society. efforts to write saga are usually carried out by other people who are not their creators. however, some sagas were written from the beginning of their creation by the creator himself, although later they were often copied again and carried out here and there by others. therefore, it is not surprising that we find some authors of a saga and sometimes it is quite difficult for us to get information about who the original author of the sagas. this habit applies to the culture of oral traditions. likewise are the sagas in acehnese society. at this time it was scarce for acehnese to memorize saga and also be able to convey it well to the public. also, the younger generation in aceh, in general, is no longer fond of the saga, a result of changing times. it can be ascertained that if the saga that ever existed in aceh will disappear without a trace if it is not considered and reviewed. this is important as an intangible cultural heritage, which is the treasure of indonesia's cultural wealth. this study is no less important because in the story there are various meanings that can become learning in the formation of the character and identity of future generations of indonesia. therefore, the author is interested in examining the nation's cultural heritage with the title, "the code of literature in the acehnese oral literature in jugi tapa saga." methodology the author used descriptive-qualitative methods in carrying out this research. that is, the author recorded carefully when the respondents or speakers recited the story of jugi tapa. for the completeness and accuracy of the data, the author not only records when the respondents showed or recited the jugi tapa saga in front of the public, but also met them specifically to reclassify the data that the previous author had recorded. the descriptive method aims to record systematically, factually, and accurately the facts of a particular area. the implementation of this method refers to the ongoing problem,and its nature describes a situation in a systematic, factual and actual way. with this method, the data obtained can be processed, classified, and analyzed to draw accurate conclusions. the data were collected from the respondents at sawang subdistrict, north aceh regency, aceh province. for the accuracy of language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 data collection and information, the author collected the data with the following ways: the author recorded the utterance or chant of jugi tapa saga from the respondents, both the primary respondent and the supporting respondents. interviews were conducted to clarify the data that had been obtained through previous recordings. it is done to obtain main data and additional data so that the results of this study are indeed valid. if there is an error or mistakes with the interview, the process and the error will be corrected. after the recording process, the author will write the oral data contained in the recording cassette into written form. jugi tapa literary work which previously can only be heard as a form of oral literature changes to literary work that can be read or written. literacy here is done in local language, that is, acehnese, using latin script. thus, the aesthetic value is maintained. in general, a literary work in a particular language if translated into other languages, the beauty or aesthetic will not be the same as in the original language. therefore, for the first step recording is done in the original language, that is, the acehnese language. the object of this research is the oral literary works of the aceh region. in order for this valuable literary work to be enjoyedon a broader scale, the author will translate it into indonesian. of course, the ethical value of a literary work will be slightly reduced if the literary work is translated into other languages. however, the author will try to do translation as carefully as possible so that the aesthetic value in the original work is not much reduced data analysis was conducted to answer research problems. in qualitative research, data analysis can begin without waiting for the data to be collected. analysis can be done in line with the data collection stage (chaer, 2007: 46). the research data are processed qualitatively. data processing is carried out in several stages. it needs to be done to get complete data. the data processing and analysis stage are carried out as follows. a) the first stage is to analyze data based on sign science theory or semiotics. this analysis aims to find out the meaning through the codes contained in acehnese oral literature in jugi tapa saga. b) the second stage is to transcribe or write acehnese oral literature, jugi tapa saga, which has been recorded in written form using latin letters. this stage is intended to obtain complete data. it is transcribed in writing from the source; itis hoped that this literary work will not disappear if the saga narrators die. thus, this great literary work can be known and read by the next generation. c) the third stage is to translate the story of jugi tapa which has been written in latin letters into indonesian. it is intended that this literary work is not only enjoyed by the local population, that is those who speak the acehnese language, but can also be enjoyed by a wider audience, such as the people of indonesia or anyone who masters indonesian or malay. findings and discussion jugi tapa saga is oral literature that lives in the midst of the people of aceh, especially in north aceh and bireuen regencies. at present, acehnese oral literature is threatened with extinction, including its saga. the audience is increasingly shrinking, along with the decline of the older generation. the younger generation can barely memorize saga. even more concerned that the number of saga narrators is only one or two more people, their age is very advanced, the average age is over eighty. if they die, then at the same time acehnese oral literature will be buried, without being known by the next generation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 114 jugi tapa saga begins with praises to allah swt, greetings to the prophet muhammad saw. it shows that this saga was written when islam had become an official religion in aceh. next, the narrator tells the listeners, he will tell a terrific story, which he has heard. he had heard the story for a long time. then, the narrator asks the listeners to listen carefully. the narrationbegan when leube muda was asked by his teacher, teungku lhok drien, to deliver a book to a scholar named teungku jambo haji in another village. the teacher advised him not to open or read the book. leubee muda did not comply with the prohibition from his teacher, on the way he read the book and memorized it well. supported by his intelligence, in a moment leubee muda had mastered the knowledge contained in the book. the teacher learned that he had opened and memorized the contents of the book. teungku lhok drien was very angry. he never thought that the student he loved so much was not trustworthy. even so, the love of teungku lhok drien to leube muda has not disappeared. over time, his feelings of anger have begun to subside. however, young leube did not; he instead began to joke with his teacher by changing the form of the teacher with various forms to test his new magic. then there was a fascinating battle between the teacher and students by changing their forms in various forms, such as being a banana tree, a bucket, sand, water, and birds. fighting takes place in water and the ground. due to pressure, lebee muda fled to blang laka, pintu rime gayo subdistrict, bener meriah regency, aceh province, and leubee muda changed her name to jugi tapa. up to this part, everything is a symbol. explicitly, the narrator gives a message to listeners that we must respect the teacher. never make fun of and fight the teacher. don't be like leube muda who later became jugi for fighting his teacher. the name jugi in this saga connotes not good: the evil of his character does not know to thank, has no empathy for others, disobedient to the teacher. in blang laka, jugi built a palace with his spell. it was in this palace that jugi kept beautiful women consisting of daughters and wives of kings and state officials, whom he took with the power of his spells. before jugi went to look for beautiful women for the perfection of his magic, he kept his soulin a magpie in the middle of a sibonbon tree in the middle of a swamp. the swamp contains venomous animals such as dragons, snakes, scorpions, and others. all venomous animals are made jugi with the spell. to guard the bird, he was assigned a man named dalem maddi. jugi charms dalem maddi, so he does not know the way to go home, can't go anywhere, and can't think well. his daily work is only fishing. he ate what he fisheveryday. for the perfection of his spell and magic, jugi tapa must marry a hundred beautiful women. jugi tapa was imprisoned in his palace to see the existence of beautiful women who would be made his wife. he has managed to collect ninety-eight women, only two more women left. blang laka is quiet; there are no more people. some were killed, some were bewitched into various objects, such as stones, wood trees, fence posts, and others. only a woman lived there named ni kubayan. this old woman was assigned by jugi tapa to look after and entertain the women who were brought with his spell. every day jugi looks for two more women to take to blang laka. one day he heard there was a beautiful wife of the king sadon, named putro bunsu, in kuala diwa. this beautiful woman gave birth to a boy named amat banta, while her husband had gone deer hunting into the forest. the king went hunting deer to fulfill his wife's desire to crave deer meat. the king language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 left while his wife was pregnant. until his wife gave birth to, he had not returned. shortly after putro bunsu had just given birth, jugi tapa arrived at putro bunsu's house. he brought putro bunsu without any objections because the putro had been given a spell by jugi. even so, putro was very sad; he just saw his gorgeous son, he had to separate. putro bunsu left a ring for the baby, hoping that later his son would be a man, putro bunsu could recognize him with the ring. jugi tapa brought putro bunsu to his palace in blang laka. the days of putro bunsu were guarded by an old woman named nikubayan. nikubayan is the woman who entertained putro bunsu, especially by making beautiful bouquets for the putro every day. when king sadon returned from hunting, he could not find his queen. his wife was brought by jugi tapa. he knew this sad news from his wife's older brother — in aceh, he was called tumuda. not waiting long, after leaving all the clothes of greatness and a sword for the son, king sadon went with a horse to find his empress to blang laka at night. jugi palace is located there in aceh language called kuta. it isawful, jugi knows king sadon is heading to his place. then, jugi sends a spell. king sadon and his horse were caught in a wild almond tree (sterculiafoetida) —in the acehnese language calledgeulumpang — because of jugi's spell. king sadon with his horse became the branch of the big tree. until there is still a branch of the tree that resembles a horse being ridden by humans. therefore, the place was named sawang (now sawang subdistrict) which came from the word sawak. the word sawak in indonesian means hooking onto; meusawak means getting stuck. that is, king sadong was caught (meusawak) on the tree. from the word sawak (hook onto) that is the origin of the name sawang village. now sawang is the name of a sub-district in north aceh regency. amat banta lives in the kuala diwa palace with his aunt (makwa). his aunt was the one who cared for amat banta. entering the age of five, amat banta is already good at speaking. every day he plays with his peers. the game that they often play is panta. amat banta is very good at playing panta. his friends were always hit by amat banta until his friends' ankles bled. because of this, his friends began to question amat banta. among them, there were those who ordered to beat amat banta, and said, "why fear to the child who has no father and mother.‛ amat banta's heart was sorrowful. while crying amat banta went home. amat banta asks the truth, is it true that he does not have a father and mother. having heard the question, he was somber and unable to stem his tears. however, his intention could still convince amat banta that he had a mother, while his father had died when amat banta was still a baby. amat banta believes, and his heart is no longer upset. days later, amat banta no longer played with his friends. to fill his days, amat banta fished in krueng ajo. amat banta is happy with his new activities. that is what he does every day. at the time banta amat was busy fishing, came bing pho (fiddler crab), in indonesian called kepitinguca. as a rule, crabs have a pair of pincers. however, this crab has one small clamp. once upon a time, in this saga, it was stated that one of theclamps of the crab was small because amat banta beats it with a fishing rod. bing pho told amat banta that her mother had been taken by jugi tapa to blang laka. hearing this information, amat banta was furious; then he hit the bing pho with a fishing rod so that the one bing pho’spincer was broken. bing pho is very sorry. "if i knew this as a consequence, of course, i would not tell you that," said bing pho at amat banta. "o amat, now i amchallenging, one mypincer has perished. it is good whatidid;yet it ishorriblewhatyourewardme, "continued pho. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 116 in this section, there is an icon, that not all the good we do to others will be rewarded with kindness. sometimes the good we do to others is repaid with evil, as experienced by bing pho. the consequences must be borne by all bing pho offspring until now. all bing pho have small hands, due to their ancestors were hit by banta amat in the past. to this day, if the crab is cornered with a human, it will raise its pincer as a sign he is asking forgiveness not to be hit again. genetically, the fear is passed on to the child, not only physically, which makes the offspringhave one small pincer. after amat banta heard what bing pho had said, he immediately returned home with a broken heart. arriving at the house, amat banta asked the truth about his father. every day amat banta asks the truth of what bing pho said. based on the consideration that amat banta was old enough and kept asking about this matter, so his makwa told amat banta the truth, that what was reported by bing pho was true. not long afterward, amat banta asked his aunt for permission to look for the mother who had been brought by jugi tapa, and his father who had never returned when searching for his mother in the past. amat banta left riding on a flying horse — an offspring of his father’s horse which had held in the past. after going through the clouds and jungles for days, amat banta finally saw a palace. in front of the palace sat a fat old woman with no teeth. amat banta approached the woman, named ni kubayan. amat banta and ni kubayan became familiar each other. amat banta can stay in ni kubayan's house. ni kubayan was very scared if putri bunsu knew that there was a young man in her house. ni was afraid that putro wouldsay tojugi. if jugi knows, he wold spell amat banta into wood or stone. therefore, ni kubayan always hid amat banta on the second floorwhen putro bunsu took a bouquet of flowers every morning at the home of ni kubayan. one morning, putro bunsu saw an exquisitebouquet of flowers, not as usual. the putro was suspicious; maybe there was another hand that made it. until that timeshe asked ni kubayan. however, ni still did notadmit, she did. princess bunsu became more suspicious when she saw a ring on ni kubayan's finger. the ring used by ni kubayan was amat banta’s ring which she left when she was taken by jugi tapa. when putro used it, the ring is very fitting because it was the ring left to his son when jugi tapa took her. putro bunsu was increasingly suspicious that amat banta was hidden by ni kubayan in the house. putro looked for it and found amat banta hidden by ni under the large pot. after knowing who the young man was, putro cried, her tears unbearable. none other than that, the young man was her son who had been left in the swing when he was three days old. after that, putro bunsu immediately returned to jugi tapa's palace. with persuasion, putro bunsu asked where jugikept his soul. without prejudice, jugitold where jugikept his soul. no one could get to that place because jugihad given magic, surrounded by a deep swamp, and full of venomous creatures. with beautiful words, putro bunsu kept asking how to get to that place. because of his love for putro bunsu, jugitold everything. after everything was obtained from jugi tapa, putro bunsu immediately returned to ni kubayan's house. putro bunsu handed over all the magic obtained from jugi tapa and told all the ways to amat banta. with all these, amat banta set out to take jugi's life which he kept in a magpie in the sibon-bon tree, which was located on a mountain in the middle of a large brackish filled with venomous animals. with all the supplies provided by his mother, amat banta went to retrieve the language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 magpie, where jugi tapa kept his soul. amat banta had to climb a large tree to take the bird, but it was not easy. the bird was very agile, jumping from one branch to another. amat banta cut down the branches one by one. one of the branches of the tree was blown away to samalanga. finally, amat banta managed to catch a magpie, where jugi tapa kept his soul. after amat banta can catch the bird, he immediately returns to jugi's palace. when looking at amat banta with the bird on his hand, jugi tapa was very angry. jugi with all tricks was trying to ask the bird from amat banta. amat banta did not give it. it madejugi even more irritated. at that moment amat banta killed the bird by breaking its neck. at the same time,jugimet his death. in this section, there is a message that can be categorized as an index. the message is conveyed explicitly by the narrator that we do not easily trust women. women cannot keep secrets. as experienced by jugi, he died because of his beautiful young wife's trick. if the secret was not conveyed to his young wife putro bunsu, of course, he had not died. conclusions jugi tapa saga is an oral language in the form of lyrical prose that has a very high aesthetic value. literary works expressed in acehnese ethnic language, of course, have separate characteristics. each literary work is very close to the language used as a tool for disclosure. as oral literature, this literary work is hazardous to be threatened with extinction. more and more days, the number of saga narrator is getting smaller. they are generally older generation, which is currently over seventy years old. if it is not written, it is certain that the great work will disappear along with the person who remembers the story. in the story of jugi tapa, more symbols are found, when compared with indexes and icons. this literary work can be classified as a legendary literary work, in which there is a story of the origin of the region or place. this saga contains essential messages that are generally conveyed with symbols. the main message, the amount may not be the cost of the teacher's mandate, not obedient to the teacher. as a result, the sinful life will happen as shown by jugi tapa who is the main character in this saga. he became misguided by practicing black magic. his life is not happy and finally dies in vain. some of the messages were explicitly conveyed as in lines 1793 to line 2008. in this section, the author immediately advised that we should not keep secrets to women. jugi tapa died because he gave his secret to his young wife. in this section, the author also states explicitly that if someone opposes his teacher, his final destiny ends like jugi tapa this saga is more interesting for the listeners because it tells the origin of various places.it is also told the reasons for the fiddler crab which has one small pincer. uniquely, the places where events occur (settings) are in adjacent areas that can be recognized until now, that is kuala diwa, sawang, blang laka, samuti, samalanga. all of these places are the name of the village, except sawang and samalanga which have become the names of sub-districts and the names of their sub-district capitals. thus, it can be estimated; the authors are from around sawang sub-district now. moreover, all the locations (settings) are in sawang subdistrict, except blang laka and samalanga. geographically, at present sawang is in the north aceh regency, blang laka in the bener meriah regency area, and samalanga in the bireuen regency. it shows that the place where the event occurred is in the adjacent area. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 118 there are several parts in the index, such as the ring left by putro bunsu to amat banta when she was picked up by jugi tapa. the ring was handy when amat banta became an adult. that ring is a strong indication that the young man was the son she had left behind when he was three days old in the swing. the ring is more valuable than a thousand words. there was not the slightest suspicion in amat banta's mother's heart that it was the flesh and blood she had left behind when he was a baby. icons in this saga are found in bing pho or fiddler crab. in this section, there is a profound message. bing pho becomes an icon that good deeds do not always get the same reward, it can happen as bing pho experienced. in the past, bing pho had a pair of pincers that were the same size. because of the good deeds it did, one of its pincer became small. ironically, the defective organ was inherited in its generation to the end of time. because it told amat banta that his mother (mother of amat banta) had been taken by jugi tapa to blang laka. bing pho not only inherits physical defects to its offspring but also bequeaths genetics. bing pho or fiddler crab is very afraid of humans. if accidentally meets with humans, the crab will raise both pincers, like asking forgiveness not to be beaten again, and he will run away hiding in the ground. this icon is amazing. the author can look for an analogy to describe that good deeds do not always get good rewards. for example, bing pho. he does not only receive the consequences of his good deeds alone, but his descendants must bear the consequences of good deeds that were done by his ancestors in ancient times. with this icon, the author mandates that if we do something good, we must be sincere, do not expect a good reply, if we do not want to be disappointed later. if we something good, but we are rewarded with evil, it is nothing when compared to what is experienced by bing pho or fiddler crab. references aliana, z.a. etal. (1997). ekspresi semiotik:tokoh mitos danlegendaris dalam tutur sastra nusantara di sumatera selatan. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. barthes, r. (1996). unsur-unsursemiologi:languadan parole‖dalam panuti sudjiman danaart vanzoest (ed). serba-serbi semiotika. jakarta: gramedia pustakautama. eagleton, t. (2006). teori sastra: sebuah pengantar koperhensif. (transl. harfiah widyawati). yogyakarta: jalasutra. endraswara, s. (2009). metodologi penelitian folklor. yogyakarta: media presindo. husin, s. j. (1995). penelitian sastra: metodologi dan penerapan teori, kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. luxemburg, j.van., mike bal, weststeijn, w.g. (1991). tentang sastra, jakarta: intermasa. muradi, s. (ed). (1990). kesusastraan daripada perspektif semiotika. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. sebeok, t.a. (1994). an introduction to semiotic. london: pinter publis siswanto, w. (2008). penganar teori sastra. jakarta: grasindo. sudjiman, p., & aart vanzoest (eds). (1996). seba-serbi semiotika. jakarta: gramedia pustaka uama teeuw, a. (1994). indonesia antara kelisanan dan keberaksaraaan. jakarta: pustaka jaya. teeuw, a. (1995). sasteradan ilmu sastera: pengantar teori sastera. kuala lumpur: dewa bahasa dan pustaka. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(2) april 2019 112 trabaut, j. (1996). dasar-dasar semiotik (elemente der semiotic). transl. sally pattinasrany. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. winner, i.p., & sebeok, j.u.(eds). (1979). semiotics of culture. new york: mouton publishers. zoest, a.van. (1991). fiksi dan non-fiksi dalam kajian semiotika, (transl. manoekmi sardjoe). jakarta: intermasa. zoest, a.van. (1996). interpretasi dan semiotika‖, dalam panuti sudjiman (ed). serba-serbi semiotika. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(2) april 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 103 the realization of the bad impact of early capitalism in oscar wilde’s “the happy prince” nor holis faculty of humanities diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia email: olis.nor93@gmail.com ratna asmarani faculty of humanities diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia email: ratna_asmarani@yahoo.com abstract living under feudalism and capitalism seems very good for those who were born from rich people. it is because they do not have to struggle of their life and would get everything as desire. meanwhile, it is very hard for poor people because their live is worse and if they do not struggle of the life they might die. “the happy prince” is the story that shows how the feudalism and early capitalism work in the society. people live contradictory under those systems. fortunately, since the capitalism applies, the poor people find new hope. their laborpower is paid so that they are to feed themselves and the family. besides, they work for the capitalists’ happiness. this new term of live is not a big different from feudal system. the payment for the poor who work is a very little difference that makes the poor happy. this research aims to describe how the feudalism and the early capitalism work in the short story. using the sociological approach as to the evidences of the feudalism and the early capitalism system in the story is chosen to describe the impacts of those systems toward society. the result of this research shows that poor people accept the system of capitalism than the feudalism. it is because their labor-power is paid. this condition is different from previous system (feudalism) that makes poor people are getting worse because they must work freely. keywords: feudalism, early capitalism, contradictory life. introduction critic to the literature is needed to find the social condition of the works’ age clearly. according to schram & steet through their article (1984) that literature is the portrait of social phenomena. therefore, reading the literature is way to understand what things happen in the society. literature records all aspects or elements of the social environment. it is the one of characteristic of literature production that it is the portrayal of tragedy with distinctive intellect of imagery. (sumbul, 2014). “the happy prince” is the short story written by oscar wilde in the queen victoria reign. by the short story, it is able to get the meaning of the era. it captures the phenomena and social condition because the literature is not something fallen from the sky. its process is connected to the background of its creators. “the happy prince” tells about gold statue with jewels and little swallow. the short story serves the controversial and attractive issues. it presents the poverty and the child labor of the luxury victorian age. when the prince was live, he could not see real situation because all people around him made him busy with the party, playing, and dancing. they built the high wall to separate the prince’s life and the low society. therefore, the prince knew that the condition is good as he get in the palace. to see the deepest vision of the story that critics to the social phenomenon on the working class against capitalized upper class and the practical of capitalism itself. for language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 104 example, the young king or prince who lives happily in the palace with high wall so that he is unable to see the whole condition of his people. meanwhile, after his death, his people situate the prince’s statue above the city so that he is able to see all the aspects of his people’s situation like poverty, child labor and slavery caused of capitalism (wilde, 1909, p. 1). meanwhile, “the happy prince” short story is the story that captures the social condition of the age when it was written. it conveys information about the whole condition of the age. high contradictory to the aesthetic aspect of the literature, it might be said about the critic of the era. according to damono (1978) the short story is made for entertaining and understanding about society. hence, it is able to make the reader understand many aspects by reading it deeply. it is also needed some theories such as psychoanalysis, feminism, capitalism and so on depends on the issues. the researcher tries to prove the realization of bad impact of early capitalism in “the happy prince” by oscar wilde. the social condition that becomes to be focused is the early capitalism and feudalism practice to the society. it would be discussed based on the evidences such as the idea that presented in the conversation and symbols in the story. methodology this research deals with a short story entitled “the happy prince” that written by oscar wilde during victorian era. literature research methodology is applied to this research in order to explain the question based on question research above. the contextual method would be used to this research. the researcher applies the extrinsic element to the story. the method of collecting data is library research where the researcher gains the data from reading the book and the short story itself. the primary data is from oscar wilde’s short story entitled “the happy prince”. the researcher decides the relevant data from the story through the dialogue and monologue. those data would be interpreted to find the social condition of the era by applying the extrinsic elements (theories) that have correlation with the research question. theoretical review it is already stated above that certain theory is needed to understand the short story and to read it deeply in order to find the issues. those theories are based on the problem of the research. “the happy prince” is the short story that coveys many ideas of the society. one of the ideas of the story that become the focus of this research is about feudalism and the existence of early capitalism. theory of feudalism feudalism is kind of abstraction which is derived from some facts of early european history. the term of feudalism is invented in eighteen century. it primarily is not only about the economic system or social system but the government method. therefore, feudalism is caused of the power of economic of the land owners and this term is not talking about the state and the citizen but the lord and vassals. basically, feudal is the conceptual of basic sovereignty and social contrast and political military arrangement between lords of the middle ages and the vassals. the concept of feudalism feudalism is the dominance structure that is controlled by the monarch or other lords to maintain their power toward the society of their claimed region. it was usually done by making political affair with the local leaders. it is a way of structuring society around and relationships derive from holding of land in exchange for service or labor. the lords would grant the vassals for various services. those services provide protection to the lord in maintaining their power or in other word the vassals protect the domination of the lord. the important of this protection would stem from the way in which feudalism develop. therefore, the feudalism system creates problem to the slavery because they language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 105 who were in high position of the society were able to take and throw the slave or labor at will. during this system, the international trade slave was common and it made the lower people even more at the bottom. (davis, 2008, p. 46). king was the leader of feudal system because the king owned all the land and the country so that he was able to decide to whom the land would be leased. he would allow and trust tenants to lease land for him after they swear an oath of fealty to the king at all the times. they then known as barons and they had powerful and complete control of the land they leased from the king and automatically wealthy. meanwhile, the barons who were also known as manors became the executor of the feudal system. as the lord, they were completely able to control of the land and to establish their own system of justice and minted their own money and set their own taxes as well. the land that had been leased, the barons had to serve the royal council, pay rent and provide the king with knights for military service to save them (okey, 1986, pp. 21-22). barons also had to provide lodging and food when the king and other royal council travelled around his realm. based on the article entitled medieval life-feudalism and the feudal system that edited by scott michel rank and uploaded on history website, the knights that provided by the barons as for military service also had to protect the barons and their families from everything that threaten them. the position and the power of the king and the barons were absolutely saved and become rise because the knights would be loyal to protect them. the knights also able kept as much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed to the villains or serfs. even they could get as much as they wished, they were not as rich as the barons. meanwhile, the serfs were given land by the knights because they belonged to poor people. they had to serve and provide the knights’ needs such as food and other services with free labor. they had no right to speak and were not allowed to leave manors. even for getting married, they had to ask their lord’s permission. the bad impact of feudal system the feudalism as the dominant of political practices brought the stability power among lords. serfs forced to support the infrastructure by providing essential goods and services. this was the combination of with a system that organized to protect and to maintain a steady balance of the people in high position. the true advantages of this system were felt by the lords and their associates. feudalism as the instrumental for social order provided some unity and security in local areas but there was no strong central government to enforce laws fairly. therefore, the king would accede to the barons to have power (davis, 2008, p. 57). it was because there was no central power that controlled the system, it was easy to use force, violence and lies to get one’s way. according to the article that written by campbell community school entitled you decide… feudalism: good or bad?, it was probably the war happen among lords because the different interests. hence, the feudalism often did not treat people equally or let them move up in society. special treatment would only be received by them who were born from lord or royal families without effort or earning it and people born as serf were supposed to remain serf. therefore, serfs were not allowed to leave lord’s lands. they had to work a whole life. they worked for three or four days a week as a payment to the lords or vassals for allowing them to farm for themselves on other days. their movement and daily activities were restricted because they could not leave the land without permission. the early of capitalism the concept of capitalism started to change the feudal system around nineteenth century in europe. it is believed that the renaissance impact to the system cause this language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 106 period created great revival of art, science, literature and human freedom. other aspect that that plays a role to the transition from feudalism to capitalism was the new trade option of the modern economic system. the internal war happened because there was no central role of the system. the concept of capitalism emerged as key concepts designed to european since the feudal system ended. the term of capitalism is the option of social action in order to structural imperative. capitalism is defined as a stock of resources or production factors that controlled by individual capitalist combines with other factors such as labors. as in marxist, political economy formulated social relationship between capitalists who have properties over the means of production and wage-labors who only have labor-power to sell in the market. therefore, this concept of ‘capital’ is not the factor of production but it describes the component of social relationship (holton, 1985, p. 15). it remains the question whether the capitalism view as a system of exchange relation or system of production relations. in fact, the capitalism do not deny those term it requires both exchange and production as the social activities and it might be seen as of primary casual significance. the implication of those options is to consider the place of the market and market relations within the economy and society. capitalism is seen as the system of exchange which relies on market exchange of communities through the price for those who centralized the exchange or distribution to the constitution of society hence, it appears as free market transection between private interests of capitalism term (holton, 1985, p. 16). the relationship between society and the market principle can be seen by the alternative way that the capitalism is not only as the market for the product but also for its labor-force. the concept of slavery exists in different form as wage-labor. the wage-labor is not seen as optional to capitalism but it is a fundamental component of it. this is the transformation of the western world from the last system to the wage-labor capital relation. “this turn shifts historical analysis away from a concern for market exchange and commerce towards change in the relationship between labors and social organization of production” (holton, 1985, p. 16). analysis “the happy prince” was written by the author of victorian era, oscar wilde. the story tells about the gold statue of the prince and the swallow. the swallow helps the prince to spread the value things over his body to poor people. in the end of the story, the swallow die and the statue becomes worthless so people get it down and burn it. “the happy prince” is about the sacrifice of two there are the prince who give away all his value things and the swallow that stay and behind to carry out the prince’s wishes and forget its journey to stay with. as has been mentioned above that the literature as the media for recording the social phenomena, “the happy prince” describes social condition of the victorian era. the story is able to convey the about the luxury life, prosperity, slavery, and poverty. the analysis would try to describe two questions below: the practices of feudalism and early capitalism in oscar wilde’s “the happy prince” short story this part is going to explain the evidences of feudal system and capitalism in the story. feudalism is the system is the dominance structure that is controlled by the monarch or other lords to maintain their power toward the society of their claimed region and the labors work for them without paying. meanwhile, the capitalism is defined as a stock of resources or production factors that controlled by individual capitalist combines with other factors such as labors. the labors of the system get payment based on their work. in other word, the labors only have their labor-power to sell to capitalists. here some evidences of the system in story. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 107 i lived in palace where there were no sadness. in the daytime i played with my friends in the garden, and in the evening i danced. there was a high wall round the garden. but i did not know what lay on the other side (wilde, 1909: 5). the statement above is told by the prince. he seems regretted of the past that he could not able to see the real social life of his environment. he used to play and dance and his life was always happy because he lived in the place in the highest class. people who were born from the noble class get happiness by enjoying everything automatically without any effort or earning. “play” and “dance” are the described as the enjoyment and happiest activities and those were done by the prince every day. it means, prince as the lord do not need to work or everything to get his life better. the high wall means the line to separate between high class and low class. the prince was unable to see outside the palace when he was life because there is high wall so that the prince only knew the beautiful life. this fact is the way how feudal works in the society. those who live in high social class seem do not what to know the problem of low society. all they want is happiness and everything they want without earning. in the next paragraph the story, wilde described that the poor people become the free labor or they work for the lord without payment. the labors work for lord’s pleasure and they could not leave the lords. “she is making a dress for one of the queen’s ladies, for dance in the palace” (wilde, 1909, p. 6). high social class is identically with glamour and luxury life. they do not have to make an effort or hard work because the labor feudal system they were born to satisfy their desire. living in the system, the lords also do not let the slaves or labors leave from them. in the next lines, the prince tells the swallow that the woman sad because her son is sick and she could not give him the food but she still does to make the dress. the rule, applied in feudal system, the salves or labors are not allowed to leave the lord even they do not pay in cash but the live itself as the payment. the woman could not stop making dress because she lives inside the system as a poor. prince tells the little swallow about the young writer who tries to finish his work in the next day. the young writer is forced to write a story but he does not have spirit because he is weak and hungry. he also could not set the fire to make his body warm in the winter because he does not have wood. the occurrence describes the situation of poor people who have to struggle for their life. this is a vivid description of contradictory situation of living under the system. it is very hard for people but lords to survive even to fulfill their basic need such as food and comfort place. this part tells that someone has to produce or create thing to maintain their life as well. the poor people live with limit facility so their production is being stuck. production is the part of capitalist activities. but still in this condition, the young is represented as poor people whose skill and ability seem not to be appreciated. it is such a fate that they have to give good services and satisfy people’s desire who live above their class. the situation of the young writer implies that the production activity become absolute condition in living. they have to create things in order to sell it to save their life. “‘someone likes my stories!’ he cried happily. ‘this is a gift from someone who has read my books. now i can finish writing this story” (wilde, 1909, p. 11). living under capitalist system, they have to be able to produce things as commodities. “book” is defined as their product to sell in market place. the book should be able to compete among others so they would get the feedback. reciprocal is the concept of market place where people should have property or power to be sold. still, the case of the capitalism of the story could understand from the little girl who sells the ages. the little girl sells the eggs for his father. she does not get money because language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 108 the eggs felt and when she goes home, her father would hit her because she comes without money. hence, in the story, the father is represented as the person who has private property or capitalist. it is because he has property, he manages how the girl work and pay her when he thinks the girl does right way. the working class is represented by the girl. she does not have anything but her wage-labor power to sell in order to save her life. she would follow the rules, made by her masters and she always spends her time for working to get money for them as represented by her father in the story. “her eggs have fallen on the ground and they are broken. she has no money to take home. her father will hit her.” (wilde, 1909, p. 12). it seems very clear the exploitation labors of capitalism system for profit purpose at the regulation of market-price apparently as independence of such exploitation in the story. the workers must do and avoid what their masters’ desire. they would have reward when they give the masters advantages and they would get punishment for their mistakes. the situation of the poor people under capitalism is also described from the little swallow’s story. it tells the prince about the condition over the country. in capitalism, the condition of the rich people and poor people are sharply contradictive. the rich people are shown as people who always happy with full of food and comfort house. meanwhile, it would be very hard to get the bread for people of low class. he saw the rich eating and drinking in their beautiful houses. he saw the poor people sitting at the gate. he flew into the dark street and saw the white faces of hungry children with sad eyes. under a bridge, two little boys were lying close together to keep warm. ‘we are so hungry!’ they said. ‘you cannot lie there!’ shouted a guard. (wilde, 1909, p. 14). the cases give the reader clue regarding the general situation of different social classes though this story. wilde describes the main phenomenon of the society under capitalism. the riches are able to have many things as they want. besides, for those who live in low society class, they only able to sell their power to work for the rich and for those who does not have anything even the power for working, they would get anything like having bread to eat. moreover, wilde shows the fact of real capitalist in this story. they respect to other rich people because the rich could be colleague in order to get profit. in the end of the story, wilde describes that the prince statue turns to be uninteresting. it does not have the value things anymore and it is not as important as in previous to the capitalist. hence, the statue is pulled down by them because the statue has no bargaining value anymore. meanwhile, it is the description how the system works. they would change the position of the prince because the prince could not make the system work well. the point is that the leader should be able to support the capitalism. in this situation, the trading system is the way to live or survive. prince gives his all wealth to them (the poor) freely or without returning back so he dies and his position is replaced by someone else who is able to control the system well. the bad impacts of feudalism and early capitalism to the low people in oscar wilde’s “the happy prince” short story the feudal system or capitalism that applies in society would have negative impacts for those who were born as the poor. the happy prince statue is the iconic condition of the society. the statue is an iconic of prosper situation of the society. therefore, when the statue does not have beauty thing it is replaced. this phenomenon tells about the system’s impact in the society. the happy prince is like the utopia that tries to hide the reality of the country. other impacts of those systems in the story would be discussed below. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 109 feudalism is the system that regulates people and considers the social class to determine the position and portion in acting. when people live as the poor, they have to work for the lord freely and it assumes as their fate. there is no big different from capitalism. the poor people experience the same things but in this system their work is paid. therefore, inequality is always experienced by them as poor people. the first inequality is described when the prince talks about the real condition of his people to the swallow for the first time. implicitly, the prince says that all people were born as the same and they should be equal. “but even that poor heart can feel, and so i cry” (wilde, 1909, p. 5). in feudalism, this thing does not happen. wealth and lands are the consideration of people they should belong to be. the poor people under feudal system must work for the lord as without being paid as a form of reciprocity because the lords give them permission for them to live in certain area. the poor people are still able to live in the country but even though they work very hard they could not welfare their own life. as the prince’s story about the society that the one of poor woman makes dress for the queen’s ladies but she could give her son good food. she is only able to have the lowest quality from the nature or the country. her life is representing to other poor’s life of the country. they face a very hard situation and there is no choice. they must work very hard without getting cash or such food but they still do that because the system is not allowed them leave from the lords. the sadness and starving are not having attention from the riches or the lords. in the situation that described by the prince in the story is about the little girl as the labor of his father. this part situation is clearly shows how the capitalism works. capitalist build the system based on trading. they who have money or property would compete with other i the market place for the profit. the poor people who have nothing but power for being labor are only able to sell their power to the capitalist. this description has no much difference from the feudal system. the different is that the poor people are paid for their working. the transition from feudalism to capitalism creates new hope to the poor people. it seems as fresh air because they are paid under the capitalism. as has been shown of the little girl story, she is very happy when she have worth stone. she would bring it home and her father would not hit her of the broken eggs. the girl as a labor would try to make her father (a man who has properties) happy because when her father happy she would she would have reward. it is exactly how the capitalism works over the society. the labors would be happy if they are able to fulfill the capitalists’ desire. working for the capitalist means they have to do what the capitalists’ desire. the capitalists’ goal is getting profit. hence, the poor believe that working for the capitalists and help them in realizing their goal is not that bad. other impact of both feudalism and capitalism is constitution or the rules of living. unfortunately, the executors stand for the rich people because the rich people are able to pay them. the constitution of course would help them to accommodate their interests. in the end of the story, wilde shows that the lords and other rich people always try to make their life happy without considering the poor’s life. “we must make an order that birds cannot die here” (wilde, 1909, p. 16). the statement shows the power of rich people help them to make their life well. they could support and maintain their position by the regulation as desire. as the result, the contradictory life between rich and poor is getting clearly. the more powerful rich people, the more weak of poor people. conclusion “the happy prince” is the story that tells about the effort of the rich people to hide the social facts. they put the happy prince statue language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 110 above the city as icon of prosperity and happiness. they would show that there is nothing happening in the city but the happiness. in fact, “the happy prince” describes the true reality in the society. there are many people who live in poverty around the city and their life is being denied by those who drive the system. the result is the ironic of the statue as the icon of the city because the people live contradictory of the city. the feudalism creates the poverty and makes it worse. the rich leader of the city and other lords would not let their labors to leave them. the labors work freely for the rich and it is very common because they let the poor people live in the city. moreover, capitalism shows as the replacement system in the city. the condition of people during the transition seem good than before. their labor-power are appreciated and paid. this condition makes the poor people happy and they assume that they should make the rich people happy to have payment. they happily sell their power to fulfill capitalists’ desire. in other word, the concept of capitalism is accepted by them. references damono, s. d. (1978). sosiologi sastra: sebuah pengantar ringkas. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. davis, k. (2008). periodization and sovereignty: how ideas of feudalism and secularization govern the politics of time. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. holton, r. j. (1985). the transition from feudalism to capitalism. new york: st martin’s press, inc., okey, r. (1986). eastern europe 1740-1985: feudalism to communism. london: routledge. rank, s. m. (2019). medieval life-feudalism and feudal system. accessed on june 16, 2019 at https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-life-feudalism-feudal-system. sümbül,y. (2014). ‘wilde’ time: a marxist reading of oscar wilde’s “the happy prince”. no. 19. pamukkale: pamukkale university journal of social science institute. schram, d., & steet, g. (1984). the psychology and sociology of literature: in honor of elrud ibsch. vol. 35. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. cam pbell com m unity school. you decide… feudalism: good or bad? downloaded on 16 june 2019 at www.cam pbell.k12.ky.us wilde, o. (1909). the happy prince, the happy prince and other fairy tales, new york: brentano’s attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa74d3810fb • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 440 undergraduate students’ perceived self-efficacy in academic reading yulius nahak sanata dharma university, yogyakarta anaksulung508@gmail.com concilianus l. mbato sanata dharma university, yogyakarta cons@usd.ac.id abstract reading academic materials is necessary for acquiring knowledge and new insights to perform well in all academic demands. nevertheless, many students were still struggling in understanding academic texts due to their high level of complexity and so avoided reading. thus, self-efficacy as a motivating force and continuous effort in the reading process must be activated. this study aimed to investigate the undergraduate students’ perception of their self-efficacy in handling the academic reading materials. one research question was proposed namely, to what extent do undergraduate students perceive their self-efficacy in reading academic texts? to answer this question, a mixed method was undertaken. the respondents consist of 35 undergraduate students from two private universities in yogyakarta, indonesia. the findings indicated that most undergraduate students prefer to read academic texts as a process of constructing meaning. moreover, to succeed in reading academic text, both external (effective strategies) and internal factors (self-efficacy) were required. one of the implications for teachers and lecturers, namely applying learning procedures that can equip undergraduate students with powerful reading strategies and more importantly stimulate their self-efficacy belief to a stable level which enables them to overcome various difficulties in reading academic texts, such as articles. keywords: academic reading, perceived self-efficacy, undergraduate students. introduction reading, in addition to listening skills, is an academic venture that needs to be developed to succeed in other academic performances, such as speaking and writing. implicitly, academic writing demands can properly be handled, when an active academic reading attitude is established at first. bailey (2011: 19) argued that most writing duties require full-size reading. in-depth, reading of academic texts written by those disciplinary experts enables students to immerse themselves in the self-disciplinary way of life and helps to master their conventions, debate, skills, and expertise (erickson, peters & strommer, 2006: 122). that means reading is a task that needs to be engaged fully to equip the readers with sufficient knowledge to be successful in other academic performances. looking at the present reality, it cannot be denied that many students are still facing a great challenge in dealing with the academic reading complexity, especially in making use of scholarly articles, such as the written purposes of the text, the language and the structure that are used, and the value conveyed by the texts. as a consequence, the complexity of the academic texts may lead students to the academic procrastination, which is “the enemy of high-quality learning” since it refers to “putting things off until later” (oakley, sejnowski & mcconville, 2018: 50). to face the academic reading challenges, bandura (1993) suggested that the possession of information and abilities does not guarantee that it can be used successfully in critical circumstances. instead, when reading academic materials, students must go beyond the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:anaksulung508@gmail.com mailto:cons@usd.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 441 techniques. they need to cultivate an upbeat attitude in order to get to the level of efficacy belief. as regards, students need to ingrain the self-efficacy as a driving force of motivation that can enable them to overcome their negative feelings and face the academic reading demands calmly. this research study aims to address the issue that oftentimes, students developed a poor feeling about their very own efficacy as readers which leads to reading procrastination or avoidance of reading. therefore, self-efficacy should be ingrained to strengthen their confidence and motivation to overcome academic reading difficulties because efficacy belief contributes to academic tasks over and beyond actual ability. bandura (1995) argued that perceived self-efficacy fosters engagement in learning activities that promote the development of educational competencies; such beliefs affect the level of achievement as well as motivation. self-efficacy performs an essential position in students’ reading development, and it is associated with reading comprehension (solheim, 2011) and highquality strategy use (mccrudden, perkins & putney, 2005). moreover, afflerbach, cho, kim, crassas & doyle (2013) claimed that successful readers have high self-efficacy. concerning that, this study was intended to reveal the power of self-efficacy as a weapon to execute academic assignments, such as reading and writing tasks. another urgency of this study is the lack of research findings on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in reading academic texts. to have it proven, some of the current research studies (from 2016 to 2020) are investigated to discover the way students dealing with the phenomena of academic reading demands. the first study, which was conducted by you, dang & lim (2016) indicated that students’ self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation influenced the relationship between students’ expectations of teachers’ motivational actions and their academic accomplishments in reading, english, and mathematics. the second study held by mbato (2019) discovered that students possessed some degree of critical thinking in reading, but to become critical, they had to be in a learning atmosphere where their critical thinking in reading could be nurtured consistently and intensively. then, the study by rahmawati & sholihah (2019) revealed that reading logs is very beneficial for the students specifically when they were reading academic articles. furthermore, setiawan & ena (2019) in their study showed that students have positive selfefficacy expectations about their reading, especially in terms of describing, summarizing, and comprehending graphics found in the text without the help of their teachers. their selfefficacy sources were found in their mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional and psychological states. lastly, sari & ningsih (2020) found two fundamental issues of online reading strategy: first, students use problem-solving strategies more often when doing online reading activities; and second, there was no significant difference in the reading strategies used by males and females. having reviewed these previous studies, the researchers observed that the emphasis they made was heavily on external supporting factors of academic reading development, such as problem-solving strategies in online reading (sari & ningsih, 2020), the role of the reading log (rahmawati, 2019), and critical thinking atmosphere (mbato, 2019). only two research studies (setiawan & ena, 2019 and you, dang & lim, 2016) highlighted the influence of selfefficacy in academic performances, including reading, however, the sources of self-efficacy were found in different indications, such as their mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional and psychological states. precisely, none of these studies discussed profoundly the strength of self-efficacy that the students should ingrain and maintain to attain their academic reading goals. to fill the gap, this current study deals mainly with the role of self-efficacy as a driving force of motivation that made people pursue a goal and overcome obstacles in academic reading challenges, as emphasized by ersanli (2015) that those with high self-efficacy did their best and did not give up easily when confronted with difficulties. leading by this insight, this research aims to investigate the undergraduate students’ perception of their http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 442 self-efficacy in reading academic materials. to attend to this aim, one research question was proposed, namely, to what extent do the undergraduate students perceive their selfefficacy in engaging with academic reading demands? the pedagogical implications of this study lie in the awareness of teachers, instructors, students, and researchers to give more attention to the importance of self-efficacy in the academic development, especially reading tasks. as regards, teachers and lecturers are expected to emphasize the importance of designing and implementing teaching processes that provide students with both the effective strategies and a strong sense of selfefficacy to meet all academic demands, particularly academic reading challenges. then, this study can be a tool that opens a new horizon for the students to ingrain their selfefficacy in order to succeed in reading as construction of meaning, which is crucial in all academic performances. and lastly, this study will be one of the references for future researchers to develop more empirical studies concerning the importance of self-efficacy in achieving academic reading goals. to address the research question deeply, some literatures related to the purpose of academic reading and perceived self-efficacy are reviewed in this following: the purpose of academic reading sengupta (2002) described academic reading as reading for academic purposes that are more complex and multi-leveled than nonacademic reading. what makes academic reading complex is its features that contain formal vocabulary, use of references, impersonal style, long and complicated sentences, and so on. besides, hunt (2004:137) asserted that academic reading is a process molded in part by the text, in part by the reader's background, and in part by the situation in which the reading takes place. according to leki (2001: 88), academic reading entails a comprehensive analysis of texts that are situation explicit and comprise a full synthesis of material from many sources. reading is thus, more than a basic activity in which one attempts to comprehend what is written in a text; it is a syntactic, semantic, and schematic activity (wassid & sunendar, 2011). nevertheless, reading academic materials cannot be ignored since they provide readers with adequate knowledge and insights. in short, academic reading is purposeful and necessary reading of prolonged educational texts for studying particular foremost challenge areas (sengupta, 2002). in-depth, rahim (2009) elaborated that reading activities seeks to (1) extend learners' experiences in science, technology, and culture; (2) teach language sounds, symbols, and meanings of new words to learners; (3) assist learners in comprehending complex sentence structures by reading; and (4) teach comprehension skills through reading. zua (2017) asserted those individuals read for some reasons, including gaining new information and knowledge, having new experiences (entertainment), and evaluating other people's views, attitudes, and actions. after reviewing these reading purposes, it is apparent that reading assists readers in effectively handling academic obligations since it is a means of verbal communication in which a message is visually transferred between persons (kingston, 1967: 72). in accord with that, hermida (2009: 23) affirmed that reading an academic text is a way of interacting with the text that includes recreating the meaning alongside the author. furthermore, weir, hawkey, green, unaldi & devi (2009) asserted that reading is a significant source of input because students must effectively examine to meet the study's requirements. hence, the most crucial language skill for academic achievement is reading (celce-murcia, 1991). to top it all, comprehensive reading is a constructive process of meaning (duke & carlisle, 2011; afflerbach, cho, kim, crassas & doyle, 2013; wahyono, 2019). perceived self-efficacy in academic reading perception is a term used to describe the whole process of human reasoning that incorporates a person's perspective and understanding of an object in their environment based on their observations, knowledge, and experience (fitriani, 2019: 85). in relation to academic growth, perceived academic selfhttp://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 443 efficacy is a subjective assessment of one's ability to plan and carry out actions to achieve specific sorts of educational outcomes (bandura, 1977; schunk, 1989). consequently, reading self-efficacy beliefs are shown to be related to reading achievement (sundström, 2006) as well as to reading behavior (anmarkrud & bråten, 2009). to stress the point, gavora (2010) argued that self-efficacy refers to one's belief in his/her capacity to do academic activities adequately and successfully. in fact, the successful readers have strong self-efficacy; they anticipate being challenged by various texts and activities, and they expect to succeed (afflerbach, et al., 2013: 440); they frequently attribute failure to insufficient effort or to lack of intelligence and attribute their success to exterior factors, such as luck or instructor assistance (shell, colvin & bruning, 1995). while, students with poor selfefficacy, on the other hand, avoid difficulties and focus their attention on personal flaws (pajares, 1996). as expected, efficacious students who are struggling with textual content may believe that they need to be more diligent and strategic, whereas less efficacious students may believe that they are simply not smart enough to comprehend the challenging text (afflerbach, et al., 2013: 446). hamming it up, self-efficacy is crucial for students’ academic reading growth (mccrudden, perkins & putney, 2005), since it is connected to reading comprehension and the use of high-quality techniques (solheim, 2011); it is also favorably connected to self-rated mental effort and accomplishment while learning from text material that is viewed as difficult (salomon, 1984). methodology research design this research study employed a mixed-method approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques to gain a better understanding of a single phenomenon (see creswell, clark & garrett, 2003). one of the reasons the researchers used a mixed-method approach was that many social scientists currently feel that no significant problem area should be investigated only using one study method (compare terrell, 2012: 258). therefore, data was collected qualitatively and quantitatively to get a better knowledge and confirmation of the phenomenon of undergraduate students perceived their selfefficacy in academic reading demands. data collection procedures the procedure of gathering the quantitative data was done in two steps: the first step was distributing the likert-scale questionnaire consisting of ten statements: five statements were asking about how undergraduate students deal with the challenge of the academic reading. another five statements were asking about how the undergraduate students perceived their self-efficacy in meeting the academic reading challenges to succeed well. the likert-scale questionnaire consists of options, such as “strongly agree” (sa), “agree” (a), “neutral” (n), “disagree” (d), and “strongly disagree” (sd). the next step was to organize all the data gathered into descriptive statistics and display percentages of the total responses of each participant in the study. the researchers applied this formula to measure the percentage of each finding: ∑x/∑ n. 100%. while gathering the qualitative data, a semistructured interview of five selected participants was done by asking them about the challenges and factors that affect their reading success. the interview results were arranged in form of extracts presented the challenges, internal and external factors which affect undergraduate students’ success in academic reading tasks. participants the participants who took part in this research project were thirty-five undergraduate students from two separate private universities in yogyakarta, indonesia. they were chosen using convenient sampling. the researchers chose them because they were living close to the researchers, which could facilitate us to collect data about their self-efficacy in academic reading. many of them seemed to struggle and even avoid reading academic texts because of the complexity of the text and lack of motivation. data collection methods http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 444 to collect the quantitative data, a likert-scale questionnaire was distributed. awang, afthanorhan and mamat (2016) pointed out that the likert scale is commonly used in survey research using primary and secondary data to measure the respondent attitude by asking how much they agree or disagree with a particular question. and to collect the qualitative data, a tool called semistructured interviews was employed. semistructured interview is believed to be “more flexible and adaptive” (gavora, 2006) because the interviewer can create and avoid questions in order to adjust to the topic, and this can lead to more effective data collection. the first goal of this interview tool, according to kvale (1996), is to establish a connection with the respondent in order to grasp their point of view. trueman (2016) asserted that a natural and trusting connection between the researcher and the study subject may lead to a more successful dialogue, which can then result in the creation of rich in-depth material with better internal validity. data analysis procedures to analyze the data, the researcher utilized the explanatory approach which included the task of identifying key variables. this study’s data gathering approach sought to look at both quantitative and qualitative data. for the quantitative one, the number or percentage of participants from the entire population sample who offered certain types of perspectives on each of the question variables was calculated. qualitative data was used to support the quantitative findings in relation to undergraduate students’ perception on their self-efficacy in exploring the academic reading tasks. the interview results from the participants were arranged in the form of extracts and followed by the analysis of each extract. result and discussion this chapter summarizes all of the data from the likert-scale questionnaire and interview activities on undergraduate students' selfefficacy in academic reading. it is divided into two categories, although they are slightly similar. the first findings consisted of five statements which concerned about external and internal factors that supported and at the same time challenged the undergraduate student's self-efficacy when they were involved in academic reading assignments. the second finding, which consisted of the other five statements, gave more emphasis on the degree of self-efficacy that undergraduate students needed to ingrain to reach their goal in academic reading. therefore, to gain a better knowledge of this issue, the data findings from the questionnaire are provided below in the form of percentages, along with some interview results, associated theories from experts, and some pertinent connections from prior studies. table 1. the questionnaire result of supporting factors in academic reading success no . statement sd d n a sa 1. i believe that i can only read with a deep understanding if i master the active academic reading strategies. 1 2.85% 4 11.4 % 9 25.7 % 16 45.7% 5 14.2% 2. i believe that i can overcome my negative feelings in reading difficult academic texts because i possess the capacity to do so. 8 22.8% 8 22.8% 14 40% 5 14.2% 3. i believe that i can only learn how to decode the technical elements of the text when the teachers or colleagues are guiding me along the process. 1 2.85% 6 17.1% 9 25.7% 16 45.7% 3 8.57% http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 445 4. i agree that reading academic materials in a printed copy is more effective than reading a soft copy on the computer screen. 3 8.57% 1 2.85% 8 22.8% 13 37.1% 10 28.5% 5. i believe that i can read english academic texts because they have benefits for my professional or personal life. 2 5.71% 4 11.4% 4 11.4% 13 37.1% 12 34.2% as shown in table 1, the results of the first five assertions were utilized to identify certain external and internal factors that improved undergraduate students’ self-efficacy in academic reading activities. in response to the first statement, five undergraduate students (14.2%) picked strongly agree while sixteen undergraduate students (45.7%) chose to agree. according to this result, the majority of undergraduate students believed that learning the techniques and strategies were critical to have a thorough knowledge of the academic reading. this finding backs up the concept of paris et al (1991) that strategic readers are defined by their ability to match appropriate techniques to the reading environment. furthermore, pada, setyosari, degeng & widiati (2016: 356) believed that good readers were those who employed a range of reading methods to build meaning when reading the text and material. in addition, molotja (2020) showed that metacognitive reading techniques were critical for students to obtain information in academic texts. to top it all, the use of academic reading strategies by the undergraduate students is necessary to succeed in their university studies. the second statement revealed that five undergraduate students (14.2%) picked strongly agree, whereas fourteen students (40 %) chose to agree. this finding revealed the majority of the undergraduate students possessed the ability to overcome their negative feelings in confronting academic reading difficulties. these undergraduate students can be categorized as having a high self-efficacy since “they anticipate to be pushed by diverse texts and tasks, and they expect to meet those challenges” (afflerbach et al., 2013) in their reading process. besides, this finding indicates an ability of undergraduate students to strategize the academic reading which contributed to overcoming their reading anxieties. this is strengthened by the finding of rahmat, arepin & sulaiman (2020) discovered that in the academic reading classroom, teaching and learning techniques impacted readers' perceptions of reading anxiety. in the third statement, three undergraduate students (8.57%) picked strongly agree, whereas sixteen undergraduate students (45.7%) chose to agree. this finding showed that most undergraduate students can decode the technical elements of the text when the teachers or colleagues are guiding them along the process. according to pada, setyosari, degeng & widiati (2016: 356), decoding (encoding) is the process of turning a series of pictures into words. in conclusion, reading, whether in printed or online materials, is not a straightforward activity in the sense that it entails striving to comprehend what is expressed in the text, and it is necessary to be guided by a teacher or peers. and in case of academic online reading materials, lee & chang (2017) discovered that students' reading proficiency improved when they were able to collaborate with their groupmates and teachers online via the edmodo educational networking site rather than doing the reading individually in the traditional manner. the fourth statement revealed that ten (28%) undergraduate students picked strongly agree and thirteen (37%) undergraduate students chose to agree. this finding indicates that the majority of the undergraduate students considered a printed reading format more effective than an unprinted one to be read. this finding is similar to that of mizrachi, salaz, kurbanoglu, boustany & arfis research group (2018), who discovered that the majority of university students preferred to read their academic materials in print format, believing that they learned and focused better on the material presented in print. in conclusion, the print format provides an advantage for learning and retaining information provided in a text. the last finding is nearly identical to the fourth finding, as twelve undergraduate http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 446 students (34.2%) picked strongly agree and thirteen (37.1%) chose to agree. therefore, it can be said that the majority of undergraduate students were capable of reading english academic material since it was enriching and enabling them to pursue their high education demands. concerning this, busby (2020) discovered that the quantity of english experienced outside of formal schooling had a substantial influence on students’ academic reading abilities, indicating that the way english is taught in schools should be reassessed. this research has ramifications for our knowledge of second language reading in a world where students are increasingly required to read in english as a second language as part of their higher education. all these first five findings are related to the five selected interview participants regarding the challenges and strategies to read academic texts. they are arranged in these following excerpts: participant number 1 excerpt 1: this participant stated: “the internal factors that challenged me in reading academic text are my negative emotions, such as low self-motivation, feel boring, doubted and anxious to read.” excerpt 2: “the external factors are that i need the stimulation through the requirement given by the instructors to do research. language limitation to understand english-written journals is another factor that affects my motivation to read.” participant number 2 excerpt 3: the second participant said: “the internal factor that supported my academic reading tasks are first is to understand the untranslated term in a foreign language. there are so many terms that we cannot translate literally. second is the tendency to read rapidly.” excerpt 4: “the external factors are having enough time to read/ no rush, no distraction during reading and have a comfortable place to read.” participant number 3 excerpt 5: this third participant explained: “the internal factors that support my reading are my curiosity to know something more; the willingness to change my way of thinking; and enjoying how the writer builds his idea. excerpt 6: “the external factors are the obligation in the university to finish the assignment that is given and to prepare me for answering the questions from the professors during the exam; the obligation in the community to read the books; and the encouragement of the community and the university to know something further.” participant number 4 excerpt 7: this participant stated: “the internal factors that support me in reading academic texts are my own desire to read; and my own knowledge.” excerpt 8: “the external factors are my own skill of reading; the people to whom i am dealing with; and the information, knowledges from various sources.” participant number 5 excerpt 9: this fifth participant said: “the internal factors that support me in reading academic texts are the motivation to study; have self-control to use the internet properly; the disposition of mind and hearts; self-discipline to manage the time; and priories the subject that is need immediate attention when studying.” excerpt 10: “the external factors are the available books; people around us; the system where we live; and the internet access where we can get information and the health condition is limited”. the interview result from participant number 1 showed that this undergraduate student was able to read the academic text material due to the motivation to learn new things and the professor's encouragement to keep his desire to read and comprehend the tough text alive. motivation, according to akhtar, iqbal & tatlah (2017) is made up of significant internal and external components that boost people’s desire and effort to attain a goal. the interview result from participant number 2 indicated that this undergraduate student needed dedicated time and space to study academic material, with foreignhttp://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/browse?value=busby,%20nicole%20louise&type=author language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 447 untranslated words and a proclivity to read quickly posing problems. the interview result from participant number 3 pointed out the external forces that drove him to read were the responsibility to finish assignments and prepare well for exams, the community's obligation to read books, and the community's and university's encouragement to obtain more information. internal considerations for him include his want to learn more, his readiness to modify his way of thinking, and his enjoyment of the writer's construction of his concept. according to the interview result from participant number 4, the people around him, as well as information or knowledge from various sources, were external factors that encourage academic reading. personal reading abilities, a desire to read, and prior knowledge, on the other hand, were internal elements that were encouraged. the interview result from participant number 5 revealed that reading development was influenced by resources such as books, internet access, the environment, and the institutional structure. furthermore, personal characteristics such as motivation to study, health, mental and emotional temperament, selfdiscipline, and reading priorities were beneficial. the challenges encountered, such as a lack of motivation to study, a lack of self-discipline to manage time, a lack of self-control to use the internet appropriately, and amusement all the things we want but were not necessary. these findings from five participants are in line with afflerbach’s (2013: 440) claimed that successful readers are metacognitive, encouraged, engaged, epidemic, and have high self-efficacy. metacognition has an impact on students' reading performance as they establish targets, choose and used strategies, and selfmonitor the effectiveness of their reading to achieve goals (zimmerman, 2008). besides, when students’ interest and motivation are high, reading instruction develops their reading comprehension (guthrie & wigfield, 2017). moreover, bråten, britt, strømsø & rouet, (2011a) found that students' epidemic views affect their reading comprehension. when students consider reading as an opportunity to learn something new, they are more likely to employ higher-order thinking than when they feel the aim of reading is to develop a literal comprehension of the text to report back to the instructor. regarding the role of self-efficacy, schunk & zimmerman (2007) believed that it has an impact on reading performance. table 2. the questionnaire result of self-efficacy-promoted impact in academic reading success no . statement sd d n a sa 1. i have a very strong confidence to attribute academic reading tasks as constructing new meanings that equip me with sufficient knowledge to face other academic demands. 2 5.71% 6 17.1% 18 51.4% 9 25.7% 2. i have a very high self-efficacy in academic readings to overcome my negative feelings on academic readings challenges. 2 5.71% 8 22.8% 11 31.4% 13 37.3% 1 2.85% 3. i possess a very strong confidence to challenge myself to appreciate more the value delivered by the authors. 2 5.71% 3 17.1% 6 25.7% 18 51.4% 6 17.1% 4. i have a strong confidence to manage the bad conditions, such as a distracting environment, or just read through a soft copy on the computer screen to read academic texts. 1 2.85% 8 22.8% 11 31.4% 15 42.8% http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 448 5. i have a high confidence to enjoy reading academic texts the same as reading nonacademic texts. 4 11.4% 11 31.4% 12 34.2% 8 22.8% table 2 above shows that the results of the other five statements which are used to find out the important role of self-efficacy in academic reading development. statement number one reveals that nine (25.7%) undergraduate students chose strongly agree and eighteen (51.4%) students chose to agree. from this finding, it is concluded that most of the undergraduate students attribute academic reading tasks as constructing new meanings which equip them with sufficient knowledge to face other academic demands. this conclusion is supported by the idea of wahyono (2019) which stated that reading is a crucial literacy skill by which the learners have to be acquired in order to duplicate the meaning in the text. in the second statement, there was one (2.85%) undergraduate student who chose strongly agree and thirteen (37.3%) students who chose agree. from this finding, it can be inferred that many undergraduate students believe that they have very high self-efficacy in academic readings to overcome their negative feelings on academic reading challenges. this is closely related to salomon’s (1984) hypothesis, which believed that self-efficacy is positively associated to self-rated mental effort and accomplishment while students are learning from difficult text material. besides, this finding is similar to diasti & mbato's (2020), who discovered that: (1) students had high self-efficacy which enabled them complete their academic reading task; (2) they had an intrinsic motivation that empowered them stay motivated throughout the academic reading exposure; and (3) they had positive emotions about academic reading. in the third statement, there were six (17.1%) undergraduate students who chose strongly agree and eighteen (51.4%) students who chose agree. this finding shows that the majority of the undergraduate students saw themselves as having very strong confidence to challenge their selves to appreciate more the value delivered by the authors. this finding is linked to the notion of epidemic beliefs, which is a personal view of knowledge and understanding. students’ critical reading is influenced by epidemic belief when they make judgements about the text’s truth and quality, as well as author bias and trustworthiness (nga center & ccsso, 2010). the fourth statement showed that there were fifteen (42.8%) undergraduate students who chose to agree. this finding indicates that many undergraduate students had strong confidence to manage the bad conditions, such as a distracting environment, or just read through a soft copy on the computer screen to read academic texts. this finding is in line with the finding of thompson, aizawa, curle & rose (2019), which argued that students with higher efficacy put out more effort and perceive course activities as opportunities for growth. reading on the internet is the same as reading through a computer screen or unprinted format. in the fifth finding, there were eight (22.8%) undergraduate students who chose strongly agree and twelve (34.2%) students who chose agree. for this last finding, it can be argued that many populations of undergraduate students believe that they had strong confidence to enjoy reading academic texts the same as reading nonacademic texts. this finding is related to the theory of motivation in reading. motivated readers prefer to devote time and effort for the variety of reasons, including information collection, knowledge acquisition, or for the purpose of enjoyment (guthrie & wigfield, 2017). all of these previous explanations are in accord with five selected participants of interviews regarding activating and maintaining self-efficacy to face the academic reading challenges. the interview results are arranged in the following excerpts: participant number 1 excerpt 1: this participant stated: “to cope with those challenges, i used to ask clarification from the instructors and colleagues, re-read and compare the main idea with other journals.” http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 449 excerpt 2: “the most importantly is setting a personal schedule to read, and dare to challenge my feeling of boredom, doubt, and anxieties to establish a desire to read within me.” participant number 2 excerpt 3: the second participant said: “the way i used to overcome challenges in academic reading are by study more other language to be able to read the original text, and try to consult a commentary about the text or discuss with others to find new perspectives.” participant number 3 excerpt 4: this third participant explained: “the way i activate and maintain my selfefficacy is by putting away all the destructions (other books, handphone, and etcetera) and try to find the main topic of each paragraph. it can give me a small sense of pride and encourages me to maintain myself-efficacy.” participant number 4 excerpt 5: this participant stated: “the way i activate and maintain my self-efficacy is firstly, by keeping on updating the particular skills of reading; second, try to find ways of overcoming the challenges in which i have undergone, i am undergoing and will undergo; and third, prepare myself to be aware of the challenges that i will face.” participant number 5 excerpt 6: this fifth participant said: “the way i activate and maintain my self-efficacy is by being faithful to the personal project, selfdiscipline, and improving self-motivation, develops self-confidence to express one’s ideas and opinions, building up group study.” the interview result from participant number 1 demonstrated that he was able to manage his time to read journal articles relevant to his study program and dared to confront his feelings of boredom, uncertainty, and anxiety to instill a desire to read in him. the interview result from participant number 2 indicated that when he had to study a text by selecting an original text, he needed to learn additional languages, which is why being able to comprehend another language is advantageous in academic reading assignments. in addition, he would look for a commentary on the text or discuss the book with someone else who had already finished reading the text and would try to learn something new from them. the interview result from participant number 3 mentioned that one of the ways to activate and maintain his self-efficacy was by putting away all the destructions, such as other books, cellphones, and other electronic devices, and attempting to discover the primary theme of each paragraph. it gave him a little sense of accomplishment and motivated him to keep his self-efficacy. the interview result from participant number 4 explained that he activates and maintained his self-efficacy in three ways: (1) continuing to update his reading skills; (2) taking the opportunity to overcome the challenges that he had faced, was facing, and would face; and (3) preparing himself to be aware of the challenges that he would face. the interview result from participant number 5 claimed that sticking to one's project, exercising self-discipline, and increasing selfmotivation improved one's self-confidence in expressing one's views and opinions, and helps to create group study. to summarize, findings from the five participants above demonstrated that these undergraduate students were categorized as selfefficient and self-regulated readers. these extracts are closely linked to bandura's theories on self-efficacy (bandura, 2006: 170), which claimed that unless students assumed that their actions would achieve desired effects; they had little motivation to act. further, it was linked to zimmerman's theory of self-regulation (zimmerman, 1998: 73), which described selfregulation as self-generated thinking, feelings, and behavior to achieve academic goals. conclusion this research was conducted to answer the question “to what extent do undergraduate students perceive their self-efficacy in reading academic texts”. the conclusion obtained from the quantitative findings revealed that mastering the active academic reading strategies is crucial to read with a deep understanding. besides, the finding also indicated that having a strong sense http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 450 of self-efficacy is necessary to value more academic reading tasks as constructing new meanings to face the academic reading demands. these results were supported by the qualitative data finding with the emphasis on the external and internal factors as prerequisite for achieving academic reading goals. this study’s limitation relied on its heavy focus on the internal component that supported academic reading, specifically self-efficacy. it did not dig further into both external and internal factors affecting students’ academic reading success. in line with that, two important suggestions are addressed: firstly, future researchers are expected to look deeply into the link between undergraduate students' attitudes, beliefs, and self-efficacy in academic reading tasks and external factors such as text difficulty and instructors’ teaching strategies. this will allow them to collect more detailed information about students’ academic reading. secondly, reading instructors need to emphasize the importance of designing and implementing academic reading that provide students with both effective strategies and a strong sense of self-efficacy to 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(2017). reading: when and why. journal of education and social policy, 4(2), 128-132. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle october 2011.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 95 مكانة اللغة العربية وأمهيتها the position and importance of arabic language mohammad yusuf ahmad hasyim semarang state university email: yusuf_hasyim75@yahoo.com abstract arabic language is one of the united nations language. it is a language which is used for the citizen of arabic peninsula, especially arabian gulf countries as oil producers. arabic language is the most important language which gets the highest position in islam for the moslem speaker from arabic or non arabic countries since law of islam, which are the koran and the hadits, uses arabic language. for centuries, the experts and proponents of arabic language have been raising problems related to the position and importance of arabic language in the work. those problems nowadays are still current to be discussed or analyzed. how the position and importance of arabic language for moslem or nonmoslem people, arabian or non arabian people is used and how the steps which is probably taken by non arabian people aims to learn arabic language well as religion language and international communication language are reached in this analysis. key words: position, importance, arabic language مكانة اللغة العربية وأهميتها مقدمة ال شك أن موضوع أهمية اللغة العربية من الموضوعات التى تحظى بمكانة خاصة لدى المسلمين من عرب وغير عرب ، وهو موضوع قديم متجدد فى عام واحد ، فقد تناوله بالدرس عدد من العلماء األجالء، كاإلمام الغزالى فى إحياء علوم الدين ، وابن خلدون فى مقدمته ، والزركشى فى البرهان ، والسيوطى فى اإلتقان فى علوم القرأن ، وما يزال الموضوع يطرح من وقت آلخر ويعرض له الكتاب والخطباء باإليجاز واالجمال حينا ، وباألسهاب والتفصيل حينا آخر، وسنحاول فى السطور التالية ، بقدر ما يسمح به الوقت والطاقة، توضيح أهمية اللغة العربية للمسلمين من ناحية، ثم تبيين السبيل الذى يمكن ان يسلكه المسلمون من غير العرب لتعلم . العربية واجادتها من ناحية اخرى البحث مكانة اللغة العربية . ١ 96 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 للغات، كما لبنى البشر، أنصبة وحظوظا، منها ما يكتب له الثراء والرفعة والبقاء، ومنها ما يقدر له االمالق )سبحانه وتعالى (والخمول والفناء، وقد حظيت اللغة العربية بنصيب كبير من بين اللغات جميعا، فقد ألقى هللا . بمحبتها فى قلوب الناس، ووجدوا فيها خصائص وسمات ال يجدونها مجتمعة فى لغة أخرى من لغة البشر وتحظى العربية بمكانة بارزة بين لغات العالم، وتزداد أهمية يوما بعد يوم، ويقبل الناس فى مختلف البالد على تعلمها اقباال ملحوظا مطردا، وال غروفهى بمثابة المفتاح الذى يلجون به إلى عالم العلم والفكر والحضارة . والثقافة واألدب وهى أيضا ضرورية لدراسة لغات وثقافات عالمية مختلفة كالأسبانية واألوردية والمالزية واألندونسية والتركية . والفارسية وغيرها، اذا دخلت كلمات عربية كثيرة فى لغات عديدة اسالمية وغير اسالمية وهى لغة احدى وعشرين دولة عربية تعيش فى قارتى أفريقيا وآسيا، وتمدد من الخليج العربي شرقا الى ويزيد عدد سكانها على مئة مليون عربي عدا، وهى لذلك تمثل، وال ريب، ثقال سياسيا . المحيط األطلسى غربا . ال يستهان به . وهى لغة دول الخليج الغنية بالنفط والتى تمثل بالنسبة للعالم الصناعى أهمية اقتصادية كبيرة ألجل ذلك كله يعلو شأن اللغة العربية اليوم، ويزداد عدد الدراسين لها فى الجامعات العربية الغربية واألسيوية . واألفرقية جميعا األهمية الدينية لغة العربية . ٢ بيد أن اللغة العربية، باإلضافة إلى ما ذكر، أهمية بارزة بوصف كونها لغة القرأن الكريم والحديث النبوى الشريف، وبعبارة اخري ألنها لغة اإلسالم، وهى لذلك تحظى باحترام واهتمام عميقين من ثالثمائة مليون مسلم، ينظرون الى اللغة العربية نظرة تقديس واكبار بوصف كونها اللغة العربية التى يؤدون بها شعائرهم الدينية، . والتى يتوقف عليها عملهم بالدين ، وتطبيقهم ألحكام الشريعة )عزوجل (والتى تخاطبون بها المولى وثمة أيات وأحاديث نبوية وروايات عن الصحابة والتابعين تنص على االهمية الدينية للغة العربية، وهى كثيرة ، . نكتفى باإلشارة الى أمثلة معدودة منها هنا فحسب : ففى القرأن الكريم نطالع األيات التاليات ) ٢٨الزمر (" قرآنا عربيا غير ذى عوج " ) ٢يوسف (" انا أنزلناه قرآنا عربيا لعلكم تعقلون " ) ٣٧الرعد (" وكذلك أنزلناه حكما عربيا " ) ١٠٣النحل (" وهذا لسان عربي مبين " ) ١١٣طه (" وكذلك أنزلناه قرأنا عربيا " وانه لتنزيل رب العالمين، نزل به الروح األمين، على قلبك لتكون من المنذرين، بلسان عربي مبين " ) ١٩٢ ١٩٥الشعراء (" ) ٣ – ٢فصلت (" تنزيل من الرحمن الرحيم، كتاب فصلت آيته قرآنا عربيا لقوم يعلمون " language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 97 يشير إلى )سبحانه وتعالى (وفى هذه األيات تأكيد على الصبغة العربية للقرأن الكريم ، ونحس فيها وكأنه سمات مهمة أهلت العربية لتكون لغة التنزيل كالوضوح والدقة والبيان على العناية باللغة العربية، ودعا المسلمون الى تقديرها، وحضهم على التمسك )عليه السالم (وقد حث الرسول ألنى عربي، : أحّب العرب لثالثة : " بها، وقد أفصح فى بعض أحاديثه عن سّر حبه للعربية واعجابه بها فقال عليه الصالة (وحب الرسول للعربية متضمن فى حبه للعرب ، قال " والقرأن عربي، وكالم اهل الجنة عربي يا رسول هللا، كيف أبغضك وبك هدانى : يا سلمان، ال تبغضنى فتفارق دينك، فقال : لسلمان الفارسى )والسالم . تبغض العرب فتبغضنى: هللا ؟ قال محبين للعربية حريصين عليها ، حاثين على درسها والعناية بها، )رضوان هللا عليهم أجمعين (وكان الصحابة ألن أقرأ فأسقط أحّب الي من أن : " كان ابو بكر الصديق حريصا على لغته أشد الحرص، وروى عنه أنه قال ، وكان عمر ابن الخطاب يدفع المسلمين الى تعلم العربية دفعا وكان يرى العربية جزأ ال يتجزأ من " أقرأ فألحن " تعلموا العربية فإنها من دينكم : " قال عمر . دين المسلمين . ونستطيع أن نتخذ مما ذكرنا من أقوال الرسول وابى بكر وعمر تقدير العرب للغة العربية واهتمامهم بها واهتمام العرب بلغتهم واعتزازهم بها مشهور ، فقد كانو يعدونها أشرف اللغات وأفضلها على اإلطالق، وكانو ال ويزيد فى . يرون لها مثيال، فهى لغة الدنيا، ولغة الدين، ولغة الجنة أيضا، وكانوا يرون تعلم العربية ينمى العقل عقل المرأ " وكانوا يعدون الكالم دليال على عقل الرجل منهم، وعنوانا لفطنته وحمقه، فمن أمثالهم . المروءة ، وكانوا يرون فى اللحن ضالال، وقد طلب الرسول من أصحابه ان يرشدوا أخا لهم قد " نصفه، ولسانه نصف وكان عمر ابن الخطاب ال يجيب طلبا يلحن صاحبه، وروي أن عبد الملك بن مروان، على فصاحته، كان . ضل يخشى اللحن، وقيل انه شاب مبكرا لخوف اللحن، وصعود المنابر، وكذلك كانت حال الخلفاء والوالة العرب من . أمثال الوليد والمامون والحجاج بن يوسف الثقافى وحسبنا ان . أما اهتمام المسلمين غير العرب بالعربية فيتجلى فى اقوال كثيرة من العلماء والكتاب ورجال الدين نشير الى بعض من هذه األقوال التى تشهد باعجاب شديد باللغة العربية، وتفضيل لها امتزج فى نفوسهم حتى من احب هللا تعالى : " جعلهم ال يلتفتون الى لغاتهم األصلية، بل جعلهم يتعصبون للعربية دونها، يقول الثعلبي أحب رسوله محمدا صلى هللا عليه وسلم ، ومن أحب الرسول العربي أحب العرب، ومن احب العرب أحب العربية التى بها نزل أفضل الكتب، على أفضل العجم والعرب، ومن أحب العربية عنى بها وثابر عليها، . وهللا ألّن أهجى العربية أحب الى من أمدح بالفارسية" وصرف همته اليها، ويقول الخوارزمى ولم يكن حب الثعلبى والخوارزمى وأمثالهما من الفرس المسلمين وغير الفرس مجرد كالم، بل أنهم ترجموا هذا الكالم أعماال وابحاثا ومؤلفات عملية رائعة فى فقه اللغة العربية، وشعرها نثرها، وعلومها المختلفة، ويكفى ان لفؤاد " تاريخ التراث العربي"لياقوت الحموى الرومى، أو " معجم األدباء"إلبن النديم، أو " الفهرست " نتصفح سزكين التركى لنرى كيف عشق هؤالء العلماء المسلمون اللغة العربية، وكيف توفروا عليها بحثا ودرسا وتأليفا، فتركوا لنا تراثا عربيا، اوقل، تراثا اسالميا نفخر به نحن المسلمسن ونعتز، واننا لمطالبون اليوم بحفظه، كما أننا مطالبون بمطالعته ومدارسته واالفادة منه الى اقصى حد ممكن، لنعيد الى األمة اإلسالمية مجدها السابق، ونحقق )آل عمران(لها مستقبال زاهرا لتكون كما اراد لها هللا خير امة أخرجت للناس 98 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 ليفرق بين )عليه الصالة والسالم(كان هؤالء العلماء، رغم تعدد جنسياتهم، عربا قلبا ولسانا، ولم يكن الرسول صلى هللا عليه (المسلمين من مختلف الشعوب واألجناس، وكان يرى أن كل من ينطق العربية عربي، روى عنه ايها الناس، أن الرب : أنه حين سمع أن منافقا نال من عروبة سلمان الفارسي، دخل المسجد مغضبا، وقال )وسلم . واحد، وألب واحد، وليس العربية بأحدكم من أب وال أم، وانما هى اللسان، فمن تكلم بالعربية فهو عربي ولذلك فاننا ال نعجب اذا وجدنا العربية تحظى برعاية بالغة من المسلمين غير العرب، اذ قاموا بجمعها ودرسها كان صاحب صناعة النحوسيبويه والفارسي من بعده والزجاج من : "وتفسيرها، قال ابن خلدون فى مقدمته بعدهما، وكلهم عجم فى انسابهم وانما ربوا فى اللسان العربي، فاكتسبوه بالمربي ومخالطة العرب وصيروه . قوانين وفنا لمن بعدهم لقد صدق هؤالء العلماء من المسلمين فى حب العربية، وصدقوا فى العمل على خدمتها، وعكفوا على درسها، وأفنوا أعمارهم فى التأليف فيها، ألنهم أدركوا أن العربية مظهر األعجاز فى القرأن الكريم، وهى لذلك جديرة . بالرعاية والدرس واإلهتمام العربية والعلوم الشرعية . ٣ ان القرأن العربي مصدر العلوم الشرعية العربية كلها كالتفسير والفقه والقراءات والتصوف، وفى ظالل القرأن . نشأت علوم اللسانية من لغة ونحو وبالغة وأدب، وهى ليست من العلوم الشرعية فى ذاتها ولكنها مقدمات لها . ألنه يتوقف عليها قراءة وتدبر القرآن والسنة النبوية وال يتم تدبر القرآن والسنة دون الهام دقيق، ومعرفة جيدة بعلوم العربية، وقد اوضح الجاحظ، وهو عالم بجميع بين العلوم اللسانية والشرعية، أوضح أهمية اللغة العربية ودورها األساسى فى دراسة القرآن والحديث، وبين للعرب أمثال واشتقاقات وأبنية ومواضع : "حطورة التصدى لهما دون علم بكالم العرب وأساليب العربية، فقال كالم يدل عندهم على معانيهم وارادتهم، ولتلك األلفاظ مواضع آخر، ولها حينئذ دالالت أخر، فمن ال يعرفها جهل : تأويل الكتاب والسنة والشاهد والمثل، فاذا نظر فى الكالم وفى ضروب من العلم، وليس هو من أهل هذا الشأن ". هلك وأهلك ولجالل هذه المهمة وخطورتها كان المفسرون يقومون بدراسات طويلة ليهيئوا أنفسهم للتصدى لتفسير القرأن، وكانوا يرون ان أول طريق يسلك فى الوقوف على معناه، ويتوصل به الى تبين أغراضه ومغزاه، معرفة اعرابه . واشتقاق مقاصده من أنحاء خطابه وكانوا يرون ان من واجبات طالب علوم القرآن االلمام بالبيان واللغة والبالغة والنحو والتصريف ليكون بذلك سالما من اللحن فيه مستعينا على احكام اللفظ به مطلعا على المعانى التى قد تختلف باختالف الحركات متفهما لما اراد هللا به من عباده اذ بمعرفة حقائق اإلعراب تعرف أكثر المعانى وينجلى األشكال فتظهر الفوائد ويفهم . الخطاب وتصح معرفة المراد language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 99 وكانوا يتوسلون، الى جانب النحو التصريف والبيان، بالشعر لتفسير القرآن، وقد عرف عبد هللا ابن عباس بهذه مسائل ابن األزرق فى القرأن، وجواب ابن عباس عليها بالشعر، وكان " اإلتقان"اإلتجاه، وقد أورد السيوطى فى وقد اورد ابن ". اذا سألتهم عن شيئ من غريب القرأن فالتمسوه فى الشعر فانه ديوان العرب : "ابن عباس يقول ، فقال )٦النجم (" وانتم سامدون : " )عز وجل(األنبارى مسألة من مسائل التى سأل فيها نافع ابن عباد عن قوله نعم، أما سمعت قول هزيلة بنت : وهل كانت العرب تعرف هذا فى الجاهلية ؟ قال : معناه الهون ، فقال نافع : : بكر وهى تبكى عادا حيث تقول بعثت عادا لقيها وأبا سعد مريدا وأبا ُجْلهَُمةَ الخير فتى الحي العنودا قيل قم فانظر اليهم ثم دع عنك السمودا وجوب تعلم المسلم للعربية . ٤ بالعربية على نبية العربي محمد )تعالى(يعد القرآن الكريم، كما ألحمنا منذ قليل، معجزة اإلسالم، أنزله هللا ، وهى معجزة لفظية بالغية فى المقام األول، تحدى هللا به العرب الذين برعوا فى فن )صلى هللا عليه وسلم( بعض )عز وجل(القول من شعر ونثر وخطابة وحكمة، فعجزوا عن أن يأتوا بمثله أو بسورة من مثله، واستهل على لغة القرآن الكريم، كما أشرنا، فى )سبحانه(سوره بالحرف العربية لإلشارة الى موطن اإلعجاز فيه، وأكد مواطن عديدة من التنزيل، مما دفع جماعة من العلماء المسلمين الى القول بانه ليس فى القرآن غير العربية، من زعم " وكان ابوا عبيدة معمر ابن المثنى ينكر وجود كلمات أجنبية بين األلفاظ القرآن، ويذكر قوله المشهور أن فى القرآن لسانا سوى العربية فقد أعظم على هللا القول، وقال أبو بكر األنبارى، ان كان قد أثر عن أحد من األئمة وجود لفظه غير عربية فى القرآن، فانه مما اتفقت فيه لغة العرب ولغة غيرهم ألن هللا عز وجل ال ". انا جعلناه قرآنا عربيا لعلكم تعقلون: " يخاطب العرب بلغة العجم اذ بيّن ذلك فى قوله عز وجل والحقيقة ان تعلم العربية فرض على المسلمين، فقد ورد فى القرآن الكريم ما يشير الى وجوب تلمها، قال هللا ، ففى هذه اآلية الكريمة أمر بتعلم العربية، ألن تدبر )٢٩ص (" كتاب أنزلناه اليك مبارك ليّدبّروا آياته" تعالى . هو الفهم، وال يكون اال بمعرفة العربية، وذلك بالطبع يتطلب درسها ومتابعتها وقد ذكرنا من قبل حض عمر ابن الخطاب المسلمين على تعلم العربية ألنها من الدين، والى مثل هذا ذهب العربية خير اللغات واأللسنة، واالقبال على تفهمها من الديانة، اذ هى اداة العلم ومفتاح التفقة فى : الثعلبى ، فقال ان اللغة العربية من : " الدنيا، وسبب اصالح المعاش والمعاد، وقد صرح ابن تيمية بوجوب تعلم العربية فقال الدين، ومعرفتها فرض واجب، فان فهم الكتاب والسنة فرض وال يفهم اال باللغة العربية، وما ال يتم الواجب اال ". به وهو واجب وقد اوجب الفقهاء على المسلم قراءة القرآن بالعربية فى الصالة، ألن ترجمة القرآن، على مذهب الشافعى، ال وال يستحسن مذهب أبى حنيفة فى هذه المسألة، وألجل ذلك لم . تكفى فى صحة الصالة ال فى حق من ال يحسنها . يأخذ به الفقيه أبو الليث السمرقندي والقاضى أبو زيد الدبوسي 100 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 انا : " خمس عسرة حجة لوجوب قراءة القرآن، ومن بين ما احتج به قوله " التفسير الكبير " وأورد الرازي فى كانت " فاليأتكم برزق منه. فابعثوا أحدكم بورقكم هذه الى المدينة فالينظر ايها أزكى طعاما: " اذا فى قوله تعالى ومعلوم أن هذا ". بفر ستيديكي أزشمايا نقره بشهر بس بنكر دكه كدام طعام بهتر ست ياره اذا بيا ورد" ترجمته : من جنس كالم الناس لفظا ومعنى فوجب أن ال تجوز الصالة به لقوله عليه الصالة والسالم )الفارسى(الكالم ان صالتنا هذه ال يصلح فيها شيئ من كالم الناس، و اذا لم تنعقد الصالة بترجمة هذه األية فكذا بترجمة سائر " . أّن القرآن العربي كما انه تطلب قراءته لمعناه، كذلك تطلب قراءته ألجل لفظه " والسّر فى ذلك " اآليات، ان ترجمة القرآن مستحيلة، ال من الناحية الدينية وحدها، بل من الناحية اللغوية أيضا، فثمة ألفاظ عربية كثيرة ال البر، الموقوذة ، آصال ، األذان ، : يمكن ترجمتها الى أية لغة أخرى من لغات البشر، ومن أمثلة هذه األلفاظ .. التقوى ، البحيرة ، بضع ، أسرى ، موضونة ، وصيلة ، سائبة ، تيمم ، رهط ، الخ وأية لغة من اللغات تجد فيها من المترادفات ما يمكن ان ينقل المعانى الدقيقة لأللفاظ الواردة فى القرآن الكريم : " فى قوله " الودق " ، أو )۲٦٥البقرة (" فان لن يصبها وابل فطل : " فى قوله " الطل " ، " الوابل " من مثل ) ". ١١نوح (يرسل السماء عليكم مدرارا : " فى قوله " السماء " او )٤٣النور (" فترى الودق يخرج من خالله الحمد والشكر ، والزهد : وأية لغة يمكن أن تجد فيها هذه الفروق الدقيقة بين المترادفات القرآنية من مثل والزهاده ، والخشية الخوف ، والفقير والمسكين ، والعاقبة والعقاب ، والتوبة واإلنابة ، والبخل والشخ ، والعفو والغفران ، والعطاء والرزق؟ وال يقتصر األمر على ألفاظ القرآن وحدها، وانما يمتد الى اساليبه وتعابيره الفريدة التى تصعب ترجمتها أو نقلها " وقوله )٦٠األنفال (" وأعدوا لهم ما استطعتم من قوة ومن رباط الخيل : )سبحانه(الى غير لغة العرب، كقوله دون ان يزيد المترجمون فى كالم هللا ما ليس منه فى ترجماتهم، وهذا فضال من )١١سبأ (" أن اعمل سابغات بالقدر الذى يقارب ما هى عليه فى منبتها القرآنى من جمال وروعة " استحالة نقل التصاوير البيانية للقرآن ". واعجاز ألهل اللسان والفصاحة، فى كل زمان ومكان مجمل القول ان ترجمة القرآن مستحيلة ، وقصارى ما يصنعه المترجمون هو نقل معانى القرآن نقال يفقده على األقل جّو اللغة العربية المميز ، وان اعتماد القارئين على هذه الترجمات يحّول بغير شك دون انتشار اللغة . العربية ، ويلغى دورها فى توحيد المسلمين، وجمع كلماتهم الخاتمة وهكذا نرى الى أهمية اللغة العربية بالنسبة لنا نحن المسلمين بوصف كونها وسيلة للتعرف على الشريعة، وقراءة القرآن والحديث، وهما أصال اإلسالم، ونرى ايضا استحالة ترجمة القرآن ووجوب تعلم المسلمين انا نعرف ذلك كله حق : للعربية، ولكنى أحسب أنه ال يحسن بنا أن نكتفى بهذه الذى قدمناه، فلعل سائال يقول المعرفة ، ونتفق فيه تمام اإلتفاق، ولكنا نحتاج الى معرفة السبيل الى تعلم هذه اللغة الشريفة واتقانها حتى نحصل . على الثمرة المرجوة من وراء ذلك كله language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 101 ولست أزعم أن ثمة طريقة واحدة لتلعم اللغة العربية ، وانما هناك طرق عديدة ، ولكنى من الذين يرون أن اللغة وان حصول ملكة اللسان العربي انما هو بكثرة الحفظ من كالم العرب حتى يرتسم فى خيال " ملكة لسانية ، المتعلم المنوال الذى نسجوا عليه تراكيبهم فينسج هو عليه ويتنزل بذلك منزلة من نشأ معهم وخالط عباراتهم فى . كالمهم ، حتى تحصل له الملكة المستقرة فى العبارة عن المقاصد على نحوكالمهم فالحفظ والمحاكة اذن وسيلتان أساسيتان فى تعلم اللغة العربية ، كما هما وسيلتان أساسيتان لتعلم أية لغة أخرى من لغات البشر ، وتجئ المحاكاة تالية للحفظ ونتيجة له، وتكون بالنطق والمحادثة ، كما تكون بالخط والكتابة، أما الحفظ فيكون للنماذج الرفيعة من الشعر العربي القديم فى العصور الزاهرة األولى ، ولخطب الجاهليبن وال شك أن حفظ القرآن الكريم . والمسلمين من األمويين والعباسيين ، وللحكم واألمثال والمقامات والرسائل وكالم الصحابة والخلفاء وأقوال كبار المتصوفة والزهاد ذو أثر بالغ فى )صلى هللا عليه وسلم(وأحاديث الرسول . اجادة اللسان العربي واتقانه بيد أننا ال ينبغى أن نغفل لحظة عن حقيقة جديرة باإلنتباه وهى انه ليس هناك اسالم بال قرآن ، وليس هناك قرآن بال لغة عربية ، فاللغة العربية من الدين اإلسالمي بمكان مكين ، وأن لغة تحمل مثل هذا التراث الدينى والثقافى . لجديرة بحق بما قد يبذل فى سبيل تعلمها من وقت وجهد املراجع . مكتبة األجنلو املصرية: ، القاهرة داللة األلفاظ :ابراهيم أنيس . م ١٩٧٨مكتبة األجنلو املصرية ط سادسة ، : من أسرار اللغة، القاهرة . امة: ، جدة قضايا ومشكالت لغوية :أمحد عبد الغفور عطار . ها ١٣٢٥، القاهرة ، املطبعة احلسينية األضداد ىف اللغة :)حممد بن القاسم (: أبن األنبارى م ، بتحقيق مصطفى السقا ١٩٥٤مصطفى احللىب ، ط ثانية، : القاهرة فقه اللغة وسر العربية، :)أبو منصور (: الثعالىب . وابراهيم االبياري وعبد احلفيظ شلىب . م ، بتحقيق عبد السالم هارون١٩٣٨مصطفى احلليب ، ط أوىل، : ، القاهرة احليوان :)أبو عثمان عمرو بن حبر (: اجلاحظ . م ١٩٦١دار الكتاب اللبناىن ط ثانية، : املقدمة ، بريوت :)عبد الرمحن (: ابن خلدون . هـ ، طبعة عبد الرمحن حممد ١٣٠٢املطبعة البهية، : ، القاهرة التفسري الكبري : )الفخر (: الرازي . هـ ، بتحقيق عبد السالم هارون ١٣٨٢مطبعة املدىن ، ط أوىل ، : ، القاهرة أماىل الزجاجي :)أبو القاسم (: الزجاجي .م ، بتحقيق مازن املبارك ١٩٧٣دار النفائس ، ط ثانية ، : ، بريوت اإليضاح ىف النحو: أمهية اللغة العربية ىف الدراسات االسالمية ، ورقة عمل قدمت اىل ندوة اللغة العربية باألكادميية االسالمية جبامعة : عبد اهللا حتمني . م ١٩٨٦مااليا ىف نوفمرب . م ، بتحقيق على حممد البخاري ١٩٧٦عيسى البايب احللىب ، : ، القاهرة التبيان ىف اعراب القرآن )أبو البقاء (: العكربي . )بدون تاريخ (دار املعرفة : ، بريوت احياء علوم الدين : )أبو حامد (: الغزاىل 102 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 . ها ١٢٢٥ ، القاهرة ، مكتبة اخلاجني، العمدة ىف صناعة الشعر ونقده : )ابن رشيق (: القريواىن م ، بتحقيق هاشم ١٩٧٥منشورات وزارة االعالم ، : ، بغداد مشكل اعراب القرآن : )أبو حممد ابن أيب طالب (: القيسي . صاحل الضامن language circle october 2010.pdf applicative constructions in javanese ahmad sofwan semarang state university abstract applicative constructions refer to those in which an underlying indirect object or oblique is realised as a core argument. the applied argument replaces p and in most languages becomes the direct object. in most instances, the verb usually bears a distinctive inflection expressing the semantic relation borne by the direct object. in javanese applicative constructions could be intransitive-based and transitive-based, and they involve oblique to 2 advancement or 3-2 advancement. the nprefix on the verb, the deletion of preposition, and the suffix –i/ni or –ake mark the advancement to direct object. the suffix –i/ni is used to mark locative, recipient and destination advancement, whereas the suffix –ake is used to mark benefactive and instrumental advancement. it is also possible that advancement to direct object is not marked with any suffix. key words: applicative, locatives, instruments, benefactives, recipients, and destination introduction an intransitive construction or clause is typically monovalent because it typically consists of an intransitive predicate and a single core argument which is in s (intransitive subject) function. a transitive clause, on the other hand, can be bivalent where two core arguments are in a (transitive subject) and p (transitive object) functions, or trivalent, where in addition to a and p, there is one additional argument (which can be called ‘extension to core’). the trivalent transitive clause typically refers to giving, telling and showing (dixon and aikhenvald 2000). most languages have verbal derivations that affect predicate arguments. they may reduce or increase the number of core arguments. valencyreducing derivation includes passive, antipassive, reflexive and reciprocal, whereas valencyincreasing derivation includes applicative and causative. javanese has both intransitive and transitive constructions and the valency changing mechanism in javanese can be described in its applicative construction. therefore, the applicative construction is presented here to describe valency reducing or increasing derivation in javanese. the article begins with a brief overview of javanese basic constructions: intransitive and transitive, then later describes various applicative constructions, including. locatives, instruments, benefactives, recipients, and destination. javanese basic sentence constructions in javanese the predicate of an intransitive construction can be verbal or non-verbal. the nonverbal predicate, such as a noun phrase, an adjective phrase, an adverb phrase, etc. is illustrated in (1). (1) a. dheweke guru-ku 3sg teacher-1sg.poss ‘s/he is my teacher’ b. omah-e apik banget house-3sg.poss good very ‘her/his house is very good’ c. ibu-mu ing jakarta mother-2sg. poss in jakarta ‘your mother is in jakarta’ in (1) dheweke ‘s/he’, omahe ‘her/his house’ and ibumu ‘your mother’ are the sole arguments of the clauses and guruku ‘my teacher’, apik banget ‘very good’, and ing jakarta ‘in jakarta’ are their respective non-verbal predicates. the verbal predicates in intransitive constructions can take one of the several forms: base words (i.e. without affixes) (2a), suffixed with –an/en (2b), affixed with m(2c), partial or complete doubling of the base words (2d), and prefixed with a nasal (2e). note that the intransitive nasal prefix is homophonous with a prefix that occurs on most of the transitive predicates (see example (3b) below). this indicates that the presence of a nasal prefix is not in itself sufficient to indicate the grammatical transitivity of the clause that the verb occurs in (ewing 1999). (2) a. marni lunga menyang pasar marni go to market ‘marni went to the market’ b. bocah-bocah dolan-an ing kali children play-an in river ‘the children played in the river’ c. ali m-layu cepet banget ali m-run quick very ‘ali ran very quickly’ d. marni lagi umbah-umbah marni prog do washing ‘marni is doing the washing’ e. dheweke n-(t)angis 3sg n-cry ‘s/he cried’ most verbal predicates in the transitive constructions occur with the nasal prefix, whose morphophonemic properties are the same as those in the intransitive constructions. only a few verbs occur without a n-prefix, for example entuk ‘get’, duwe ‘have’ and tuku ‘buy’. in addition, nasalised transitive verbs can be without suffix (3a), with the suffix –i/ni (3b), and with the suffix –ake (3c). (3) a. toto tuku montor toto buy car ‘toto bought a car’ b. kucing iku m-(p)angan-i iwak cat def n-eat-i fish ‘the cat ate fish again and again’ c. aku n-(t)ukok-ake simbah kakung klambi anyar 1sg n-buy-ake grandfather shirt new ‘i bought my grandfather a new shirt’ this n-prefix is especially important with applicative constructions because the n-prefix always marks applied verbs in addition to the –i/ni or –ake suffix. in addition, it is important to describe here the properties of a javanese subject relation. the grammatical subject in javanese is characterised by a number of properties. first, it is pre-verbal in the normal word order of javanese of sv (o). this is the subject’s normal, unmarked position. the preverbal nps of the examples in (2a-e) are the subjects of their corresponding intransitive clauses and those of the examples in (3a-c) are the subjects of their corresponding transitive clauses. in an alternative order, v(o)s, the subject is inverted with respect to the verb, exemplified in (4). this order is marked by an intonational break, indicated by a comma. verhaar (1983) calls this postponed subject an ‘afterthought topic’, which still retains its subject relation in the clause. (4) a. lunga menyang pasar, marni go to market, marni ‘marni went to the market’ b. tuku montor, toto buy car toto ‘toto bought a car’ second, only grammatical subjects can be questioned by a clefted question word, as in (5a) whereas direct objects cannot, as in (5b). (4) a. sapa sing arep teka? who comp will come ‘who will come?’ b. *apa sing ani ngedol? what comp ani n-sell ‘what did ani sell?’ third, grammatical subjects and no other relation can be relativised, as illustrated in (6). attempts to relalivise direct objects results in ungrammaticality, as illustrated in (7). (6) bocah sing nembe teko iku putri-ku child comp just arrive def girl-1sg.poss ‘the child who just arrived is my daughter’ (7) *bocah sing asu iku ny-(c)okot wis bali child comp dog def n-bite already go home ‘the child that the dog bit already went home fourth, only grammatical subjects can be the clefted elements in a cleft construction, as illustrated in (8). direct objects do not allow clefting, as in (9). (8) dheweke sing menang 3sg comp win ‘it is she/he that won’ (9) *omah iku sing aku wis n-dandani house def comp 1sg already n-fix ‘it is the house that i already fixed’ fifth, the subject relation can be controlled, for example, as an equi target of certain verbs, as in (10). direct objects cannot be the equi target, as in (11). (10) aku kepingin (ø) m-(w)aca buku itu 1sg want n-read book def ‘i want to read the book’ (11) *amir kepingin ibu-ne ng-goleki (ø) amir want mother-3sg.poss n-look for ‘amir wants his mother look for (him)’ finally, subjects can also be gapped in controlled adverbial clauses. the subjects which must be coreferential with the matrix nominal is obligatorily deleted, as in (12). direct objects cannot be deleted, as in (13). (12) dhewekei teka saperlu (øi) ng-omong karo ali 3sg come for ntalk with ali ‘she/he came to talk with ali’ (13) *aku ng-goleki alij saperlu aku ng-(k)andhani (øj) 1sg n-look for ali for 1sg n-tell ‘i looked for ali to tell (him)’ applicative constructions the term applicative refers to a construction in some languages where an underlying indirect object or oblique is realised as a core argument. the applied argument replaces p and in most languages becomes the direct object. in some languages, p may be a subject. in most instances, the verb usually bears a distinctive inflection expressing the semantic relation borne by the direct object. in relational grammar, an applicative is referred to as an advancement of obliques, such as locative, benefactive, instrument, etc., to 2, or an advancement of 3 to 2 where 3 is an indirect object and 2 is a direct object. the following examples are taken from indonesian. (14) a. batu itu jatuh di genting stone def fall on roof tiles ‘the stone fell on the roof tiles’ b. batu itu men-jatuh-i genting stone def men-fall-i roof tiles ‘the stone fell on the roof tiles’ (15) a. ali mem-beli bunga untuk ani ali men-buy flower for ani ‘ali bought flowers for ani’ b. ali mem-beli-kan ani bunga ali men-buy-kan ani flower ‘ali bought flowers for ani’ the example in (14a) is an intransitive construction with a locative np genting itu ‘the roof tile’ functioning as an oblique, marked by the preposition di ‘on’. in (14b), there is an advancement of a locative to 2, marked by the presence of the suffix –i, the deleted preposition, and the menprefix which regularly marks the subject of a transitive verb. the resultant sentence in (14b) is no longer intransitive but transitive. in other words, with an intransitive base, applicativisation can turn it to a transitive construction. the stratal diagram for the example in (14) is illustrated in (16a). the example in (15a) is already a transitive construction with bunga as 2 and ani as a benefactive, as indicated by the preposition untuk ‘for’. the benefactive is advanced to 2 and the initial 2 is demoted to a chômeur. the advancement is registered on the verb by the prefix men-, the suffix –kan, and the deletion of the preposition untuk ‘for’. the stratal diagram in (16b) shows this advancement. (16) a. b. jatuh batu genting 1 loc p p 1 2 p p 1 cho beli ali bunga ani 1 2 ben 2 based on these examples, we can distinguish two kinds of applicative constructions: intransitive-based applicatives and transitivebased applicatives. the former is exemplified in (14) and the latter is exemplified in (15). in addition to a n-prefix, there are two applicative suffixes, -i/ni and –ake. in most cases they are in complementary distribution, that is, a verb can only take either one of the affixes. however, some applied verbs are not marked at all. below are examples of non-applicative verbs and their applicative counterparts. non-applicative applicative n+ ø n+ -i/ni n+ -ake lungguh (ing) *ng-lungguh ng-lungguh-i *ng-lungguh-ake ‘sit in’ ng-gawa *ng-gawa *ng-gawan-i ng-gawak-ake ‘take’ m-(p)acul m-(p)acul *m-(p)acul-i *m-(p)acul-ake ‘hue’ a number of applicative constructions, i.e. locatives, instruments, benefactives, recipients, and destination, are discussed in this chapter. locatives in javanese, the locative prepositions like ing, ning, ana ‘in/on/at’ or menyang ‘to’ mark a locative. the applied are marked by the n-prefix plus with or without the suffix –i/ni. note that the suffix –i is used when the verb ends in consonant whereas the suffix –ni is used when the verb ends in vowel. the n-prefix is also used to mark an applicative verb formed from an intransitive base that has no n-prefix. the following examples illustrate applicativisation of intransitive constructions. (17) a. dheweke lungguh ing dipan iku 3sg sit on bed def ‘s/he sat on the bed’ b. dheweke ng-lungguh-i dipan iku 3sg n-sit-i bed def ‘s/he sat on the bed’ (18) a. dheweke m-(p)anggon ing omah iki 3sg n-stay to house this ‘s/he stayed in this house’ b. dheweke m-(p)anggon-i omah iki 3sg n-stay-i house this ‘s/he stayed in this house’ the examples in (17) and (18) show applicativisation of intransitive constructions. in (17) the np dipan iku ‘the bed’ bears the same semantic role of locative, but it has a different grammatical relation, oblique, marked by the locative preposition ing ‘in’ in (17a) and direct object in (17b). the oblique relation in (17a) is promoted to produce the sentence in (17b). the promotion is registered on the verb with a morphological suffix –i and the deletion of its preposition. the result of this process is a transitive construction in which the locative np is now in direct object relation. a similar situation occurs with the sentence in (18) where the locative oblique is promoted to direct object, indicated by the suffix –i and the deletion of the preposition ing ‘in’. one piece of evidence that the advanced oblique is a new 2 is its ability to be further promoted to 1 via passivisation. in the example below, dipan iku ‘the bed’ is advanced to 1. (19) dipan iku di-lungguh-i dheweke bed def di-sit-i 3sg ‘the bed was sat on by her/him’ the promotion of locative to 2 and then further to 1 can be illustrated by following an rg analysis as follows. (20) dheweke lungguh dipan 1 p loc 1 p 2 cho p 1 in the first stratum in which the verb is intransitive, dheweke ‘s/he’ is designated as 1, the verb lungguh ‘sit’ as predicate and the locative phrase ing dipan iku ‘on the bed’ as loc(ative). in the second stratum, dheweke ‘s/he’ remains as 1, the locative phrase is advanced to 2 and the verb is suffixed with –i. there is another change with the verb. the advancement of locative creates a new 2 and hence the verb is transitive, and this is registered with the n-prefix. in the last stratum, the new 2 is advanced further to 1 via passivisation, demoting the initial 1, dheweke, to a chômeur. some intransitive verbs in javanese are affixed with mfrom precategorial bases because precategorial bases cannot be used syntactically before being affixed. in other words, the prefix is used here to form verbs. the locative obliques following these prefixed intransitives are promoted to direct object through applicativisation by a morphological marker of the n-prefix in place of mas well as the –i/ni suffix on the verb. the locative preposition is then dropped, as illustrated in (21) and (22). (21) a. aku m-unggah ing boncengan 1sg m-climb in back seat ‘i climbed onto the back seat’ b. aku ng-unggah-i boncengan 1sg n-climb-i back seat ‘i climbed onto the back seat’ (22) a. ningsih m-lebu ing senthong ningsih m-enter in bedroom ‘ningsih entered the bedroom’ b. ningsih ng-lebo-ni senthong ningsih n-enter-i bedroom ‘ningsih entered the bedroom’ in addition, there are some other intransitive verbs in javanese that already have the n-prefix. like the ones prefixed with m-, these intransitive verbs are formed from precategorials. applicativisation normally involves adding a nprefix on the verb of the non-applicative construction. however, due to the presence of the nprefix, these nasalised intransitive verbs do not require an additional prefix. they do not require the suffix –i/ni either. the examples in (23) and (24) illustrate this. (23) a. ali m-(p)acul ing sawah ali n-hoe in ricefield ‘ali hoed in the ricefield’ b. ali m-(p)acul sawah ali n-hoe ricefield ‘ali hoed the ricefield’ (24) a. ali ng-luku ing sawah ali n-plough in ricefield ‘ali ploughed in the ricefield’ b. ali ng-luku sawah ali n-plough ricefield ‘ali ploughed the ricefield’ the intransitive verbs in the above examples are nasalised from noun bases, pacul ‘a hoe’ in (23a) and luku ‘a plough’ in (24a). the grammatical relations which exist here are subject (ali in both examples) and locative obliques sawah in both examples. when applicativisation is involved, the verbs remain the same. no additional affixation occurs, but like in the previous applicativisation, the preposition is dropped because the oblique now bears the direct object relation. the discussion so far involves applicativisation of intransitive constructions. a locative within a transitive construction can also undergo applicativisation. the advancement which occurs within a transitive construction not only promotes a locative oblique to direct object but also demotes the initial direct object to a chômeur. consider the following examples. (25) a. dheweke ng-isi banyu ning botol 3sg n-fill water in bottle ‘s/he filled water into a bottle’ b. dheweke ng-ise-ni botol banyu 3sg n-fill-i bottle water ‘s/he filled a bottle with water’ (26) a. pak hardi n-(t)andur kembang in kebon mr hardi n-plant flower in garden ‘mr hardi planted flowers in the garden’ b. pak hardi n-(t)andur-i kebon kembang mr hardi n-plant-i garden flower ‘mr hardi planted the garden with flowers’ the examples in (25) are transitive with dheweke ‘s/he’ as subject. however, the postverbal arguments banyu ‘water’ and botol ‘bottle’ do not bear the same grammatical relation because in (25a) banyu ‘water’ is a direct object but becomes a chômeur in (25b) due to the advancement of locative botol ‘bottle’ to direct object. so, in (25b) botol ‘bottle’ is a new direct object demoting the initial direct object banyu to a chômeur. the advancement of locative to direct object is registered by the suffix –i/ni on the verb ng-ise-ni. the n-prefix is not required because the transitive verb in (25a) is already nasalised. a similar process applies to (26) where the locative kebon ‘garden’ is advanced to direct object and the initial direct object kembang ‘flower’ is demoted to a chômeur. the advancement is marked by the suffix –i on the verb n-(t)andur-i ‘plant’. the relational network of the advancement of locative into direct object within transitive constructions can be seen below. (27) dheweke ng-isi banyu botol 1 p 2 loc 1 p cho 2 in the initial stratum, banyu ‘water’ is 2 and botol ‘bottle’ is loc(ative), but in the final stratum, botol ‘bottle’ is advanced to 2, which then demotes the initial 2 to a chômeur. the advancement is registered on the verb by the suffix –i/ni. the evidence for claiming the initial 2, banyu ‘water’, is demoted to chômeur is that it can no longer be advanced to subject via the passive (28b) whereas (28a) shows that botol ‘bottle’, the final 2, can be promoted to 1. (28) a. botol di-ise-ni banyu dening dheweke bottle di-fill-i water by 3sg ‘the bottle was filled with water by her/him’ b. *banyu di-ise-ni botol dening dheweke water di-fill-i bottle by 3sg *‘the water was filled with bottle by her/him’ instruments javanese encodes instrumental nps with the preposition nganggo ‘with’. the examples are given below. (29) a. ratna m-balang omah nganggo watu iku ratna n-throw house with stone def ‘ratna threw the house with the stone’ b. dheweke n-(t)embak manuk nganggo bedil 3sg n-shoot bird with gun ‘s/he shot the bird with a gun’ the instrumental nps are watu ‘stone’ in (29a) and bedil ‘gun’ in (29b) and they bear the instrumental oblique relation. these obliques can be promoted to direct object with the demotion of the initial objects into chômeurs marked with the preposition marang ‘to’. the promotion or advancement of an instrumental oblique into a direct object is registered on the verb by the suffix –ake. the result of this process can be illustrated in the following sentences. (30) a. ratna m-balang-ake watu iku marang omah ratna n-throw-ake stone def to house ‘ratna threw the stone at the house’ b. dheweke n-(t)embak-ake bedil marang manuk 3sg n-shoot-ake gun to bird ‘s/he fired the gun at the bird’ (30a) corresponds with (29a) and (30b) corresponds with (29b). however, the post-verbal arguments of (30a) and (30b) are different from their counterparts in (29a) and (29b) respectively. in (30a) the instrumental oblique watu has been advanced to direct object and this is marked with –ake on the verb and the preposition nganggo ‘with’ is deleted. in addition, the former object has been demoted to a chômeur marked by the preposition marang ‘to/at’. a similar process occurs with (30b) from (29b) where the instrumental oblique has been advanced to a direct object and the initial direct object has been demoted to a chômeur, indicated by the suffix – ake on the verb and the preposition marang ‘to/at’ on the demoted object. to show that the advancee holds the new 2 relation, it can further be advanced to 1 via passivisation, as illustrated in (31a) for (30a) and (31b) for (30b). (31) a. watu iku di-balang-ake ratna marang omah stone def dithrow-ake ratna to house ‘the stone was thrown by ratna at the house’ b. bedil di-tembak-ake dheweke marang manuk gun di-shoot-ake 3sg to bird ‘the gun was fired by her/him at the bird’ the grammatical relations of this process are illustrated in (32). (32) a. ratna m-balang omah watu 1 p 2 instr 1 p cho 2 cho p cho 1 b. dheweke n-(t)embak manuk bedil 1 p 2 instr 1 p cho 2 cho p cho 1 in the initial stratum, ratna ‘ratna’ and dheweke ‘s/he’ are 1, omah ‘house’ and manuk ‘bird’ are 2, and watu ‘stone’ and bedil ‘gun’ are instrumental obliques. in the second stratum, the instrumental obliques are advanced to 2 demoting the initial 2 to chômeur. the advancement is registered on the verbs by the suffix –ake and the preposition marang ‘to’ on the chômeurs. in the final stratum, passives, the advanced instrumental obliques are further advanced to 1. benefactives beneficiary is typologically identified as a prototypical animate entity that benefits from the action of the verb (palmer 1994: 31). in english, beneficiary is marked by the preposition for, as illustrated in (33). (33) he bought a car for his wife although it is restricted in english, this benefactive construction can be paraphrased by advancing the beneficiary to direct object, as illustrated in (34). (34) a. he bought his wife a car b. *he bought a car his wife the advancement is marked by the position of the new direct object his wife immediately after the verb and the deletion of the preposition for, as shown in (34a). if the position of the former direct object and the beneficiary is not reversed, the sentence will be unacceptable, as shown in (34b). in javanese the presence of a benefactive argument is marked by the preposition kanggo ‘for’. the benefactive applicatives can be intransitive-based or transitive based. the following examples are intransitive-based benefactives in javanese. (35) a. dheweke blanja kanggo anna 3sg shop for anna ‘s/he shopped for anna’ b. dheweke m-blanjak-ake anna 3sg n-shop-ake anna ‘s/he shopped for anna’ (36) a. ali n-donga kanggo bapak-e ali n-pray for father-3sg.poss ‘ali prayed for his father’ b. ali n-dongak-ake bapak-e ali n-pray-ake father-3sg.poss ‘ali prayed for his father’ both sentences in (35a) and (36a) are intransitive constructions with non-nasalised and nasalised verbs respectively. anna ‘anna’ and bapak-e ‘his father’ are beneficiaries for the respective sentences and are preceded by the preposition kanggo ‘for’. the advancement of the beneficiary to direct object is registered on the verb by the suffix –ake, forming these verbs into transitive, and the deletion of the preposition kanggo ‘for’. in addition, the verb blanja ‘shop’ is now nasalised. as demonstrated in (35b) and (36b) anna ‘anna’ and bapak-e ‘his father’ are now the direct objects of the newly transitivised verbs mblanjak-ake ‘shop for’ and n-dongak-ake ‘pray for’. the grammatical relation for the advancement of benefactives to direct objects is given as follows. (37) a. dheweke blanja ana 1 p ben 1 p 2 b. ali donga bapak-e 1 p ben 1 p 2 in the initial stratum, dheweke ‘s/he’ and ali ‘ali’ are 1, blanja ‘shop’ and donga ‘pray’ are p and anna ‘anna’ and bapak-e ‘his father’ are ben(efactives), which are preceded by the preposition kanggo ‘for’. the verb in (35a) is non-nasal whereas the one in (36a) is nasalised. in the final stratum, the benefactives are advanced to 2 and the verbs are transitivised by the suffix –ake. benefactive constructions in javanese are also found with transitive constructions. the examples are illustrated below. (38) a. ali n-jupuk buku kanggo mary ali n-take book for mary ‘ali took a book for mary’ b. ali n-jupuk-ake mary buku ali n-take-ake mary book ‘ali took a book for mary’ (39) a. dheweke ng-gawa hadiah kanggo anak-e 3sg n-bring present for child-3sg.poss ‘s/he brought a present for her/his child’ b. dheweke ng-gawak-ake anak-e hadiah 3sg n-bring-ake child-3sg.poss present ‘s/he brought her/his child a present’ (40) a. amin ng-gawe dolanan kanggo kanca-ne amin n-make toy for friend-3sg.poss ‘amin made a toy for his friend’ b. amin ng-gawek-ake kanca-ne dolanan amin n-make-ake friend-3sg.poss toy ‘amin made his friend a toy’ the above examples show the advancement of benefactive to direct object. in (38a), (39a), and (40a) the verbs are transitive and nasalised. ali ‘ali’, dheweke ‘s/he’ and amin ‘amin’ are subjects, buku ‘book’, hadiah ‘present’ and dolanan ‘toy’ are direct objects and mary ‘mary’, anake ‘her/his child’ and kancane ‘his friend’ are beneficiaries marked by the preposition kanggo ‘for’. the corresponding sentences in (38b), (39b) and (40b) are those which have undergone advancement of benefactives to direct objects. in (38b) the benefactive mary ‘mary’ is advanced to direct object. this is registered on the verb with the suffix –ake and the preposition kanggo ‘for’ is deleted, and the former direct object is demoted to a chômeur (see section 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 for inability of the demoted direct object for passivisation). a similar process occurs for (39b) and (40b). it is necessary to note that prior to advancement, the direct object immediately follows the verbs, as in (38a), (39a) and (40a). putting the benefactives immediately after the verbs is unacceptable as illustrated below. note that (41a) corresponds with (38a), (41b) with (39a) and (41c) with (40a). (41) a. *ali n-jupuk kanggo mary buku ali n-take for mary book ‘ali took a book for mary’ b. *dheweke ng-gawa kanggo anak-e hadiah 3sg n-bring for child-3sg.poss present ‘s/he brought a present for her/his child’ c. *amin ng-gawe kanggo kanca-ne dolanan amin n-make for friend-3sg.poss toy ‘amin made a toy for his friend’ after the advancement of a benefactive in a transitive clause, the new object and the demoted object can occur in either order. the examples in (42) illustrate this. (42) a. pak hardi m-(p)undhut montor kanggo wong iku mr. hardi n-buy car for person def ‘mr. hardi bought a car for that person’ b. pak hardi m-(p)undhut-ake wong iku montor mr. hardi n-buy-ake person def car ‘mr. hardi bought that person a car’ c. pak hardi m-(p)undhut-ake montor wong iku mr. hardi n-buy-ake car person def ‘mr. hardi bought that person a car’ the example in (42a) is a transitive construction with the benefactive encoded with the preposition kanggo ‘for’ and no advancement to direct object has taken place. the direct object comes immediately after the verb and the verb is not suffixed. after the advancement took place, the benefactive demotes the initial direct object to a chômeur. the verb is marked with the suffix –ake and the preposition is dropped. this is illustrated in (42b). in (42c) the advancement of benefactive to direct object has taken place, marked with the suffix –ake and the deletion of the preposition. however, the initial direct object and the benefactive remain in their original position. in english, as in (34) and the following example (43) advancement without changing position is unacceptable. (43) a. mr. hardi poured a cup of tea for that person. b. mr. hardi poured that person a cup of tea. c. *mr. hardi poured a cup of tea that person. in (43a), there is no advancement of benefactive to direct object and the preposition for is used. in (43b) the advancement has taken place, marked by the order of the benefactive immediately after the verb and the deletion of the preposition for. in (43c) the advancement has taken place but the order of benefactive and the initial direct object is retained, and it is unacceptable in english. after the benefactive advancement, the initial direct object is a chômeur. this is evidenced by the fact that the advanced benefactive, not the chômeur, can be advanced to 1 to form passive, as shown in the following. (44) a. *montor di-pundhut-ake dening pak hardi wong iku car di-buy-ake by mr. hardi person def ‘the car was bought that person by mr. hardi’ b. wong iku di-(p)undhut-ake montor dening pak hardi person def di-buy-ake car by mr. hardi ‘that person was bought a car by mr. hardi’ when the chômeur montor ‘car’ is advanced to 1, the sentence is ungrammatical (44a), but when the advanced benefactive wong iku ‘that person’ holding a new 2 is advanced to 1, the sentence in grammatical (44b). in addition, there are some sentences that are worth discussing with regard to the advancement of a beneficiary to a direct object. examples are given below. (45) a. jana n-jupuk-ake buku kanggo petrus jana n-take-ake book for petrus ‘jana took a book for petrus’ (sudaryanto 1976: 129) b. aku n-(t)ulis-ake layang kanggo bapak-e 1sg n-write-ake letter for father-3sg.poss ‘i wrote a letter for her/his father’ (arifin et al. 1987: 46) c. ali n-jupuk-ake buku kanggo aminah ali n-take-ake book for aminah ‘ali took a book for aminah’ (bintoro 1980: 107) these examples are clearly benefactive constructions indicated by the preposition kanggo ‘for’ which precedes the benefactive nps petrus ‘petrus’ (45a), bapak-e ‘her/his father’ (45b), and aminah ‘aminah’ (45c). however, the verbs in these examples are marked with the suffix –ake which is also the marker of advancement of the benefactive np to direct object, as shown in the previous discussion. how do we account for this phenomenon? one possible explanation might be that there is some confusion among speakers between a construction with and without advancement of benefactive to direct object (badib 1980). consider the following examples. (46) a. jana n-jupuk buku kanggo petrus jana n-take book for petrus ‘jana took a book for petrus’ b. jana n-jupuk-ake petrus buku jana n-take-ake petrus book ‘jana took a book for petrus’ c. jana n-jupuk-ake buku petrus jana n-take-ake book petrus ‘jana took a book for petrus’ d. jana n-jupuk-ake buku kanggo petrus jana n-take-ake book for petrus ‘jana took a book for petrus’ (47) a. aku n-(t)ulis layang kanggo bapak-e 1sg n-write letter for father-3sg.poss ‘i wrote a letter for her/his father’ b. aku n-(t)ulis-ake bapak-e layang 1sg n-write-ake father-3sg.poss letter ‘i wrote a letter for her/his father’ c. aku n-(t)ulis-ake layang bapak-e 1sg n-write-ake letter father-3sg.poss ‘i wrote a letter for her/his father’ d. aku n-(t)ulis-ake layang kanggo bapak-e 1sg n-write-ake letter for father-3sg.poss ‘i wrote a letter for her/his father’ (48) a. ali n-jupuk buku kanggo aminah ali n-take book for aminah ‘ali took a book for aminah’ b. ali n-jupuk-ake aminah buku ali n-take-ake aminah book ‘ali took a book for aminah’ c. ali n-jupuk-ake buku aminah ali n-take-ake book aminah ‘ali took a book for aminah’ d.. ali n-jupuk-ake buku kanggo aminah ali n-take-ake book for aminah ‘ali took a book for aminah’ examples (46), (47) and (48) show that there is a transitional change from the construction without the advancement in (46a), (47a) and (48a) to full advancement in (46b), (47b) and (48b). in the (a) examples the verbs are not suffixed with –ake and the beneficiaries are preceded by the preposition kanggo ‘for’. in the (b) examples advancement has taken place indicated by the registration of –ake on the verbs, the deletion of the preposition and the order change where the beneficiary in its new role as a direct object comes immediately after the verb demoting the old direct object to a chômeur. as javanese allows the advanced benefactive retains its position, sentences in ( 46c), (47c) and (48c) emerge where both the demoted direct object and the advanced beneficiary remain in their original position. some confusion arises whether to use the original benefactive construction or the one with the advanced benefactive, as a result, as shown in (46d), (47d) and (48d), the preposition kanggo ‘for’ reappears preceding the beneficiary. here, the suffix –ake marks the advancement which demotes the initial direct object to a chômeur, but the beneficiary retains its preposition so it cannot take over the direct objecthood, consequently, both the postverbal arguments cannot bear direct object relations, and passivisation cannot be produced. consider the passivisation of (46). (49) a. buku di-jupuk kanggo petrus dening jana book di-take for petrus by jana ‘the book was taken for petrus by jana’ b. petrus di-jupuk-ake buku dening jana petrus di-take-ake book by jana ‘the book was taken for petrus by jana’ c. * buku di-jupuk-ake kanggo petrus dening jana book di-take-ake for petrus by jana ‘the book was taken for petrus by jana’ d. *petrus di-jupuk-ake buku kanggo dening jana book di-take-ake book for by jana ‘petrus was taken the book for by jana’ the passive in (49a) corresponds with (46a). the one in (49b) corresponds with both (46b) and (46c) in which passivisation can only occur with petrus ‘petrus’ as the final direct object to be the subject of the corresponding passive. the example in (46d) cannot undergo passivisation. neither of the postverbal arguments can be promoted to the subject of the passive, as demonstrated by the unacceptability of promoting buku ‘book’ (49c) and petrus ‘petrus’ (49d) as the subject of the corresponding passives. the syntactic problem of (46d) can be represented with the relational network as follows. (50) jana jupuk buku petrus 1 p 2 ben 1 p cho ben as shown above that in the initial stratum, jana ‘jana’ is 1, jupuk ‘take’ is p, buku ‘book’ is 2 and petrus ‘petrus’ is ben(efactive). in the applicative construction, buku has been demoted to cho but its position is not taken over by the petrus which still bears the benefactive oblique. because no argument fills the direct objecthood on the second stratum, no passivisation is possible. recipients this sub-section explores recipient advancement. recipients usually involve verbs of giving. in english the verb give may have two different constructions, as follows. (51) a. fred gave the book to tom b. fred gave tom the book in (51a) fred functions as subject, the book as direct object and tom indirect object. tom is marked by the preposition to and comes after the direct object. in (51b) fred is subject and tom holds the direct object relation, indicated by the position immediately after the verb and the deletion of the preposition to and the former direct object is pushed to a chômeur. according to relational grammar, there is a 3-2 advancement, implying that the example in (51a) is basic and the example in (51b) derives from (51a). the indirect object tom is advanced to direct object and the book is demoted into a chômeur. the grammatical relations of sentence (51) are shown below. (52) fred gave tom the book 1 p 3 2 1 p 2 cho sentence (51a) is represented in the initial stratum where the book is 2 and tom is 3 whereas sentence (51b) is represented in the final stratum where tom is advanced to 2 and the book is demoted to chômeur. the principal evidence that advancement has taken place is passivisation. before advancement takes place the book as the initial 2 can be passivised as shown in (53a), but after the advancement (53) a. the book was given to tom by fred b. *the book was given tom by fred c. tom was given the book by fred there is a controversy over the analysis of the double object construction in english. hudson (1992) casts doubt on the rg analysis given above. he claims that in an english double object construction, the second object should be taken as the direct object because he claims that the second object shares the most characteristics with the direct object in a monotransitive construction. hudson uses the following terms: oo to refer to a direct object in a monotransitive construction, o1 to refer to a recipient and o2 to refer to a patient/theme in the double object construction. the examples are given below (hudson 1992: 257). (54) a. fred met [mary] oo b. anne gave [the children] [ those sweets] o1 o2 so, in (43a) mary is oo, and in (43b) the children is o1 and those sweets is o2. hudson examines the properties of oo, o1, and o2. for example, oo and o2, but not o1, can extract easily, can follow a particle, and can be moved by heavy np shift. he suggests that many of the properties are shared more between oo and o2 than between oo and o1. while hudson examines the properties of objects in both constructions, dryer (1986) questions whether one construction derives from the other. he claims that there is no revaluation in the double object construction. it should be, therefore, taken as monostratal. dryer defends this interpretation on the grounds that this construction is the preferred alternative across languages and therefore should be analysed as having a single stratum. in defending his argument, dryer proposes the grammatical relations of primary object (po) and secondary object (so) to refer to the way in which some languages operate. these relations are held simultaneously with direct object and indirect object in the same way as that ergative and absolutive are held at the same time as subject and direct object. where the universal alignment hypothesis treats the recipient in a giving sentence as the initial io and the patient the initial do, dryer’s proposal on the double object construction is illustrated as follows (dryer 1986: 821). (55) jae sent the minister a letter io(po) do(so) dryer (1986: 814) points out that a nominal is a po if it is an io in a ditransitive clause, or a do in a monotransitive clause. it is a so if it is a do in a ditransitive clause. based on this assumption, in this clause the minister is analysed as po because it holds the io relation and a letter is analysed as so because it holds the do relation. dryer’s proposal of po and so terms seems to align with bresnan and kanerva’s (1989) categories of grammatical relation of the construction below where mary is analysed as obj and the book as obj2. (56) john gave mary the book contrary to the rg analysis where the double object construction is derived, dryer suggests the opposite. he takes the alternative to the double object construction where the recipient appears as an oblique to be marked and he analyses as involving a demotion of the io to chômeur. he calls this antidative analysis (1986: 821). the following example illustrates this. (57) a. john gave mary the book io(po) do(so) b. john gave the book to mary initial do(so) io(po) final do(po) chômeur the sentence in (57a) is treated as basic and by following traditional descriptive approaches the np immediately after the verb in such sentences is described as the io and the second np after the verb as the do. in the above ditransitive clause, mary is a po because it is an io and the book is as so because it is a do. according to the antidative analysis the sentence in (57b) involves the rule of antidative whereby the so the book advances to become the po. the original po becomes the chômeur as a result of the advancement. while dryer’s analysis where the double object construction is basic and the alternative tophrase construction is derived and marked is the opposite of the rg’s, shibatani (1996: 174) claims that these two constructions are both basic. he suggests that the recipient in constructions with giving verbs seem to follow one of the two different patterns: (58) 1st pattern: np1= subject, np2 = primary object, np3= secondary object 2nd pattern: np1= subject, np2= indirect object, np3= direct object the first pattern is similar to the double object construction where the recipient is encoded as np2 (primary object) and the patient as np3 (secondary object) whereas the second pattern is similar to the to-phrase construction where the patient is encoded as np3 (direct object) and the recipient as np2 (indirect object). some languages may have both patterns in their constructions with giving verbs, some others may only have one pattern, either the first pattern or the second pattern. english has both patterns as illustrated at the beginning of this section. in indonesian, the constructions with giving verbs behave in the same way as the ones in english. the following are indonesian examples. (59) a. ali mem-beri anna buah itu ali men-give-i anna fruit def ‘ali gave anna the fruit ‘ b. ali mem-beri-kan buah itu kepada anna ali men-give-kan fruit def to anna ‘ali gave the fruit to anna’ the example in (59a) follows shibatani’s 1st pattern where the np2 anna ‘anna’ is expressed as the primary object and the np3 buah itu ‘the fruit’ is expressed as the secondary object. example (59b) follows his 2nd pattern where the np3 buah itu ‘the fruit’ is expressed as direct object and the np2 anna ‘anna’ is expressed as indirect object preceded by the preposition kepada ‘to’. note that the verb in (59a) is suffixed with –i whereas the one in (59b) is suffixed with – kan. the absence of the –i/ni suffix on the verb mem-beri (59a) is due to a simple phonological process in verbs whose stem ends in /i/. this is clear from consonant-final verbs below. (60) menyerah-i menyerah-kan ‘hand’ menawar-i menawar-kan ‘offer’ menghadiah-i menghadiah-kan ‘give a present’ the use of the -i or –kan suffix determines what argument come immediately after the verb. with –kan, it is the theme whereas with –i, it is the recipient that comes immediately after the verb. other languages, such as japanese and german, employ shibatani’s second pattern. the example in (61a) is japanese and the one in (61b) is german (from shibatani 1996: 174). (61) a. taroo ga hanako ni hon o yatta taroo nom hanako dat book acc gave ‘taroo gave a book to hanako’ b. otto gibt dem kind brötchen otto give the.dat child small.bread ‘otto gave the child rolls of bread’ the japanese example follows the second pattern where the np2 hanako (recipient) is expressed as indirect object indicated by the dative marker ni and the np3 hon ‘a book’ is expressed as direct object indicated by the accusative marker o. similarly in german, np2 kind (recipient) is expressed as indirect object indicated by the dative marker dem and the np3 brötchen ‘pieces of roll bread’ is expressed as direct object. shibatani further points out that the basic syntax of benefactives is the same as that of giving constructions. so, english and indonesian benefactive constructions, for instance, can have two forms: one in which the beneficiary is expressed as primary object in a double object construction and the other as indirect object because english and indonesian use both patterns with the giving constructions. on the other hand, in japanese and german, the benefactives follow the second pattern because they use the second pattern in their giving constructions. javanese giving constructions behave like the ones in english and indonesian. there is verb morphology to mark the distinction of two types of giving constructions: one suffixed with – ake and another suffixed with –i/ni. the choice of the suffix determines which of the two postverbal arguments function as direct object. consider the following sentences. (62) a. ali m-(w)eneh-ake dolanan iku marang zahra ali n-give-ake toy def to zahra ‘ali gave the toy to zahra’ b. ali m-(w)eneh-i zahra dolanan iku ali n-give-i zahra toy def ‘ali gave the toy to zahra’ (62) a. kepala sekolah m-(p)asrah-ake tugas iku marang ali principal n-assign-ake job def to ali ‘the principal assigned the job to ali’ b. kepala sekolah m-(p)asrah-i ali tugas iku principal n-assign-i ali job def ‘the principal assigned ali the job’ the verbs in (62a) and (63a) are suffixed with – ake whereas those in (62b) and (63b) are suffixed with –i. the suffixes indicate different marking on the nps following the verbs. in (62a) and (64a) the nps dolanan iku ‘the toy’ and tugas iku ‘the job’ function as direct objects whereas nps ali ‘ali’ and zahra ‘zahra’ functions as recipients preceded by the preposition marang ‘to’. in the (62b) and (63b), on the other hand, alternation has taken place where the nps zahra ‘zahra’ and ali ‘ali’, which function as recipients in (62a) and (63a), are direct objects whereas the former direct objects dolanan ‘toy’ and tugas ‘job’ are pushed into chômage. with respect to passivisation, there is no controversy with the examples in (62a) and (63a) because there is only one candidate for promotion, that is the direct objects dolanan ‘toy’ and tugas ‘job’, as illustrated in (64). (64) a. dolanan iku di-weneh-ake ali marang zahra toy def di-give-ake ali to zahra ‘the toy was given by ali to zahra’ b. *zahra di-weneh-ake ali dolanan iku marang zahra di-give-ake ali toy def to ‘zahra as given the toy by ali to’ (65) a. tugas iku di-pasrah-ake kepala sekolah marang ali job def di-assign-ake principal to ali ‘the job was assigned by the principal to ali’ b. *ali di-pasrah-ake kepala sekolah tugas iku marang ali di-assign-ake principal job def to ‘ali was assigned the job by the principal to the above examples show that with the giving verbs suffixed with –ake the patient nps can be passivised whereas the non-patient nps cannot be passivised. the contrary occurs with the giving verbs suffixed with –i/ni, as illustrated in the following. (66) a. *dolanan iku di-weneh-i ali zahra toy def di-give-i ali zahra ‘the toy was given by ali to zahra’ b. zahra di-weneh-i ali dolanan iku zahra di-give-i ali toy def ‘zahra was given the toy by ali’ (67) a. *tugas iku di-pasrah-i kepala sekolah ali job def di-assign-i principal ali ‘the job was assigned by the principal to ali’ b. ali di-pasrah-i kepala sekolah tugas iku ali di-assign-i principal job def ‘ali was assigned the job by the principal’ with the giving verbs suffixed with –i, it is the recipient which can be promoted to subject. this indicates that the recipient is the new direct object. the patient nps which in the previous examples can be promoted to subjects can no longer be able to be promoted to subject because they are now chômeurs. this is the reason why the examples in (66a) and (67a) are ungrammatical whereas those in (66b) and (57b) are grammatical. the suffix –ake with the giving verbs is then different from the suffix –ake used to mark the advancement of benefactive to direct object in the previous section because the benefactive obliques come with monotransitive verbs as shown by the following. (68)a. pak hardi m-(p)undhut montor kanggo wong iku mr. hardi n-buy car for person def ‘mr. hardi bought a car for the person’ b. pak hardi m-(p)undhut montor mr. hardi n-buy car ‘mr. hardi bought a car’ (69) a. pak hardi m-(p)undhut-ake wong iku montor mr. hardi n-buy-ake person def car ‘mr. hardi bought the person a car’ b. *pak hardi m-(p)undhut-ake wong iku mr. hardi n-buy-ake person def ‘mr. hardi bought the person’ the verb in (68a) has no suffix followed by a direct object montor ‘car’ and a benefactive wong iku ‘the person’. the deletion of benefactive in (68b) does not affect the grammaticality of the sentence because the verb is monotransitive. the verb in (69a) is suffixed with –ake with the benefactive functions as the new direct object whereas the former direct object is demoted to a chômeur. the verb m-(p)undhut-ake is ditransitive because the absence of the former direct object causes the sentence to be ungrammatical. the situation is different with the give-like verbs. the give-like verbs either suffixed with – ake or –i/ni are ditransitive. no nps following the verb can be deleted. consider the following examples. (70) a. ali m-(w)eneh-ake dolanan iku marang zahra ali n-give-ake toy def to zahra ‘ali gave the toy to zahra’ b. *ali m-(w)eneh-ake dolanan iku ali n-give-ake toy def ‘ali gave the toy to zahra’ c. *ali m-(w)eneh-ake marang zahra ali n-give-ake to zahra ‘ali gave to zahra’ (71) a. ali m-(w)eneh-i zahra dolanan iku ali n-give-i zahra toy def ‘ali gave the toy to zahra’ b. *ali m-(w)eneh-i zahra ali n-give-i zahra ‘ali gave to zahra’ c. *ali m-(w)eneh-i dolanan iku ali n-give-i toy def ‘ali gave the toy’ the verbs m-(w)neh-ake in (70) and m-(w)eneh-i in (71) are ditransitive verbs and require the presence of both postverbal arguments. therefore, the absence of either postverbal argument results in the ungrammaticality of the sentence, as demonstrated in (70b), (70c), (71b) and (71c). other verbs that behave like menehake-menehi are given below. (72) nawakake – nawani ‘offer’ ngirimake – ngirimi ‘send’ masrahake –masrahi ‘entrust’ nakokake – nakoni ‘ask’ nyritakake –nyritani ‘tell (a story)’ nuduhake – nuduhi ‘show’ nyilihake–nyilihi ‘lend’ nyuguhake – nyuguhi ‘serve’ in addition, there are some verbs which do not consistently follow the above pattern. the verbs like sumbang ‘contribute’ and balang ‘throw’ are not suffixed with –i for the double object construction, as shown in the following example. (73) a. dheweke ny-(s)umbang-ake dhuwit marang kowe 3sg n-contribute-ake money to 2sg ‘s/he contributed money to you’ b. dheweke ny-(s)umbang kowe dhuwit 3sg n-support 2sg money ‘s/he supported you with money’ there are also some verb in the double object construction with or without suffix –i/ni, for example, wulang, ajar ‘teach’. this is illustrated in (74). (74) a. pak harso m-(w)ulang-ake geografi marang murid-murid mr. harso n-teach-ake geography to students ‘mr. harso taught geography to the students’ b. pak harso m-(w)ulang-i murid-murid geografi mr. harso n-teach-i students geography ‘mr. harso taught the students geography’ c. pak harso m-(w)ulang-ø murid-murid geografi mr. harso n-teach students geography ‘mr. harso taught the students geography’ in short, in javanese the to-phrase constructions always seems to be marked with the suffix –ake on the verbs, however, when the advancement of recipient to direct object has taken place, there are three ways to encode this advancement: (i) the verbs, such as weneh ‘give’, tawa ‘offer’ are marked by the suffix –i/ni, (ii) the verbs such as sumbang ‘contribute’ are not marked by the suffix –i/ni, and (iii) the verbs such as wulang, ajar ‘teach’ are optionally marked by the suffix –i/ni. destination the destination is expressed by the preposition (me)nyang ‘to’, as illustrated below. (75)a. dheweke teka menyang kantor iku 3sg come to office def ‘s/he came to the office’ b. dheweke n-(t)eka-ni kantor iku 3sg n-come-i office def ‘s/he visited the office’ the example in (75a) is an intransitive construction with an oblique introduced by menyang ‘to’. the advancement of the oblique expressing destination in an intransitive construction to direct object is marked by the nprefix and the suffix –i/ni on the verb, and the preposition menyang ‘to’ is deleted, as shown in (75b). the new direct object can further be advanced to subject via passivisation, as in (76a). (76) kantor iku di-teka-ni dheweke office def di-come-i 3sg ‘the office was visited by her/him’ the relational structure for this advancement is given in (77). (77) dheweke teka kantor 1 p destination 1 p 2 cho p 1 in the first stratum kantor ‘office’ is an oblique expressing destination. this oblique is then promoted to 2 in the second stratum and finally it is further advanced to 1. conclusion this article addresses applicative constructions in javanese. there are two types of applicative constructions: intransitive-based and transitivebased, and they involve oblique to 2 advancement or 3-2 advancement. in addition to nprefix added to the verb, and the deletion of preposition, the suffix –i/ni or –ake marks the advancement to direct object. the suffix –i/ni is used to mark locative, recipient and destination advancement, whereas the suffix –ake is used to mark benefactive and instrumental advancement. it is also possible that advancement to direct object is not marked with any suffix. references badib, a. a. 1980. some major constructions in javanese: a lexicase approach. phd dissertation, monash university, melbourne. blake, b. j. 1990. relational grammar. london: routledge. bresnan, j., and j. m. kanerva. 1989. locative inversion in chichewa: a case study of factorization in grammar. linguistic inquiry 20: 1: 1-50. davies, w. d. 1990b. javanese evidence for subject-to-object raising. in k. dziwirek, p. farrell, and e. mejias-bikandi (eds.), grammatical relations: a cross-theoretical perspective, 95-108. stanford: csli-stanford university. davies, w. d. 1995. javanese adversatives, passives and mapping theory. journal of linguistics 31: 15-31. dixon, r. m. w., and a. y. aikhenvald. 2000. changing valency: case studies in transitivity. cambridge: cambridge university press dryer, m. 1986. primary objects, secondary objects, and antidative. language 62: 808845. ewing, m. 1999. the clause in cirebon javanese conversation. phd dissertation, university of california, santa barbara. hudson, r. 1992. so-called ‘double objects’ and grammatical relations. language 68: 1: 251276. palmer, f. r. 1994. grammatical roles and relations. cambridge: cambridge university press poedjosoedarmo, s. et al. 1979. morfologi bahasa jawa. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. shibatani, m. 1996. applicatives and benefactives: a cognitive account. in m. shibatani and s. a. thompson (eds.), grammatical constructions. oxford: clarendon press. uhlenbeck, e. m. 1978. studies in javanese morphology. the hague: martinus nihoff. verhaar, j. w. m. 1983. the syntax of ‘yang’ in indonesian. in a. halim, l. carrington, and s. a. wurm (eds.), papers from the third international conference on austronesian linguistics, vol. 4: thematic variation. pacific linguistics c-77, 43-70. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x imagining france as an islamic state: identity construction in michel houellebecq’s soumission andi mustofa universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia email: andimustofa@uny.ac.id abstract the regime change in france, which puts the islamic group in a dominant position, has changed the structure of the french republic. the dynamics of social relation transformation cause shifts in the status of social groups such as islam, atheists, jews, and catholics in social relation patterns. this descriptive qualitative research aims at revealing the form of exclusivity, resistance, and negotiation in the construction of identity performed by the characters in soumission. the analysis is based on the concept of identity. the results of this research are the exclusive identities of islamic group are portrayed through the education and political system and the position of women in social relation; the forms of resistance as a strategy in the construction of identity are made through demonstration, mobilization, exploitation of the body, and rejection of the use of religious symbols; the forms of negotiation are done by accepting and rejecting islamic laws applied by the islamic group. keywords: france, identity, islam, negotiation, resistance.  was in a precarious situation. the issue of immigrants, racism, political warfare between parties is widely discussed and blamed as a trigger for the crisis in france. france recognizes the principle of laïcité which has become part of the tradition and identity of the french republic, which is based on freedom, equality of men and women, equality of opportunity, rights, and obligations, and a sense of brotherhood between citizens regardless of the background of each individual (bruley, 2005). soumission’s story is focused on the domination of the islamic identity group in france and the abolition of laïcité, which is replaced with islamic laws. although soumission is considered as a fiction, houellebecq used real data as a source of stories, such as the enhancing of islam in france which is a social fact, even though its reinforcement has not been able to rule all of france as told in the novel. houellebecq has tried to make a narrative about the islamic group, which controls the french republic identity. the islamic group becomes the dominant group, while the non-islamics groups such as catholic, atheist, and jews become the groups which are dominated. identity is the result of the individual interaction with other individuals or other groups and also the mixing and cultures movement (hermans, 2001). marc (2005) explains that identity is self-perception, but the discourse of the other continually mediates this perception. identity is a process that never stops or established. the introduction in january 2015, michel houellebecq published his novel soumission which becomes a debate because of the sensitivity of the theme: france becomes an islamic state. soumission tells the dominance of the islamic group in france, which changes the social group position in french society. these changes include the islamisation of the universities in france, the obligation for teachers to be muslim to be able to teach, the legalization of polygamy, the obligation to cover hair for women by using burqa and the prohibition of working for women. although the story in soumission is the result of the author’s imagination, michel houellebecq uses real french politicians as the characters such as french president françois hollande, french prime minister manuel valls, leader of the front national marine le pen, politician françois bayrou and jean-françois copé. the use of french characters in the novel indirectly gives the effect that the story in soumission is true. the similarity of the situation and condition of france in real fact with the case in the novel is one of the factors of this novel’s success. the deep-rooted fear of islam in france brought a loud reception, not only to this novel but also to the government. the government continues to be forced to blockade immigrants who are still entering france. the response of soumission was worsened by the condition of the french state, which language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 164 methodology this study is descriptive qualitative research. the analysis is based on the concept of identity. the data source of this research is soumission a novel written by michel houellebecq and published in 2015 by flammarion. the steps of analysis to answer question-related to exclusivity are as follows: 1) finding the action of exclusivity showed by an islamic group in soumission, 2) showing the particular practices which can distinguish the identity of one character with the other characters. the subsequent analysis is to identify the contestation in the form of resistance and negotiation in the identity construction process. the analysis was conducted as follows: 1) exploring the possibility of the subject domination to the other subjects in their interaction process, 2) showing the resistance practices by the subjects which are dominated, 3) showing the forms of the subject negotiation as a result of the dominance practices. results and discussion exclusive identity of islam in france the exclusivity of islamic identity tends to negate the non-islamic groups. the superiority of islam is present in the form of privileges in public as well as the domestic domain. this superiority implies a desire to determine identity. the type of islamic exclusivity is shown in the following passage. “vêtues pendant la journée d’impénétrables burqas noires, les riches saoudiennes se transformaient le soir en oiseaux des paradis, se paraient de guêpieres, de soutiens-gorge ajourés, de strings ornés de dentelles multicolores et de pierreries ; exactement l’inverse des occidentales, classe et sexy pendant la journée” (p. 91) “dressed during the day in impenetrable black burqas, the rich saudi women transformed themselves in the evening into birds of paradise, adorn themselves with basques, openwork bras, thongs adorned with multicoloured lace and precious stones; just the opposite of western women, classy and sexy during the day” (p. 91) the word impénétrables (impenetrable) implies the confidentiality of the women identity by wearing a burqa. the nature of burqa, which is impénétrables from the outside but allows the wearer overseeing the others provides the exclusivity of a religious symbol. women in burqa actively define others but at the same time, using the burqa as religious symbols prevents others from identity will always be constructed, reconstructed and also negotiated by individuals during the process of interaction in the context of forming their identity. in his book social identity, jenkins (2008) states that identity is related to a meaning which is socially constructed because identity is a part of social life. social interaction is a process that must be passed in the formation of identity. identity construction will always take place from two directions that are formed through relationships with others. during the process, individuals will find an impression on themselves and also on other individuals. in other words, individuals will discover similarities and differences between themselves and other individuals in social relation. castells (2004) argues that the general principle of society is that when there is domination, there will be resistance (rejection) to power. conflict will arise as a result of domination if it is done on a large scale. furthermore, woodward (2002) explains that the oppressed groups do not merely accept a forced identity but negotiate by rejecting or accepting that identity. this negotiation is defined as a “transactional interaction process whereby individuals in an intercultural situation attempt to assert, define, modify, challenge, and/or support their own and others’ desired self-images” (ting-toomey, 1999). in other words, negotiation and resistance are a form of acceptance as well as rejection and legitimacy of the existence of others in the process of interaction between individuals. soumission emerged as a tool to convey discourse about islam that is increasingly spreading france. michel houellebecq gives rise to islam as an exclusive group that occupies a high social class, respected, and has political, economic, and social power in france. the dominant islamic group that changes all state rules based on islamic law influences the position of non-islamic groups in france. the strength of the ruling regime requires that non-islamic groups obey the rules that have been constructed by their social environment. even so, the dominated groups actively carry out resistance and negotiation to form an identity as a form of adaptation to the new social structure. the resistance may take the form of passive resistance or active resistance by reducing, eliminating, or challenging the institutional hierarchies that oppress (martin, 2010). thus, the research questions in this study are the exclusivity of islamic groups positioned by the author and the form of resistance and negotiation as an identity construction process reflected in soumission. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 165 defining the individual inside burqa. the others can only define the individual inside burqa based on their religious symbol, not by their personal things in depth. that exclusivity is used to negate individuals outside the islamic group. the exclusivity of women is shown by metaphor oiseaux des paradis (birds of paradise) to describe women in islam. women are portrayed as birds of paradise that show the high quality of women in islam like god’s heaven. all exercise of power is a limitation of freedom (popitz, 2017). in soumission, under the regime of islam, education has to be based on koran, the source of islamic laws. the form of exclusivity in islamic identity is the obligation of the society to follow an islamic education from the primary to university. “chaque enfant français doit avoir la posibilité de bénéficier, du début à la fin de sa scolarité, d’un enseignement islamique” (p. 82) “every french child should have the opportunity to benefit from the beginning to the end of his schooling, an islamic education” (p. 82) islamic education is an attempt to perpetuate the islamic ideology. education-based on islamic law is used as a hegemony tool to state the quality of education. the school that bases on other concepts are considered to have inadequate quality. the only knowledge that is deemed to be true is the one with islam base. “aujourd’hui c’était l’islam, religion […], plus récente, plus simple et plus vrai” (p. 275) “today it was islam, a newer, simpler and truer religion” (p. 275) education has never been free of political interests to perpetuate the existing socio-economic system and existing power. this view also assumes that education is always used to preserve or legitimize their dominance. in other words, education is a way to maintain power to stay in place. therefore, the general nature of education for them is nothing more than a means to produce social systems and structures that are unjust, such as class relation, gender, racism, or other relation systems. education as a means of perpetuating the existing power structure is done through the forcible transfer of knowledge. individuals are dictated to receive an islamic education. the assumption that islam, religion plus vrai (islam, the most valid religion) confirms the position of islam in social relation. interreligious relation becomes misaligned, which results in an imbalance in religious, social relation. in soumission, teachers at every level of education are required to be muslim. islamic exclusivity in education is demonstrated by not accepting non-muslim teachers. this exclusivity is a form of the legitimacy of the islamic regime in education. the obligation of these muslim teachers at the same time explains that the teaching of islam is closed and can only be done by muslims. islamic teachers are considered as a group that symbolizes the progress of thought, modernity, and elite social class. schools as educational institutions are not free from the ideology of the ruling regime. in the context above, muslim teachers become identity-forming tools and being a means of transferring knowledge. islamic identity is gradually constructed through education from elementary to tertiary level. as an implementation, non-muslim teachers do not get the opportunity to teach the class. to be able to join an educational institution, becoming a muslim is a must. the islamic republic of france is a country based on the principles of islamic ideology. therefore, the laws of daily life must obey the koran. “les règles concernant l’alimentaire des cantines, le temps dévolu aux cinq prières quotidiennes devront être respectés. le programme scolaire devra être adapté aux enseignements du coran” (p. 82) “the rules regarding food in the canteens, the time allocated to the five daily prayers must be respected. the curriculum will have to be adapted to the teachings of the koran” (p. 82) the exclusivity of islam is shown by the rules related to the worship of god. the important thing in the islamic regime is islam and its followers who can do their obligation as a muslim easily. resistance and negotiation in the identity construction process the power of the ruling regime also influenced the formation of social identity in french society. in soumission, the power of the islamic group can dominate the minority group within the french community. therefore, non-islamic groups fight the dominant force in the form of resistance. this condition is under gramsci’s opinion that social conditions in conflict with the dominant group will lead to resistance (fiske, 2007:245). the resistance that emerges in soumission is a form of resistance to power. the rise of the islamic government in france are forms of majority domination, both subtle and extreme, over non-islamic minority groups. the type of resistance that arises is a demonstration carried language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 166 out by non-islamic groups who oppose the islamic group in france. the laïcité is the principle of freedom and respect for differences (https://www.gouvernement.fr/qu-est-ce-que-la-laicite). this principle is applied in the public administration system in the french republic (moatti, 2004). in soumission, the abolition of the laïcité system and its replacement with the islamic regime as well as the violation of the ideas of liberté (freedom), égalité (equality) and fraternité (brotherhood) receive a strong rejection from people who have ideologies at odds with the ruling regime. the rejection of islamic law in france is carried out through demonstrations as a form of resistance to the dominance of islamic law applied in state life. demonstrations of the french people are carried out to reject several things. the first refusal is that teachers are required to have islamic status to be able to teach in educational institutions. the rule is considered to hamper non-muslim to occupy educational posts. in social life, women are also required to wear a head covering as a form of compliance with islamic regulations. the necessity to use the burqa is considered as an effort to limit women’s movements. when the ruler becomes very oppressive, resistance emerges in the form of a migration strategy. displacement is an effort to distance from the space of domination. in this case, the french islamic republic. individuals will look for areas that are free from domination which will not affect their identity. in soumission, the return of several jewish groups to israel is a form of their resistance to the dominance of islamic groups in france. migration is carried out as an effort to maintain their exclusive identity as members of jewish groups. the resistance of non-islamic groups is done by not obeying islamic rules. the practice of prostitution and free sex continues to be carried out by the main character françois to fulfil his sexual desires. the satisfaction of sexual desires is done by hiring sex workers, and even françois chooses a muslim sex worker. “je n’avais fait que très occasionnellement appel à des sites d’escorts, je l’avais fait le plus souvent pendant le mois d’été [...] ça m’excitait assez, compte tenu des circonstances politiques globales, de choisir une musulmane” (p. 185) “i had only very occasionally used escort sites, i had done so most often during the summer month [...] it excited me enough, given the global political circumstances, to choose a muslim” (p. 185) as an activity that violates religious boundaries, prostitution is considered as an illegal practice because it has sexual relations without being based on a legal marriage agreement. sexual behaviour carried out by françois is a form of resistance to islamic rules implemented by the ruling regime. the selection of muslim partners in the practice of prostitution shows this form of refusal to comply with islamic laws imposed on non-islamic minority groups. although in soumission, islam is dominant, there will always be practices that deny their existence. the practices of violation of islamic rules are a critique of islam which is considered not open to non-islamic cultures. the practice of alcohol consumption carried out by islamic leaders in soumission is a form of accepting and rejecting islamic rules. they accept islam as a new identity but reject laws that conflict with previous identities. swann and bosson (2010) state that “identity negotiation processes define relationships and make them viable as a foundation for organized social activity”. in the context of soumission, women are required to use the burqa as a sign of their identity and a form of adherence to religion. negotiations on these islamic rules are carried out by wearing these clothes during the day and taking them off at night. the efforts to negotiate islamic law are carried out concerning certain times which are considered safe such as night time. the negotiation in marriage is carried out by the ruling regime group. the french state recognizes three forms of marriage, namely le mariage, le pacs, and le concubinage (rault, 2007). these three forms allow both different or samesex couples to live together. the difference in these three forms is the formality before marriage and the various rights and obligations that bind it. this marriage form that is unknown in islam is maintained under the french islamic regime. this negotiation is an integrated strategy with french society. conclusion the dominant position of the islamic group in france has changed the social structure in french society. in soumission, the exclusivity of muslim women is portrayed in social relations with other individuals or groups in the form of a burqa. islamic education is an attempt to perpetuate the islamic ideology. therefore, education must be based on the teaching system based on the koran. the exclusivity of the islamic group language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 167 can also be seen from the recruitment of teaching staff who have to be islam. the exclusivity of islam in politics is the implementation of the policies which are more aligned to the islamic group. in soumission, the non-islamic groups are dominated by an islamic group in france that cause resistance and negotiation as a strategy in the identity construction. the resistance forms that emerge are the demonstration by the non-islamic groups which refuse the domination of the islamic group. when the authority becomes very aggressive, a mobilization becomes the resistance strategy. another strategy used by social actors is the exploitation of the body through prostitution. the rejection of religious attributes is a form of individual strategy to reject the islamic rules applied in france. the interaction process will encourage the negotiation as a strategy of conflict prevention caused by the distinctive identity. the negotiation is done through the use of burqa during the day and not using it at night. the negotiation is also done by the dominant group to accommodate the principles of non-islamic practices such as marriage. michel houellebecq describes the islamic group as an exclusive group that cannot be penetrated by the other groups. there is a fear of the author when islam comes to power. this fear is based on the dominance of islamic groups that are considered to have damaged relation between social groups that were previously formed. however, the author tries to unify the concepts of islam and france through social practices legitimized by the islamic group as the ruling group. the unification of the two concepts in islam and france is an attempt to eliminate the dichotomy of we and they, in groups and out groups that separate one from the other. references bianco, j-l. qu’est-ce que la laïcité? https://www.gouvernement.fr/qu-est-ce-que-la-laicite bruley, y. (2005). l’histoire de la laïcité en france. paris: académie des sciences morales et politiques. castells, m. (2004). the power of identity: the information age: economy, society, and culture. malden: blackwell publishing. fiske, j. (2007). cultural and communication studies: sebuah pengantar paling komprehensif. yogyakarta: jalasutra. hermans, h. j. m. (2001). the dialogical self: toward a theory of personal and cultural positioning, culture and psychology, 7, p. 243-281. houellebecq, m. (2015). soumission. paris: flammarion. jenkins, r. (2008). social identity (3rd ed.). london and new york: routledge marc, e. (2005). psychologie de l’identité: soi et le groupe, paris: dunod. martin, j.n., & nakayama, t. (2010). intercultural communication in context. new york: mcgraw-hill. moatti, d. (2004) la laïcité ou l’histoire mouvementée d’un concept français, pyramides, 8, 83-98. popitz, h. (2017). phenomena of power: authority, domination, and violence translated by gianfranco poggi. new york: columbia university press. rault, w. (2007). entre droit et symbole. les usages sociaux du pacte civil de solidarité, revue française de sociologie, 48(3), 555-586. swann, w. b., jr., & bosson, j. k. (2010). self and identity. in handbook of social psychology. new york: mcgraw-hill. ting-toomey, s. (1999). communicating across cultures. new york: the guilford press. woodward, k. (2002). understanding identity. london: arnold publication. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaafe8771136 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa818631157 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 357 i am my own voice: the analysis of imagery, sound and sense and self-culture from efl mindful poetry kadek sonia piscayanti universitas pendidikan ganesha sonia.piscayanti@undiksha.ac.id abstract this research is aimed at looking at poetry as a soul of society. it brings about the representation of selfculture in the poet’s life. it is the representation of mindfulness within the poet’s process of writing. in this specific article, i want to see how poetry can be seen as a soul of poetry from at least three perspectives, firstly from the imagery, secondly from sound and sense and thirdly from the self-culture. the method used in this research is narrative inquiry and the instruments used are interview guide and poetry writing rubrics. the result shows that the poets in this research used imagery, sound and sense and self-culture in their poetry as the voice of their own. at the same time they also feel that their voice matters, as the part of society. keywords: imagery, sound and sense, self-culture introduction poetry is a work of art, a product of language that is written with figurative language. perrine (1984) stated that poetry is a verbal work of art which means it uses the language to make it possible to represent to speak the poet’s voice. poetry is a product of mindfulness in which it is born from the mindful efforts. mindfulness which was introduced by ellen j langer in 1989 is a state of mind to be more aware of new information, new perspectives, new context, and create new categories. zinn (1995) stated that mindfulness creates a calm and flexible state of mind. mindfulness is to set the mind to be stable and calm. it does not push the mind, but it trains the mind. to be calmer, to be more peaceful. to be aware of something new. this is relevant to language learning through poetry since poetry enables learners of new language learn something new through metaphors, through the voice that the poets deliver, through the senses that are shared, and through the new perspectives that are offered. mindfulness in poetry writing process works in a silent way, in the deeper understanding sometimes too personal, that to write it needs more efforts psychologically. in relation to mindfulness and language learning, the learning happens if the learners feel that there are new information, new perspectives, new context, and new categories. poetry is one of the ways to achieve the mindfulness, or to stimulate mindfulness to happen. however, to some extent, poetry is still rarely used in language learning because it is too complicated to analyze, too hard to understand, and too personal to be revealed. in fact, the idea of using poetry in language learning is not only to enhance creativity and productivity, it also can enhance socioemotional development and wellbeing. mindfulness in poetry writing can make learners aware of the new situations, learn new perspective, engage in different context, and create something new. mindfulness in poetry is a way to know selfculture context better. hanauer (2012) believed that writing poetry is one of the ways to learn the language better. in poetry the learners create meaning. mindfulness, poetry and language learning are together in this context, to make us aware to appreciate poetry better. in relation to language learning, poetry is more than just a device to learn new perspective, but also how the new perspective is born. in this study, poetry is used to know the voice of the poets, to know how the poetry is composed, and to analyze the meaning of the poetry from the perspective of imagery, sound and sense and self-culture. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:sonia.piscayanti@undiksha.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 358 mindfulness and language learning mindfulness in education gives one of the best changes especially in promoting wellbeing and socioemotional development. according to langer (2000) mindful learning has proven to be effective in promoting development of emotional wellbeing. it is also effective to increase creativity and memory. learning a new language needs creativity, memory, and emotional wellbeing since the new language has new system, new structure, new context, and new categories. language learners need to be able to adapt themselves in the new context of learning that requires mindfulness. according to moafian et.al (2019) mindfulness theory works well in language learning since the emphasis is on the invention of new things, new perspectives, new reflections. according to lin (2019), mindfulness in education builds the students’ self-actualization as to maximize their potential to be successful. in 2000, langer and moldoveanu defined mindfulness as to create novel distinction. the impacts of creating novel distinction are openness to new things, flexible to context, open to new perspectives, and new categories. in 2011 sherretz discovered that mindfulness gives freedom of choice to language learners and when it happens, the learners become mindful observers. mindfulness has four major principles. according to langer (1997, 2016). first, the ability to see something from different point of view. second, see information or phenomena as something new. third, to be able to understand context. and fourth, creating new categories. mindfulness and language learning are two related things. mindfulness makes us learn the new language easily because we can be aware of something new, and aware of the context where they are used. afterwards, we are aware that there is new category in the language that is used, make it possible for us new learners of language aware of new entry of the language. poetry and mindfulness poetry is born from mindfulness. it is the mindfulness that leads poet to hear the voice from within self, and create it as the poetry. vision and voice are born from the poetry that they write. they cannot write poetry if they do not find the value of poetry. the very important value of poetry is that it can channel the voice that the poet has and it can convey their vision of life. poetry is the representation of life and therefore it is very important to build their own perspective of life. every poetry is unique and personal. every poetry has its own function to represent their real voice and the real values of life. poetry is a verbal work of art. poetry can be defined as the soul of poet written through words. it is the imagination of reality through which the words are used as the representation of the voice. poetry is the representation of society. the art which is born from the society. and live by its society. poetry has the definition as the feeling of society in the form of language. gustafson (2005) stated that poetry is the balance between selfculture and the representation of feelings. poetry is not only a compilation of words, but it conveys the message from the society, the poet himself/herself. it brings the voice from within as the representation of the society. in relation to language learning, poetry serves as the language of society. according to hoffman (1993) language is a tool to communicate emotions, facts, possibilities, fantasies, and many other things. the society voice can be represented through poetry. therefore, poetry can never be just about words, but voice of the society. poetry has vision and voice (piscayanti and utami, 2020). the vision of poetry is to represent a reality, as a mirror of society. second it has voice. it brings the message or values of the poet. it means that vision and voice of poetry makes poetry alive and meaningful. it has destiny and goal to represent the voice of society. poetry is useful in language learning because it teaches the poets how to use the language personally and respectfully. language is not only a means of communication but a means to speak up about opinions of life. it cannot be the stopped, to write a poetry is to write a human history. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 359 in the context of language learning, poetry is very useful to be used as a practice of language development since poetry offers a creativity in using the new words. poetry is using metaphors, that can be used to represent feelings. since feeling is very unique and personal, using metaphors can explore imagination of feeling, as the voice from the within. poetry directly shapes the way of thinking in which it shapes the way the voice is represented and the way it is built and produced. there are some aspects of poetry that will be discussed in this article namely imagery, sound and sense and self-culture context. these three aspects are analyzed since the voice of the poet and the mindfulness process can be seen through these aspects. imagery imagery is the part of poetry that can be used to visualize the ideas of the poet. imagery means the visual representation of the ideas. such as how the feelings is coloured, shaped and come into reality. the words used to describe the vividness of the feeling of the poet. imagery has something to do with the visual touch that not everybody is aware of having, so writing them down in the form of poetry is a chance to deliver imagery in the way it is unique and personal nobody can have it. according to perkins (1983) mental image can give more than just a vividness, but a deeper emotional and sense understanding than a proposition. the image gives deeper feeling than words. in poetry, imagery can deepen and strengthen the feeling of the poet. sound and sense sound and sense together make meaning of the poetry. sound serves as vehicle and sense is how it is meant. sound is the way the poetry is heard, the sound of poetry is very distinguished, condensed, and concise. it can be born without careful consideration of the poet. it cannot be just sound without meaning. therefore, the sound always comes with the sense. sound is the words that are arranged in such a way that it can be heard. while sense is the meaning of the sound composed. sound and sense come together to make meaning of a poetry. perrine (1984) stated that sound and meaning in poetry has function, that is to convey experience. through sound and meaning the experience is delivered. kennedy (1983) conveys poetry as something difficult to define. he suggested to study poetry and let it grows in our mind. self-culture context the poetry is born from the self-culture context of the poet. the poet is born with the culture within himself/herself and from the culture within the poet can transfer the idea through the words she/he found. she/he chose the words to best describe their self-culture context. according to neisser (1999) self-concept is never fixed, it depends on a perspective. it is constructed through theorizing about self and meaning of life. therefore, it is never settled. the poetry does not come alone without context. it has context within and represents the voice inside. it does bring the identity of the poet. the culture that lives within the poet and grow inside. the voice matters and the choice of the words matters. the choice of the words defines the voice of the poets. methods the method used in this research is narrative inquiry (webster and mertova, 2007) and the instruments used are interview guide and poetry writing rubrics. the subjects are three poetry from three poets that will be analyzed from the perspective of imagery, sound and sense, and selfculture context. result and discussion poetry 1 i spread my arms by santi dewi on that uphill road, i spread my arms like a beetle hunting for nectar and my feeling is like a lotus bloom http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 360 "where do you want to go?" you said i scream in the cold air my voice is intermittent but my finger is pointing clearly the place i want to go is the house of your heart an unlimited road, without a stopping line in this poetry, imagery that can be read is from the first line, about the feelings of freedom, having destiny and choice on her own. the mental image that is set is the uphill road, the struggle to climb, yet the feeling is full and pure and happy. the second stanza also supports the mental image in the first stanza, that the place she wants to go is the house of her lover’s heart, an unlimited road without a stopping line. we can consider that poetry is not only representing self-voice but also what makes the voice a choice. the sound and sense here represent the meaning of love, freedom, search for unlimited love and passionate dreams. the meaning of the feelings is clearly sensed through the lines. the self-culture here appears when her voice of identity is written in the lines i spread my arms/like a beetle hunting for nectar/and my feeling is like a lotus bloom// the lines represent the real voice that honestly spoken out about the feelings of freedom and knowing where to go as seen in the lines “where do you want to go?” you said followed by next stanza the place i want to go/is the house of your heart/an unlimited road/without a stopping line// the self-culture as defined above is a transformation of self-understanding on several perspectives. it is never a fixed state of mind. it is a continuing change over time. poetry 2 time flies so fast by gede suadnya i thought time will be my friend but it's just nightmare when i realize it flies so fast i cannot prepare it well i just think 11+3=2 that's the limit for me to make jungle in my paper what i have to do? it's already 10 everybody wants to kill me everybody calls me everybody talks to me but me? how about me? but i think i cannot do it because i don't have time please, give me one minute more or more but finally, i get five stars. in this poetry the poet used imagery as time flies. though the time cannot be clearly seen, however we can sense the time as a mental image in the poetry. there is a tense emotional feeling that can be felt. the poet is in the middle of chaos. in the second stanza, the poet tried to say that everybody wants to kill him, calls him, but he cannot do it. however, in the last line, the poet seems to be drastically gets the point or gets the luck. it means that the poet gets the achievement though the time is limited and chaotic. the sound and sense used in this poetry makes us believe that hectic situation really happens for a reason and it can get worse. however, if we trust in the time that can change the condition, it can happen that everything will be fine. the meaning of the poetry is subjective depends on the perspective but in the self-culture context, the poet might want to represent that chaotic moment is a part of self-context that makes the self learns. not only the perfect timing that makes self learns but also the worst timing. this is the idea of the poetry. according to minsky (1985), mind does not come alone without other minds. chaotic minds in this poetry comes with other minds too. and the chaotic voice here does not mean anything when it can be solved in the last line. it can happen in life when unexpected result can make a total change in unexpected time. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 361 the last poetry is below. poetry 3 the meeting by gitari paramita there are thousands of tiny wings at the tips of the ears on the lips of the day, the eyes meet soft beats hug the chest until the hum of the sea deceives the power drowning dimly by the sky hue a feeling of reluctance to meet face to face at dusk who's the longing for the grudge? called again my steps there special melodic spelled out stepping away, paint a taste promise to the frame of love in this poetry the imagery that we can see is the feeling of longing to meet someone. the longing is described in such a way that it can represent the voice of the poet. the universe seems to be lonely and darker but the feeling is closer to the love of life. trying to figure out what kind of feeling exactly that is, but it is more than just a feeling, it is a sense of emotional growth. sound and sense of this poetry represents the meaning of longing and understanding of feeling in the deeper way. we cannot judge the feeling alone without having perspective of the poet. we raise the empathy in order that we understand the way the poet thinks. self-culture context on this poetry appears when the poet tries to learn about herself from the universe and from moment to moment. she used the learning process to be aware of the perspective she is using for certain feeling. her voice is true, she cannot decide what is best for her unless universe shows her to be patient and to wait for the perfect time for love. from the analysis above we believe that mindfulness works at its best in each poet. based on the interview with the poets, they are aware of the self, context, perspective, and create new things based on the experience. in poetry 1 for example, santi dewi feels that she already knows the destiny in life, she found her love already and therefore she can be free. her choice of words, her sound and sense and imagery are represented through her works. this can be very personal and subjective because the choice of words, the choice of perspective is based on the experience of the poets. from the interview with the second poet, it is revealed that time is precious, mysterious, and somehow tricky, so he can only try his best and finally the expected result appears. this poetry about time is hard actually to be seen from imagery, but the mental image can be sensed from the propositions. it can be felt and valued. from the interview with the third poet, it is revealed that self-culture can be developed based on the context. it can be lonely, happy, sad, and all at once can create a new feeling. from the discussion above, mindfulness as the process to create a poetry is very important practice in the creative process. to define mindfulness as a process there are four main principles that needs to be considered. first. noticing new things. this is a process where the poet notice something inside himself/herself and needs to name the feeling, welcome the feeling, criticize the feeling or even forget the feeling. however, they notice the things happen. it could be a new form of feeling. in the sense of mindfulness, they try to enhance their awareness to learn about themselves better. they try to learn to hear the voice within and to deliver it outside. tredinnick (2006) stated that writing is done with integrity and the voice of humanity. hoffman (1993) explained that language is a bridge to present the realms of meaning. mindfulness takes place to grow the bridge between meaning inside the poet and meaning created in the audience’s mind. stevenson et.al (2020) stated that mindfulness can make students more aware of the personal growth and wellbeing. sherretz (2011) also believes that mindfulness in higher education is very relevant to make learning better. students http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 362 in higher education is believed to have more awareness and understanding on life. so, mindfulness is the way to make it even better. second principle on mindfulness is welcoming new perspective. as we can see from poetry number 2 time is seen as a chaotic power that makes the poet feel down. however, turns out that time is not that mean. time heals when perfect time comes, though it comes almost at the end of effort. third principle is appreciating the context. being in the context means language learners always engages in a lively moment after moment. there is never the same context from a mindful experience. different people will come with different context, different time will create different context too. even different space makes different context. language relates to context. the more engaged the learners to the context, the better it will prepare them to be mindful. in 2016, wang and liu found that mindfulness can be cultivated and benefits learners in learning foreign language. in the context of efl poetry, mindfulness plays important role in the learning process. mc kay and walker (2021) also believes that mindfulness benefits learners since it promotes wellbeing and emotional growth. it also helps to grow positive mental health, personal happiness and positive productive character. fourth principle is creating new categories. mindfulness allows learners to be always aware of something new and not only aware, but process the things and create something new out of it. poetry is one of the ways to enable learners create new categories. new categories here mean to create the possibility of the new self-culture context that makes the learners grow. in 2017 cotler et.al found there is a growth of emotional intelligence in mindful learners. the mindful learners will always find things new and build new perspective in different context with new categories. therefore, they learn better because of mindfulness practice. writing is one of the ways to keep them mindful, productive, and positive. creating new categories is considered as the way how mindfulness can be made into product of writing. it has the ability to grow something within to be shared outside. in this context mindfulness shared the voice as the soul of society. conclusion poetry makes the voice of the poets grow as the soul of society. they are represented through imagery, sound and sense, self-culture context. the process happens through mindfulness practice during the learning process and writing process. it can never be a single and static process, but a dynamic one. it can enhance the awareness of learning the new language, deepen the understanding about self, and broaden perspective of the worlds. references hanauer, d. i. (2012). meaningful literacy: writing poetry in the language classroom. language teaching, 45(1), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444810000522 hoffman, th.r. (1993). realms of meaning. longman publishing langer, e. j. (1989). mindfulness. merloyd lawer. http://www.perseusbooksgroup.com langer, e. j. (1989). mindfulness. merloyd lawer. http://www.perseusbooksgroup.com langer, e. j. (2000). mindful learning. current directions in psychological science, 9(6), 220– 223. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00099 langer, e. j. (2016). the power of mindful learning. da capo press. langer, e. j., & moldoveanu, m. (2000). the construct of mindfulness. journal of social issues, 56(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/00224537.00148 langer, e. j., & moldoveanu. (2000). the construct of mindfulness. journal of social issues, 56(1), 1 9. lin, s. (2019). creative pedagogy framework as a strategy for fostering creative learning in ghanaian schools. thinking skills and creativity, 31(july 2018), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.09.002 mckay, t., & walker, b. r. (2021). mindfulness, self-compassion and wellbeing. personality http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://www.perseusbooksgroup.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 363 and individual differences, 168. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110412 minsky, m. (1985). the society of mind. touchstone book. moafian, f., khoshsima, h., fadardi, j. s., & pagnini, f. 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(2020). mindful and creative learning of efl poetry. mahima institute indonesia. sherretz christine e. (2011). mindfulness in education. journal of thought, fall-winter, 2011, 79–96. treddinick, m. (2006). the little red writing book. unsw press. sherretz, c. e. (2011). mindfulness in education: case studies of mindful teachers and their teaching practices. journal of thought, fallwinter, 79 96. stevenson, j. c. et al. (2020). adult attachment and mindfulness: examining directionality, causality, and theoretical implications. journal of research in personality, 90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104043 wang, y., & liu, c. (2016). cultivate mindfulness: a case study of mindful learning in an english as a foreign language classroom. the iafor journal of education, 4(2), 141 155. webster, l., & mertova, p. (2007). using narrative inquiry as a research method. routledge. zinn, j. k. (1995). wherever you go, there you are: mindfulness meditation in everyday life. in hyperion ebook. hyperion. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)90133-7 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110412 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2019.1609242 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2019.1609242 https://www.jstor.org/stable/i303060 https://doi.org/10.2307/1772291 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104043 language circle october 2010.pdf optimizing the use of classroom language to improve the speaking confidence of students at beginner level galuh kirana dwi areni semarang state university abstract teaching english to non-native students in indonesia, especially pre and elementary school students, is far more problematic than teaching adult students in the same country. these students are not accustomed to use english in their daily lives. when they are given english lesson at school, they often feel afraid, shy, and lack of confidence in using the target language. students have those feelings mostly when they have to practice speaking english because they find it difficult as they have to master different elements of language such as vocabulary, pronunciation, structures, functions and so on in order to say what they want (phillips, 1993). consequently, teachers are strongly required to be more patient, to have more preparation time and to be more creative in designing classroom activities. experts say that young learners are hard to concentrate and easily distracted. if teachers are not able to manage their students, their classes will become chaotic and riotous ones. in order to minimize that condition, teachers need to make any anticipation so that they, instead of their students, can take control of their classes. one of the ways is by making classroom language. this will help teachers to organize their classes and ultimately make their students speak using the target language. this paper promotes classroom language as it is concrete, meaningful, and has communicative nature. hughes (1990) states that the phrase ‘open your books at page 10, please’ does not make the students only repeat, translate, evaluate as true or false or put into negative, but this makes them do the simple action of opening a textbook after understanding the genuine instruction. furthermore, classroom phrases help the students to use the target language in appropriate context and indirectly accustom them to the form-function relationships and discrepancies that are parts of english. considering the phenomena above, this paper offers some techniques that may be used in applying classroom language. some of those techniques include a lot of drilling techniques and fun games. hopefully, this paper may become one of considerations to be used by efl teachers in encouraging their students to be able to speak the target language in most of their time in their english classes. however, this paper is still far of perfection. it still needs a lot of suggestions and deeper discussion from those who are dealing with researches of the same topic. key words: teaching english as a foreign language teaching english in indonesia is considered to be teaching english as a foreign language (efl), because indonesia is a country where english is not the native language (paul, 2003). efl teachers often find difficulties in making their students use the target language, i.e. english, in their classes. this happens as their students not only have little exposure to english in their daily lives, but their native languages also have different structure and writing systems. as a consequence, students often feel afraid, shy, and not confident in expressing what they want to say in the target language. they prefer to use their native languages in most of their time in their english classes in order to avoid making mistakes. phillips (1993:34) also states “a common problem in monolingual classes is that the children lapse in their own language, often through frustration at not having the english to do the task”. further, she adds that speaking is a difficult skill to teach because students have to master several elements of language such as vocabulary, pronunciation, structures, functions, and so on in order to say what they want. this condition also leads students switch to their mother tongue languages whenever they find difficulties in saying or finding the words or phrases of the target language. they are often shy or afraid to ask their teachers since they do not know how to ask the unknown english words or phrases by using english expression. considering those phenomena, efl teachers need to spend more time and be more creative in designing their lesson activities so that their students will indirectly be able to produce the target language as they expected. one of the teaching techniques that may be used to make students be accustomed with the english words or phrases is by making classroom language. it is hoped that if students get used to the classroom language, they will have greater confidence in uttering and using the target language, especially in their english classes, because they are not worried anymore about how to formulate what they want to say. efl teaching to young learners teaching efl to young learners, especially pre and elementary school students, is far more problematic than teaching efl to adults. some theories say that children are active learners, both physically and cognitively. in addition, scott and ytreberg (1990:2) state that one of characteristics of the young language learners is they have a very short attention and concentration span. in dealing with these problems, teachers need to prepare their lesson by giving interesting activities so that their students enjoy and engage themselves in the lesson. scott and ytreberg also say “young learners know that the world is governed by rules. they may not always understand the rules, but they know that they are there to be obeyed, and the rules help to nurture a feeling of security.” (1990:2) based on those two characteristics, teachers have to design activities that make them possible to control of their classes. one of the teaching techniques that can be used is classroom language. using classroom language makes teachers easier to organize their classes as they have set the ‘rules’ before doing any activities to the students. moreover, classroom language can encourage the students to speak using the target language because the students are willingly to obey the ‘rules’ and aware to remind their friends who break the ‘rules’. classroom language according to scott and ytreberg, classroom language is a necessary tool for helping students’ progress from dependence on the book and on the teacher to independence (1990:17). they also state that classroom language is simple and meaningful expressions in english that can be learned by students in order to gain cooperation and communication parts of language learning process. these mean that classroom language is important to be mastered by students so that they are able to speak independently to say whatever they want, either to communicate with their teachers or with their friends. classroom language consists of simple daily expressions that correlate with certain situations to enforce students to speak english as much of the time as they can, especially in their english classes. young learners are usually interested in what the expressions are used for; therefore, making classroom language as natural and concrete as possible is necessary to do. in line with the previous explanation, paul (2003) states that just after teachers say classroom language naturally, they can help the young learners say the same things in english. further he says that this is a very good way for the young learners to connect english with their real feelings. considering these theories, teachers need to use the classroom language naturally, concretely, and meaningfully in order that the students will do the same as their teachers. some examples of classroom language that are suggested by paul (2003:81) are as follows. simple expressions good afternoon how are you today? thank you. i’m sorry. i don’t know. good-bye. see you next week. may i open the window? between the students can i borrow your …, please? sure. here you are. it’s my turn. it’s your turn. may i have a …? asking for help could you repeat that, please? what’s this in english? what’s that in english? how do you spell …? i don’t understand. please help me. how do i say …? from the teacher guess. please stand up. please open your books. let’s write/go home. let’s play … what’s the weather like today? it’s time to write/go home. hughes (1990) supports previous theories by stating that classroom language is an effective tool not only to limit the use of native language by students but also to create a less disordered atmosphere in english classes. he further states that there are a number of alternative ways of controlling the behavior of the students. the most important of these are: 1) commands, 2) requests, and 3) suggestions. the use of commands emphasizes the teachers’ position of authority; requests imply the notion of equality; and suggestion, at least in theory, allow the students some freedom of choice. in addition to those classroom languages, questions can also be used in order to make students familiar in getting information, either from their teachers or from their friends. teaching techniques to optimize classroom language classroom language can always be used in any session of english classes. teachers need to allocate a little time to drill the phrases that they will use during the session in order to retain them in students’ mind. then teachers should attach the classroom language, which they are going to use in that session, on the wall so that the students can look at and read it whenever they forget of the expressions they need to say. when teachers think that their students have been able to comprehend and to utter those phrases well, they can take them off the wall. however, in order to avoid the boredom of the students, teachers need to be more creative in finding the balance between providing language through controlled and guided activities and at the same time letting the students enjoy natural talk (scott and ytreberg, 1990). some alternatives of teaching techniques in using classroom language will be presented below. those techniques are using one or more than one categories of hughes classroom language, i.e. the use of commands, requests, suggestions, and/or questions. 1. substitution drill classroom language: please stand up. hold your … look at jane. what is the color of jane’s bag? it is red. it is a red bag. whose turn is it? it is mine/yours. work in pair. procedures: a) ask one of the students to stand at his/her seat. ask him/her to hold one of his/her belongings in his/her hand. then ask about its color, and let the students respond in unison. b) repeat that procedure several times, then ask some of the students to replace the teacher’s role in choosing their friends to stand up and giving question. c) after you are sure that the students have been able to comprehend and utter the target language, ask them to do the same procedures in pairs. they may ask each other questions about their own belongings or their other friends’ belongings. 2. dialogues by using puppets classroom language: what time do you …? / when do you …? i get up at … . i take a bath at … . i have breakfast at … . i go to school at … . i do homework at … . i go to sleep at … . how do you say … in english? work in threes. procedures: a) hold a puppet in your hand. create a dialogue with the puppet by asking its daily activities. then ask the students to repeat each part of your dialogue to make them retain the target language. b) after that, pretend that the puppet becomes the one that asks different questions to different students. this procedure starts from asking the same first question to some of the students then you can continue by asking the same second question to different group of students. c) if you have enough puppets to be used by the students, ask them to work in threes by using one puppet for each group. ask them to do the same procedure in order to retain the target language in their mind. 3. fishbowl technique classroom language: where is the girl? she is behind the woman. where are the durians? they are on the table. on, under, next/beside, between, … can i ask you a question? what is the english word for …? i’m sorry. i don’t know. work in pair. whose turn is it? it is mine/yours . procedures: a) give a copy of the attachment below to each pair of students. b) invite one of them to be a volunteer model to do the activity with you in front of the class. everyone watches the teacher and the volunteer model the activity as if they are in a fishbowl. c) ask all students repeat each part of the dialogue in unison so that they are able to comprehend and utter the target language. d) ask another volunteer to model different expressions. then do the same procedures as those mentioned above. e) if you have been sure that the students are able to do the dialogues by themselves, let them work in pairs and ask them to do the activities covering all of the things described in the picture. 4. chain work classroom language: stand in line. stand still. stay where you are. come to the front. stop talking now. do you like bananas? no, i don’t like bananas, but i like apples. how do you say … in english? i’m sorry. i don’t know. procedure: a) ask the students to stand in two lines. chain work uses picture cards or word cards. put all the cards face down in two piles. b) the first student of each line picks up a card on which there are some bananas. turning to student 2 he or she says ‘do you like bananas?’ student 2 then picks up the next card on which there are some apples a and answers, ‘no, i don’t like bananas, but i like apples.’ student 2 turns to student 3 and says, ‘do you like apples?’ to which student 3 replies, ‘no, i don’t like apples, but i like …’ and so on. c) do the procedure until all of the students get their turns in comprehending and uttering the target language. 5. controlled practice classroom language: attention please. don’t disturb your friend. no cheating. be quiet now. can you repeat? let’s do it. what do you think? i think it is right/wrong. how about…? can you repeat? can i ask you a question? what is the english word for …? you can find the clue at/under/on … . what is he/she doing? he/she is… ing. procedure: a) students are supposed to work in small groups. b) write some jumbled-letter verbs on different colors of paper. stick those papers on different places. c) each group is given a copy of picture. they are asked to describe the picture by making some sentences of present continuous tense with the verbs they got from the jumbled-letter words. d) the representatives of each group are sent to take the clue paper based on certain color of paper. then they have to go back to their groups and try to arrange the jumbled-letter words to make meaningful verbs. e) if they have found the verbs needed, they can make a sentence of present continuous tense to describe the picture given. f) the group with the most correct sentences wins the game. conclusion an effective teaching may be gained through simple ways. one of the ways is by making and using classroom language. the use of classroom language will lead students to experience enormous exposure and gain greater chance in practicing the target language. assessment of the effectiveness in the using of the classroom language can be done after several meetings. this can be realized by the giving of reward and punishment to students who have been able to understand and use the classroom language. the more classroom language they can utter and understand, the more reward they can get. hopefully, the use of classroom language can increase students’ confidence in using the target language in their english classes. references hughes, g. s. 1990. a handbook of classroom english. oxford: oxford university press. linse, c.t. 2006. practical english language teaching: young learners. singapore: mc graw-hill esl/elt. paul, d. 2003. teaching english to children in asia. hong kong: longman asia elt. phillips, s. 1993. young learners. oxford: oxford university press. scott, w. a. and l. h. ytreberg. 1990. teaching english to children. new york: longman inc. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 45 humor english teaching material for improving students’ speaking skill with high and low learning motivation ahmad nur syafiq mursid saleh semarang state university abstract this study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of humor as english foreign language teaching material to improve students‘ speaking skill with of high or low motivation for the students and the effect that the use of humor gives to their teaching. this study was quasi experimental research named two-way (two-by-two) factorial design. the subjects were 80 students of stain kudus, 40 students in the experimental group and 40 students in the control group. both groups were distributed the pre-test to measure students' speaking skill. for treatment, shade's (1996) classification of verbal humor was used. the results revealed that humor as teaching material has significant effect on the students‘ speaking skill to those who have high and low learning motivation. the students expressed that humor in the classroom situation affected their learning positively to those who have high or low motivation rather than conventional material. key words: humor, speaking skill, learning motivation. introduction it is of paramount importance for english teachers to find effective pedagogical techniques to help enhance students‘ speaking abilities, among other english skills they also need to develop. furthermore, realizing that speaking is very important for english learners, it is essential for english teachers to encourage the students to speak. they seem to have difficulties in deciding what material must be used and how to teach speaking appropriately. moreover, they must be able to find out the ways of how to make speaking easier and be the fun activities for the students to learn. in this case, teachers have responsibilities to guide the students during the learning process and to give motivation to them to improve their english especially in speaking skill. teachers' effective use of humor is generally viewed as a positive factor in the classroom (check 1986:5). it may even influence the effectiveness of college teacher power and compliance-gaining strategies. wheeless, stewart, keamey, & plax (1987) note that compliance is an enactment of power. likewise, if college teachers exert humor in the classroom, they will be seen as more powerful by their 46 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 students. possibly, college teachers could gain more compliance from students through the utilization of humor. another issue is that motivation is one of the most important factors that will influence students' english achievements or performance. it has a close relationship with students' success or failure in english teaching in college. therefore, teachers must pay more attention to this aspect. as gardner (1985: 2) emphasized that the motivation constructed the primary factor to influence students on english learning. he believed that motivation for language learning can not only include goal orientation but the combination of effort, desire to achieve the goal of learning the language and favorable attitudes toward learning the language. the main focus of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of humor as efl teaching material to improve students‘ speaking skill with high or low learning motivation at second semester students of tarbiya program of stain kudus in the academic year 2011/2012 and the effect that the use of humor gives to their teaching. further, the study attempts to find solutions and strategies to make teachers have a formed opinion of the use of humor in delivery of subject matter while teaching so as to be more effective. review of related literature teaching speaking skills according to bygate (1987: 3), in order to achieve a communicative goal through speaking, there are two aspects to be considered – knowledge of the language, and skill in using this knowledge. it is not enough to possess a certain amount of knowledge, but a speaker of the language should be able to use this knowledge in different situations. we do not merely know how to assemble sentences in the abstract: we have to produce them and adopt to the circumstances. this means making decisions rapidly, implementing them smoothly, and adjusting our conversation as unexpected problems appear in our path. (bygate 1987:3). speaking kills comprise two components: production skills and interaction skills, both of which can be affected by two conditions: firstly, processing conditions, taking into consideration the fact that ‗a speech takes place under the pressure of time‘; secondly, reciprocity conditions connected with a mutual relationship between the interlocutors (bygate 1987:7). in production skills, the processing conditions (time pressure) in certain ways limit or modify the oral production; it means the use of production skills. for that reason, speakers are forced to use devices which help them make the oral production possible or easier through ‗facilitation‘, or enable them to change words they use in order to avoid or replace the difficult ones by means of ‗compensation‘ (bygate, 1987:14). in interaction skills, both speakers and listeners, besides being good at processing spoken words should language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 47 be ‗good communicators‘, which means ‗good at saying what they want to say in a way which the listener finds understandable‘. this means being able to possess interaction skills. communication of meaning then depends on two kinds of skill: routines, and negotiation skills (bygate, 1987:14). for many years, english language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. however, today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance. there are some explanations about what is teaching speaking, then, according to nunan (2003: 94). teaching speaking is to teach english language learners to: produce the english speech sounds and sounds patterns; (1) use words and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language; (2) select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter; (3) organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence; (4) use language as a means of expressing values and judgments; and (5) use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called fluency. according to hughes (2002: 6), ―the goal of teaching speaking is communicative efficiency‖. so, in learning speaking, students should be able to make themselves understood and they should try to avoid confusion in the message due to its pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary and to observe the social rule that apply in communication situation. a classroom language test is designed to measure the students‘ ability in learning a second or foreign language and also ultimate success in that undertaking. since this study is concerned with speaking skill, a performance in assessing the students as showed by lazaraton in celce-murcia (2001:111). the oral skills teacher may be required to make decisions about two kinds of oral assessment. the first, evaluation of classroom performance … a second assessment situation with which the oral skills teacher may be confronted is preparing students to take –interpreting results from-large scale oral examinations, successful performance on which has become increasingly common as a requirement for admission to universities, as a minimum standard for various types of employment. thus, performance assessment is used to measure the student‗s speaking ability one by one. it consists of five aspects, including that are pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, content, and fluency. humor as teaching materials humor has been defined differently by different educational scholars. "humor has 48 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 been defined by steven leacock as the kindly contemplation of the incongruities of life and the artistic expression there of "(berk, 1998: 11). garner (2005: 6) stated the following: humor has also been described as a sense, as in the term, sense of humor. as with any sense, however—such as taste or smell— individuals may have differing levels of receptivity; similarly, humor can be highly personal, contextual, and subjective (stuart and rosenfeld, 1994). regarding the humor in pedagogy, kher, molstad& donahue (1999) stated that humor is often identified as a teaching technique for developing a positive learning environment. when an instructor establishes a supportive social climate, students are more likely to be receptive to learning. humor is a catalyst for classroom magic, when all the educational elements converge and teacher and student are both positive and excited about learning. instructors can foster classroom "magic" through improved communication with students by possessing a playful attitude and a willingness to use appropriate. mcghee (1979) refers to humor as a mood or state of mind. humor is part of our life and should be part of our classrooms as well. beside its definition, humor in the classroom can take many forms. in a classic study of humor in the college classroom, bryant, comisky, & zillmann (1979: 3) and bryant, crane, comisky, & zillmann (1980) classified humor in lectures as jokes, riddles, puns, funny stories, humorous comments and other humorous items. professors have discovered other creative ways to incorporate humor in class such as cartoons, top ten lists, comic verse, and phony or bogus experiments. in 1996, shade provided a more clear classification for humor in classroom. based on his classification, humor is classified into four major categories:  figural humor that includes comic strips, cartoons and caricatures. this form of humor appears in a variety of media and involves the use of drawing to deliver the humor.  verbal humor that consists of jokes, puns, riddles, satire, parody, irony, wit, limerick and anecdote. this form involves the use of language and often depends on the use of incongruity as demonstrated through contradiction, understatement and exaggeration.  visual humor that includes sight gags, practical jokes, clowning, impersonation impressions, etc. this category depends on visual cues for the humor to be effective.  auditory humor that includes impersonations, impressions, noises and sounds. humor has been seen as enhancement to classroom teaching and learning. krashen‘s (1982) affective filter hypothesis addresses the importance of maintaining a low affective filter in language classroom so that learners will be language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 49 more receptive to the input to which they are being exposed. this, it would seem, is an especially relevant and supportive indicator for the potential affects that humor can create in the language classroom. deneire (1995) also pointed out the well-documented tension-reducing capacity of humor as an especially beneficial effect for the language classroom. clearly, the foreign/second language classroom presents uniquely high levels of tension/anxiety for the student. not only must the learner attempt to communicate in a new and unfamiliar language, but also do so among and in front of his/her peer. chiasson (2002: 7) also stated that humor can contribute a great deal to the second language classroom. it enables the teacher not only to create an affective or positive environment, but is a source of enjoyment for students and teachers. language is seen in authentic and real life situations. humorous situations allow students to express themselves without fear of ridicule and criticism. anxiety and stress is reduced and students are encouraged to take more risks in using their second language (chee, 2006; neulip,1991). motivation in language teaching motivation is the attribute that ―moves‖ us to do or not do something (gredler, 2001). according to harter (1981: 10), a child has an intrinsic orientation when classroom learning is determined by internal interests such as mastery, curiosity, and preference for challenge. a child has an extrinsic orientation when classroom learning is determined by external interests such as teacher approval and/or grades (harter, 1981). for this study, children‘s motivation was measured by their responses to the children‘s self report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation in the classroom (harter, 1980, 1981). interest can be conceptualized at two different levels of analysis. on a first level, interest refers to an individual‘s habitual predisposition or relatively stable tendency, in which case it is usually termed individual interest. on a second level, situational interest refers to ―current engagements,‖ and ―describes a state or an ongoing process during an actual learning activity (krapp & lewalter, 2001: 212). situational interest is a psychological (i.e., affectivecognitive) state ―that has been triggered by exposure to specific objects or experiences and refers to the heightened attention or concentration that is directed to the object or the experience‖ (ainley & hidi, 2002: 44). it is presumed that new individual interests develop in three stages (krapp & lewalter, 2001). first, a situational interest is aroused by external stimuli for the first time; then, if this situational interest lasts during a given learning phase, the initial attraction may develop into a more stable motivational state; finally, this more stable interest may develop into a relatively enduring individual interest. this suggests 50 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 that if educators knew how to generate (catch) but even more importantly, how to sustain (hold) situational interest, it might help their students to develop over time an individual interest in their courses. this would relieve them of the impossible task of trying to fit the course contents and activities to every student‘s personal interests (pintrich & schunk, 2002). a number of factors have been identified as potentially effective in promoting situational interest. for instance, it was found that group work, puzzles, and the use of computers caught students‘ interest initially; however, it failed to maintain it (mitchell, 1993). this suggests that using the ―bells and whistles‖ approach to stimulate students does not serve the longterm development of interest (pintrich & schunk, 2002). methods this study employed an experimental with a factorial design. according to shuttle worth (2009), a factorial design is often used by the scientist wishing to understand the effect of two or more independent variables upon single dependent variable. the subject of the study was the second semester students of tarbiya program of stain kudus. the population was 242 students and the sample of 80 students was selected randomly and distributed equally to one experimental group and one control group with 40 students respectively. the data were collected by delivering questionnaires on learning motivation to all participants, classifying the participants who have high and low motivation, choosing groups who have high and low motivation as control group, choosing groups who have high and low motivation as experimental group, doing pre-test of both control and experimental group, treatment by using both humor as teaching material and conventional material, doing post-test of both control and experimental group, and inputting the data into the oneway anova with f-test at the 5% level of significant. the data from pre-test and post-test were analyzed and tested using anova test to answer the question whether there was significant difference of students‘ score in speaking ability between the students who are taught using humor and those who are taught using a conventional technique. to test the hypotheses, twoway analysis of variance with f-test at the 5% (0.05) level of significance will be used. two-way anova requires two basic things including normal distribution score for each sell and homogeneity of the score variation (irianto, 1989). the purpose is to address the question whether there is any effect of the use of humor on the development of student speaking skill to those who have high and low learning motivation. results and discussion results data of pre-test showed the achievement of test of experiment and control group before the treatment. the lowest score language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 51 from the overall experimental group was 40 and the highest score was 80. in the way that the lowest score to those who have high learning motivation of experimental group was 55 and the highest score was 80. to have more detail, it could be seen in the following diagram and the lowest score to those who have low learning motivation of experimental group was 40 and the highest score was 80. meanwhile, the lowest score from the overall control group was 30 and the highest score was 80 in the way that the lowest score to those who have high learning motivation of control group was 45 and the highest score was 80. to have more detail, it could be seen in the following diagram and the lowest score to those who have low learning motivation of control group was 40 and the highest score was 80. the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by humor material with high motivation of students was very high. it was seen by score between 70 up to 95 with the average of speaking competence result was 81 and standard deviation was 7. 36. the highest score was 95 and the lowest score was 70 with score range 15 from n = 20. later on, the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by humor material with low motivation was quite high. it was seen by score between 45 up to 85 with the average of speaking competence result was 69 and standard deviation was 6.97. the highest score was 85 and the lowest score was 45 with score range 40 from n = 20. the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by using lifeexperience story with high motivation of students was high. it was seen by score between 60 up to 90 with the average of speaking competence result was 72.75 and standard deviation was 72.75. the highest score was 90 and the lowest score was 60 with score range 30 from n = 20. the result of students‘ speaking competence test with high motivation using humor material could be described in the following histogram. moreover, the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by using life-experience story with low motivation was low. it was seen by score between 50 up to 80 with the average of speaking competence result was 66.5 and standard deviation was 8.28. the highest score was 80 and the lowest score was 50 with score range 30 from n = 20. the result of students‘ speaking competence test with low motivation using humor material could be described in the following histogram. discussion generally speaking, the achievement results illustrated that more students were in favor of humor as teaching material in the efl classroom in improving their speaking skill than conventional method. most of students pointed out that humor helps them in progressing their speaking skill thus it indicated that jokes help them 52 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 pay more attention during class time and increases their level of concentration and anxiety. in comparison, only a few students believed jokes do not have an effect on increasing speaking skill in the classroom. he or she claimed that humor does not help in learning english as second language, and only sometimes boost their attention. moreover, supporting previous research (fisher 1997; cornett 1986), the results of this study show that humor can be beneficial in the efl second language classroom. humor promotes the feeling of understanding and helps to hold the attention of efl students, regardless of the cultural learning situation. humor as teaching material is effective to improve the student speaking skill than the conventional material because all students found humor to be contributing to positive atmosphere in the classroom in the way that student who got the highest score was (90) and lowest score (50) with mean (69.62) and standard deviation 8.87. this indicated number of students favored having humor as part of their english speaking classroom and quite a high proportion of all students felt that humor even encourages them to improve their performance of speaking using english. furthermore, high learning motivation has significant effect on the development of student‘s speaking skill. this was proven by the result of achievement of both experimental and control group who have high learning motivation got higher score than low learning motivation however, their motivation does not play totally in their speaking class achievement. it means that the students who high motivation will not always get good score in their presentation. thus, the grades obtained by the students are more likely related to their background knowledge and aptitude rather than only their motivation. on the other hand, their high motivation generally helps them pass or even get good grades in their english speaking skill. these students do not experience regulative motivation. they are slightly more instrumentally motivated than interactively motivated. since this study covers english major students only, it might be worthwhile to undertake similar study using other college students as well as students from other universities in indonesia. and last, humor as teaching material has significant improvement of the student‘s speaking skill to those who have high and low learning motivation. it was proven by different range of pre and post test of both experimental and control. some students reported that humor in the classroom situation affected their learning positively to those who have high low motivation rather than conventional material. college students of stain kudus expressed specific opinions about humor and the teaching atmosphere. comparing to conventional material some students reported that humor reduces barriers between them and their teachers. also, they felt that humor reduced their “fear” in language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 53 speaking performance, and other said that humor makes the learning environment more enjoyable. clearly, students feel the need for the humor factor as part of their english learning process to improve their speaking skill. conclusion and suggestion conclusion it can be concluded that the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by humor material with high learning motivation of student was very high. it means that humor together with learning motivation supported the students to get better achievement in speaking skill. meanwhile, the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by humor material with low learning motivation was quite high. it meant that humor was quite good to be a material for students with low motivation rather than conventional one. additionally, the result of improving students‘ speaking competence by using life-experience story with high learning motivation of the students was high. humor as teaching material is more effective to improve the student speaking skill than the conventional material because all students found humor to be contributing to positive atmosphere in the classroom. it means that number of students favored having humor as part of their english speaking classroom and quite a high proportion of all students felt that humor even encourages them to improve their performance of speaking using english. humor as teaching material has significant improvement of the student‘s speaking skill to those who have high and low learning motivation in the way that some college students of stain kudus expressed that humor in the classroom situation affected their learning positively to those who have high low motivation rather than conventional material. comparing to conventional material some students reported that humor reduces barriers between them and their teachers. also, they felt that humor reduced their “fear” in speaking performance, and other said that humor makes the learning environment more enjoyable. suggestion the role of pedagogical humor in the classroom is truly multifaceted and thus requires examination and analysis from a variety of perspectives. a great deal of research has been conducted in the area of general pedagogical effects of humor on affective variables in the efl classroom. despite some uncertainty concerning the degree to which humor benefits the classroom, the vast majority of literature and experimental evidence in this area has generally acknowledged significant benefits to the pedagogical employment of humor. further study may also be conducted to determine whether teachers‘ use of humor appears to reduce student anxiety and stress in the classroom to improve students‘ speaking skill, retention, and student-teacher relationships. since a small number of subjects were involved in 54 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 this study, the results may not necessarily be extended to make a prediction about the entire population. references berk, r. a. (1998). professors are from mars, students are from snickers. madison, wi: mendota press. bryant, j., comisky, p., & zillmann, d. (1979). teachers' humor in the college classroom. communication education, 28, 110-118. bryant, j., crane, j. s., comisky, p., and zillmann, d. 1980. relationship between college teachers' use of humor in the classroom and students' evaluations of their teachers. journal of educational psychology . 72. 511519. bygate, m. 1987. language teaching: speaking. ney york: oxford university press. cambridge university press celce-murcia, m. 2001. teaching english as a second or foreign language. london: thomson learning. check, j. f. 1986. positive traits of the effective teacher-negative traits of the ineffective one. education. 106. 326334. chee, a. 2006. humor in teyl reducing classroom anxiety. the international teyl journal. retrieved july 17, 2010 from http://www.teyl.org/article2.html chiasson, e, p. (2002). using humour in the second language classroom. internet tesl deneire, m. (1995). humor and foreign language teaching. humor international journal of humor research. 8, 285-298. garner, r. (2005). humor, analogy, and metaphor: h.a.m. it up in teaching. retrieved july 17, 2010, from http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/ content/issue6_2/garner.html kher, n., molstad, s. & donahue, r.( 1999). using humor in the college classroom to enhance teaching effectiveness in dread courses. college student journal 33, 400-405. krashen, s. 1982. theory versus practice in language training. in blair (ed.), innovative approaches to language teaching. rowley, ma: newbury house. mcghee, p. e. 1979. humor. its origin and development san francisco: freeman. neulip, j. w.1991. an examination of the content of high school teachers' humor in the classroom and development of an inductively derived taxonomy of classroom humor. communication education. 40, 343-355. shade, d. 1996 license to laugh. englewood, co: teacher ideas press. stuart, w. d., and rosenfeld, l. b.1994. student perceptions of teacher humor and classroom climate. communication research reports. 11. 87-97. wheeless, l., stewart, r., keamey, p., and plax, t. 1987. locus of control and personal constructs in students' reactions to teacher compliance: a reassessment communication education. 36. 250-257. http://www.teyl.org/article2.html language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x modality analysis on the official website of indonesian tourism shafira rahmasari*, stefanny lauwren universitas sanata dharma, indonesia *email: rahmasari_shafira@yahoo.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.24453 submitted 14 may 2020. revised 7 august 2020. accepted 19 september 2020 abstract tourism is believed as the primary motivation to improve the economy of a country. in order to attract some tourists to visit tourism destinations in indonesia, the ministry of tourism establishes an official website to share the information regarding the tourism destinations, activities, and attractions. this study is conducted to observe how the official website of indonesian tourism utilizes modality to present indonesian tourism discourse. this paper analysed ten destination highlights of the website covering the areas of medan, raja ampat, bali, banyuwangi, bintan island, jakarta, yogyakarta, bandung, makassar, and lombok through discourse analysis approach utilizing halliday’s systemic functional linguistics. this paper found modality is used in the forms of probability, usuality, inclination, and obligation. those different types of modality are employed to describe three domains of tourism discourse: itineraries and access, place to play, and authenticity. it is concluded that the government uses the website to ensure the readers’ being well informed of indonesian tourism destinations and safety during their visit to indonesia. keywords: modality; tourism discourse; discourse analysis te to share the information regarding the tourism destinations, activities, and attractions to attract people to visit the places. jaworski and pritchard (2005) state that tourists imagine and shape their expectation about the destination long before they arrive at that place. thus, through websites, it helps the tourist imagine the destination as the process of preparation and anticipation (jack and phipps, 2005). some photos of the tourism places or attractions are displayed on the website. to elaborate the detail in the photo, they put the information on articles. on the websites it is composed of some texts that construct the identity of the destination that is both indicative and inviting (hallett and kaplan-weinger, 2010). hallett and kaplan-weinger (2010) argue that the text which narrates the destination is produced through the interaction between the web user, the web text and the website creator. tourism discourses can be defined as a set of expressions, words and behavior as well as particular touristic structures and activities that describe a place and its inhabitants (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). thus, the text that is used in the tourism website contains tourism discourses, as they are used to express, describe, and construct introduction indonesia is known as the largest archipelago country with more than 13,000 islands whose two third of the area is water (pranita, 2018). within the area either in the land or in the water, it has ecosystem and species diversity (chairiyah, 2013). the ecosystem and species diversity are wide as well as the cultural diversity. according to chairiyah (2013), the ecosystem and cultural diversity are potential to attract tourists to visit an area. the use of brochures, booklets, websites and social media platforms are commonly found to promote tourism destinations. over two decades the tourism industry in indonesia has undergone substantial change because of economic change during the period (suparwoko, 2011). it is said that touristic activity generates significant economic benefit for the country and the tourists as well (cholic, 2017) as indonesia is a developing country (dewi et al., 2018). cholic (2017) argues that one of the primary motivations for a developing country to promote itself is the economic improvement mainly through foreign exchange earnings including tourism industry. therefore, the ministry of indonesian tourism establishes an official websilanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 113 on their message, expressing attitudes and judgement of various kinds (eggins, 2004). modality is thus grounded in the initiating role of an exchange (halliday, 2004). eggins (2004) explains that there are two types of modality which are modalization and modulation. modalization is used to argue about the probability or frequency of prepositions. thus, it is classified into probability and usuality. probability is used to express judgement as to the likelihood or the probability of something happening or being happened. on the other hand, usuality occurs to express the judgment of frequency in which something happens. it can be expressed through a finite modal operator in the verbal group or a modal adjunct (halliday, 2004). on the other hand, modulation is used to argue about the inclination or obligation of proposal (eggins, 2004). inclination is used to represent the tendency of a speaker to do something as well as the capability from their own feeling while obligation is used when the speaker is about giving command, suggestion, demand or advice to the listener. it is expressed in a form of a finite modal operator or an expansion of the predicator through verbal group complexing such as in a form of a passive verb or an adjective (halliday, 2004). the degree of modalization and modulation are affected by the status, contact, and affect. modality is marked by the auxiliaries in which it is covering such notions as probability, usuality, obligation, and inclination. the auxiliaries are called as modal operators in which they are the elements to express the modality in the clause. according to halliday (2004), probability and usuality can be expressed through finite modal operators in the verbal group such as ‘will’ and through a modal adjunct for instance the word ‘probably’ and ‘usually’. in addition, both of them can be combined together. on the other hand, both obligation and inclination can be expressed through a finite modal operator and verbal group (halliday, 2004). the word ‘should’, for instance, is a finite modal operator while the adjective such as ‘anxious’ can be a sign to express an obligation or inclination (halliday, 2004). halliday (2004) also argues that passive verbs marked an obligation or an inclination. by using the modal operators or the auxiliary, it depicts the certainty of the utterance which is classified into low, median, and high category. similar to modal operator, modal adjuncts are also classified into low, median and high degree. eggins (2004) classifies the words such as ‘might’, ‘possibly’, and ‘sometimes’ into low catethe desired image of the destination. the text will help the tourist assemble different images and ideas of the destination. this research focuses on how the official website of indonesian tourism utilizes modality to present indonesian tourism discourse. modality enables the researchers to reveal how indonesian governments exchange information, goods and services. on the front page of the website, there are ten destination highlights providing some areas along with their information. accessed in january 2020, the ten destination highlights consist of medan, raja ampat, bali, banyuwangi, bintan island, jakarta, yogyakarta, bandung, makassar, and lombok. systemic functional linguistics (sfl) argues that the ultimate goal of using language is not just to communicate but to get the right meaning across and accomplish certain social purposes (endarto,2017). therefore, language is used in the text, in this case articles, to engage the reader and it is used to study what is beyond the words. the language use might range from the choice of words, the syntactic structure of the clauses and sentences, to the organization of the texts (manggala, 2017). manggala (2017) also argues that their personal background, understanding as well as their belief influence the reproduction of using language. systemic functional language (sfl) is used to support this study since it has been used by many researchers to analyze texts and to discover the meaning of the text by analyzing the use of grammar. sfl is a tool to find out the ideologies of a text. there are three metafunctions in halliday’s systemic functional language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual (halliday, 2014). ideational metafunction is the function that construes human experience. it is distinguished into two components; experiential and logical. it construes a quantum of change in the flow of events as a figure, or configuration of a process, participants involved in it and any attendant circumstances. interpersonal metafunction deals with how information, goods and services are exchanged. textual metafunction focuses on the quantum of information in the flow of discourse: it has some form of organization whereby it fits in with and contributes to, the flow of discourse (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). interpersonal metafunction connects the relationship between the speaker and the audience. one of linguistic tools in interpersonal metafunction is modality. it is a complex area of english grammar that has to do with the different ways in which a language user can intrude language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 114 gory while the words ‘may’, ‘probably’, ‘usually’ belong to the median category. the words such as ‘must’, ‘certainly’, ‘always’ belong to a high category. many scholars have studied tourism discourse and modality. isti’anah (2019) conducted a research by taking an article from the official website of indonesian government. the researcher focused on the way the official website of indonesian tourism uses the indonesian nature to represent raja ampat tourism. critical discourse analysis is applied as the approach focusing on language attitude analysis. it is found that the type of appreciation was dominated by [+valuation] and [+reaction]. the research concluded that indonesian government portrays fauna in raja ampat as its distinctive tourism attraction. another study is conducted by pionery and isti’anah (2016). they analyzed the modality that is used in melania trump and ivanka trump’s campaign speech. the data are taken from the speech in republican national convention on july 19th 2016. the study is conducted to find out the type of modality and to reveal the ideologies reflected by using the modality. to find out the type of modality, systemic functional linguistic is used as the theoretical framework and stylistic approach is applied to discuss the type of modality that carries the ideologies. it is found that the type of modality used by melania trump were inclination, obligation, potentiality and ability also probability. on the other hand, ivanka trump is observed employing the type of modality which are inclination, usuality, potentiality and ability, probability, and obligation. those modalities reflect that the ideologies carried are commitment and self-promotion. the other scholars are olaniyan and adeniji (2015). they took objective statements segments or the purpose statements for thesis, hypothesis behind particular research paper or work of three hundred of art-based abstracts research articles to explore the discourse function of modality. the study employs systemic functional linguistics as the theoretical framework. it is found that the categories of modality applied in the thesis statements of those research. possibility modals (might, would, etc) are used to state analytical scope and research goals in the abstract. necessity modals (must, should, etc) are applied to state analytical scope, to present argument, and to make polite requests. prediction modals (will, would, etc) are used to state the researcher’s research mission in predictive form. those studies are similar to another since they used the same theoretical framework, systemic functional linguistics with different tools to analyze their objects. it prompts the writers to conduct this research using the same theoretical framework to discover the tourism discourse through the usage of modality. therefore, the objectives of this research are to analyze the types of modality on the indonesian website and conclude how modality is used to present indonesian tourism discourse. methods in this research, the object of the study is taken from the destination highlights in indonesia tourism website, www.indonesia.travel, which is accessed in january 2020. the data includes medan, raja ampat, bali, banyuwangi, bintan island, jakarta, yogyakarta, bandung, makassar, and lombok. the clauses that are used by the destination highlights will be analyzed with a descriptive qualitative approach. a descriptive qualitative approach is used to uncover the complexity and to provide more in-depth examination (nassaji, 2015). by this approach, it is expected to describe a phenomenon and characteristics. the clauses are categorized into their types of modality by observing the relationship of subject-finite that is employed, as well as involving the modal auxiliaries and modal adverbs, according to the modality of interpersonal metafunction of halliday’s systemic functional linguistics. the summary of the types of modality in all destination highlights are compiled into one table to look at the similarity of tourism discourse. in terms of its modality, the modal adverb as well as auxiliary is analyzed in terms of its context, whether it is modalization or modulation. then, it is further classified into probability, usuality, obligation, or inclination. therefore, the modality in the website can be revealed. result and discussion there are 87 clauses that contain modals found in ten highlights published in indonesian tourism website. it, then, divides into four different types of modal which are probability, usuality, obligation, and inclination. there are 76 clauses that classify as probability presented in 87.36% of the data. the clauses which employ usuality and inclination have the same number. there are four clauses in each type of modals which is presented in 4.6% of the data. obligation are employed in three clauses. it is 3.44% of the data. http://www.indonesia.travel language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 115 types of modality probability table 1. types of modality in the highlights types of modality frequency percentage probability 76 87.36% usuality 4 4.6% inclination 4 4.6% obligation 3 3.44% total 87 100% probability is marked by the modals that show probability and possibility of something happening or being happened. it can be modal auxiliary verbs, or modal adverbs. there are 76 clauses that show probability in text. probability is the modal with the largest number among the other categories. it is found that it employed the modal auxiliaries which are will, can, could, may, and might. there are nineteen clauses that employs the modal ‘will’, fifty clauses that uses the modal ‘can’ and five clauses takes the modal ‘may’ in the clauses. the first example is the sentence below. as bali is located 8 degrees south of the equator, you will find the climate to be the typical tropical, warm and humid all year round with two main distinctive seasons: dry season and rainy season. the modal is in the median category. in that sentence, the modal is followed by the verb ‘find’ and ‘you’ is the subject of the clause. therefore, through the sentence, it informs the reader that the climate in bali is warm and humid along the year which is in dry and rainy season since bali is located 8 degrees south of the equator. the next example is the sentence below. in medan, you can choose a public bus, taxi or becak to get around. the modal ‘can’ is a low of probability category. in the sentence, the modal ‘can’ is followed by the verb ‘choose’ in which the subject is ‘you’. the sentence shows probability and ability to perform an action. the implied meaning of the sentence is that the reader assumes the visitor has the possibility and ability to choose various kinds of transportation to explore the city, medan. another example is the sentence below. you may wish to organize a car and driver for the duration of your stay in yogyakarta. that word marks that the sentence is categorized as a possibility in which the word ‘may’ is a low category. the pronoun ‘you’ is the subject and the modal ‘may’ is followed by a verb ‘wish’. the word ‘may’ can be interpreted as ‘it is possible that’. thus, in the sentence, it tries to deliver that it is possible that the visitor organized a car to be rented for some moments. usuality it is found that four clauses employed modal adjunct which are sometime, usually, and often. usuality is part of modalization in which it concerns the exchange of “good and services”. it is used to show the frequencies or the repetition of something. below is the example of the usage of modal adjectival “usually” that is used in two different clauses. when a group of tourists arrived, they usually perform a traditional welcome dance right at the dock and entertained the ‘guests’ with various papuan folk songs. the modal ‘usually’ marks that the clause is a typical of usuality modality. the word ‘usually’ is followed by the verb ‘perform’ and the pronoun ‘they’ conducts as the subject of the clause. the adverb ‘usually’ is categorized as median degree. it implies that they, which refers to arborek people, will perform a traditional welcome dance in a certain time to welcome a group of tourists. the other example is the usage of the modal adverb ‘sometimes’. distances between points of interest in jakarta can sometimes be far and might interspersed with traffic. the word ‘sometimes” which is an adverb having a function to signify that the clause is categorized as usuality in terms of the type of modality. it is marked a low category of modality. it gives an emphasis that how far the distance is depends on the traffic. since it belongs to the low category, the speaker cannot make sure. another example is the sentence that occupies the modal adverb ‘often’. ceremonial processions often take up the entire road. the word that is being employed is ‘often’. it is categorized as a high degree of modality. in the sentence, the subject is ‘ceremonial processions’ while the predicate the word ‘take’. it emphasizes the frequency of doing the ceremonial procession in the entire road. because it is in median category, it can be assumed that the speaker is quite sure about the opinion. inclination the percentage of the usage of inclination is the same as usuality. it is found in only four clauses in the text employing the modals that show inclination. incilantion is a part of modulation which represents the tendency and the capability to do such command, suggestion, demand or advice. on the other hand, it can be said that inclination is used to express willingness in which the word such as ‘will’ and ‘should’ are emplolanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 116 yed. it is found that two out of four clauses employ the modal ‘will’ and two out of four clauses use the modal ‘should’. the first example is the sentence which employed the modal verb ‘will’. just a mere 50 km from the city, bantimurung bulusaraung national park will greet you with its stunning waterfall and hordes of enchanting butterflies the modal ‘will’ that is used in the clause it to show command and willingness to do something. in this case, it is seen that the subject ‘bantimurung bulusaraung national park’ has a willingness and suggestion to greet the visitor with its waterfall and butterflies that fly around the place. in the clause, ‘bantimurung bulusaraung national park’ is the subject and the modal is followed by a verb ‘greet’. the modal verb ‘will’ is in median category which means that the speaker is quite enough regarding the information. another example is the sentence below which employed the modal verb ‘should’. those who love nature at its finest should walk up the dramatic hills of tebing keraton or the royal (palace) cliff, the peak of moko hill, eurad highland lembang, or the stone garden citatah. the modal auxiliary verb ‘should’ marks that the sentence is categorized as inclination which is a median category. in this sentence, the modal verb is followed by the verb ‘walk up’ in which the adjective clause ‘those who love nature at its finest’ is the subject. thus, it can be inferred that it offers a condition that must be fulfilled by some people who love enjoying nature to walk up the hills. obligation in this section there are only three clauses that employ the modal auxiliary which are ‘maybe’, ‘will’, and ‘should’. by using those modal auxiliaries’ verbs, the speaker attempts to give command, suggestion, demand or advice. the first example is found in the sentence below. from strolling through the living museum of the kraton or the keraton (sultan’s palace), to hanging out at the famous alun alun, to watching silversmiths produce amazing jewelry at kotagede and maybe try a splurge shopping up at malioboro road. the word ‘maybe’ is inferred as a suggestion in this sentence. it includes a low category which indicates that it is not quite necessary to do. the modal auxiliary verb ‘maybe’ is followed by a verb ‘try’. therefore, the sentence means that the readers are suggested to visit sultan’s palace, alun alun, kotagede and malioboro. the other example lies in the sentences below. to get to raja ampat you should first take a flight from jakarta or makassar to sorong. the auxiliary verb ‘should’ indicates something that is supposed to do. it is in the median category that can be used when the speaker lacks authority to impose the obligation. the word is followed by the verb ‘take’ and the pronoun ‘you’ plays as the subject which is associated as the reader. the sentence can be inferred that the readers are supposed to take flight from certain city to go to sorong. therefore, the sentence states a command for the readers. another example is the sentence which employed the word ‘will’. so you’ll need to be patient with some traffic jams. the word ‘will’ in this sentence is employed to show obligation. it expresses medium obligation which means an advice for the subject, you. the modal auxiliary verb ‘will’ is followed by the verb ‘need’ and ‘you’ is the subject which refers to the readers. the sentence carries a meaning which the readers are given an advice to be patient due to the traffic jams. tourism discourse seen from modality modality is used to express the attitude of the speaker about what is said, and is marked by the auxiliaries in which it is covering such notions as probability, usuality, obligation, and inclination. the official website incorporates tourism discourse through multiple modalities to exploit patterns and functions of linguistics which nations use to promote themselves (hallet & kaplanweinger). on the destination highlights of the official website of indonesia tourism, the tourism discourse that is discovered are itineraries and access, place to play, and authenticity. there are 37 clauses which show the itineraries and access tourism discourse, presented in 42.53% of the data. the second largest is the place to play discourse with 35 clauses, presented in 40.23% of the data. the last one is the authenticity with 15 clauses which presented in 17.24% of the data. table 2. types of tourism discourse in the highlights tourism discourse frequency percentage itineraries and access 37 42.53% place to play 35 40.23% authenticity 15 17.24% total 87 100% itineraries and access itineraries and access discourse hold the largest percentage of the discourse in the data. itinerary includes means of transport, safety, some information on the potential future plans and how travel will benefit the tourists and the people language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 117 they come in contact with; and how important travel was to the tourists (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). with this tourism discourse, it shows that the website, or the government that wrote the website, wants to provide clear information for the tourist’s comfort and easy life throughout their stay. the example of the itineraries and access discourse is explained below. in medan, you can choose a public bus, taxi or becak to get around. in the above example, the website tries to give the readers information of the vehicle they are able to choose from when they are in medan. to make sure that the tourists have a comfortable time in medan, the website attempts to exchange information on what kind of transportation they can use and is available for them. the modality that is used is probability, in the form of the modal auxiliary ‘can’. in this context, the website hands the choice to the readers and at the same time, they give themselves a chance that they might be wrong, as the probability modals are used to show how likely it is to be true. the website cannot make sure what transportation methods are available so it offers information on the various transportation methods. people who visit jakarta, usually take time to stop by the neighboring bogor, famous for its botanical garden and highlands getaway in the puncak area. another example of itineraries and access discourse is the above example. in the example, the website means to offer an itinerary choice based on what most people that come to jakarta do. the usuality modal that is used is “usually” which indicates a medium value modal. the readers are offered information on what itineraries they should make to fully enjoy jakarta. the website intends to channel the tourist gaze towards the destinations and services that are part of their intended itinerary (jaworski and pritchard, 2005). the information that is given is intended to help the tourists who have no fixed itinerary and timetable. to get to raja ampat you should first take a flight from jakarta or makassar to sorong. as raja ampat is located in papua, a place with less access than in java, the website intends to give the right information about what transportation method the tourist should do to access raja ampat. it is important to include how to access the place for the potential tourists. it strikes a balance between promoting tourism by giving clear information on how to come to the place while shielding potential travelers from danger (hallett and kaplan-weinger). place to play the tourism discourse with the second highest percentage is “place to play”. places to play are places involved in producing distinctions of taste resulting from consuming, and anticipating the consumption, of an incredible array of goods and services (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). the places that the website introduces play a high role in constructing the tourists’ understanding of the country (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). therefore, “place to play” discourse is highly important as it contains the means to promote the tourism sites. the example is below. green bay or sarongan pesanggaran will astound you with its waters, which are green on the shores and turn to blue, as the water flows further away from the beach line. the offered place to play in the sentence is the landscape of green bay or sarongan pesanggaran. it is described with favorable words that promote its beautiful waters which the website believes is astounding, as proven in their choice of modal. the notion of landscape emphazises leisure, relaxation and visual consumption by visitors (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). the green bay is considered as a unique virgin beach that has a tropical atmosphere and white sands. the readers or the potential tourists are given the portrayal of the landscapes in hope that they will turn into real tourists. those who love nature at its finest should walk up the dramatic hills of tebing keraton or the royal (palace) cliff, the peak of moko hill, eurad highland lembang, or the stone garden citatah. potential tourists are once again offered the portrayal of the landscape, with the addition of the calling to the “nature enthusiast” as mentioned in the phrase “those who love nature at its finest”. this addition will invite people who consider themselves as part of the group of people that love nature. the promotion of the tourism site is increasingly generated not by commerce but by collective enthusiasts (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). therefore, the website uses the enthusiasm of nature lovers to come to the place. authenticity this tourism discourse has the lowest percentage in the data. authenticity deals with goods and services that are distinctive in some heritage tourism’s design, implementation and experience (jaworski & pritchard, 2005). therefore, in the website, the authenticity tourism discourse can be found through indonesian traditional transportation, food and beverages, performances, and cullanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 112-119 118 tural heritage. the example is for a beverage, you can try the jamu, a natural herb mix beverage based on ancient tradition used for natural remedies. the authenticity that is offered is jamu, an authentic indonesian natural remedy, that has already existed since ancient time. it is considered as part of alternative medicine that is used for natural remedies. using this, the website intends to use the authenticity of jamu to show an interesting reason why the potential tourists should go to indonesia. when a group of tourists arrived, they usually perform a traditional welcome dance right at the dock and entertained the ‘guests’ with various papuan folk songs. the authenticity that is offered is the traditional welcome dance with various papuan folk songs. this dance performance is done right at the dock and is entertaining to watch. the usuality modal that is used is “usually” which indicates a modal with medium value, showing that most of the time they performed the traditional welcome dance, though the website cannot make sure that they will always perform the dance upon the tourists’ arrival. the dance is part of indonesian cultural heritage that is special to the region of papua. in order to enjoy the welcoming dance, the potential tourists should come to papua and be their “guests”. conclusion the website employs modality realized in 87 clauses which is probability, usuality, inclination, and obligation. from the data, it can be seen that the highest percentage being probability and the lowest being obligation. the official website of indonesian tourism shows three tourism discourses: itineraries and access, place to play, and authenticity. it is found that medium and low category dominate the usage of modality in those ten highlights. it can be inferred that in delivering content, the website is not quite sure about the information. the high number of probability and low number of obligations emphasize the discourse of itineraries and access that the website intends to let the readers get all the facts and information about the place that they are going to visit in order to make sure of their safety and comfort during their travel. even though it contains promotion purposes, the website mainly prioritizes to provide information, rather than advertising aspect. it can be concluded that the website serves as a source of information that potential tourists and readers can rely on, but further research on the destination is still needed, 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(2019). mood and modality in soekarano’s 1955 speech. paradigm, 2(2), 109-120. yuyun, i. (2010). a mood and modality analysis of arguments in senior high school debating. english studies center for studies on language and culture (pp. 161-166). atma jaya catholic university. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 13 the use of guided learning cell technique to develop active collaboration of ixa students of smp negeri 2 semarang in writing reports diana farida smp negeri 2 semarang abstract the competence of writing english texts has become very important in this global era. to facilitate junior high school students to gain the competence, english teachers employ various techniques to reach the goal with the curriculum as the guideline. the research was conducted by employing guided learning cell (glc) technique. the objectives of this study are (1) to investigate to what extent glc technique can develop the competence of the ix a students of smpn 2 semarang to write reports and (2) to investigate to what extent glc technique can develop active collaboration of the ix a students of smpn 2 semarang in writing reports. the research was conducted through action research with two cycles. each cycle consists of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. the results of the research can be concluded as follows: (1) glc technique applied during the research had successfully developed students’ writing report competence. before the research, ix a students’ writing average score is 70.52, while at the end of the research it is 84.29. at the end of the research, the average score has exceeded the writing passing grade, 80. this proved that the technique had developed their writing competence to the extent of 13.77. (2) based on the second requirement of the research, glc technique could also successfully develop students’ active collaboration with their mates to the extent of 42%. before the research, only 1 (4%) student who could gain the passing grade, while – at the end of the research 21 (88%) students could do so. words: guided learning cell technique, active collaboration introduction in this global era, good writing competence plays an important role to express one’s ideas, thoughts, and opinions to interact with others. to help students survive in global interaction, teachers have to facilitate their students to be able to gain such writing competence using the curriculum as the guideline. in the english curriculum of junior high school for international standard school for grade nine of semester two (departmen pendidikan nasional: 2007,22), one of the writing basic competence is stated as “to express meanings in short simple essays of procedure, report and explanation accurately, coherently and appropriately to communicate in daily life and/or academic contexts.” this target competence has to be obtained by the students. however, problems may occur during the process of teaching and learning. such problems 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 took place in my class when a report writing test was administered. to ease students to express their ideas and thought well, they were given freedom to write the text using their own topic. after reading their texts, other problems were found as follows: (1) students had limited knowledge of technical terms and factual information of the topic when writing their texts, (2) to help students gain better knowledge of the topic, they were allowed to carry out a “research” by reading various sources. after searching various technical words and facts, students were required to present them in their texts using their own words with their own style. however, another problem appeared. they did not do as required, but they copied others’ texts they had read and inserted a few of their own sentences in the texts. to make the problems get worse, these sentences were written with various mistakes. the facts found during the process of teaching and learning of writing reports show that the students found difficulties to complete their texts. this influenced their attainment to the target competence. it was obvious that students need more guidance from their teacher and support from their peers to gain their optimum competence. to facilitate the students to obtain their optimum competence, i was motivated to make some changes to solve the problems. the change i designed to solve the problems is by applying guided learning cell (glc) technique. the technique is adapted from learning cell technique. to learn a lesson through learning cell technique, students are assigned to work in pairs to do a spoken question and answer activity. before doing this task, students have to write their own questions and answers. for this research, learning cell technique was adapted to guided learning cell (glc) technique. when learning to write reports through glc technique, students are required to work in groups of 4 to do a spoken question and answer activity without having to write questions and answers. their teacher will do a “research” by searching various materials on the internet before writing questions and answers for them. the instructional topics for the questions and answers presented in the study are animals from australia, tasmanian devil and platypus. the animals were chosen as they are unique. the uniqueness is intended to attract students’ interest to learn them eagerly. to ease students get better knowledge about the animals, written technical words, facts and picture of the animal were presented as clues for the answers of the questions. as the teacher herself who has to prepare the questions and answers for her students, the adaptation of learning cell technique is named guided learning cell (glc) technique. the reason for the adaptation is that not assigning students to do the “research” by themselves means not giving them any chance to read various sources and to copy others’ texts when writing their own reports. they have to language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 15 work hard to obtain their optimum competence. the procedure of doing question and answer through glc technique is as follows: the questions are written on small cards while some technical words and factual information are presented in a table as clues for the answers. when doing the question and answer activity in groups of 4, students do it like playing cards. student a gets a card, reads the question on it and asks student b to answer it. student b answers the question by searching the correct clue for the answer of the question. if the students find difficulties in responding to their mates’ questions, other members of the group help them. all group members have to do question and answer like student a and student b. based on the problematic situation and the changes designed to solve the problems elaborated previously, the research questions examined through this study are as follows: (1) to what extent can glc technique develop the competence of the ix a students of smpn 2 semarang to write reports and (2) to what extent can glc technique develop active collaboration of the ix a students of smpn 2 semarang in writing reports? review of related literature learning cell technique has been applied to present various classroom activities. barkley, cross and mayor (2005:141-142) elaborates researches carried out using the technique as follows: a study on introduction to art uses this technique to review various art genres by assigning students to make 2 questions for each of the genres. after conducting a question and answer activity in pairs, students then submit their questions to their teacher who will review and add other questions for student enrichment. the objective of this research is to facilitate students to review the material for the exam. the technique is also applied by professor tish oosells to present human anatomy and physiology. the aim of the study is to enhance student understanding of the material presented through questions and answers. another research carried out using learning cell technique is conducted to present race and ethnic relations which is presented on line. the objective of the study is to review the material. unlike researches on learning cell technique elaborated previously, my research study does not apply the technique. the technique was adapted for this research. the adaptation of the technique was named guided learning cell (gcl) technique. my research was carried out to investigate to what extent glc technique could develop active collaboration of the ix a students of smpn 2 semarang and their competence in writing reports. 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 gcl technique is one of collaborative learning techniques. barkley, cross and major (2005) define collaborative learning as follows: … collaborative learning has come to mean students working in pairs or small groups to achieve shared learning goals. it is learning through group work rather than learning by working alone … collaborative learning methods emphasize the importance of promotive interaction and individual accountability. students must not only learn to work together, but they must also be held responsible for their teammates’ learning as well as their own. in this research, collaborative learning is defined as instructional method carried out by assigning students to work together with the whole class and in small groups of 4 to achieve a shared learning objective. the learning objectives are to develop active collaboration of the ix a students of smpn 2 semarang and their competence in writing reports. more advantages of the implementation of collaborative learning experienced by students (in middlecamp, http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/c11/cl/s tory/middlecc/tscmc.htm) are elaborated as follows: the method can support students in solving problems more efficiently as more students get involved in the activity by contributing to each other. this makes the problems be solved easier and faster. the contribution they provide can be in forms of ideas to cope with the problems. it can also be in the form of feedback and/or encouragement provided by students to their peers facing difficulties to contribute to the group. such feedback and/or encouragement can be given through peer tutoring. this activity enables faster students to share what they understand to their peers in the group who may not understand. this makes the concept they have understood be implanted deeper in their mind. the process gets other people to help keep each other on track. in this study, glc technique was implemented by requiring students to do a question and answer activity in groups of 4. to ease students remember the result of the activity, students were told to record it using mind maps. a mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items linked to and arranged around a central key word or idea. (wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mind_map) author tony buzan suggests the following guidelines for creating mind maps: (1) start in the center with an image of the topic, using at least 3 colors. (2) use images, symbols, codes, and dimensions throughout your mind map. (3) select key words and print using upper or lower case letters. (4) each word/image is best alone and sitting on its own line. (5) the lines should be connected, starting from the central image. http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/c11/cl/story/middlecc/tscmc.htm http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/c11/cl/story/middlecc/tscmc.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/diagram http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/words http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/idea http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mind_map http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tony_buzan language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 17 the central lines are thicker, organic and thinner as they radiate out from the centre. (6) make the lines the same length as the word/image they support. (7) use multiple colors throughout the mind map, for visual stimulation and also to encode or group. (8) develop your own personal style of mind mapping. (9) use emphasis and show associations in your mind map. (10) keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or outlines to embrace your branches. (ibid) a mind map is an effective and creative way to record information and facts learnt during the question and answer activity using glc technique. each group member has to participate actively when drawing the map, as they will write their reports based on the map. report is one of the genres taught in junior high school. this genre is presented to grade nine students to develop the four skills of language: listening, speaking, reading and writing. in this study, the text was applied to develop ix a students’ writing report competence. the function of the text is to describe the way things are, with reference to a range of natural, manmade, and social phenomena in our environment. (bima,winardi and nurmalina s, 2005: 114) to facilitate students to gain writing report competence, a teacher has to introduce the structure of report first before asking them to express their ideas, thought, imagination and creativity. anderson and anderson (1997:91) write that the structure of report consists of: (1) general opening statement in the first paragraph, (2) a series of paragraphs about the subject and (3) a concluding paragraph (optional). a report is constructed not only by following a particular structure but also language features. the language features usually found in the text are: (1) technical language related to the subject, (2) generalized terms and (3) use of the timeless present tense. (ibid) after learning the structure and the language features of reports, students can create their own texts. methods of investigation the problems of the study are investigated through a classroom action research. it was carried out for 6 months from the last week of october 2011 to the last week of april 2012 of academic year 2011/2012. the subject of the study was the ix a students consisting of 24 persons, 13 girls and 11 boys. to conduct this research, the following instruments were utilized: (1) teaching documents consisting of the curriculum, syllabi, lesson plans, test items and writing scoring rubric by r.kern in depniknas 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 (2005: 35-38), (2) observation sheet on student active collaboration, (3) observation sheet on teacher’s activities when teaching and (4) photographic evidence. the design of the research is action research with each cycle consisting of plan, action, observation and reflection. the research was carried out after preliminary study was conducted. having found the problems in the preliminary study, i started the first cycle of the research by designing plans to solve the problems. then, i conducted the actions using glc technique in question and answer session. the actions applied in the first cycle were started by asking students to conduct a question and answer activity about tasmanian devil. before doing this activity, students were given a set of cards with a question written on each of the cards. they were also given a table with technical words and facts on the animal presented in the form of a table. they were presented to ease students to get clues when answering the questions. after this activity was completed, students were required to write reports on the topic. then students’ texts were scored based on the scoring rubric. when students were conducting the question and answer activity, they were observed to see whether or not they worked collaboratively with their group mates to help each other to answer the questions correctly. the observation was done using the observation sheet on students’ active collaboration. another observation was also done to examine teacher’s activities during the lesson. the observation was conducted to see whether or not she followed the steps as designed in the lesson plan. the observation was carried out using the observation sheet for the teacher. after collecting data during the first cycle, reflection was conducted. it was intended to know whether or not the actions done using glc technique had weaknesses or problems. it was also meant to identify what points were well done. the results of teacher’s observation, the result of observation on students’ active collaboration and the writing scores of the first cycle were reflected to inform the strength and weaknesses of the implementation of actions during this cycle. if the results of the reflection do not reach the research requirements, the research will be continued to the second cycle. the research requirements are as follows: (1) if at least 85% of the students are able to acquire the writing passing grade, then the implementation of the actions using glc technique is considered successful to develop students’ writing report competence, (2) if at least 80% of the students are able to work together actively with their group mates during the question and answer session, then the implementation of the actions using glc technique is considered successful to develop students’ active collaboration. a language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 19 student is considered being able to work together actively with his/her group mates during the question and answer session, if he/she shows one of the following (a) actively gets involved in completing the group task and often helps his/her group mates or (b) actively gets involved in completing the group task and always helps his/her group mates. the second cycle of the research also consists of plan, action, observation and reflection. plans were designed based on the results of the reflection of the first cycle. these were intended to overcome the problems of the first cycle. then, actions were conducted using glc technique. the actions for the second cycle were started by asking students to carry out a question and answer activity about platypus. to help students able to record the result of the question and answer well, they were required to draw a mind map collaboratively. after completing this group task, students were assigned to write reports based on their mind map. students’ texts were scored based on the scoring rubric. while conducting the question and answer activity, students were observed based on their active collaboration with their group mates. they were observed using observation sheet on students’ active collaboration. like in the first cycle, another observation was also done to examine teacher’s activities during the lesson. the observation was conducted to see whether or not she followed the steps as designed in the lesson plan. the observation was carried out using the observation sheet for the teacher. after reflecting data got in the second cycle, the results of reflections of the pre cycle, the first and the second cycles were compared and analyzed to find the development of students’ competence in writing reports and their active collaboration. findings and discussion findings in this part, the findings found in each cycle will be presented. pre cycle this cycle was conducted before the research. intervention done during the implementation of actions was not conducted yet. a writing test was administered to find students’ writing report competence. the scoring was done based on the writing scoring rubric with the following assessment aspects: (1) content, (2) organization, (3) style and quality of expression (4) punctuation, spelling and mechanics. the table below shows the results of the writing test administered during the pre cycle. 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 table 1 the writing report scores of the ix a students of smp negeri 2 semarang in pre cycle aspect of assessment maximum score passing grade average score number and percentage of students who gained the passing grade number and percentage of students who did not gain the passing grade content 30 24 19.96 2 (9%) 21 (91%) organization 25 20 18.43 3 (13%) 20 (87%) style and quality of expression 25 20 18.39 3 (13%) 20 (87%) punctuation, spelling and mechanics 20 16 13.74 1 (4%) 22 (96%) writing 100 80 70.52 1 (4%) 22 (96%) based on the data presented through the table above, it is found that all average scores do not reach the passing grades of all aspects of the assessment. the average score of content is 19.96, while the passing grade is 24. two (9%) students gained the passing grade, while 21 (91%) did not succeed to do so. the average score of organization is 18.43, while the passing grade is 20. three (13%) students acquired the passing grade, while 20 (87%) failed. the average score of style and quality of expression is 18.39, while the passing grade is 20. three (13%) students reached the passing grade, while 20 (87%) failed. the average score of punctuation, spelling and mechanics is 13.74, while the passing grade is 16. only 1 (4%) student could gain the passing grade, while 22 (96%) could not. the average score of writing is 70.52, while the passing grade is 80. students’ competence in writing reports is very low. only 1 (4%) student could gain writing passing grade, the rest -22 (96%) failed to reach it. another students’ weakness i found before the research is that they did not actively work together with their mates during the learning process. the result of the observation sheet on students’ active collaboration shows that out of 23 students present, 10 (43%) students worked collaboratively with their mates, while the rest -13 (57%) did not do so. the facts elaborated previously motivated me as an english teacher to facilitate the students to gain better competence. to realize this, i applied glc technique to solve the problems of language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 21 teaching and learning in my class. the implementation of the technique started the research. first cycle having found students’ weaknesses, i conducted the research by implementing glc technique during the action in the classroom. the results of the research in the first cycle are presented as follows: table 2 the writing report scores of the ix a students of smp negeri 2 semarang in first cycle aspect of assessment maximum score passing grade average score number and percentage of students who gained the passing grade number and percentage of students who did not gain the passing grade content 30 24 23.65 14 (61%) 9 (39%) organization 25 20 20.09 16 (70%) 7 (30%) style and quality of expression 25 20 19.91 15 (65%) 8 (35%) punctuation, spelling and mechanics 20 16 14.87 4 (17%) 19 (83%) writing 100 80 78.52 6 (26%) 17 (74%) according to the data, it is found that four average scores did not reach the passing grades yet. they are the average score of content, style and quality of expression, punctuation, spelling and mechanics and writing. the average score of content is 23.65, while the passing grade is 24. fourteen (61%) students succeeded to gain the passing grade of content, while 9 (39%) failed. the average score of style and quality of expression is 19.91, while the passing grade is 20. fifteen (65%) students could pass the passing grade, while 8 (35%) failed to do so. the average score of punctuation, spelling and mechanics is 14.87, while the passing grade is 16. four (17%) students reached the passing grade, while 19 (83%) could not do it. the average score of writing is 78.52, while the passing grade is 80. six (26%) students gained the passing grade, while 17 (74%) failed. the average score of organization is the only score that acquired the passing grade. the average 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 score of this aspect is 20.09, while the passing grade is 20. sixteen (70%) students acquired the passing grade, while 7 (30%) did not succeed. another finding found during the first cycle is that there were 14 (61%) who worked collaboratively with their group mates in question and answer session using glc technique, while the rest – 9 (39%) did not do so. as the target requirements of the research had not been reached yet, the research was continued to the second cycle. the problem faced by students in the first cycle is that they could not write reports well because there were only 61% students who worked collaboratively with their mates during the question and answer session, the rest did not support their groups well to complete the activity. because of the weak collaboration among students, the result of the activity was not optimum. another problem faced by the students is that they – especially those who were not serious when conducting the activity failed to memorize the result of question and answer well. after completing the activity, the students had to write reports using the result of the activity. these problems affected their attainment of their writing report competence. second cycle to solve the problems found in the first cycle, glc technique was still implemented in the second cycle. however, in the second cycle, it was applied with mind map as a record of the question and answer result. the map was employed by students as a clue to write their reports. after conducting the action in the second cycle and reflecting the results of the test and the observation, the data found are presented as follows: table 3 the writing report scores of the ix a students of smp negeri 2 semarang in second cycle aspect of assessment maximum score passing grade average score number and percentage of students who gained the passing grade number and percentage of students who did not gain the passing grade content 30 24 25.08 22 (92%) 2 (8%) organization 25 20 21.46 23 (96%) 1 (4%) style and quality of expression 25 20 21.58 23 (96%) 1 (4%) language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 23 punctuation, spelling and mechanics 20 16 16.17 16 (67%) 8 (33%) writing 100 80 84.29 21 (88%) 3 (12%) based on the data, it is found that all assessment scores have gained the passing grades at the end of the second cycle. the average score of content is 25.08, while the passing grade is 24. there are 22 (92%) students who succeeded to gain the passing grade, while 2 (8%) failed. the average score of organization is 21.46, while the passing grade is 20. there are 23 (96%) students who could reach the passing grade, while only one (4%) student failed. the average score of style and quality of expression is 21.58, while the passing grade is 20. there are 23 (96%) students who gained the passing grade, while only one (4%) could not do it. the average score of punctuation, spelling and mechanics is 16.17, while the passing grade is 16. there are 16 (67%) students who succeeded to reach the passing grade, while 8 (33%) failed. the average score of writing is 84.29, while the passing grade is 80. there are 21 (88%) students who reached the passing grade, while 3 (12%) failed. all the average scores of the assessment aspects have exceeded the passing grades. another finding found in the second cycle is that there are 20 (84%) students who worked actively with their group mates during the question and answer session using glc technique. discussion having conducted the research in two cycles, the development of students’ competence in writing reports is presented through the following table. table 4 the development of writing report competence of the ix a students of smp negeri 2 semarang aspect of assessment average scores in each cycle the development of ix a students’ competence in writing reports the number and the percentage of students who gained the passing grade (%) the development of ix a students who gained the passing grade (%) pc c1 c2 pc-c1 c1-c2 pc-c2 pc c1 c2 pc-c1 c1-c2 pc-c2 content 19.96 23.65 25.08 3.69 1.43 5.12 2 (9%) 14 (61%) 22 (92%) 12 (50%) 8 (33%) 20 (83%) organization 18.43 20.09 21.46 1.66 1.37 3.03 3 (13%) 16 (70%) 23 (96%) 13 (54%) 7 (29%) 20 (83%) 24 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 style and quality of expression 18.39 19.91 21.58 1.52 1.67 3.19 3 (13%) 15 (65%) 23 (96%) 12 (50%) 8 (33%) 20 (83%) punctuation, spelling and mechanics 13.74 14.87 16.17 1.13 1.3 2.43 1 (4%) 4 (17%) 16 (67%) 3 (13%) 12 (50%) 15 (63%) writing 70.52 78.52 84.29 8 5.77 13.77 1 (4%) 6 (26%) 21 (88%) 5 (21%) 15 (63%) 20 (83%) based on the data in the table above, it can be seen that content average score (25.08) could exceed the passing grade (24) at the end of the research. twenty two (92%) students gained the passing grade of content. for organization, the average score of the first cycle (20.09) and the one of the second cycle (21.46) could reach the passing grade (20). at the end of the second cycle, 23 (96%) students could reach it. the average score of style and quality of expression (21.58) could gain the passing grade (20) at the end of the second cycle. at the end of the research, 23 (96%) students reached the passing grade (20). for the average score of punctuation, spelling and mechanics, 16 (67%) students could gain the passing grade (16). the average score of this aspect at the end of the research is 16.17. the average score of writing at the end of the research (84.29) could gain the passing grade (80). twenty one (88%) students could reach the passing grade. this percentage shows that the result had reached the first research requirement. after conducting the observation on students’ active collaboration when doing the question and answer activity using glc technique, the results are presented through the following table: table 5 the development of active collaboration of ix a students of smp negeri 2 semarang observation category students who worked collaboratively with their group mates the development of ix a students’ active collaboration ps % s1 % s2 % ps-s1 % s1-s2 % ps-s2 % active collaboration 10 43 14 61 20 84 4 16 6 25 10 42 based on the data above, it can be seen that –before the research – there are 10 (43%) students who worked collaboratively with their classmates, while language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 25 the rest – 14 (57%) did not do so. at the end of the research, there are 20 (84%) students who worked collaboratively with their group mates during the question and answer session using glc technique, while the rest – 4 (16%) did not do so. the result of the observation shows that it had met the second requirement of the research. as the results of the research had met both research requirements elaborated previously, the research was ended at the end of the second cycle. conclusion glc technique implemented with mind map at the second cycle of the research had successfully developed ix a students’ writing report competence. before the research, their writing average score is 70.52, while at the end of the research it is 84.29. the score has exceeded the writing passing grade, 80. this proved that the technique had developed ix a students’ writing report competence to the extent of 13.77. before the research, only one (4%) student could gain the writing passing grade, while at the end of the research 21 (88%) students could reach it. based on the second requirement of the research, gcl technique could also successfully develop ix a students’ active collaboration with their group mates during question and answer session to the extent of 42%. before the research, there are 10 (42%) students who worked together with their mates, while – at the end of the research – there are 20 (84%) who could do so. references anderson, mark and kathy anderson. 1997. text types in english 2. south yarra: macmillan education australia pty ltd. barkley, elizabeth f., k. patricia cross and claire howell major. 2005. collaborative learning techniques. usa: jossey – bass. bima, winardi and nurmalina s. 2005. let’s talk: grade ix for junior high school. bandung: pakar raya. departemen pendidikan nasional. 2005. materi pelatihan terintegrasi bahasa inggris: pembelajaran teks report. jakarta: depdiknas. departemen pendidikan nasional, 2007. kurikulum sekolah menengah pertama bertaraf internasional [smp-sbi]. jakarta:departemen pendidikan nasional. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mind_map [accessed on 6 may 2012] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mind_map language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 77 using juxtaposing pictures in improving descriptive writing skill of the second year students of sman 3 enrekang rahmad risan universitas negeri makassar, indonesia rahmadrisan@unm.ac.id hasriani g. universitas negeri makassar, indonesia abstract the objective of the research was to find out whether or not the use of juxtaposing pictures can improve the students’ writing ability especially in writing description. the researchers applied a pre-experimental method with one group pre-test and one group post-test design. the subject of the research was the second year students of sman 3 enrekang in academic year 2017-2018. the sample consisted of 32 students of xi ipa 1. the data were collected through writing test (pretest and post-test). to find out the effectiveness of juxtaposing pictures in improving writing ability, the researcher applied t-test analysis. the result of the analysis showed that there was a significant difference between pre-test and post-test. the value of t-test (9.09) was greater than the t-table (2.039) and degree of freedom (df) = 31. it is concluded that juxtaposing pictures is effective in improving the students’ writing ability in writing description. introduction writing is an english skill defined as how to express ideas on a paper to form words, words to sentences, sentences to paragraph. the ideas of writing may be from the writer’s feeling, opinion, or may come from prior knowledge such as: result of reading book, discussion or hear and watching tv. things that we see can affect our thinking and view especially in writing because everything what we want to write depends on our thought. so, before we write, we need to determine what we write and also the writer should have something meaningful to convey. mostly people have difficulties when they want to write something, may be lack of ideas, feeling bad, or may be lack of vocabulary. sometimes we lose of opinion and we only can write a little. it seems that ideas become important part in constructing writing. beside it, in speaking we can use many ways of communication such as facial expression or body language but differently in writing we just use words to convey information. keeping in our mind about choice of words, grammatical structure, length of sentences, and organizing way so that the reader will receive the messages we intend to convey. we have to arrange the words based on topic clearly in order to make its meaning readable, understandable in order the readers can get the meaning easily. based on some of the difficulties in writing, the researchers tried to use juxtaposing pictures as a medium in learning because it has enormous potential as learning tools. in using juxtaposing pictures the writers can see, look, and enjoy the pictures. so, it can make the students be able to imagine what they want to write. and these juxtaposing pictures not only illustrate a topic but also can contribute to the context in which the language is being used and motivate students. pictures represent something in providing information that can help students to continue general idea and describe it easily. it can enhance students to develop their selfesteem in teaching and learning activities of the written language. it makes the lesson more dynamic as imagination are aroused and as a source of discovery. this is especially language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 78 useful with those students who find it difficult to use their imagination. the picture provides a support and ideas which the students can then build on more easily than invent their own story all together. the old saying that picture is a worth of thousands of words, means that it can raise the production of words and a multitude of creative and analytical thoughts. but other researcher found out that the juxtaposing pictures can improve writing skill just in vocabulary side. there is no significant improvement in grammar, mechanics, content, and organization. so, the researcher tried to limit the skill of writing just in writing description. referring to the statements above, the researchers tried to study about the improvement of descriptive writing skill by using pictures specifically juxtaposing pictures. juxtaposing represents our tendencies in perceiving something which compares a numbers of pictures that placed side by side. for these reasons, the researchers took the title “using juxtaposing pictures in improving descriptive writing skill of the second year students of sman 3 enrekang in academic year 2017-2018”. this research aimed to find out whether or not the use of juxtaposing pictures significantly improves the students’ ability in writing description. the researchers hoped this research would be useful and give contribution for foreign language teaching as consideration to use pictures as a tool of stimulation and to enhance students’ attention for more exploring ideas especially in teaching writing. the scope of the study was limited to improvement for descriptive writing skill of students through juxtaposing pictures. it focused on five criteria or five components of good writing namely content, mechanics, organization, language use, and vocabulary. the study was located in sma n 3 enrekang. literature review behrens, et al. (1999) define writing as a process or an activity to mark letter or number on paper so, the people can read it. different from behrens, kroma (1988, p.30) and byrne (2001, p. 77) in nurbaya defined writing is expression of the writer’s idea by producing graphic symbols to form words, words to sentences, sentences to paragraph on the paper so the reader can follow what the writer means. byrne in same line adds that the most important one in writing is how to make the communication successful that is should be readable and understandable to the reader. a. forms of writing wishon and burks (1980, pp. 378-383) divide forms of writing into four divisions namely narration, description, exposition and argumentation. 1) narration narration is the form of writing used to relate the story of acts or events. it places occurrences in time and tells what happened according to natural time sequences. types of narration include short stories, novels, and new stories, as well as large part of our everyday social interchange in the form of letters and conversation. 2) description description reproduces the way things look, smell, taste, feel, or sound. it may also evoke moods, such as happiness, loneliness, or fear. it is used to create a visual image of people, places, even of units of time-days, times of day, or seasons. it may be used also to describe more than the outward appearance of people. it may tell about their traits of character or personality. 3) exposition exposition is used in giving information, making explanations, and interpreting meanings. it includes editorials; essay, and informative and instructional material. used in combination with narrative, exposition supports and illustrates. used apart from narrative, it language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 79 stands alone as an essay. used alone or with narrative, exposition may be developed in a number of ways as follows: (a) process. exposition may be used to explain a process that is to tell how something is made or done. (b) definition. an explanation of what a word or a term means is another kind of exposition. the simplest form is a statement and this applies to dictionary definitions. (c) analysis. it divides a subject into parts and examines those parts. (d) criticism. it involves evaluation, which is analyzing and weighing strengths and weaknesses. 4) argumentation argumentation is used in persuading and convincing. it is closely related to exposition and it is often found combined with it. the aim is to make a case or to prove or disprove a statement or proposition. it may present arguments to persuade the reader to accept an idea or a point of view. b. concept of descriptive writing skill 1) definition of descriptive writing some experts had defined descriptive writing, sometimes, people might think that descriptive writing strives to invoke a vivid and involved experience for the reader. actually, descriptive writing skill can mean much more. according to rita putatunda (2010), (in buzzle.com), means that descriptive writing is about using the power of words to arouse and capture the reader’s attention and create a lasting impact. from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia defines that more than any other kind of writing, descriptive writing strives to invoke a vivid and involved experience for the reader. it is often considered as one of the most creative forms of writing since it is basically about being able to evoke emotions in the reader through the power of words. a good descriptive essay, for instance, has the ability to arouse the reader’s senses and create a lasting impact on his or her mind. this effect can be achieved not through statistics and facts, but by detailed descriptions and observations. as you start with your descriptive writing, one of the most important things is identifying exactly what you are setting out to describe. usually, a descriptive writing will include the depiction of the following: a place, a person, a pet, an object, an experience, or a memory. anything that you experience or perceive about your subject can be the point of your descriptive writing. 2) the component of writing the good writing skill can be analyzed to group and varied skills. heaton (1988:135) divided components writing into five main areas. they are grammar, mechanics, vocabulary, content and organization. a) grammar grammar concerns about the ability to write correct and appropriate sentences. the writer has to give attention for preposition, tenses such as using of verbs, nouns, adjective, also conjunction and articles. it is very important to the writer to clarify the correct usage of point grammar because reader will be difficult to understand it. it has a great influence so, we have to reread and review what we have written. b) mechanics it is related with the ability to use correctly words to the written language such as using of capitalization, punctuation, spelling. it is very important to lead the readers to understand or recognize what the writer means to express. the use of favorable mechanics in writing will make the readers easy to the group to conveying ideas or message of writing. the explanation as follows: a) capitalization, the use of capitalization can clarify the ideas. if the sentences are not capitalized correctly, ambiguity and misunderstanding will appear. it also helps to differentiate from sentences to others. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 80 the words which are capitalized at beginning of: the name of people, organization, first and last word of title. b) punctuation. punctuation can help the readers to identify should be taken as a unit of meaning and suggest how the units of it relate to each other. c) spelling. using of spelling has three rules; they are suffixes addition, plural formation and the change of certain words. c) content the content of writing is about the ability to think creatively and develop thoughts, excluding all irrelevant information. it should be clear to the readers. so, they can understand what the messages convey and gain information from it. also, the content of writing should be well unity and complete because the characteristic of good writing has unity and completeness. d) vocabulary vocabulary is an essential part of compose writing. the writes need vocabulary mastery well to express or write their ideas. the effective using of words or vocabulary in writing must be relevant with the topic to let the readers perceive and feel it. someone who lack of vocabulary will be difficult to compose what they are going to express but appropriate words will help writers to compose writing. e) organization organization is the ability to develop ideas and topic which relevant in a united form. on the other hand, it concern in ways of writer to arrange and organize the ideas or messages in writing. there are many ways in process of organization writing involves coherence, order of importance, general to specific, specific to general, chronological order and spatial pattern. c. juxtaposing pictures sometimes students need an opportunity to investigate a subject, or an opportunity to express their feelings about a subject rather than a challenge. for this reason, juxtaposing picture as one of the visual learning materials that very suitable to use in language teaching because students are encouraged to express feelings and ideas and to exchange experiences while little or no emphasis is placed on whether it was right or wrong. the researcher decided to use this kind of pictures and it was introduced by wright. the free dictionary (2000) sited that juxtaposing is placed side by side often for comparison or contrast. whether wright (2005) described that it’s displaying number of pictures which have different aspect of topic. by juxtaposing their different qualities of pictures are highlighted. students are motivated to express their ideas based on picture then they will stimulate to compare some of advantages of the picture that they choose. in this way, the other pictures can give ideas and rethink again what we will write. the kind of paragraph which developed is description. even though it was not real description but the students should give their reasons and explanation clearly. the lostpedia, lost encyclopedia sited that in literature and film, juxtaposing is the arrangement of two opposing ideas, characters, objects, etc. side-by-side or in similar narratives for effect. lost often uses juxtaposition to further develop the storyline or characters it is applied variously to opposing emotions, abstract concepts, character traits/values, or images. methodology this research used a pre-experimental method. it investigated the effect of using juxtaposing pictures in improving descriptive writing skill of the students. the design of this research used one group pretest-posttest design. the group did the pretest (o1), the treatment (x), and did the posttest (o2). the comparison of the pretest and posttest cores language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 81 determines the success of the treatment. the design can be described as follows. pretest treatment posttest o1 x o2 (gay, 2006:252) the population in this research was the second year students of sma n 3 enrekang academic year 2017-2018. the research used cluster random sampling technique. one of the eight classes, i.e. class xi ipa1 was taken as the sample. the students’ number of the class was 32 students. the researcher used writing test as instrument, pretest and posttest. the students wrote a paragraph according to the title given. test was used to measure students’ descriptive writing skill. the data from the students was calculated in the mean score to find out the students’ writing ability. the five components of good writing can be seen from the content, organization, vocabulary, language use or grammar and mechanics. findings and discussion 1. the students’ writing ability in pre-test and post-test the students’ score of pre-test and posttest were observed based on five components of writing. the data can be seen in table 1. table 1. frequency and rate percentage of the students’ writing ability on content component no score category pre-test post-test frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 27-30 very good 2 23-26 good 4 12.5% 8 25% 3 20-22 average 10 31.25% 18 56.25% 4 17-19 poor 18 56.25% 6 18.75% 5 13-16 very poor total 32 100 32 100 table 1 shows that in the pre-test, none of the students who was classified into very poor score, 18 students or 56.25% were classified into poor score, 10 students or 31.25% were classified into average score, 4 students or 12.5% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good score. the table above also shows the result of students writing ability in content component in posttest. none of the students was classified into very poor score, 6 students or 18.75% were classified into poor score, 18 students or 56.25% were classified into average score, 8 students or 25% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good score. table 2. frequency and rate percentage of the students’ writing ability on vocabulary component no score category pre-test post-test frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 18-20 very good 1 3.12% 2 15-17 good 5 15.62% 9 28.12% 3 12-14 average 15 46.87% 18 56.25% 4 9-11 poor 12 37.5% 4 12.5% 5 5-8 very poor language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 82 total 32 100 32 100 table 2 shows that in the pre-test, 12 students or 37.5% were classified into poor score, 15 students or 46.87% were classified into average score, 5 students or 15.62% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good and very poor score. table 2 also shows the result of students’ writing ability in vocabulary component in post-test. it shows that 4 students or 12.5% were classified into poor score, 18 students or 56.25% were classified into average score, 9 students or 28.12% were classified into good score, 1 student or 3.12% was classified into very good score. and none of them was classified into very poor score. table 3 frequency and rate percentage of the students’ writing ability on organization component no score category pre-test post-test frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 18-20 very good 2 15-17 good 2 6.25% 4 12.5% 3 12-14 average 20 62.5% 24 75% 4 9-11 poor 10 31.25% 4 12.5% 5 5-8 very poor total 32 100 32 100 table 3 shows that in the pre-test, there are 10 students or 31.25% who were classified into poor score, 20 students or 62.5% were classified into average score, 2 students or 6.25% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very poor and very good score. the table above also shows the result of students’ writing ability in organization component in post-test. there are 4 students or 12.5% who were classified into poor score, 24 students or 75% were classified into average score, 4 students or 12.5% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very poor and very good score. table 4. frequency and rate percentage of the students’ writing ability on language use component no score category pre-test post-test frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 23-25 very good 2 20-22 good 2 6.25% 3 9.37% 3 16-19 average 14 43.75% 23 71.87% 4 9-15 poor 16 50% 6 18.75% 5 5-8 very poor total 32 100 32 100 table 4 shows that in the pre-test, there are 16 students or 50% who were classified into poor score, 14 students or 43.75% were classified into average score, 2 students or 6.25 % were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good and very poor score. table 4 also shows the result of students’ writing ability in language use component in post-test. there are 6 students or 18.75% who were classified into poor score, 23 students or 71.87% were classified into average score, 3 students or 9.37% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good and very poor score. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 83 table 5. frequency and rate percentage of the students’ writing ability on mechanics component no score category pre-test post-test frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 5 very good 2 4 good 1 3.12% 12 37.5% 3 3 average 8 25% 17 53.12% 4 2 poor 23 71.87% 3 9.37% 5 1 very poor total 32 100 32 100 table 5 shows that in the pre-test, there are 23 students or 71.87% who were classified into poor score, 8 students or 25% were classified into average score, 1 student or 3.12% was classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good and very poor score. table 5 also shows the result of students’ writing ability in content component in posttest. there are 3 students or 9.37% who were classified into poor score, 17 students or 53.12% were classified into average score, 12 students or 37.5% were classified into good score, and none of them was classified into very good and very poor s table 6 frequency and rate percentage of the students’ writing ability on five components no score category pre-test post-test frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 100-88 very good 2 87-75 good 3 9.37% 5 15.62% 3 74-64 average 8 25% 15 46.87% 4 63-45 poor 21 65.62% 12 37.5% 5 44-34 very poor total 32 100 32 100 table 6 for pre-test shows that there were 21 students or 65.25% who were classified into poor, 8 students or 25% were classified into average, 3 students or 9.37% were classified into good, and none of them was classified into very good and very poor. table 6 also shows the result of students’ writing ability in content component in posttest. there are 12 students or 37.5% who were classified into poor, 15 students or 46.87% were classified into average, 5 students or 15.62% and none of them was classified into very good and very poor. 2. the mean score and standard deviation the following table shows the distribution of mean score and standard deviation in pre-test and post-test. table 7 the mean score and standard deviation of the student’s pre-test and post-test components pre-test post-test mean score standard deviation mean score standard deviation content 19.40 2.19 20.96 2.28 vocabulary 12.28 2 13.34 1.94 organization 12.06 1.46 12.90 1.53 language use 15.03 2.42 16.34 2.12 mechanics 2,31 0.54 3.28 0.63 final score 61.06 7.47 66.81 6.82 language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 84 the result of data analysis from pre-test and post-test of the students’ writing ability in terms of content component is shown in the table above. the mean score in pre-test is 19.40 (categorized as poor) and the standard deviation is 2.19. in contrary the mean score of post-test is 20.96 (categorized as average) with the standard deviation is 2.28. the result of data analysis from pre-test and post-test of the students’ writing ability in terms of vocabulary component shows that the mean score in the pre-test is 12.28 (categorized as average) and the standard deviation is 2. the mean score of post-test is 13.34 (categorized as average) with the standard deviation is 1.94 the result of data analysis from pre-test and post-test of the students’ writing ability in terms of organization component shows that the mean score in the pre-test is 12.06 (categorized as average) and the standard deviation is 1.46. the mean score of post-test is 12.90 (categorized as average) with the standard deviation is 1.53. the result of data analysis from pre-test and post-test of the students’ writing ability in terms of language use component shows that the mean score in the pre-test is 15.03 (categorized as poor) and the standard deviation is 2.42. the mean score of post-test is 16.34 (categorized as average) with the standard deviation is 2.12. the result of data analysis from pre-test and post-test of the students’ writing ability in terms of mechanics component shows that the mean score in the pre-test is 2.31 (categorized as poor) and the standard deviation is 0.54. the mean score of post-test is 3.28 (categorized as average) with the standard deviation is 0.63. from the result of five components above, the final score from pre-test and posttest of the students’ writing ability shows that the mean score in the pre-test is 61.06 (categorized as poor) and the standard deviation is 7.47. the mean score of post-test is 66.81 (categorized as average) with the standard deviation is 6.82 3. test of significance to know the level of significance of the pre-test and post-test, the researcher used ttest analysis on the level of significance (p) = 0.05 with the degree of freedom (df) = n1,where n=number of subject (32 students) then the value of t-table is 2.045. the t-test statistical, analysis for independent sample was applied. the following table shows the result of t-test calculation: table 8. the t-test of the students’ improvement components t-test value t-table value content 7.09 2.045 vocabulary 4.95 2.045 organization 4.94 2.045 language use 4.27 2.045 mechanics 9.7 2.045 final score 10.49 2.045 table 8 shows that t-test value for content is greater than t-table (7.09>2.045), ttest value of vocabulary is greater than t-table (4.95>2.045), t-test value of organization is greater than t-table (4.94>2.045), t-test value of language use is greater than t-table (4.27>2.045), t-test value of mechanics is greater than t-table (9.7>2.045), the final result shows that t-test value for the final score of students’ writing ability 10.49>t-table=2.045. it means that there is significant difference between the students’ writing skill before and after using juxtaposing pictures in writing description of the second year students of sma n 3 enrekang. it is also said that the language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 85 null hypothesis (h0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted. the discussion of this research is described based on the findings above. before the treatment, the writing ability of the students was very low. this condition might be caused by teaching method and less writing process, so that the students could not improve their writing achievement. it can be seen in table 6 that the students’ writing achievement on pretest was very poor. based on the findings, scores of posttest was greater than those in pretest. in the first meeting, the researchers actually found that most students did not know about descriptive writing. they got problem in five components namely content, vocabulary, organization, language use, and mechanic. generally, most of the students were still low in writing description. in the second meeting until the last, students tried to pay attention and participate in using juxtaposing pictures. at the end of each the meeting, the researcher used to ask the students to write descriptive using juxtaposing pictures at least six sentences. after the treatment, students’ achievement increased. in terms of the content, in pretest, students were lack of ideas to explore their thought to form sentences that related to the topic, most of supporting ideas were not related to the topic and the way to describe the topic was not specific so the content was misunderstood. but after the treatment, students’ achievement improved. juxtaposing pictures helped the students to find words by seeing the picture and imagine what the picture could give to their ideas. that is why the students got the highest scores in content of writing component. this is similar with ebel and frisbie, (1985:85) that if the topic is too popular, the students might have read or heard a lot about that topic, so that they do not have to think how to express the ideas about the topic, they will only need to recall and then write what they have read and heard a lot. it means content is higher than the others. in addition to the content, the next problem was the lack of vocabulary before treatment. most of the students could not write vocabulary perfectly. moreover students could not translate their words in english, so that their description was not very detail and did not use very specific character. students just described the topic simply and generally. when the researcher walked near the students, most of them asked questions about vocabulary. after the treatment, students’ achievement improved. the researcher gave chance to the students to find a lot of vocabularies related to the topic. so they also know what kind of vocabulary they want to use related to the topic in the picture. this is similar to andi niar rezky’s research that concluded that writing skill of the fourth semester students of english department improved using juxtaposing pictures. after treatment using juxtaposing pictures the score improved just in vocabulary side and also similar with jacobs et al. (1981), in his study, he found that variable of vocabulary had the highest contribution to the total writing variance. this highest contribution might be related to the learning experiences of the subject in their home countries where the instructional emphasis is on formal properties of language. this also influenced the content and organization part because students could not express their thought if they did not have a number of vocabularies. they also have difficulties to organize words well because most of the words found in dictionary and this consumed time. in this case students got the second lower of contribution scores. this is almost similar to weir (1990) who found that component of organization had the lowest amount of contribution to the overall writing variance. the next important problems faced by the students were language use and mechanics. the students had less understanding of english grammar because it has very different pattern from indonesia language. so, writing activities were also directed to improve grammatical problems language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 86 writing simple sentences focusing on the word order. researcher tried to explain much grammatical especially those are related directly to descriptive paragraph, such as present tense. in pretest, many students did not know what tense that suited in descriptive writing so that their writing was misunderstood. therefore, researcher explained present tense in each meeting. this is different with astika (1993) who found that the students indicate the highest contribution of grammar and the lower contribution of organization. mechanic component score of posttest was greater than pretest. in pretest, students was less attention in writing correctly such as using capitalization, punctuation, and spelling. although the students wrote a lot of words or many vocabularies. they found it difficult to write correctly. it caused the students’ writing was not easy to understand and recognize what the writer means to express. after knowing about mechanic or in another hand, after the treatment, the students can minimize the mistake in writing correctly. this is similar to jacobs et.al (1981) who stated that the student got mechanic as the lower score from each component of writing. so this component should have much attention. based on the positive effect of treatment using juxtaposing pictures in writing description, the score of the students’ posttest improved. during the treatment the students were interested in learning english to improve their vocabulary and grammar ability. it can be seen from the students’ enthusiasm to write description using juxtaposing pictures. the students’ score was improved in posttest. students’ score was classified into very good, good, average, poor, and only twelve students were still poor. based on the result of each test, scores of posttest were greater than those in pretest. it indicates that there was an improvement of students in writing description after the treatment. this is similar to a research done by nita kurniawati (2009) who found that there are some strategies for the teacher in improving knowledge by using descriptive text. therefore, researcher concludes that the use of juxtaposing pictures is one of good methods that can improve the students’ skill in writing description. from the discussion above, it can be concluded that the students’ writing ability of the second year students of sma n 1 alla academic year 2017-2018 can be improved in writing description by using juxtaposing pictures. there is a significant difference between the result of pre-test and post-test, where the mean score of pre-test (58.88)which is lower than the mean score of post-test (65.94), and t-test value of final score in writing ability (9.09) is greater than t-table (2.039). conclusion based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the use of juxtaposing pictures can improve the writing ability in writing description of the second year students of sman 1 enrekang in academic year 2017-2018. there was a significant difference between the result of pre-test and post-test, where the mean score of pre-test (58.88) was lower than the mean score of post-test (65.94), and t-test value of final score in writing ability (9.09) was greater than ttable (2.039). references rezky a.n. (2009). improving writing skill using juxtaposing pictures. makassar: uin alauddin makassar. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 87 arikunto, s. (2006). prosedur penelitian:suatu pendekatan praktek (rev ed.). jakarta: rineka cipta. astika, g. g. (1993). analytical assessment of foreign students’ writing . relc journal , 24(1), 6172 behrens, k., rosen, l. j., & wesley, a. (1999).writing and reading across curriculum.new york: longman. british council. (2007). empowering asia: new paradigms in english language education.5th asia tefl international conference. malaysia: melta. depdikbud. (1994). gbpp pengajaran bahasa inggris sltp. jakarta: direktorat jenderal pandidikan pusat. deporter, b., reardon. m., & nourie. s. s. 2000. quantum teaching. bandung: kaifa. feldman, r. s. (2005). power learning: strategies for success in college and life, 2nd ed.). new york: mcgraw hill companies inc. free dictionary.(2000). juxtaposing.google.com harmer, j.(1991).the practice of english language teaching. london: longman. heaton. (1988). writing english language tests. new york: longman. hughes,a. (2006).testing for language teachers, 2nd ed.).cambridge: cambridge university press. jabu, b. (2008). english language testing. unm jacobs. (1981). esl composition profile. http://eli.tamu.edu/resources/profile.html. accessed on 16th november 2009. jacobs, h.l., zinkgraf, s.a., wormuth, d.r., hartfiel, v.f., & hughey, j.b. (1981) .testing esl composition : a practical approach . rowley, ma: newbury house. longman. (2004). longman dictionary of american english (new ed.). england: pearson education limited. mclead, t. w. (1983). the new collins international dictionary of the english language. singapore: collins u.k and graham brash. nordquist, r. (2009). the principle of good writing. article http://grammar.about.com/bio/richard.nordquist-22176.htm. accessed on 28th october 2009. nuraida. (2003). the writing skill of the sixth semester students of english department of tarbiyah faculty of iain alauddin mks in free composition.thesis iain alauddin makassar. putatunda ,rita. descriptive writing . retrieved june 20,2010.from http://www.buzzle.com/authors.asp?author=11077 rasdinayah. (2006). increasing the writing skill of the third years students of madani islamic junior high school of alauddin pao-pao gowa through collaborative writing.thesis uin alauddin makassar. rahmat, a. (2004). improving the english writing ability of the third year students of man kajuara bone through diary writing. thesis iain alauddin makassar. scott, w. a., & treberg, l. h.y. (1990). teaching english to children. new york, usa: longman language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 88 straker , d. changing minds.from http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/analysis/ttest_table.htm suherni. (2008). using diagram to develop the students’ writing ability. thesis fbs unm wishon, g. e., & burks, j. m. (1980). let’s write english (rev. ed.). washington: educational publishing inc. wright, a. (1989). pictures for language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 111 the influence of siblingships in a person’s self-regulation process paulus tri nugroho putro sanata dharma university, indonesia email: paul.mastermindthoughts@gmail.com abstract this study presents the ways self regulation exists in the siblingship. how the older sibling influence the decision making towards the younger sibling or vice versa. in this case the decision making is based on where they study. these siblings are in the same university even they are in the same study program. this paper observes how they are affected to each other while they are in the same school. this paper uses interview as the method. in the findings will be revealed why they decide to be in the same university and in the same study program. key words: siblingship, self-regulation, introduction there are many families who have kids more than one. each child has their own characteristics and intelligences. sometimes, the parents have big influences towards the children for example taking decision, or sometimes the other siblings have big influences towards each other for example the oldest usually has power over the younger(s). zimmerman (1986) provides one of the earliest definitions of self-regulation, explaining it as the degree to which individuals are metacognitively, motivationally and behaviorally active in their own learning. metacognitively, selfregulated learners display the capacity to plan, monitor, and self-evaluate their learning processes. motivationally, self-regulated learners see themselves as having the competence, self-efficacy and the autonomy to learn. behaviourally, self-regulated learners display an ability to create learning environments that promote learning (zimmerman, 1986). self-regulation in children is still developing maybe that is why parents or siblings especially the oldest play a big role in child’s self-regulation process. parental demandingness, meanwhile, refers to supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys as well as expectations and claims that force the children to become integrated into the family whole (baumrind, 1991). but sometimes parents force the children to obey the rules. the parents use discipline or even some type of parents will use violence to discipline the children. parents need to be a little strict towards the children so they learn to obey the rules and behave in the environment. but if the parents use violence the children will not develop their skills including self-regulation. the children will always feel afraid of trying something new or even to be brave children in school. categorizing parents according to whether they are high or low on parental demandingness and responsiveness creates a typology of four parenting styles: indulgent, authoritarian, authoritative, and neglectful (maccoby & martin, 1983). as stated by buhrmester and furman (1990); volling (2003), most people who grow up in a family usually have at least one brother or one sister. the relationships exist in a sibling can be marked as competition and rivalry but at some points can be seen as the closest and intimate relationship in the stages of growing up, such as in childhood, adolescents, and adulthood. in this further language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 112 study, the researcher will discuss about selfregulation experienced in siblings especially siblings who are in the same school. the feeling involved in the self-regulation in siblings often influenced by some factors, for example affection from the parents, parents who often compare the children considering their decision of going to the same school, and their intelligence which sometimes they think they are competing each other. in certain schools, and in some certain families, the parents decide to put their children in the same school or even in the same university. sometimes the older sibling’s attendance in the same school affects the younger’s or vice versa. sometimes the older feels insecure by the younger’s attendance or sometimes the younger feels uncomfortable being in the same school as the older. or the case can be the siblings feel motivated being in the same school because they like competing, competing is like the mother tongue in the family. or in other case, the reason why the younger is in the same school as the older is because the younger wants to be in the same school. parents’ role is one of the influences in educating the children and where to put them in school. some parents mostly want to put the children in the same school but for some parents, they give freedom to the children in choosing the school. in this case, parents’ intervention plays a big role in children’s decisions for example in choosing the school, children’s desire to have boyfriend or girlfriend, and freedom to express their mind. sometimes parents are stiff and traditional so giving freedom to the children is like giving ammunition so they give freedom as a reward to the children. allan (1977); cicirelli (1980); lee, mancini & maxwell (1990); voorpostel et al (2007); wallace (2012); white (2001) conveyed that it has been suggested that the siblings relationship is perhaps one of the most longlasting and enduring relationships of an individual’s life. because sibling relationship is bounded by blood, and people sometimes thought not all the friendship last forever so people will turn to family or in this case siblings if they have unresolved problem and they have nowhere else to go. allan (1977); bedford (1995); connidis and davies (1990); o’bryant (1988); wallace (2012), said that recent years, research has focused on many aspects of sibling relationship being recognized as it can be a resource for support, solidarity, companionship and well being. allan (1977); bedford (1998); connidis (2007); wallace (2012), however stated that sibling relationships can be a source of rivalry, conflict and ambivalence. cicirelli (1994), stated that in most industrialized societies siblings are understood to be individuals with two parents in common, with half-siblings sharing one parent, step siblings and/or adoptive siblings being bound by legal bonds rather than genetics. some cases found that steps siblings with from different parents (stepsibling) often get along each other. review of related literature what is the author trying to emphasize is how big the older child influence the younger child and vice versa. parents sometimes give the bigger influence towards the children. categorizing parents according to whether they are high or low on parental demandingness and responsiveness creates a typology of four parenting styles: indulgent, authoritarian, authoritative, and neglectful (maccoby & martin, 1983). each of these parenting styles reflects different, naturally occurring, patterns of parental values, practices and behaviors and a distinct balance of responsiveness and demandingness. indulgent parents (also referred to as "permissive" or "nondirective") are more responsive than they are demanding. they are untraditional and lenient, do not demand mature behavior, do allow considerable selfregulation and avoid confrontation. authoritarian parents are highly demanding and directing, but not responsive. they expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation. these parents provide language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 113 wellordered and structured environments with clearly stated rules. authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. they have clear standards for their children’s conduct. their disciplinary methods are supportive (baumrind, 1991). as stated by uredi and erden (2008), neglectful parents are low in both responsiveness and demandingness. in extreme cases, this parenting style might encompass both rejecting–neglecting and neglectful parents, although most parents of this type fall within the normal range. parents who are neglectful sometimes do not really pay attention to the children. in some cases the parents are busier with work and barely checked on their children. sometimes the children will look for attention from outside because the parents never give them enough attention. as also stated by uredi and erden (2008), research shows that parents who are responsive and intellectually stimulating, but maintain firm parental control and who place high maturity demands on their children, promote rather than undermine self-efficacy and intrinsically motivated engagement in difficult tasks. self-regulation in siblingships blandon and volling (2003), in their paper described that several bodies of research now indicate that the quality of the sibling relationship is related to several indicators of children’s social development and psychological well-being. as the researcher stated in the beginning of this study, the relationships exist in the siblings can be a rivalry or intimate. the relationship of the siblings can be a rivalry sometimes because of the factor that the parents often compare the children so in their mind, they tend to compete each other especially in the academic field. the relationship in the siblings can be intimate because the siblings prefer to talk to each other or need each other when one of them in difficulties. when one of them in difficulties, they turn to their sibling because they found peace and comfort and siblings tend to understand each other than people outside. and they are thinking that their siblings will not judge them when it comes to problem they are facing. motivation woolfolk (1990) has said that motivation that stems from factors like interest or curiosity is called intrinsic motivation. when we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need a punishment to make us work because we automatically enjoy the task and happily to do it. however woolfolk (1990), also stated that when we do something in order to earn a reward, avoid punishment, please the teacher, or for some other reason that has very little to do with the task itself, we experience extrinsic motivation. in some cases, siblings tend to compete each other for example in achievements. the extrinsic motivation is influenced by conflict and rivalry. bedford (1996); wallace (2012), described that in western society it is believed that the individualistic nature breeds competition between siblings. cicirelli (1995); wallace (2012), stated that this kind of situation may lead to rivalry and negative feeling. whiteman & buchanan (2002); wallace (2012), conveyed that younger siblings may find that they are unfairly compared with the behavior of their older sibling by both their parents and their teachers so that they are subject to unrealistic expectations of either good or bad behavior. for example when there are siblings and they went to the same schools, their parents compare them of how they perform in learning performance and how much they score. not only will the parents, even their teachers compare how they score and their learning performance. how their parents and teachers treated them of how they compare the children influence the extrinsic motivation. self-efficacy based on woolfolk (1990), self-efficacy is belief about personal competence in a particular situation. self-efficacy resurfaces when somebody is doing something for the first time. they will ask themselves whether language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 114 they are able to do it or not. self-efficacy is influenced by sibling’s learning performance. if the older sibling perform in certain field better, the younger sometimes will doubt themselves and if the younger sibling perform better in certain field, the older sibling sometimes feel jealous of their sibling’s intelligence or in some cases, the older siblings feel proud of their younger siblings. the statement from woolfolk is strengthened by zimmerman, boner, and kova (1996), that feelings of self-confidence are very motivating to students who have not enjoyed many successes in school. students are more apt to take responsibility for their learning when they realize that they are capable of achieving on their own. volition kuhl (1994); dornyei (2005) stated a different approach to trying to grasp what lies at the core of strategic behavior: he introduced the concept of ‘volitional competence,’ which is responsible for at least seven volitional mechanisms (kuhl & goschke, 1994): (1) intention control in terms of maintenance of an active intention, (2) attention control in terms of selectively strengthening relevant input information, (3) action control in terms of inhibition of counter-intentional impulses, (4) arousal control in terms of readjusting the level of arousal, (5) motivation and emotion control facilitating the initiative, (6) encoding control concerning volitional selectivity during preattentional stages of information processing, and (7) self-reflective thinking and planning, which is a more sophisticated version of the maintenance function, involving a high degree of metacontrol over one’s thought processes. in terms of volition, the researcher will analyze the result of the interview based on the participants’ feeling. research question in this section, the researcher would like to formulate the research question for this study. the question is what kind of emotion regulation strategy used by siblings to selfregulate their emotion? methodology the interview method will be used to conduct the research. there will be three pairs of siblings that will be interviewed. these three pairs went to the same university and same study program. they went to sanata dharma university majoring english education study program. from the school they went to and the study program they majored, the researcher concluded that there is influence whether it is done by the older sibling or the parents. the interview is conducted separately. dea and anton are siblings belong to the first pair. the second pair is filled by sheila and amanda, and david and jessica are in the third pair (those are not their real names). the interview is recorded, transcribed, and then analyzed in order to know the feeling and motivation experienced by the participants findings based on the interview, participants revealed the feeling that they feel. the pressure that they feel when they are compared by their parents and their teachers, motivation that they feel when the younger or the older got the achievement so that one of them did not want to lose. even feeling proud of their sibling. proud of their achievement, proud of their intelligence or proud of their diligence. motivation the first pair is, dea and anton. they are siblings and seen from their record, the older sister, dea, tried to give the good example to her younger brother, anton. she also felt jealous of her brother’s intelligence although she is also smart, but she thought her brother was naturally smart. she was smart because of she studied hard. seen from this kind of relationship, dea felt like a competition with her brother. as stated by woolfolk (1990), when we do something in order to earn a reward, avoid punishment, please the teacher, or for some other reason that has very little to do with the task itself, we experience extrinsic motivation. in some language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 115 cases, siblings tend to compete to each other for example in achievements. the extrinsic motivation is influenced by conflict and rivalry. dea felt competitive because back in the day she used to be compared with his younger brother in the education field by her parents and her lecturers that is why beside she wanted to be the good example for her brother she wanted to be better than her brother. as described by whiteman & buchanan (2002); wallace (2012), that younger siblings may find that they are unfairly compared with the behavior of their older sibling by both their parents and their teachers so that they are subject to unrealistic expectations of either good or bad behavior. besides her competitive feeling, dea also proud of her brother’s intelligence. she thought that her brother was naturally smarter than her. she told me that anton were able to read newspaper in the age of 2. i’m the older one, i’m the first child. if i’m not better than him, i mean if i cannot set the example and also well, set the bar for him then what’s the function of my life? personally i view my abilities, quite ya it’s quite good. i often got good grades but i actually better than him even though he ya he also got good grades often but less often than me but actually i need to study hard, i need to learn for very long time to understand the concept for you know spending more time in study but he just read the materials in 5 minutes and understand everything and get good score and my goooodddd… he’s genius. he has started to read newspaper when he was 2 years old, so yeah i started to read when i was 5 because i was so lazy, you know tough words like that i prefer counting and numbers. i don’t know why i suddenly i join pbi because … yeah he was better than me was smarter than me, he’s still you know that i always motivate myself that i should be the one who can set example, who can aaa… not always that example but can also make sure that this is my record, this is my record and if you want to break it just do it but if you don’t then this is my life, i want to do better. if you don’t want to accept this, you don’t want to get better than this. but your presence motivates me so that i can give my best on anything. how do i… most of the time i will envy, i will envious towards him because well he can play music instrument, he can do so many things better than me. but he has so many abilities that i don’t have. i’m quite jealous and also how can i surpass this, how can i beat him and there’s a kind of things because i cannot master all of them all things that he can. i can only excel him on certain aspects. i had to defeat him on the aspects. there are so many people for example my mother, my father. in the beginning it was both of them who always compared us in since in the middle school there are times when i got not really good grades but … compared to my brother and well i still remember that “why can’t you be like your brother in this subject?” like okay then i will have to be better than him so that i won’t be compared to. and some lecturers also compared us when we were both in pbi. like ms carla and ms frida how many brothers do you have? i only have one. so basically your parents usually compared you and your brother? yeah but i think it has stopped when i joined the science major when i was in senior high school because he decided not to follow my step because he chose social major so well they cannot compare us anymore. and after we both grew rebellious since we joined sanata dharma university and we don’t wanna be compared. but every time we get the report from the school well it’s a long looooonggg schooling. self-efficacy sheila and amanda are the second pair of siblings who are my participants. the siblings are in the same university and same study program, but the age gap is not that close. sheila is in the semester 9th and her younger sister is in the first 3rd semester. because of the age gap they did not really meet in campus often, they met in campus occasionally. sheila as the older sister, is actually quite proud of her younger sister’s achievement so far. sheila admitted she performed poorly and she was not jealous of her sister, amanda. in fact, she was quite proud of her sister’s performance and achievements. woolfolk (1990), described that self-efficacy is belief language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 116 about personal competence in a particular situation. self-efficacy resurfaces when somebody is doing something for the first time. they will ask themselves whether they are able to do it or not. self-efficacy is influenced by sibling’s learning performance. from this recorded interview, the researcher also saw that amanda looked up to sheila as a good role model. she always follows me for example she goes to the same high school with me and then she also goes to the same study program as me. she refuse to what is that, to go another study program. for example even english department english literature and english letters and english language education. they’re almost the same but she choose to choose english language education. i influenced my sibling to choose the study program. hmm.. to be honest, not really since our ability is the gap is very very high and she has very high achievement meanwhile i only have poor achievement. for me to achieve, to get motivation, i think not really. as i said before, my ability is very very poor and then my sibling’s ability is i think that she has almost perfect ability in academic field so yeah she’s better than me. she has a big ability in english in she has very excellent grammar and her achievement is very very perfect and she’s very very good in her study program. i think the gap of the year is also different for example when she still freshman, i was in semester 7 and i took spd and ppl in that moment she is still freshman so our hmm the presence and the frequency of the meeting is very very limited so i think it doesn’t affect my learning performance for me. i feel really doubt and i think that her ability in english language education is good so i feel really proud and she chose the right study program meanwhile i don’t think so it works for me. i think that my sibling’s ability, the frequency of the meeting is very very limited so even though we are siblings, but it doesn’t affect me at all and since we rarely talk about academic so when we meet we talk about let’s say about yeah the personal things but not about academic so it doesn’t affect anything. she’s very good, she’s very, she has a very high achievement and she is very very diligent i think, different from me. volition the third pair of siblings that are also my participants are david and jessica. they were in the same university and the same study program; even they were in the same students’ choir. david as the older brother felt great and noble if his younger sister got more achievement. he felt that he was proud of his sister’s achievement. so does jessica. she felt happy and proud of him as a younger sister even she pumped to be more like her older brother. but at some points, sometimes she was envious of her brother’s achievement but after all everything that her brother gets, it motivates her to be even more than her brother. as stated by kuhl (1994); dornyei (2005), stated a different approach to trying to grasp what lies at the core of strategic behavior: he introduced the concept of ‘volitional competence,’ which is responsible for at least seven volitional mechanisms (kuhl & goschke, 1994): (1) intention control in terms of maintenance of an active intention, (2) attention control in terms of selectively strengthening relevant input information, (3) action control in terms of inhibition of counterintentional impulses, (4) arousal control in terms of readjusting the level of arousal, (5) motivation and emotion control facilitating the initiative, (6) encoding control concerning volitional selectivity during pre-attentional stages of information processing, and (7) selfreflective thinking and planning, which is a more sophisticated version of the maintenance function, involving a high degree of metacontrol over one’s thought processes. david: when my sibling gets more achievements, i feel noble and great. the fact that my sibling language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 gets more achievements inspires me to be dedicated and conscientious. when i get more achievements, my sibling feels honored and glad. yes, it does. the fact that i get more achievements advocates her to focus on life and learning goal. jessica: when my sibling gets more achievement, i feel happy, very proud of him and it motivates me to get more achievement like he does. however, sometimes i feel envy of what he gets, but it motivates me more to do as the best as i can. when i get more achievement, my sibling feels happy and he is very proud of me. he always congratulates me if i get more achievement. actually, i don’t really know whether it motivates him or not. conclusion sibling relationship is not a simple matter. in some cases this relationship is rocky and complicated. for example, there is one sibling relationship that the younger brother and the older brother did not talk to each other even they were in the same house. another case is that the siblings are very close and support each other and there is one that they pretend that outside of house they are fine but actually inside they do not talk to each other. as stated by bedford (1996); wallace (2012), in western society it is believed that the individualistic nature breeds competition between siblings. but in asia especially in indonesia the sibling relationship is very much close because of the parents influence is still big and parents still interfere with their children’s decision. but it is very much different from the sibling relationship in the western society. as stocker et al (1997) has said sibling relationships often start off being unequal, usually with the oldest child having more power and gradually they may become more egalitarian over the years as the balance of power shifts. but despite all the difference and complications, white (2001), described that sibling relationships are unique in their length and durability. references allan, g. 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(1986). development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. american educational research journal, 23(4), 614-628. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 71 improving cohesion of the students’ sentences through the application of cohesion theory in the sentence-based writing class arif suryo priyatmojo semarang state university abstract this study was aimed at 1). describing what kinds of cohesive device mostly occured in the students’ sentences, 2). describing how to apply cohesion theory in the sentence-based writing class, and 3). finding out whether the use of cohesion theory gives its positive significance to cohesion of the students’ sentences. this is an action research study employing two cycles. the subject of the study was 24 students of group 2, in a class of sbw, and the object of the study was students’ sentences created by the students in the teaching and learning process. the result of the study shows that cohesive devices mostly employed by the students are references followed by lexical, conjunction and substitution. moreover, the students never used ellipsis in the students’ sentences. in the teaching and learning process, cohesion theory was given to the students in two cycles. the first cycle focused on introducing the cohesion theory and its kinds of cohesive devices. then, in the next cycle the students learned about halliday and hasan taxonomy. based on the result of the study, teaching sbw using cohesion theory gives its positive significance by varied cohesive device used by the students. it can be seen from the analysis of the students’ sentences from pre-test, paragraph 1, paragraph 2, paragraph 3 and post-test. the students also give positive responses upon its teaching and learning process using cohesion theory based on the pre and post-test questionnaire data. it is hoped that the result of the study gives positive contribution to the students in preparing them to write in bigger contexts such as paragraph-based writing, genre-based writng and academic writing in the next coming semesters. keywords: cohesion, cohesive device, halliday & hasan taxonomy, sbw introduction writing is one of the four skills in english from which students are supposed to master it besides listening, speaking and reading. those skills are classified into two main skills – receptive and productive skills. here, writing is classified into a productive skill as the students are reccomended to be able to write in the forms of sentences, paragraphs, essays and texts. this is due to its main objective, the students have literacy in writing. literacy is defined as the students’ competence in communicating messages (paltridge, 2001:4). the students doing writing gives some significances. first, the students can explore their ideas or opinions. then, writing is one of the academic demands. moreover, writing belongs to the epistemic 72 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 level for the students. it is based on the literacy level proposed by wells (1987). based on this level, the students are supposed to have skills in writing started from the basic one, sentence-based writing, in which by the coming semesters they are going to meet other writing activities namely paragraph-based writing, genre-based writing and academic writing. the purpose of those writing activities is the students’ competence in communicating meaningful messages for the readers. sentence-based writing is one of the course subjects given to the students in the second semester. before they get this subject, the students learn intensive writing in the first semester. furthermore, the materials given is quite simple. for example, they have to rewrite words, phrases, clauses and sentences. as a result, they do not explore their ideas. here, the writer only had one class consisting of 24 students. based on observation and sentence analysis, it was found that some students still had difficulties in writing cohesive sentences. they also gave some arguments in the questionnaires relating to their weaknesses due to some considerations; they were not only about the structure of the sentences. the followings are some comments given by the students based on one of the questions in the pre questionnaires “did you use to practice writing sentences and find its difficulties?” intan adi setyaningrum, one of my students said that she liked writing even it was not that easy: “in my opinion, there must be some rules especially grammar if i would like to write sentences. as a result, i should pay attention in that process”. (pre-quesionnaire) then, another comment was given by ela julaeha: “it is not easy to write sentences in english. i have to practice a lot how to write good sentences and paragraphs. i do practice every day, but it is still difficult indeed”. (pre-quesionnaire). moreover, haifa khairunnisa provided her different point of view: “we are not only aware of grammar but also other things such as references, substitutions, ellipsis, conjunctions dan lexical cohesion in producing cohesive sentences”. (pre-quesionnaire). it is very interesting to analyse haifa’s comment as she has already read some references about how to write cohesive sentences. it seemed that she had copied and read the books recommended by the lecturer in the first meeting. those language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 73 comments indicated that some students still had less knowledge of producing sentences. according to witte & faigley (2008) good sentences are connected with one another (connected discourse) and not autonomous sentences. the relationships rely on lexical and grammatical relationships. then, some writers also have difficulties in producing systematic sentences in which they are able to employ the appropriate words. it indicates that they are lack of cohesion knowledge. halliday and hasan (1976) stated that sentences should have structure. this is called as cohesive ties. better sentences should consist of more cohesive ties. they are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction dan lexical cohesion. based on the elaboration above, the writer was interested in conducting a research. he tried to find out whether cohesion theory can be applied in sentence-based writing class and it has its positive significances. statement of the problems are 1). what kinds of cohesive devices mostly occur in students’ sentences, 2). how to apply cohesion theory in sentence-based writing class and 3). whether the application of cohesion theory has positive significance. the objectives of this study were to find out what kinds of cohesive devices mostly occured in the students’ sentences, to describe how to apply cohesion theory in sentence-based writing class and know whether this theory was applicable to improve students’ sentence writing. it is hoped that the result of the study will give significant contribution to the students relating to the improvement of the cohesion of the students’ sentences. moreover, english department will get its benefit by the improvement of the students’ writing skill. then, the students will not find difficulties when they are having other writing activities such as paragraph-based writing, genre-based writing and academic writing. literature review cohesive sentences are connected with one another. furthermore, it has been contraints for many students because it is problematic. it related to a reseacrh conducted by bamberg (1983) cited in wang (2007) that one of the difficulties faced by the students are their lack of knowledge on how to write cohesive sentences. based on halliday and hasan (1976) cited in coulthard (1974) cohesive sentences are constructed based on ties. these ties are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctin dan lexical cohesion. reference refers to how a writer introduces characters and tracks them in the arranged sentences (eggins, 1994: 95). halliday and hasan (1976) proposed two kinds of references -situational and textual reference. based on this theory textual cohesion is achieved through the textual reference. the former is applied in the spoken texts. textual reference consists of anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference. halliday dan hasan 74 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 (1976) classify them into personal reference (i/ me, she/her, he/him, they/them, we/us, dsb), demonstrative reference (that/this, these/those) and definite article sekaligus comparative reference (the, -er, more-). a substitution is the replacement of a word (group) or sentences segment by a “dummy” word. the reader can fill in the correct element based on the preceding sentences (rankema, 1993: 37). there are three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal substitution. ellipsis is the omission of a word or part of a sentence. it occurs when some essential structural elements are omitted from a sentence or clause and can only be recovered by referring to an element in the preceding text (nunan, 1993: 25). accoding to halliday and hasan (1976: 144), ellipses occur when something that is structurally necessary is left unsaid, there is a sense of incompleteness associated with it. ellipsis also consists of nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis. conjunction is a part in a sentence which combines sentences (rankema, 1994: 38). it mostly occurs in the beginning of the sentence. baker (1992: 191) categorises conjunction into additive (and, or, also, in addition, furthermore, besides, similarly, likewise, by contrast, for instance), adversative (but, yet, however, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless, at any rate, as a matter of fact), causal (so, consequently, for, because, for this reason), temporal (then, next, finally, after that, on another occasion, in conclusion, an hour later, at last) and continuative (now, of course, well, anyway, surely, after all). lexical cohesive devices refer to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relation within a text (baker, 1992: 202). it does not deal with grammatical and semantic connection but with the connection based on the words used. meanwhile, nunan (1993: 28) says that lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are semantically related in some way. there are two kinds of lexical cohesion, reiteration and collocation with their parts repetition, synonym, hyponym, metonym and antonym. in addition to the taxonomy that allows cohesive ties to be classified according to function, halliday and hasan introduce a second taxonomy. this second taxonomy allows cohesive ties to be classified according to the amount of text spanned by the presupposed and presupposing elements of a given tie. halliday and hasan term four such “text-span” classes. membership in a class is determined by the number of t-units a given cohesive tie span. taken together, the two taxonomies halliday and hasan present are classified in two different ways, one according to function and one according to distance. the four “text span” classes contained in language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 75 halliday and hassan’s second taxonomy are illustrated in the following: (1) the last word ended in a long bleat, so like a sheep that alice quite started. (2) she looked at the queen, who seemed to have suddenly wrapped herself up in wool. (3) alice rubbed her eyes, and looked again. (4) she couldn’t make out what had happened at all. (5) was she in a shop? (6) and was that really – was it really a sheep that was sitting on the other side of the counter. (7) rub as she would, she could make nothing more of it (halliday & hasan, 1976: 330-340) in sentence (2), she refers to alice in the first sentence. it relates to the sentence which immediately precedes it. it is called an immediate tie. the word she in sentence (4) also refers to alice in the immediate sentence. she, in sentence (5) has the target of its presupposition another instance of she, that in (4) and in order to resolve it we have to follow this through to the occurence of alice in sentence (3). this type is called a mediated tie. remote ties, on the other hand, result when two elements of a tie are separated by one or more intervening t-units. it can be seen from sentence (6). in the sentence, there is no presupposing or presupposed item. finally, a tie may be both mediated and remote. for example, the she in sentence (7) does not have any presupposition in sentence (6) but refers back to sentence (5). here, the tie is considered remote. at the same time the presupposed item in (5) is again she, which has to be followed through to the she in (4) and finally to alice in (3), so it is also mediated. method this is an action research employing two cycles. the following describes cycles proposed by kemmis and mctaggart: 76 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 picture 3.1. action research cycles based on kemmis dan mctaggart (1988) cited in burns (2010:9) 1. subject of the study 24 four students (student group 002) of the sentence-based writing class were the subject of the study. 2. object of the study the writer analysed the students sentences as the object of the study. the sentences were analysed using cohesion theory. they were taken from the teaching and learning process. 3. time allotment it took 6 months to complete the study based on the targeted orientation and time limitation. 4. location this study was conducted in the english department, faculty of languages and arts. the class was conducted in b3 building room 317b. techniques of the action research study 1. problem identification in identifying the problem, the writer had already given assignments for the students in the early meetings. the purpose of which was to have an early observation and assessment. the result of this was one of the indicators to conduct such research. 2. data gathering language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 77 to get the data, the students’ sentences was analysed using cohesion theory. in doing so, the writer gave assignment for the students to write by the end of teaching and learning process. 3. data interpretation after completing the analysis to get the result, the writer would plan what should be done after this. 4. doing action this study was divided into two cycles, so the materials were categorised based on the teaching and learning process. in the first cycle, the writer focused on introducing cohesion theory and its kinds of cohesive devices. then, the next cycle was halliday and hasan taxonomy. the following is the reserach cycles: table 3.1. teaching and learning process in the first cycle. cycle 1 activities materials tlp discussion question and answer practice introduction of cohesion tlp discussion question and answer practice introduction and kinds of cohesive devices writing practice free themes (2x) it was followed by another cycle based on the result finding. tabel 3.2. kegiatan tindakan kelas pada siklus kedua cycle 2 activities materials tlp discussion question and answer practice cohesive devices tlp discussion question and answer practice halliday and hasan taxonomy 78 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 writing practice free themes (2x) instruments 1. observation here, it is defined as the textual analysis on students’ sentences produced in every meeting of the teaching and learning process. 2. test the students were supposed to do pre and post-test. the purpose of doing this was to measure the students’ progress in writing sentences. 3. questionnaires it was used to find out the students’ point of view relating to the teaching and learning process by the application of cohesion theory. the pre-questionnaire was delivered in the early meetings before the writer conducted the study. later, the students responded their view in the post-questionnaire. it asked the students whether tlp using this theory gives its positive significances to them in sentencebased writing class. finding and discussion the following chart describes cohesive devices found in the students sentences started from pre-test until post-test: chart 4.1 the number of cohesive devices. based on the chart above, it can be seen that references dominates others. the use of references are the easiest ones for the students. on the first paragraph, the students started exploring the other devices. the numbers improved and varied. it was assumed that it is due to their better acknowledgement on cohesion language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 79 theory. the most significance was the improvement of lexical devices. we can find any significance on the second and third paragraphs when analysing the cohesive devices used by the students in their sentences. furthermore, the students tried to explore their sentences using conjunctions. one of the reasons was some paragraphs produced by the students were in the form of recounting. if we look at the some lexicogrammatical features of a reount text is the use of conjunction/sequence of events in elaborating the events. the posttest shows that almost all number of cohesive devices are decreasing. it can be seen from references, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical devices. learning the materials, in this case cohesion theory and taxonomy could affect it. the students were to write sentences well based on halliday and hasan taxonomy. it was not an easy job. as a result, it affected cohesion of the students’ sentences. furhermore, it did not indicate that it was not successful as based on the chart above. the students are accustomed to writing using varied cohesive devices. in conclusion, teaching and learning process applying cohesion theory contributes to the cohesion of the students’ sentences. the followings are some arguments given by the students related to the teaching and learning process using cohesion theory: table 4.1: students’ responses question 4: does the cohesion theory give positive significance to your sentences? adriani yulia p yes. this theory helps me to write well. asmarani yes. i understand how to write varied sentences now. ela julaeha i think that my sentences are getting better now. girindra yes. by this theory, i can write sentences using different styles. nuki nur azizah it improves my sentences. i learn how to put the right conjunctions in the correct positions and how to choose the right words. . it can be inferred from the responses above that the students benefit the teaching and learning process using cohesion theory. 80 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 conclusion and suggestion conclusion (1) the students in producing sentences employed four cohesive devices. they are references, elipsis, conjunction and lexical. the textual analysis shows that the number of reference is 79.6% on pre-test, 76.71% on the first paragraph, 75.43% on the second paragraph, 78.15% on the third paragraph and 69.66% on post-test. then, it was followed by lexical devices, 14.28% on pre-test, 15.27% on paragraph 1, 16.8% on paragraph 2, 16.39% on paragraph 3 and 16.29% on post test. moreover, conjunction occurs 5.1% on pretest, 8.01% on paragraph 2, 7.32% on paragraph 2, 5.04% on paragraph 3 and 12.35% on post-test. finally, the number of cohesive devices occurred least is substitution, 0% on pre-test and the first paragraph, 0.43% on the second paragraph and 0.42% on the third paragraph, and 1.68% on post-test. related to cohesion theory, there should be five cohesive devices: reference, substitution, elispsis, conjunction and lexical. hence, we can not find any ellipsis. it related to some researchers’ finding that it is one of the most difficult devices to apply by most students (2) the teaching and learning process was divided into two main activities. the students received the introduction of cohesion theory in the eraly meetings followed by some writing exercises by producing at least 10 sentences in a paragraph based on their own interests. the students also learned halliday and hasan taxonomy in the next meetings. (3) the students’ sentence writing is improving based on its textual analysis. it can be seen from the varied use of cohesive devices by the students and their responses on pre and post questionnaires. suggestions (1) the students need to understand about cohesion theory and its application in sentence writing; (2) writing sentences need lots of practice both in inside and outside of the classroom; (3) in intensive writing class, the students need to have independent ideas to write not to do rewriting; (4) it needs lecturers’ will for improving their expertise in teaching writing. references baker, mona. 1992. in other words: a course book on translation. london: routledge bamberg, b. (1983). what makes a text coherent? college composition and communication, 34(4), 417-429. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 81 coulthard, 1994. advanced in written text analysis. london: routledge eggins, suzanne. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistic. london: pinter publsiher halliday, m.a.k. & hasan, ruqaiya. 1976. cohesion in english. new york: longman nunan, david. 1993. discourse analysis. london: penguin group oshima, alice & hogue, ann. 1999. writing academic english. new york: pearson paltridge, brian. 2001. genre and the language learning classroom. michigan: the university of michigan press. rankema, jan. 1993. discourse studies: an introductory textbook. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. wang, lixia. 2007. theme and rheme in the thematic organization of text: implications for teaching academic writing. asian efl journal, vol.9, no 1. wells, g. 1987. apprenticeship in literacy. in interchange 18, 1/2: 109-123. witte, stephen p. & faigley, lester. 1981. coherence, cohesion and writing quality. college composition and communication, 32, 189-204. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 173 enhancing the students’ speaking skill using three step interview and numbered heads together sri rahayu ratnawati lkp nissan fortuna kudus, indonesia email: ratnarahayunf@gmail.com issy yuliasri english language education pascasarjana universitas negeri semarang, indonesia rudi hartono english language education pascasarjana universitas negeri semarang, indonesia received: 20 october 2017. revised: 20 january 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract this research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of three step interview (tsi) and numbered headstogether techniques (nht) to enhance speaking skill for the students having different motivation levels and to show if there is any interaction between teaching techniques and motivation. the participants of the research were the students of survival english class level of nissan fortuna english course, kudus. the research method of this study was quantitative by using 2x2 factorial experimental research designs. the data collection was done by giving questionnaire and conducting pre-test and post-test and was analyzed by using anova. this study found that (1) tsi and nht are effective to enhance speaking skill of students with different motivation level, (2) enhancing speaking skill of the high motivated students using tsi is more effective than using nht, (3) enhancing speaking skill using tsi to the low motivated students is more effective than using nht, (4) there is no interaction between the techniques and students‘ motivation. this study concluded that tsi and nht can be used as techniques to enhance the students‘ speaking skill no matter how students‘ motivational level is. keywords: cooperative learning, motivation, numbered heads together, speaking, three step interview how to cite: ratnawati, s.r., yuliasri, i., & hartono, r. (2018). enhancing students‘ speaking skill using three step interview and numbered heads together. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 173—182. introduction speaking is an important skill for english language learners to communicate each other. the english teaching-learning in a non formal education (an english course) has some problems and difficulties for the teachers. teaching speaking is very important and it requires teachers to be creative to facilitate the students with fun and effective learning activities. nunan (2003) stated that success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the (target) language. from this statement we can conclude that teaching speaking should be given good attention from english teachers. the teacher of english course should have some techniques to teach them well. the teachers should be able to make them enjoy learning and create a student-centered atmosphere with different teaching learning techniques so that the learning is fun and interesting. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 174 tsi is a strategy which gives learners opportunities to repeatedly use their knowledge of the english language. according to utami (2010), there are some advantages of using this strategy. firstly, tsi is a physically active process to activate students‘ prior knowledge of a topic through conversation that uses language in the process of learning and gives the learner opportunity to practice their speaking. secondly, the learners will get the same chance to practice their ability of speaking without feel anxious. thirdly, this strategy will make the situation in the classroom more joyful and can be expected to make the learner more cooperative during the speaking class. three-step interview is one of the cooperative learning strategies that was developed by spencer kagan in 1989 which provides the opportunities for students to give the responses in turn. it means that every member in group could have his/her own turn to give the responses based on the material given by the teacher. in this case, the students interview about article that they have read and share what they learned in the interview in the team. the students have to pay attention to the response given by their teammates. here, the students could listen to the response expressed by their teammates that could get multiple perspectives and may be more open to alternative explanation. nht is a cooperative learning strategy that holds each student accountable for learning the material. in this technique each student of each group gets the number and their own tasks, but they should decide the best and the appropriate answer for the group by considering each answer of the members of the group. nht was developed first by kagan (1993) to involve more students in learning material which consist in a lesson and to know their knowledge about the material given. students are placed in a groups and each person is given a number (from one to the maximum number in each group). the teacher poses a question and students ―put their heads together‖ to figure out the answer. the teacher calls a specific number to respond as spokesperson to the group. by having students work together in a group, this strategy ensures that each member knows the answer to problems or questions asked by the teacher. because no one knows which number will be called, all team members must be prepared. according to lie (2010, p. 60), there are several steps in implementing nht, they are: divide the students into groups of four and give each one a number from one to four, pose a question or a problem to the class, have students gather to think about the question and to make sure everyone in their group understands and can give an answer, ask the question and call out a number randomly, the students with that number raise their hands, and when called on, the students answers for his or her team. mulyadi (2013) focuses on the relationship between students' preferences regarding powerpoint and their speaking skills in the accounting classroom learning process. the study was conducted using classroom action research. the results of this study show a significant relationship between students' preferences regarding powerpoint multimedia related to their speaking skills as shown in their improvement of post test, rubric of speaking evaluation and positive responses of students. students can make an attractive presentation using power point in english. however, the research, that the writer conducted, differs from the previous one. first, if the previous one used classroom action research as research method while this research used experimental research. second, ratnawati, s.r., yuliasri, i., & hartono, r. (2018). enhancing students‘ speaking skill using three step interview and numbered heads together. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 173—182. 175 the previous used multimedia, while this research used techniques (numbered heads together and thre step interview). another similar research was conducted by darsini (2013). her research showed that cooperative learning method (here she used three step interview and numbered heads together) was able to improve the students‘ speaking skill. however, the research, that the writer conducted, differs from the previous one. first, if the previous used junior high school as subject, this research used the students of an english course as the subject or the research. second, the previous one used classroom action research as research method while this reseach used experimental research. research on speaking had also been conducted by milchatun, bharati, & hartono (2015). they used the students of the state institute islamic studies syekh nurjati cirebon in the fourth semester of the academic year of 2013/2014 as subjects of research consisted of 30 students. the findings of the research showed that role play technique can improve students‟ personal self concept in teaching speaking significantly from first cycle to the next cycle. the other finding can be seen from classroom situations, i.e.: during the speaking class the students has courage to express their idea freely, good attention in speaking class, well in discussion term, well in team work, they feel confident with their ability in solving problem, and more creative. yuliasri (2017) proved that both of the techniques were effective to enhance descriptive text writing for students of different levels of motivation. however tps was more effective than circ. the result of the study proved that both of the techniques were effective to enhance descriptive text writing for students of different levels of motivation. however, the research, that the writer conducted, differs from the previous one. first, if the objectives of the previous study was to improve teachers‗ skills while the objective of this research was to enhance students‘ speaking skill. second, the previous used cooperative learning techniques, while this research used 2 techniques (numbered heads together and three step interview). hidayati (2013) described how roleplay technique improved students‘ motivation in speaking class. this study was conducted in classroom action research. the research was conducted in the eighth graders at the state junior high school 1 brebes in the academic year of 2012/2013. the findings showed that the implementation of the role playing technique could improve the students‟ motivation in the aspects of interest, concentration, diligence and satisfaction. however, the research, that the writer conducted, differs from the previous one. first, if the previous one used classroom action research as research method while this research used experimental research. second, second, the previous usedthe role playing technique while this research used techniques (nht and tsi) . kartika (2013) described how script paired learning improve students‘ confidence in speaking english. this technique has successfully done to gain students confidence in speaking class. the finding showed that there were improvements in students‘ speaking skill and also attitude. however, the research, that the writer conducted, differs from the previous one. first, if the previous one used classroom action research as research method while this research used experimental research. second, the previous used script paired learning, while this language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 176 research used numbered heads together and three step interview. a similar study was conducted by yuliasri (2011). she applied the cooperative learning techniques, particularly the jigsaw and think-pair-share techniques, to help students improve their indonesian-english translation skill, especially in terms of diction, grammar, and rendering of message/content of text. her research showed positive results, revealing that the application of cooperative learning techniques could improve students‘ skill in translating. however, the research, that the writer conducted, differs from the previous one. first, if the previous used students of semarang state university, this research used the students of an english course as the subject or the research. second, the previous one used classroom action research as research method while this research used experimental research. third, the previous used jigsaw and three step interview, while this research used numbered heads together and thre step interview. beside that the aim of the previous study was to improve translating skill and this research aimed to improve speaking skill. methodology this study was an experimental research with factorial design. this study aimed to investigate the correlation between cause and effect and how far its correlation by giving certain treatment to the experimental group and giving different treatment to the control group as the comparison. the cause and effect in this study were compared between the two groups. the students of each class were divided by considering their levels of motivation; high and low motivation. thus, this study employed factorial design 2x2 by the technique of multifactor analysis of variance (anova). this research used quantitative approach. i saw the effectiveness of cooperative learning techniques in teaching speaking, and observed how the use of cooperative learning techniques can give the effects to improve it. i also studied how significance the improvement of students‘ speaking practice could improve the students‘ speaking skill. the research design of this study was a pre-test-post-test control group design. it was constructed in academic year 2015 in nissan fortuna course kudus. it was conducted in 4 weeks. the subjects of this study were the students of nissan fortuna course kudus. there were 60 students in this course and the writer used random sampling of five classes as the subject of the research. they were divided into three groups based on their motivation (low, moderate, and high). 24 students were chosen randomly to be the subjects of the research and 60 students were used in tryout of the research instrument the subject that was employed in this study was those low and high motivated students. after determining the groups, then it was determined whether they were homogenious and the data were in the normal distribution. while the location of try out and treatment also was conducted at nissan fortuna english course kudus in academic year 2015. the instruments were used as a tool to measure in this study which was conducted through two instruments; motivational scale to measure students‘ motivation, and pre-post test to measure students‘ speaking skill. instruments used to collect the data were a questionnaire and tests. in order to give scores to students‘ speaking skill, this research used the scoring rubric by brown (2004). in order to make the data complete ratnawati, s.r., yuliasri, i., & hartono, r. (2018). enhancing students‘ speaking skill using three step interview and numbered heads together. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 173—182. 177 the writer is going to describe the experimental design of the experimental group and control group. there were some steps in conducting an experiment which had to be done in a chronological order. the test of normality and homogenity were analyzed using spss. while the differences of pre-test and post-test results between experimental and control group in enhancing the students‘ speaking skill were measured by anova (analysis of variance). anova is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the differences between group means. to conduct an anova, it can be calculated by using spss. thus, this study employed spss to measure the anova. findings and discussion these are the main results detailed in this article. the effectiveness of tsi compares to nht to enhance speaking skill for the students having high motivation, the effectiveness of tsi compares to nht to enhance speaking skill for the students having low motivation, there is any interaction between teaching techniques and motivation in the survival english class of the students at nissan fortuna english course of kudus. based on the findings, in general, the discussion goes to explain the effectiveness of tsi and nht as techniques to teach speaking to students with high and low motivation. the result of the analyses is as follow: mean score of post test for highmotivated students treated tsi and nht based on the table above, it can be seen that the mean score of post-test for high motivated students treated using tsi was 76.6. while the mean score of post-test for high motivated students treated using nht was 70.8. it can be concluded that the speaking skill of those treated using three step interview is higher than those using numbered heads together after the treatment. however, to measure whether the difference is significant, it was then measured by using the paired t-test. the result is as follows. post-test result of high motivated students treated using tsi and nht from the result above, it shows that the t-count of the both post-test was 4.781 while the t-table is 1.833. it can be seen that the tcount is higher than the t-table (t-count > ttable). in addition, the sig.value resulted 0.009 which is lower than the α sig. 0.05 (sig.value <α sig. 0.05). therefore, ho5 is paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 post exp high 76.6667 6 7.58288 3.39116 post cont high 70.8333 6 7.58288 3.39116 paired samples test post exp low – post cont low paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviatio n std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper 1.80000e1 10.3682 2 4.63681 5.12615 30.8738 5 3.882 4 .018 paired samples test post exp high – post cont high paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper 2.00000e1 9.35414 4.18330 8.38530 31.61470 4.781 4 .009 language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 178 rejected and ha5 is accepted, which means that there was a significant difference of high motivated students treated using tsi and nht. mean score of low motivated students treated using tsi and nht based on the table above, it can be seen that the mean score of post-test for low motivated students treated using tsi was 79.1. while the mean score of post-test for low motivated students treated using nht was 70. it can be concluded that the speaking ability of those treated using thi is higher than those using nht after the treatment. however, to measure whether the difference is significant, it was then measured by using the paired t-test. the result is as follow. post-test result of low motivated students treated using tsi and nht from the result above, it shows that the tcount of the both post-test was3.882 while the t-table is 1.833. it can be seen that the tcount is higher than the t-table (t-count > ttable). in addition, the sig.value resulted 0.018 which is lower than the α sig. 0.05 (sig.value <α sig. 0.05). therefore, ho6 is rejected, and ha6 is accepted, which means that there was a significant difference of low motivated students treated using tsi and nht. the result of each subject effect tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: speakingskill from the result above, it can be seen that the data consist of techniques, motivation, and techniques *motivation. the table shows the f-count result for each source. the first data is techniques, and the result of f-count for the techniques is 32.449. the second, f-count of motivation is 0.090. the last, f-count of techniques*motivation is 0.090. meanwhile, the f-table is 4.351. it means that f-count for each source is lower than f-table except the media.to sum up, the media (tsi and nht) have significant difference on students‘speaking skill, but their motivational level did not give any significant difference. all in all, it concludes that ho7 is accepted, and ha7 is rejected which means that there is no interaction among the techniques, motivation, and speaking skill. based on the findings, in general, the discussion goes to explain the effectiveness of tsi and nht as techniques to teach speaking to students with high and low motivation. however, as it is stated before, taking motivation as a moderator variable in this study, spesifically the discussion of this study concerncs with some hypotheses mentioned in the previous chapter. those hypotheses are formulated through null hypotheses which will be discussed below. paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 post exp low 79.1667 6 9.35414 4.18330 post cont low 70.0000 6 4.47214 2.00000 source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 1815.000 a 3 605.000 10.876 .000 intercept 132845.000 1 132845.000 2.388e3 .000 techniques 1805.000 1 1805.000 32.449 .000 motivation 5.000 1 5.000 .090 .768 techniques * motivation 5.000 1 5.000 .090 .768 error 890.000 16 55.625 total 135550.000 20 corrected total 2705.000 19 a. r squared = ,671 (adjusted r squared = ,609) ratnawati, s.r., yuliasri, i., & hartono, r. (2018). enhancing students‘ speaking skill using three step interview and numbered heads together. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 173—182. 179 there was a significant effect of tsi to teach speaking to high motivated students. it can be concluded that tsi is effective and can be ehanced to high motivated students. in this case, students with high motivation can get significant achievement in their speaking learning. motivation can activate, direct and sustain goal aimed. there was a significant effect of tsi to teach speaking to low motivated students. in this case, students with high motivation can get significant achievement in their speaking learning. eventhough the students have low motivation, they still can get improvement in their speaking learning through tsi. there wasa significant effect of nht. in this case, students with high motivation can get significant achievement in their speaking learning. motivation can activate, direct and sustain goal aimed. there wasa significant effect ofnht to teach speaking to low motivated students. in this case, students with high motivation can get significant achievement in their speaking learning. eventhough the students have low motivation, they still can get improvement in their speaking learning through nht. there wasa significant difference of high motivated students treated using tsi and nht. there was a significant difference of low motivated students treated using tsi and nht. in this case, students with high motivation can get significant achievement in their speaking learning. eventhough the students have low motivation, they still can get improvement in their speaking learning through the clt. however, enahncing clt as a medium to teach speaking is more effective than without enahncing the clt. both techinques are effective to teach speaking without considering their motivational level. this is because motivation has no direct effect and it has no interaction with the technique and students‘ speaking skill. based on the findings and discussion above, it can be concluded that both techinques (tsi and nht) are effective to teach speaking. however, tsi performs more effective than nht as teaching technique. motivation, however, does not give any significant effect for students who are treated using tsi. this proves that proper technique can be enhanced and encourage students‘ achievement. based on the findings and discussion above, it can be concluded that both techinques (tsi and nht) are effective to teach speaking. however, tsi performs more effective than nht as teaching technique. motivation, however, does not give any significant effect for students who are treated using tsi. this proves that proper technique can be enhanced and encourage students‘ achievement. conclusion tsi and nht are effective to teach speaking to high motivated students of nissan fortuna english course kudus year 2015/2016. therefore, these techniques can be used to highly motivated students as a medium of their speaking learning. tsi and nht are effective to teach speaking to low motivated students. these techniques can also be used to low motivated students as a medium of their speaking learning. tsi is more effective than using nht to high motivated students. the use of tsi is recomended to enhance speaking skill for those highly motivated students. teaching speaking using tsi is more effective than using the nht to low motivated students. the use of tsi still can perform better than nht as a technique to language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 180 enhance speaking skill to the low motivated students. therefore, the use of tsi is recomended to enhance speaking skill for those highly motivated students beside nht in learning process. there is no interaction among the techniques, students‘ motivation and speaking skill. this means that speaking mastery can be achieved through the techniques (both tsi and nht) without considering students‘ motivational level (highly and low motivated students) it can be concluded that different techniques actually have different effect for enhancing students‘ speaking skill. meanwhile, motivational level cannot be considered to have effect in students‘ speaking skill. this study implies that both of the techniques (tsi and nht) are effective to teach students‘ speaking skill. however, tsi as a technique of cooperative learning can perform better than nht to enhance students‘ speaking skill. students can learn speaking actively using those techniques. therfore, these can be valuable input to teach speaking skill. the use of the tsi and nht techniques are able to encourage the students to practice speaking during the teaching and learning process. by applying those techniques, they get more opportunity in interacting with their friends using english and they are also able to enjoy the teaching and learning process. it helps the students to formulate what they want to say. as a result, they are able to explore themselves in expressing their opinions in english. moreover, it is effective in improving the students‘ confidence in speaking. this condition improved their involvement in the teaching and learning process. both techinques are effective to improve students‘ speaking ability. for further study, it is suggested to use another method like true experimental or classroom action research where the teacher or the researcher knows better the natural condition of their students without having some random assignment. also, it is suggested to try another moderator variable like gender or self-esteem. so, this will be a campaign for educational world to enahance teaching and learning using the technique. references brown, h.d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. new york: pearson education, inc. cooper, j.l. (1995). cooperative learning and critical thinking. teaching of psychology, 22(1), 7-8. cooper, j., robinson, p., and mckinney, m. (1993). cooperative learning in the classroom. san francisco: jossey-bass. darsini. (2013). “improving speaking skill through cooperative learning method of the eighth grade students of smpn 2 ubud in academic year 2012/2013”. hidayati, m. (2014). improving students‘ motivation in speaking through a role play technique. thesis. english language education post graduate program semarang state university. ratnawati, s.r., yuliasri, i., & hartono, r. (2018). enhancing students‘ speaking skill using three step interview and numbered heads together. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 173—182. 181 mulyadi. d. (2013). the effectiveness ofmultimedia presentation in improving students‟ speaking skills (student nurse of unimus)eng.edu.unimus@gmail.com kagan, s. (1993). cooperative learning. san clemente, ca: kagan publications. kartika. (2013). improving students‟ confidence through story telling by using script paired learning. thesis. english language education post graduate program semarang state university. lie, a. (2008). cooperative learning: mempraktikkan cooperative learning di ruangruang kelas. jakarta: pt grasindo. milchatun, bharati, dalb., hartono, r. (2015). improving students‟ personal self concept through role play technique in teaching speaking skill. english education journal. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej nunan, d. (2003). the impact of english as a global language on educatinal policies and practices in the asia-pasific region tesol quarterly 37(4).589-613 slavin, r.e. et al. (1998). cooperative learning: theory, research and practice, united states of america: a simon & schuster company utami, r. (2010). improving speaking skill using three – step interview in the first grade of sma n 1 ngawi. thesis. university of semarang. yuliasari, i. (2011). cooperative learning techniques to improve students‟ translation (a modified form of a paper presented at asian efl journal-asia tesol international seminar cebu island, philippines, august 12-13, 201). language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2april 2014. yuliasri, i. (2017). applicability of cooperative learning techniques in different classroom context. international conference on eltlt (english language teaching literature, and translation), pp. 44-53. mailto:eng.edu.unimus@gmail.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaa0a33116b • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 227 evaluation of pre-service english teachers’ integration of educational technology into their lesson plans sri wahyuni universitas negeri semarang, indonesia sriwahyunifbs@mail.unnes.ac.id received: 20 december 2017. revised: 5 february 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract the emergence of technology has shifted so many aspects of people‘ lives including but not limited to the way they interact with each other and accomplish almost all activities. in education context, use of technology has impacted teachers and students‘ interactions both in and outside classroom. for decades now, there has been research on technology use and its‘ benefits on teachers‘ instructional practices and students‘ learning. however, a study specifically looking at the integration of technology into teachers‘ lesson plans is still under research. therefore, the paper was an attempt to investigate how pre-service english teachers integrated technology in the preparation stage of the instructional activities. the study focused on the evaluation of 22pre-service english teachers‘ lesson plans. it employed a qualitative approach with a document review method. it revealed that the pre-service english teachers have incorporate deducational technology including mobile devices and digital recording. besides, the most frequently and commonly digital media used were power points, audios, videos and online resources downloaded from youtube. in addition, they made use of communication and collaborative resource such as blogs. finally, implication for further research is presented key words: digital technology, lesson plan, english instruction, digital devices, social networking sites how to cite: wahyuni, s. (2018). evaluation of pre-service english teachers‘ integration of educational technology into their lesson plans. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 227—234. introduction pervasive use of technology in efl classrooms has apparently been acknowledged for its positive impacts. seen from teachers‘ perspective, use of technology is ―essential and should be a part of today‘s learning‖. students also perceive that teacher‘s use of technology enhances students‘ interest and satisfaction in learning (lea, clayton, draude, & barlow, 2001). in addition, it was claimed to enhance students‘ motivation and knowledge retention (granito and chernobilsky, 2012). similarly, use of technology has helped improving classroom activities, motivate students, and engage them in classroom activities (tabatabaei & gui, 2011). this is supported by kasapoglu-akyol (2010) summarizing that most students preferred the use of technology-computers in developing their second language skills. ―bilingual word processors are excellent way to further writing development and motivate students to write‖. this is in line with nomass‘ 2013 study indicating that in general technology helped learners learn the language faster. technology also supported the development of language skills such as listening, speaking, and writing as well as mailto:sriwahyunifbs@mail.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 228 vocabulary. this is similar to alsulami‘s 2016 finding that the integration of technology influenced reading and writing in many ways. it indicated that computer software, social networking websites, online videos, audio tools (youtube, sype, mp3players), and smart phones and tablet apps had positive impact on learning english as a foreign language. palmer‘s 2012 study uncovered that blended learning so called izone was effective and applicable for language learning in the now generation. similar study by tosun (2015) showed that blended learning could enhance students‘ vocabulary knowledge. in addition, marchetti and cullen (2014) examined students‘ preference for learning new language from image prompts. they found out that majority of students preferred to connect vocabulary to picture or image, or to a combination of text and image. video and visual media made students easier to participate in speaking activities. in the classroom, they made use of the internet to look up unfamiliar words in dictionary and find out more information in relation to teachers‘ explanation. outside classroom, social networking sites such as messenger, facebook, whatsapp, e-mail, skype, and instagram facilitated them in enriching their language skills. a study carried out by boche and henning (2015) revealed that using film, optical illusions, graphics, non-fiction broadcasts, and other technological as well as multimodal resources may help students realize that meaning can be found and made in multiple places and multiple modes. on the part of the teachers, use of digital technology contributed to improve teachers‘ instructional practices. tabatabaei & gui (2011) revealed that the advancement of technology allowed the teachers to be more creative in conducting instructional practices both online and offline. in indonesian educational context, use of technology for instructional purposes is supported by government policies and facilities. for example, in regard to the implementation of the 2013 curriculum in 2016 the ministry of education and culture launched the regulations on the national standard of education no. 20about graduate competence standard, no. 21 content standard, and no 22 process standard respectively. it is explicitly stated that learning outcomes of secondary education graduates is that students acquire factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge related to science, technology, art, and culture. meanwhile, in the process standard it is mentioned that ict should be integratedly, systematically, and effectively implemented to facilitate students‘ learning. in order to facilitate students‘ learning and make classroom activities more effective, schools are supposed to carry out information communication technology (ict)-based teaching and learning for certain school subjects. with this regulation in mind, some top schools both public and private equip themselves with laboratories of language, computer, and multimedia. the classes are provided with computers, projectors, active speakers, and internet connection which are easily accessible for the school society. the 2013 curriculum for secondary education further states that the process standard consists of four processes, i.e. planning, implementation, evaluation, and supervision. in relation to the previous explanation of the student learning outcomes and instructional practices requiring the mastery and use of technology, therefore, it implies that technology is supposed to be incorporated in those four stages of the instructional practices. the planning stage requires teachers to prepare a set of teaching wahyuni, s. (2018). evaluation of pre-service english teachers‘ integration of educational technology into their lesson plans. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 227—236. 229 documents and one of them is a lesson plan. lesson planning is considered as an important part of the whole instructional programs. ashcraft (2014:1) claims that ―lesson planning is at the heart of being an effective teacher. it is a creative process that allow us to synthesize our understanding of second language acquisition and language teaching pedagogy with our knowledge of our learners, the curriculum, and the teaching context. it is a time when we envision the learning we want to occur and analyse how all the pieces of the learning experience should fit together to make that vision a classroom reality.‖ ashcraft (2014) further summarizes that there are some advantages of preparing a lesson plan before classroom practices. the benefits are: 1) lesson planning produces more unified lesson (jensen, 2001); 2) lesson planning process allows teachers to evaluate their own knowledge with regards to the content to be taught (reed & michaud, 2010); 3) planning the lesson will make teachers more confident (jensen, 2001); 4) lesson plan is reusable (jensen, 2001). it means that it will save time for future use (ashcraft, 2014); 5) lesson plan can be used by other teachers (jensen, 2001); and 6) lesson plan can show teachers‘ pedagogical competence. with this in mind, teachers‘ pedagogical competence in planning the lesson is central to effective and successful teaching. this is in line with the regulation of national education ministry no. 16 year 2007 concerning with the academic qualification standard and teacher competencies. it states that one of the teachers‘ pedagogical competencies is to be able to make use of ict for teaching and learning purposes. integration of technology into education practices is also believed to develop students‘ 21st century skills. trilling and fadel (2009:xxvi) categorize the 21st century skills into three: 1) learning and innovation skills: critical thinking and problem solving, communications and collaboration, creativity and innovation; 2) digital literacy skills: information literacy, media literacy, information and communication technologies (ict) literacy; and 3) career and life skills: flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural interaction, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility. it indicates that educational technology employed now should prepare the net generation to be able to cope with the future challenges. a number of studies previously mentioned had been conducted to explore teachers and students‘ perception on the use of technology. others have focused on investigating the benefits using technology in classroom practices. notwithstanding, research specifically carrying out to see how the integration of technology into the lesson plans is not very much explored. given these basis, this study was aimed at investigating pre-service english teachers‘ use of technology in their lesson plans. therefore, this study would further explore the answers of the following questions: (1) what kinds of technology do pre-service english teachers integrate into their lesson plans? and (2) how are the choices of technology realized in the lesson plans? methodology the current study belongs to a qualitative approach with a document review method. the department of health and human services (2009) states that ―document review is a way of collecting data by reviewing existing documents‖. similarly, wbi language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 230 education group (2007) mentions that ―document review is to review a variety of existing sources (documents, reports, data files, and other written artifacts) with the intention of collecting independently verifiable data and information‖. with these in mind, the data of the study were obtained from the lesson plans produced by the preservice english teachers of universitas negeri semarang. the existing documents were soft and hard files collected from the library of the english department, universitas negeri semarang. the pre-service english teachers involved in this study were those attending teacher training program pendidikan profesi guru (ppg) sarjana mendidik di daerah terdepan, terluar, dan tertinggal (sm3t) in the 2014-2015 academic year. they were english education graduates who attended ayear teacher training program ppg sm3t. the program consisted of two main activities; workshop on the development of teaching documents and teaching practicum. they were 12 females and 8 males graduated from english education study programs of different teacher education institutions in central java. lesson plans as data sources in this study were one of the teaching documents produced by pre-service english teachers – ppg sm3tof the english education study program, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri semarang. the lesson plans were developed based on the template provided by the regulation of cultural and educational ministry no. 22 year 2016. this should contain of components including:1) school identity; 2) subject/course; 3) class/semester; 4) topic 5) time allotment; 6) core competence; 7) basic competence and competence achievement indicators; 8) instructional objectives; 9) instructional materials; 10) instructional techniques; 11) instructional media; 12) instructional sources; 13) instructional stages – opening – core – closing; and 14) assessment. the document review followed procedures: 1) access existing documents; 2) compile the documents relevant to the study; 3) understand how and why the documents were produced; 4) determine the accuracy of the documents; and 5) summarize the information which is the research data from documents reviewed; and 6) coding and classifying the obtained data. in regard to the current study, the data later were analyzed and confirmed with the categorization of digital technology by ng (2015). the present study was only limited to the scope of exploring educational technology integrated into the lesson plans. discussion other than this specific topic such as whether or not the planned-document was implemented in real classroom instruction would not be covered in this paper. findings and discussion as previously mentioned, the current study was a document review which aimed to evaluate the existing lesson plans. each lesson plan was designed for the eighth grade students of secondary education with 80minute time allotment. the evaluation focused on the incorporation of educational technology in the lesson plans. the technology as used in the study referred to digital and mobile devices, online resources, social media, web 2.0 technology, communication and collaborative resources, and education software application (ng, 2015). the findings revealed that there was a number of digital technology choices made by the pre-service teachers. most of them mentioned the use of mobile devices such as wahyuni, s. (2018). evaluation of pre-service english teachers‘ integration of educational technology into their lesson plans. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 227—236. 231 laptops, notebooks and audio-video recorder. besides, they used electronic equipment including lcd projectors and active speakers. they also took benefits of digital media such as power point slides, audios, and videos. communication and collaborative resources such as blogs were also included. in addition, the most commonly used social networking site was youtube. in addition, they made use of other online resources such as software application for e-dictionary and links for online english learning. for more detailed data, the following charts 1 and 2 presents the participants‘ choices of digital devices, media, and other electronic equipment. chart 1 participants‘ use of digital devices and electronic tools based on the chart 1 the most popular digital devices integrated into the lesson plans were laptops and lcd projectors. the choices of digital technology integrated into the lesson plans might be affected by several possible factors. first, it might be in accordance with the campus‘ facilities. the designed lesson plan later would be used as guidelines for peer teaching practice and the activity would be done in the classroom with limited facilities such as lcd projectors and active speakers. the pre-service teachers, therefore, would bring along their own personal laptops. the second possibility was that they considered about the schools‘ facilities they would be placed at to carry out the teaching practicum the following semester. they could be placed in schools with complete digital technology facilities or with less digital infrastructure or even without them at all. besides, the lesson plan they designed in this course would likely be a model used in the future. as suggested by jensen (2001) in ashcraft (2014) that lesson plan can be reused in the future so that it can save time and energy. third, another possibility was that it dealt with their digital and technology literacy. due to their limited knowledge and skill to operate digital devices and search for the digital media, therefore, they made the choices. besides, they made use of blog sites designed by mostly nonnative speakers of english. this choice of blog sites as one of the learning sources might be affected by the appropriateness of the content. the blog makers and owners design the sites and fill in the content in accordance with teachers‘ needs. however, in english language teaching context, it is important to provide authentic environment. it implies that language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 232 authentic material is essential to facilitate students with real context of the language use. as suggested by tabatabaei & gui (2011) that when learning a foreign language, it is important to provide a foreign country context. accordingly, technology can be one of the alternatives. it is further argued that enhancing students‘ language can be optimized through authentic communication (li & zou, 2017). chart 2 participants‘ use of digital learning media and sources the chart 2 shows that the most to the least frequently and commonly used digital media were ppt, videos and audios. meanwhile, it seems that youtube was the most popular social networking site downloaded. besides, they seemed dependent on the use of blog by non-native speakers of english. the choices of instructional media and sources might be affected by the facts that those links are basic ones which can be made and used very easily. however, if they are well-implemented in classroom practices, they will support students‘ english learning. marchetti and cullen (2014) claimed that videos and visuals make students easier to participate in speaking activities in class. social networking sites such youtube and blog are also very popular among students. survey conducted by wahyuni (2018) revealed that students were active users of social networking sites such as facebook, whatsapp, line, twitter, e-mail, blog, instagram, messenger, and youtube. they used social media more for exchanging information, communication, entertainment and other private needs than for learning purposes. with this situation in mind, use of social networking sites should be maximized with regard to its‘ benefits in enhancing students‘ language skills. this in line with alsulami‘s (2016) finding that the integration of technology helped to increase students‘ english skills. for examples, online video and audio tools including youtube, skype, mp3 players could enhance students‘ listening and speaking skills. social networking websites such as facebook, twitter, whatsapp, and blogs could develop their communication and reading and writing skills. with this in mind, thus pre-service english teachers might explore more types of digital technology wahyuni, s. (2018). evaluation of pre-service english teachers‘ integration of educational technology into their lesson plans. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 227—236. 233 which can be incorporated into the instructional documents. the lesson plans supported by the use of technology would likely be facilitating both teachers and students‘ classroom activities. it they are taken optimally, therefore, they would help teachers to develop their pedagogical competence. besides, students would also be more engaged in the classroom and enhance their learning and motivation which finally results in obtaining better achievement and longer knowledge retention. the choices of the educational technology including laptops, audio video recorders, lcd projectors, and speakers could be found in the ‗instructional media and equipment‘ section of the lesson plan. in this section they promised to make use of those devices. meanwhile, the use of digital media (i.e. ppt, videos and audios), social networking sites (youtube), education software packages (i.e. cambridge advance learner‘s dictionary, www.belajaringgris.net, etc.), as well as communication and collaborative resources (i.e. blogs) was realized in the ‗instructional sources‘, ‗instructional materials‘, ‗learning stages‘, and ‗instructional media‘ sections of the lesson plans. the participants also undertook the use of audio and video media in the ‗assessment‘ section. the media completed with the transcripts was prepared for listening and speaking assessment. conclusions and implication to summarize, the pre-service english teachers involved in this study have incorporated a number of educational technology into their lesson plans as supporting tools in delivering the instructional materials and administering the assessment. besides, they have also used some electronic media-based such as ppt slides, audios and videos to support the instructional activities. learning sources such as social media youtube and blogs were also taken as complementary materials to the textbooks. with the findings in mind, it is advisable that the pre-service english teachers should develop their digital and technology literacy. in regard to the 21 st century skills, both teachers and students should be wellliterate in many aspects including digital, technology, internet, information, communication (pletka, 2007). besides, the institution should take this into consideration in developing the curriculum. the existing ict in language learning course offered to the sixth semester students of english education study program has been very rich in providing students with theories of ictbased english instructions. however, content course in relation to practices in using the web 2.0 technology and other online resources as well as educational software packages needs to be taken into consideration. this finding suggests further studies on the technology use in efl in indonesian context which explore topics including 1) reasons for making the choices referring to the findings of the current study that make up teachers and students‘ attitude towards technology; 2) implementation of technology in the instructional processes, seeing whether the classroom practice reflects the predesigned lesson plans; 3) teachers‘ readiness in integrating technology into efl classroom, seeing what supports and inhibits the integration; and 4) teachers‘ and students‘ awareness technology benefits in supporting instructional practices. http://www.belajaringgris.net/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 234 references alsulami, s. (2016). the effects of technology on learning english as a foreign language among female efl students at effatt college: an exploratory study. studies in literature and language, 12(4), 1-16. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/7926. ashcraft, n. (2014). lesson planning. virginia: tesol press. boche, b. and henning, m. (2015). multimodal scaffolding in the secondary english classroom curriculum. journal of adolescent and adult literacy, 58(7), 579–590. doi: 10.1002/jaal.406 department of health and human services. (2009). data collection methods for evaluation: document review. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/evaluation/pdf/brief18.pdf. accessed 5 january 2018 granito, m. &chernobilsky, e. (2012). the effect of technology on a student's motivation and knowledge retention. nera proceeding conference 2012.17. http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/nera_2012/17. accessed17 september 2017. kasapoglu-akyol, p. (2010). using educational technology tools to improve language and communication skills of esl students. research on youth and language, 4(2), 225-241. http://www.dphu.org/uploads/attachements/books/books_4761_0.pdf. accessed 20 december 2017. kementerian pendidikan nasional. (2007). permendiknas no. 16 tahun 2007 tentang standar kualifikasi akademik dan kompetensi guru. jakarta: kemdiknas. kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. (2016). permendikbud no. 20 tahun 2016 tentang standar kompetensi lulusan. jakarta: kemendikbud. kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. (2016). permendikbud no. 21 tahun 2016 tentang standar isi. jakarta: kemendikbud. kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. (2016). permendikbud no. 22 tahun 2016 tentang standar proses. jakarta: kemendikbud. lea, l., clayton, m., draude, b. & barlow, s. (2001). the impact of technology on teaching and learning. educause quarterly. 2 (2001) retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/~/media/files/articles/2001/6/eqm0127.pdf?la=en. li, w. & zou, w. (2017). a study of efl teacher expertise in lesson planning. teaching and teacher education. 66(2017), 231-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.009. marchetti, l. & cullen, p. (2016). a multimodal approach in the classroom for creative learning and teaching. psychological and creative approaches to language teaching. pp. 39-51. https://www.cjv.muni.cz/cs/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/02/cr-11516-marchetti.pdf. accessed 25 december 2017 nomass, b. b. (2013). the impact of using technology in teaching english as a second language. english language and literature studies, 3(1). doi: 10.5539/ells.v3n1p111. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ells.v3n1p111. ng, wan. (2015). new digital technology in education: conceptualizing professional learning for educators. (ebook). doi 10.1007/978-3-319-05822-1. springer. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/evaluation/pdf/brief18.pdf http://www.dphu.org/uploads/attachements/books/books_4761_0.pdf.%20accessed%2020%20december%202017 http://www.dphu.org/uploads/attachements/books/books_4761_0.pdf.%20accessed%2020%20december%202017 wahyuni, s. (2018). evaluation of pre-service english teachers‘ integration of educational technology into their lesson plans. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 227—236. 235 palmer, r. (2012). a third way: online labs integrated with print materials. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 2(1),1-9. retrieved from http:// http://file.upi.edu/direktori/fpbs/jur._pend._bahasa_inggris/196706091994031didi_sukyadi/ijal%20january%202013.pdf. accessed 5 december 2017. pletka, b. (2007). educating the net generation: how to engage students in the 21st century. santa monica: santa monica press llc. tabatabaei, m.& gui, y. (2011). the impact of technology on teaching and learning languages. http://formatex.info/ict/book/513-517.pdf. accessed 16 september 2017. tosun, s. (2015). the effect of blended learning on efl students‘ vocabulary enhancement. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 199 (2015), 641 – 647. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187704281504611x. accessed 16 september 2017. trilling, b, .& fadel, c.(2009). 21st century skills: learning for life in our times. san fransico: jossey-bass. wbi education group. (2007). document review. siteresources.worldbank.org/wbi/ resources/213798.../11final-document_review.pd.. accessed 5 january 2018 wahyuni, s. (2018). teachers and students‘ use of digital technology: is it an opportunity?. proceedings: the 1 st jhs-eta semarang regency international conference on integrating technology in language classroom: a revolution of 21 st century learning. semarang: mgmp bahasa inggris smp kabupaten semarang jawa tengah. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 39 the question of choice in an achievement test: a study on the sudanese case mahmoud abdelrazig mahmoud barakat faculty of education, university of khartoum & omdurman islamic university, sudan. e-mail: barakatmahmoud99@yahoo.com abstract achievement tests administered at national level play a significant role in the lives of test-takers as well as the whole society. this paper aims to investigate the effect of giving students a choice between two optional questions on their overall performance in a high-stake achievement test for university admission. it is hypothesized that questions targeting writing-based productive skills and language system necessitate display of abilities which are different from fact-based questions designed around story content. the two items are assumed to reflect different constructs that require different criteria of assessment. consequently, the student’s overall score is affected by the item they choose to answer, which might not be reflective of their real language abilities. an open-ended interview was carried out with ten teachers working with grade 3 students in model secondary schools to investigate the nature of the two types of test items and their impact on the student’s performance. the data has proved that giving choice in an achievement test generates different performances that are assessed differently. it is recommended that in order to address the question of fairness, it is important to clearly define and balance the construct of the items that affect the student’s choice and performance. keywords: achievement test, assessment, choice, fairness, performance. introduction english language is one of the basic seven subjects that determine the student's admission to faculty. a student is required to pass the english language examination in the sudan school certificate examination ssce and should obtain a high grade if they are aiming to go to top colleges. however, in the case we are studying now the students are to choose between two sections. the first is a language section that contains questions targeting writing a letter, doing a summary, sentence transformations and a gap-filling question on prepositions. the other section includes supplementary reading materials which require the students to respond to whquestions, mcqs, a matching table and trueor-false questions about two simplified stories. henceforth, the former will be referred to as section (1), the latter section (2). each of the two sections is given 25 marks. this paper will try to investigate the nature of the items in each of the two sections and whether they result in different types of performances. it is assumed that the students' overall grades will be influenced by the section they choose to answer. achievement tests conducted by the end of a decisive learning stage may be designed around syllabus content or syllabus objectives. although each of the two approaches has its advantages and drawbacks (hughes 1992, pp. 11-12), they may be related in some way. according to harmer (2010: 166), achievement tests "include a variety of test types and measure students' abilities in all four skills, as well as their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary." by definition, achievement tests assume a well defined procedure that allows measurement of performance. when writing specifications for test design, items key features and language characteristics need to be clearly described language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 40 (fulcher 2007, pp. 69-70). this means that the nature of the tasks or test items, whether derived from the same learning materials or based on the objectives, should reflect exact abilities which the students are required to display. if this criterion is not maintained, it can be claimed that, problems of fairness and test validity are in danger. weir (2005, p. 12) states that "the focus in validation is …primarily on the examination score or grade as a reliable measure of a trait or construct." therefore, indirect test items, for example on prepositions and grammar fail to maintain content validity if they are equated with measuring students' ability to write a composition. they obviously neglect other essential features of the writing skill and language knowledge (brown 2003, pp. 23-24; bachman et al 1996, p. 68). on the other hand, neglecting discrete point test items in achievement tests, or making them optional or alternative to writing-based productive skills, will bring about negative washback (coombe et al 2013, p. 46). defining ability should, therefore, consider the language domain and resulting decision to be made in high-stake tests (bachman et al 2008, p. 465). fairness is about giving the same opportunity to the test-takers so that every individual can demonstrate the underlying ability (lynch 2001, p. 232). to ensure fairness, "students should know exactly how they are to be evaluated" (siddiqui 2009, p. 18); and how the evaluation of open-ended items differs from close-ended items and affects the student's overall grade (hubbard 2000 et al., p. 258). methodology the study uses the interview to approach the problem of choice in achievement tests. ten teachers working in model secondary schools were selected according to the criterion that they should have experienced teaching the optional supplementary readers programme srp to grade 3 students. the interview questions were designed to help deduce relevant ideas about the nature of the two sections of the english examination of the ssce, the effect of the students' choices on their overall performances and the impact of having the two optional sections on the students' preferences. the interview questions and the sample size were essentially meant to gather data of qualitative nature. findings and discussion it was noticeable from the teachers' accounts that their students displayed great interest in section (2) of the examination paper of the english language in the ssce. it is important to draw the attention to the fact that these students represented only the model schools included in the study sample. although the srp is an optional component in the syllabus and the examination paper, the teachers of the sample stressed its rewarding advantage in terms of marks when compared with section (1). nine out of ten (90%) believed that doing section (2) is a big boost to the students' overall grades in the english language. one teacher reported that all her students in the school, except four or five, chose to do section (2) in the school tests and she expected that all of them would choose to answer section (2) in the ssce. another reported about three quarters of the students chose section (2) in the monthly tests and he also expected that the number would increase in the ssce, because those who answered section (2) in the state mock examination (a large-scale test administered in khartoum state just about two months before the ssce, and when almost above 90% of the syllabus is covered) got very high marks. the rest of the sample gave similar reports that supported the idea that doing section (2) has a positive effect on the students' overall grades in the english language. it was also obvious that almost all of the teachers agreed about the simplicity and straightforwardness of the questions of section (2) in the ssce. one teacher said, "the language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 41 questions are clear and directly related to the stories." another said, "the questions are simple and objective in contrast to the difficult and subjective questions of section (1)." another described the questions of section (1) as "tough because they include writing as well as summary." one teacher reported that section (2) "could be answered in 10 minutes, which could help the students to spare much time for the compulsory language questions of the paper." another described the transformational items as "difficult" and said, "the student might lose the whole mark of the question for the slightest mistake," since the question is scored in an indivisible way in the ssce, i.e., the student either loses or gains the alloted mark. to sum up this point, it can be stated there is little challenge in the questions of section (2) if compared to their equivalents in section (1). this feature obviously attracts the students to choose the former. nevertheless, the students’ achievements and the high marks obtained by the students who answer section (2) cannot be attributed to the materials of the srp or the role that they have really played in improving the students’ language. these can be explained by the nature of the examination and the type of questions and skills tested in the questions of section (2) in the ssce. excellent language students will avoid doing the writing tasks since they know they might lose marks. it is then much safer for them to choose a straightforward objective question about the people, events and content of a simple story and guarantee the full or, at least, a high mark. as for the items in section (2) in the ssce, the teachers reported that the students preferred the mcqs, true-or-false and matching questions as they usually encountered no problems in answering them. however, the students would face some difficulty with the open-ended wh-questions as they might make vocabulary, spelling and grammar mistakes. one teacher gave examples of some of these mistakes. according to the experience of one of these teachers in scoring the questions of section (2) in the ssce, the marking scheme does not penalize the student for making such mistakes when the point that is asked about is given correctly. in other words, the teachers have to focus on assessing students' comprehension and ignore any language mistakes in their answers. of course, this practice can raise conflicting controversies about the purpose and validity of the whquestions in section (2). in contrast, mistakes of such kind in section (1) are usually penalized in the summary and letter-writing questions. the criterion of fairness can, accordingly, be brought to questioning. the existence of the two optional questions the way they appear in the ssce will for definite affect the overall reliability and validity of the english language examination. this could explain why most of the teachers of the sample expressed their concern about the optionality of the srp as a learning material in the syllabus and as a tested component in the ssce. the teachers who teach the components of the srp know well that their students will outperform their peers who have been disadvantaged by not being able to study the books of the srp. moreover, in order for the potential benefits of the srp to be realized, the teachers felt it should be made a compulsory component of the english language syllabus. in their testing practices, the teachers revealed varying attitudes toward testing the components of section (1), ranging from total withdrawal from the monthly tests to dominant presence. one teacher reported that they did not usually include the questions of section (2) in their school examinations, until the students complained about this absence, and made a plea for the administration to include section (2) in the final examination. one of the teachers of the sample reported that although most of his students usually did well in section (2) in the school tests, many of them did not choose it in the ssce. this was regarded as an odd situation that could be refuted by the reports of the majority. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 42 another teacher reported that although section (2) is included in the school tests, its marks are not usually added to the student's overall grade in the subject. it can, therefore, be stated that the testing situation of having these two optional sections in the school tests as well as in the ssce has created trouble and unbalanced assessment practices. it is relevant to this point to draw the attention to the fact that the whole subject of the english language might be affected. if the students determined that they would do section (2), there would be no incentive left to them to spend time with, or do practice on, the language items that have no direct reward to them. some students would drop important sections of the syllabus, a negative backwash that impacts the teaching-learning process. conclusion the presence of two competing sections, each of a different nature, in the same achievement test is an unhealthy feature. each of the two sections discussed in this paper generates a different type of performance and requires a certain type of assessment criteria. the content validity of the test will be affected since each section tests different skills. examining the students' writing skills as in the letter-writing and summary questions or their grammatical knowledge of sentence building (transformational items) and knowledge of the prepositions cannot be equated with examining their knowledge of some story content. the two tasks are entirely dissimilar and necessitate different types of assessment: one being objective, and another subjective. it is also worth noting that not all students in the different parts of the country can enjoy the high marks boon, because the supplementary readers tested in section (2) are part of an optional component. if it were necessary to provide the test-takers with options, then it would be of great importance to consider the factors that affect the balance of items and ensure the test satisfies the essential qualities of validity, reliability and fairness. references bachman, l. f., & palmer, a. s. (1996). language testing in practice: designing and developing useful language tests. oxford: oxford university press. bachman, l. f., & purpura, j. e. (2008). language assessments: gate-keepers or door-openers? in spolsky, b. & hult, f. m. (2008). the handbook of educational linguistics. usa & uk: blackwell publishing ltd. brown, h. d. (2003). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. uk: pearson longman. coombe, c., folse, k., & hubley, n. (2013). a practical guide to assessing english language learners. michigan: the university of michigan press. fulcher, g., & davidson, f. (2007). language testing and assessment: an advanced resource book. usa & canada (published simultaneously): routledge. harmer, j. (2010). how to teach english (6th impression). uk: pearson education limited. hubbard, p., jones, h., thornton, b., & wheeler, r. (2000). a training course for tefl (16th impression). oxford: oxford university press. hughes, a. (1992). testing for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 43 lynch, b. k. 2001. the ethical potential of alternative language assessment. in milanovic, m. (ed.) (2001). studies in language testing: experimenting with uncertainty. cambridge: cambridge university press. siddiqui, m. h. (2009). educational evaluation. new delhi: aph publishing corporation. weir, c. j. (2005). language testing and validation: an evidence-based approach. new york: palgrave macmillan. language circle: journal lof language and literature 13(1) october 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x linguistic deviation in rhyme of poems in lewis carroll‟s through the looking-glass almira ghassani shabrina romala english letters department, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta email: almiraromala@usd.ac.id abstract one of the identities of a poem is reflected by its author‘s style of writing, including the use of rhymes. how each specific kind of rhymes formed by particular words marks the characteristics of poems, and likewise those in lewis carroll‘s through the looking-glass. therefore, this research aims to delineate the kinds and functions of rhymes and to explicate how lewis carroll forms the rhymes from linguistic deviation as his style of writing poems in through the looking-glass. this research applied descriptive qualitative method. the data were taken from poems in through the looking-glass novel. the data were collected by note-taking and phonetic transcription technique. the data were then analyzed to classify the kinds of rhyme and their functions and also to identify the linguistic deviation the author uses to form the rhymes. lewis carroll exploits various kinds of rhyme in through the looking-glass, e.g. alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, eye-rhyme, half-rhyme, perfect rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme, masculine rhyme, and feminine rhyme. those rhymes are utilized to unite the poems, to reinforce and emphasize the author‘s intended meaning, to explain the implied sense and feeling, to clarify the imagery for the readers, to visualize the atmosphere of the poems, and also to achieve the poetic and musical functions. moreover, in forming those rhymes, he employs phonological deviation, lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, semantic deviation, dialectal deviation, and deviation of historical period as his style of writing poems in through the looking-glass novel. keywords: rhymes, poem, linguistic deviation introduction poetry can be defined as a kind of language that says more and says it more intensely than does ordinary language (perrine, 1969, p. 3). as one of the written literary works, it is a form of saying and expressing ideas in a language that takes sound devices or musical devices into account in order to illuminate the imaginative, emotional, and intellectual experience of the poets in a certain chosen technique to arose specific sense and experience in the readers or the hearers‘ mind (sayuti, 2002, p. 3-4). one of the foremost sound devices in poetry is rhyme. rhyme is also a major consideration in resolving the choice of words in poetry. in one of the novels written by lewis carroll, through the looking-glass, there are several poems which embody customized rhymes and rhyme schemes or patterns that vary distinctively based on their specific roles in the plot of the story. those transcendental rhymes and rhyme patterns of poems in through the looking-glass novel become the distinctive features that make them atypical from any other poems. moreover, language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 to create the rhymes, those poems comprise neologisms and several other types of linguistic deviation employed by lewis carroll depicting his style in composing poems. neologism is the invention of new words and one of the more obvious ways in which a poet exceeds the normal resources of the language (leech, 1969, p. 42). thus, the rhyme of poems in through the looking-glass is inimitable as the product of lewis carroll‘s personal style and creativity and also makes it worth to be analyzed further. furthermore, rhymes in poetry can be classified into several types, i.e. alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, eye-rhyme, halfrhyme, perfect rhyme, internal rhyme, and end rhyme (rozakis, 1995, p. 25-28). in addition, end rhyme can be divided based on the stress of the final syllable of the rhyming words; it can be either masculine rhyme of feminine rhyme (landy, 1979, p. 218). in forming the rhymes, a poet does not always have to obey the rules and conventions generally observed by the users of language and even ignore them since he possess a poetic license. it is a freedom to use any linguistic unit according to his creativity in order to transcend the limits of the language and to explore and communicate new areas of experience (leech, 1969, p. 36), for example when a poet employs linguistic deviation in several levels of realization. according to leech (1969, p. 42-52), there are several types of linguistic deviation, they are phonological deviation, lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, graphological deviation, semantic deviation, dialectal deviation, deviation of register, and deviation of historical period. those deviations are the manifestation of the poets‘ style in innovatively utilizing and maximizing the potential of each linguistic unit as a variation that deviates from common language which is personally customized and employed in order to achieve the poetic and aesthetic functions in their works (sudjiman, 1993, p. 19-20). furthermore, there are some problems that can be identified related to the topic. one of the problems is the analysis of language use and its function in poetry. there are many variations in the way poets use language to create their own styles in composing poetry. one of which is the employment of particular rhymes and linguistic deviations. therefore, this research aims to delineate the kinds and functions of rhymes and to explicate how lewis carroll forms the rhymes from linguistic deviation as his style of writing poems in through the looking-glass novel. methodology this study used descriptive qualitative approach since it emphasized on describing the phenomena of the use of language in the context by interpreting the data. according to vanderstoep and johnston (2009, p. 7-8), qualitative research produces narrative or textual descriptions of the phenomena under study; thus it provides a richer and more in-depth understanding of the population under study. the data collecting technique used in the novel was note-taking from the source of the data. the source of the research data is wordsworth editions limited of alice‘s adventures in wonderland & through the looking-glass novel that was first published in 1993. the data in the form of poems then were transcribed in phonetic transcription, one of the methods in transcription that utilizes phonetic symbols language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 (kesuma, 2007, p. 45). the transcription process was based on the british english spelling and pronunciation in the third edition of electronic cambridge advanced learner‘s dictionary. in addition, in transcribing the neologisms, the researcher used the pattern of pronouncing words in the dictionary that have similarity in orthographic forms with the neologisms and also listened to the poetry recitation by christopher lee in youtube. furthermore, the poems were analyzed to determine the types of rhyme in each poem, i.e. alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, eyerhyme, half-rhyme, perfect rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme, masculine rhyme, and feminine rhyme (rozakis, 1995, p. 25-28). the analysis was then followed by identifying the linguistic deviation used by lewis carroll in forming the rhyme of poems in through the looking-glass novel that involves the deviation analysis in several linguistic levels, e.g. phonological deviation, lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, graphological deviation, semantic deviation, dialectal deviation, deviation of register, and deviation of historical period (leech, 1969, p. 42-52). results and discussion lewis carroll‘s creativity in exploring language to aesthetically beautify his poems is reflected in the various kinds of rhyme that he exploits. in lewis carroll‘s through the looking-glass, there are eleven poems that vary in the number of lines, stanzas, and also the rhymes and linguistic deviation employed by lewis carroll, as can be seen in the following table. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 table 1 summary of aspects of poems in lewis carroll‘s through the looking-glass no. aspects of poem poems in lewis carroll‟s through the lookingglass total a b c d e f g h i j k i lines 36 28 8 108 40 4 83 4 16 16 21 364 ii stanzas 6 7 2 18 20 1 9 1 4 4 7 79 iii types of rhyme 1 alliteration 15 14 2 33 19 3 48 1 10 9 10 164 2 assonance 24 16 2 30 22 2 50 3 14 7 12 182 3 consonance 10 9 3 37 11 2 62 2 10 5 6 157 4 euphony 6 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 5 15 5 cacophony 0 14 0 2 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 24 6 eye-rhyme 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 7 half-rhyme 0 0 0 7 0 0 4 1 0 0 0 12 8 perfect rhyme 34 20 8 86 28 4 60 4 16 16 18 294 9 internal rhyme 2 4 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 16 10 end rhyme 34 20 8 88 28 4 62 4 16 16 18 298 11 masculine rhyme 19 18 8 81 25 4 60 4 14 14 14 261 12 feminine rhyme 15 2 0 7 3 0 2 0 2 2 4 37 iv types of linguistic deviation 1 phonological deviation 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 5 2 lexical deviation 1 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 21 3 grammatical deviation 8 7 2 10 4 0 12 2 8 1 4 60 4 graphological deviation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 semantic deviation 16 2 0 6 0 0 6 0 0 2 4 36 6 dialectal deviation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 7 deviation of register 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 deviation of historical period 11 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 17 based on table 1, there are eleven poems in through the looking-glass novel by lewis carroll. the poems are as follows. a child of the pure unclouded brow b jabberwocky c tweedledee and tweedledum d the walrus and the carpenter e humpty dumpty‘s recitation f the lion and the unicorn g haddock‘s eyes h hush-a-by lady i to the looking-glass world j the white queen‘s riddle, and k a boat beneath a sunny sky. in the poems, lewis carroll employs various kinds of rhyme of poem, e.g. alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, eye-rhyme, half-rhyme, perfect rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme, masculine rhyme, and feminine rhyme. moreover, in forming the rhymes and also in creating orchestration in his poems, lewis carroll not only obeys the rule and convention in english, but he also deviates it. he utilizes phonological deviation, lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, semantic deviation, dialectal deviation, and deviation of historical period as his manifestation of his creativity and style of writing poems. furthermore, as the manifestation of literary works, the poems in through the looking-glass also comprise poetic and literary words, such as ere (before), hearken (to hear), aglow (glowing), spectre (ghost), scarcely (almost not), and so on. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 graphologically, the poems are written according to the convention of poem‘s metrical scheme in english, particularly the lines and stanzas. each line of poem is wellwritten and arranged systematically; hence, the readers are then eased in scrutinizing the rhyme scheme of those poems. the rhyme scheme of the poems is also composed by various kinds of rhyme that lewis carroll employs. types of rhyme of poems in lewis carroll‟s through the looking-glass the rhyme of poems employed by lewis carroll in through the looking-glass novel consists of alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, eye-rhyme, half-rhyme, perfect rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme, masculine rhyme, and feminine rhyme. he uses the repetition of initial consonant [m] in melancholy maiden [ˈmel.əŋ.kɒl.i ˈmeɪ.d ə n] phrase to create the alliteration in child of the pure unclouded brow poem as in the following. (1) 22 a melancholy maiden [ə ˈmel.əŋ.kɒl.i ˈmeɪ.d ə n] (a/22) the sequence of repeated initial consonant [m] emphasizes and reinforces the meaning of words so that the readers will pay more attention to the phrase with alliteration. not only by using alliteration, has lewis carroll also beautified his poems by the employment of assonance. in this following tweedledee and tweedledum poem, there is assonance of vocal sound [æ] in the initial and the middle of the words as follows. (2) 6 as black as a tar-barrel; [æz blæk æz ə tɑː r ˈbær. ə l] (c/6) in the poem excerpt, the vocal sound [æ] is repeated through the line 6, such as in the words as [æz], black [blæk], as [æz], and also barrel [ˈbær. ə l]. the affinity and similarity of the vocal sound in the words of that line of poem also unites each word in the poems in a mutual accord. therefore, the words are easier to be read and pronounced. in addition, as the realization of consonance, lewis carroll repeats the final consonant sound [d] of the words in line 24 of the walrus and the carpenter, as in the following datum. (3) 24 they said, ―it would be grand!‖ [ðeɪ sed ɪt wʊd biː grænd] (d/24) consonance in the poem above involves the use of repeated final consonant [d] in the words said [sed], would [wʊd], and grand [grænd]. therefore, the chiming sound effect is established by the use of consonance when lines of poem that have the consonance are pronounced. in addition, the chiming sound of consonance is different with the one produced by the use of assonance in terms of the emerged effect. the use of consonance gives emphasize in the end of words by the various kinds of consonant sound, so they are pronounced as if there is a pause after each word, similar to staccato in the music. furthermore, lewis carroll utilizes long vowel sounds, liquid consonant, semivowels and so on to form euphony in his poems, one of the examples can be seen in this following child of the pure unclouded brow poem. (4) 5 thy loving smile will surely hail [ðaɪ ˈlʌv.ɪŋ smaɪl wɪl ˈʃɔː.li heɪl] 6 the love-gift of a fairy-tale. [ðə ˈlʌv.gɪft ɒv ə ˈfeə.ri.teɪl] (a/5-6) in datum 4, lewis carroll employs repetition and combination of harmonious sounds that comprise long vowel [ɔː], language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 consonant [ð], liquid consonants [l], [m], and [r], semivowel [w], and also soft [f] and [v] sounds. consonant [ð] is used in the words thy [ðaɪ] and the [ðə] in the beginning of the line. moreover, semivowel [w] is found in the word will [wɪl], the combination of liquid consonants [l], [m], and [r] are used to create the euphony in loving smile will surely hail [ˈlʌv.ɪŋ smaɪl wɪl ˈʃɔː.li heɪl] and also lovegift of a fairy-tale [ˈlʌv.gɪft ɒv ə ˈfeə.ri.teɪl], while soft [f] and [v] consonants are used in the word loving [ˈlʌv.ɪŋ], love-gift [ˈlʌv.gɪft], of [ɒv], and also fairy-tale [ˈfeə.ri.teɪl]. euphony is employed to illustrate the sweetness, affection, pleasure, and joy in the poems. furthermore, in jabberwocky, lewis carroll employs cacophony to illuminate a frightening and unpleasing situation by using the combination of discordant consonant sounds in the words ‗twaz, brillig, toves, did, gyre, gimble, borogoves, and outgrabe. by the combination of plosive consonants [t], [b], [g], and [d], cacophony in that poem gives the sense that those words are not harmonious because they sound unpleasant and hoarse. (5) 1 ‗twas brillig, and the slithy toves [twɒz ˈbrɪl.ig ænd ðə ˈslaɪ.ðiː təʊvz] 2 did gyre and gimble in the wabe; [dɪd gaɪə r ænd ˈgɪm.bl ɪn ðə weɪb] 3 all mimsy were the borogoves, [ɔːl ˈmɪm.zi wɜː r ðə ˈbɒr.əʊ.gəʊvz] 4 and the mome raths outgrabe. [ænd ðə məʊm ræθs ˈaʊt.greɪb] (b/1-4) moreover, eye-rhyme is found in a boat beneath a sunny sky poem, i.e. the rhyming words pair consisting of dreamily in line 2 and july in line 3. the use of eye-rhyme as the end rhyme in a poem is aimed to avoid the banality and flat or monotonous rhyme since it provides an astounding effect for the unexpected and unpredictable end rhymes. (6) 1 a boat, beneath a sunny sky, [ə bəʊt bɪˈniːθ ə ˈsʌn.i skaɪ] 2 lingering onward dreamily [ˈlɪŋ.g ə r.ɪŋ ˈɒn.wəd ˈdriː.mɪ.li] 3 in an evening of july – [ɪn ən ˈiːv.nɪŋ ɒv dʒʊˈlaɪ] (k/1-3) the word dreamily is the final word in line 2 and of an eye-rhyme pair with the word july in line 3. those rhyming words are classified as an eye-rhyme pair because orthographically, those two words seem to rhyme and have the same final sounds –ly. however, the final sound –ly that is seen similar in those two words are actually have different pronunciation, i.e. [li] in dreamily [ˈdriː.mɪ.li] and also [ˈlaɪ] in july [dʒʊˈlaɪ]. the difference of pronunciation is the result of final sound –ly in dreamily that is an adverb forming suffix pronounced as [li] based on the english convention. therefore, the words dreamily and july in that poem can be identified as an eye-rhyme. furthermore, half-rhyme is also utilized by lewis carroll, as in the following haddock‘s eyes poem that involves the similarity of final sound that consists of vowel and consonant [ɪl] which is not an exact rhyme. (7) 25 his accents mild took up the tale: [hɪz ˈæk.s ə nts maɪld tʊk ʌp ðə teɪl] 26 he said, ―i go my ways, [hiː sed aɪ gəʊ maɪ weɪz] 27 and when i find a mountain-rill, [ænd aɪ faɪnd ə ˈmaʊn.tɪnˌrɪl] (g/25-27) the rhyme in line 25 has tale [teɪl] as the final syllable, while line 27 has rill [rɪl] as language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 the end rhyme. from those two end rhymes, it is only the sound [ɪl] that corresponds. those words pair will be a perfect rhyme if both of them have the exact or identical [eɪl] sounds in their final syllables, including the vowel, vowel cluster, and also consonant. as in datum 23, the corresponding sounds are only the final consonant [l] and vowel [ɪ] which precedes it; hence, the rhymes formed by the pair is classified into half-rhyme. in addition, perfect rhyme is the rhyme that is frequently and generally used by poets in their works, likewise lewis carroll in his poem, hush-a-by lady. the use of perfect rhyme functions as final sound in each line of a stanza in poem and is aimed to please the readers‘ ear with the expected rhyming sounds (landy, 1979: 216). (8) 1 ‗hush-a-by lady, in alice‘s lap! [hʌʃ ə baɪ ˈleɪ.di ɪn ˈæl.ɪs læp] 2 till the feast‘s ready, we‘ve time for a nap: [tɪl ðə fiːsts ˈred.i ˈwiːv taɪm fɔː r ə næp] (h/1-2) in line 1, the end rhyme is the word lap [læp] that corresponds as perfect rhyme with the rhyme in line 2 which is nap [næp]. the rhyming words lap [læp] and nap [næp] can be identified as perfect rhyme for they have the exact final vowel and consonant sounds [æp] and only vary in the initial consonant, i.e. [l] in lap and [n] in nap. lewis carroll also realizes his creativity in forming the rhyme in his poem entitled child of the pure unclouded brow by using internal rhyme. the use of internal rhyme reinforces the binding effect and also gives a strong emphasis in a certain line of a poem as compared to another line without the internal rhyme (altenbernd and lewis, 1970: 32). (9) 8 nor heard thy silver laughter; [nɒt hɜːd ðaɪ ˈsɪl.və r ˈlɑːf.tə r ] (a/8) datum 9 above shows the realization of internal rhyme that consists of the phrase silver [ˈsɪl.və r ] and laughter [ˈlɑːf.tə r ]. from those two rhyming words, the rhyme is composed by the syllables [və r ] and [tə r ] that only differ in the initial consonants. the words that have rhyming syllables are in the same line of poem; therefore, they can be classified into internal rhyme. moreover, besides internal rhyme, end rhyme is also employed by lewis carroll as the special repetition of sounds in each line of a stanza in his poems. one of the examples can be found in the poem entitled the white queen‘s riddle as in the following. (10) 9 ―bring it here! let me sup!‖ [brɪŋ ɪt hɪə r let miː sʌp] 10 it is easy to set such a dish on the table. [ɪt ɪz tuː set sʌtʃ ə dɪʃ ɒn ðə ˈteɪ.bl ] 11 ―take the dish-cover up!‖ [teɪk ðə dɪʃˈˈkʌv.ə r ʌp] 12 ah, that is so hard that i fear i‘m unable! [ɑː ðæt ɪz səʊ hɑːd ðæt aɪ fɪə r aɪm ʌnˈeɪ.bl ] (j/9-12) in datum 10, there are two pairs of rhyming words that correspond as end rhymes, i.e. sup [sʌp] in line 9 and up [ʌp] in 11 which have the same final sounds [ʌp] and also table [ˈteɪ.bl ] in line 10 and the final syllable of the word unable which is able [ˈeɪ.bl ]. in addition, in applying end rhyme in his poems, lewis carroll employs both masculine rhyme and also feminine rhyme. he utilizes masculine rhyme to give the end rhyme a stronger, firmer, and more positive effect by the use of words with stressed final language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 syllable or monosyllable words, as in the poem entitled a boat beneath a sunny sky as follows. (11) 21 life, what is it but a dream? [laɪf wɒt ɪz ɪt bʌt ə driːm] (k/21) the end rhyme in datum 21 is the word dream [driːm] which is a monosyllabic word; hence, the rhyme is considered as a masculine rhyme. moreover, besides utilizing masculine rhyme, lewis carroll also employs feminine rhyme as the end rhyme variation in his poems. feminine rhyme is composed by words that comprise more than a syllable with its final syllable is unstressed. as can be seen in the following poem entitled jabberwocky, the use of feminine rhyme is purposed to make the end rhyme becomes more elegant, extended, and continuous without the firm ending as given by the use of masculine rhyme. (12) 8 the frumious bandersnatch!‘ [ðə ˈfruː.mi.əs ˈbæn.də.snætʃ] (b/8) the word bandersnatch [ˈbæn.də.snætʃ] in the end of line 8 in the excerpt of jabberwocky is one of the examples of feminine rhyme that is composed by lewis carroll as an end rhyme in his poem. feminine rhyme in datum 12 is composed by the word bandersnatch [ˈbæn.də.snætʃ] that has unstressed final syllable [snætʃ]. linguistic deviation in rhyme of poems in lewis carroll‟s through the looking-glass the linguistic deviations that are employed by lewis carroll to form the rhyme of poems in through the looking-glass novel comprise phonological deviation, lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, semantic deviation, dialectal deviation, and deviation of historical period. the phonological deviation used by lewis carroll in forming the rhyme of poem is composed by the uses of syncope and aphaeresis. syncope is the deletion of a vowel from the interior of a word, while aphaeresis is the deletion of the initial sound, usually a vowel of a word (crowley and bowern, 2010, p. 27, campbell, 1998, p. 3132). one of the examples is found in the following excerpt of to the looking-glass world poem. (13) 10 „tis an honour to see me, a favour to hear: [tɪz ən ɒn.ə r tuː siː miː ə ˈfeɪ.və r tuː hɪə r ] 11 „tis a privilege high to have dinner and tea [tɪz ə ˈprɪv. ə l.ɪdʒ haɪ tuː hæv ˈdɪn.ə r ænd tiː] (i/10-11) the phonological deviation particularly aphaeresis is found in the word ‗tis [tɪz] which is the short for of it is [ɪt ɪz]. the initial vowel [ɪ] in [ɪt ɪz] is deleted; hence, the remaining sounds are [tɪz]. the use of ‗tis [tɪz] is not only aimed to make the poem more poetic and beautiful, but also to compose alliteration by using the repetition of initial consonant [t]. the consonant [t] in [tɪz] can alliterate with another word that also have initial consonant [t], such as to [tuː] and tea [tiː]. moreover, in forming the rhyme of poem, lewis carroll utilizes lexical deviation by composing new words or terms called as neologisms. according to leech (1969, p. 42), neologism is the invention of new words and one of the more obvious ways in which a poet exceeds the normal resources of the language. furthermore, the example of language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 neologism as the lexical deviation can be found in the poem jabberwocky as follows. (14) 9 he took his vorpal sword in hand: [hiː tʊk hɪz ˈvɔː.p ə l sɔːd ɪn hænd] (b/9) in this poem, the word vorpal [ˈvɔː.p ə l] is an adjective functioned to give attribute to the sword which is used by the boy to slain the dangerous monster, the jabberwock. the word vorpal is predicted to mean as incredibly and impossibly sharp. in the recent development, the word vorpal which is invented by lewis carroll and used for the first time in jabberwocky has no longer been a new word as the use has been extended. the word is used to give the sharpness quality for sword, blade, knife, axe or any other weapons made of metal. in addition, the word vorpal also makes an assonance effect in that line by the repeated vowel [ɔː] sounds in the phrase vorpal sword [ˈvɔː.p ə l sɔːd]. therefore, the phrase is easier to be read, pronounced, and bound together although it is actually an invented word. furthermore, lewis carroll also employs grammatical deviation in forming the rhyme of poem by the use of enjambment or run on lines, the poetic device that puts a sense in a line of a stanza to the succeeded lines without using any punctuation (ribner and morris, 1962, p. 494), and also the inversion of aspect in a phrase. one of the examples is found in a phrase in humpty dumpty recitation as in the following. (15) 21 i took a kettle large and new, [aɪ tʊk ə ˈket.l lɑːdʒ ænd njuː] 22 fit for the deed i had to do. [fɪt fɔː r ðə diːd aɪ hæd tuː duː] (e/21-22) the grammatical deviation by employing inversion of aspects and words order in a phrase of the poem mentioned above is in the noun phrase a kettle large and new [ə ˈket.l lɑːdʒ ænd njuː]. the phrase is a realization of grammatical deviation since it has unusual construction and inversion of the noun kettle placed before the adjective large and new. meanwhile, the common construction of a noun phrase in english has a structure composed by determiner, adjective, and noun as respected. therefore, the construction of a kettle large and new is not a common structure and one of grammatical deviation examples that is intentionally done by lewis carroll. the construction is not an error made by the poet and used without any means. however, it is also intentionally employed to form end rhyme from the word new. the end rhyme new [njuː] in line 21 is a masculine rhyme and pairs as a perfect rhyme with the word do [duː] in the end of line 22. furthermore, semantic deviation is also one of the linguistic deviations employed by lewis carroll to form the rhymes of poem by using figurative languages, e.g. metaphor, personification, and simile. in child of the pure unclouded brow, he utilizes metaphor as the realization of semantic deviation and also as a device to form an end rhyme in the line of poem. (16) 31 and though the shadow of a sigh [ænd ðəʊ ðə ˈʃæd.əʊ ɒv ə saɪ] 32 may tremble through the story, [meɪ ˈtrem.bl θruː ðə ˈstɔː.ri] 33 for ‗happy summer days‘ gone by, [fɔː r ˈhæp.i ˈsʌm.ə r deɪz gɒn baɪ] (a/31-33) in the excerpt of the poem, the phrase the shadow of a sigh [ðə ˈʃæd.əʊ ɒv ə saɪ] is a metaphor. it is a concretive metaphor that language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 attributes the concreteness or physical existence to an abstraction (leech, 1969, p. 158). the word sigh is an abstract concept which is given the concrete attribute by the word shadow. moreover, the word sigh [saɪ] in line 31 is used to form end rhyme which is a perfect rhyme and masculine rhyme for the word is monosyllabic, and rhymes with the word by [baɪ] in line 33. in addition, the metaphor the shadow of a sigh is also given further explanation in line 32 by the use of personification in may tremble through the story [meɪ ˈtrem.bl θruː ðə ˈstɔː.ri]. therefore, the phrase the shadow of a sigh is explicated in the poem that it may tremble through a story. furthermore, the personification may tremble [meɪ ˈtrem.bl ] is also employed to form assonance by the repetition of vowel [e]. moreover, lewis carroll also employs dialectal deviation as the realization of linguistic deviation in his poems. one of the can be found in the poem the white queen‘s riddle as follows. (17) 9 ―bring it here! let me sup!‖ [brɪŋ ɪt hɪə r let miː sʌp] 10 it is easy to set such a dish on the table. [ɪt ɪz tuː set sʌtʃ ə dɪʃ ɒn ðə ˈteɪ.bl ] 11 ―take the dish-cover up!‖ [teɪk ðə dɪʃˈˈkʌv.ə r ʌp] (j/9-11) the dialectal aspect used by lewis carroll is the word sup [sʌp] in line 29. the word sup which means to drink or to eat is a word spoken in northern english. the word sup as the dialect of northern english is utilized by the poet to form an end rhyme in line 9 and masculine rhyme as it is a monosyllabic word. in addition, the word sup [sʌp] rhymes as perfect rhyme with the word up [ʌp] in line 11 of the white queen‘s riddle poem. furthermore, besides the various linguistic deviations which have been explained, lewis carroll also employs deviation of historical period by using obsolete and archaic words as in the following jabberwocky poem. (18) 21 ‗and hast thou slain the jabberwock? [ænd hæst ðaʊ sleɪn ðə ˈdʒæbə r . wɒk] (b/21) the archaic words as the realization of deviation of historical period in the excerpt of jabberwocky above are in the words hast [hæst] and thou [ðaʊ]. the word hast is an archaic form of the auxiliary verb have when it is used for the singular second person subject, i.e. thou (you). the word hast [hæst] is employed by lewis carroll to create assonance by repeating vowels [æ]. meanwhile, the word thou [ðaʊ] as the archaic form of you is utilized to form alliteration with the word the [ðə] by using the repetition of initial consonant [ð]. conclusion lewis carroll employs various kinds of rhyme of poems in through the lookingglass, e.g. alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, eye-rhyme, half-rhyme, perfect rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme, masculine rhyme, and feminine rhyme. alliteration is used to emphasize and to unite the words in a grammatical and semantic structure and also to balance the rhymes in a line by the use of the repeated initial consonant of words. furthermore, assonance gives special chiming effect and unites each word in the poems in a mutual accord that it easier to be read and language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 pronounced. moreover, the use of consonance gives emphasize in the end of words by the various kinds of consonant sounds so they are pronounced as if there is a pause after each word like staccato in the music. euphony is used by lewis carroll to illustrate the sweetness and joy ambience in the poem. on the contrary, cacophony is used by the poet to reinforce and illuminate the chaotic and turbulent situation that delivers terrifying, tense, and fearsome feelings. eye-rhyme and half-rhyme are utilized to avoid flatness and monotonous tine in the poem‘s cadence since they accommodate variation in the rhyme scheme and astonishing effect as a result of unpredictable end rhyme. in addition, if the syllable with half-rhyme has an affinity only in the coda, while the onset and nucleus can vary and be different, the syllable that is a perfect rhyme has exact sounds for the nucleus and coda, while the onset of the syllable can be dissimilar. perfect rhyme functions as the final sounds in each line of stanza in the poem that please the readers by giving the predictable rhyming sounds. furthermore, lewis carroll employs internal rhyme to enrich the verbal melody, reinforce the binding effect, and emphasize certain lines in a poem. moreover, he also utilizes end rhyme to compose the rhyme scheme and to give a sense of closure in the lines and stanzas of the poem. in addition, the use of masculine rhyme makes the end rhyme of the poem to be more positive and stronger, while feminine rhyme functions to make the end rhyme become more elegant, extended, and continuous without the firm ending. therefore, the employment of various kinds of rhyme of poem by lewis carroll in through the looking-glass novel has crucial function to achieve the aesthetic and musical effects. lewis carroll forms the rhyme of poem not only by obeying the rule and convention in english, but also by employing the linguistic deviation in several levels, i.e. phonological deviation, lexical deviation, grammatical deviation, semantic deviation, dialectal deviation, and deviation of historical period as his style of writing poems in through the looking-glass novel. lewis carroll forms the rhyme of poems in through the looking-glass novel by utilizing aphaeresis and syncope as the realization of phonological deviation, and also by composing neologisms from portmanteau or blend words and unusual affixation as the realization of lexical deviation. moreover, in employing grammatical deviation, he uses reversed order of words in a phrase and enjambment in his poems. furthermore, he also employs figurative language such as metaphor, personification, and also simile as the manifestation of semantic deviation. lewis carroll also uses northern english dialect as the dialectal deviation, and archaic and obsolete words that are no longer used in his poems as the deviation of historical period. references altenbernd, l. and l. l. lewis. (1970). a handbook for the study of poetry. london: the macmillan company. cambridge university press. (2008). cambridge advanced learner‘s dictionary (3 rd edn.) [computer software]. campbell, l. (1998). historical linguistics: an introduction. cambridge: mit press. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 carroll, l. (1993). alice‘s adventures in wonderland & through the looking-glass. hertfordshire: wordsworth editions limited. crowley, t. dan c. bowern. (2010). an introduction to historical linguistics (4 th edn.). new york: oxford university press, inc. kesuma, t. m. j. (2007). pengantar (metode) penelitian bahasa. yogyakarta: carasvatibooks. landy, a. s. (1979). to read a poem. lexington: d. c. heath and company. leech, g. n. (1969). a linguistic guide to english poetry. new york: longman. nadinecreativehope. ―christopher lee reads lewis carroll‘s the jabberwocky [hd] in youtube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvobra0i4ju. retrieved thursday, 29 september 2016, 13.45 wib. perrine, l. (1969). sound and sense: an introduction to poetry (3 rd edn.). new york: harcourt, brace & world, inc. ribner, i. and h. morris. (1962). poetry: a critical and historical introduction. chicago: scott, foresman and company. rozakis, l. (1995). how to interpret poetry. new york: macmillan. sayuti, s. a. (2002). berkenalan dengan puisi. yogyakarta: gama media. sudaryanto. (1986). metode linguistik bagian pertama: ke arah memahami metode linguistik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. sudjiman, p. (1993). bunga rampai stilistika. jakarta: pt pustaka utama grafiti. vanderstoep, s. w. and d. d. johnston. (2009). research methods for everyday life. san francisco: jossey-bass. https://www.youtube.com/user/nadinecreativehope https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvobra0i4ju attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaba5a6810e3 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 67-72 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x african american vernacular english (aave) used by rich brian: a sociolinguistic investigation intan tia ajeng aryani* universitas airlangga, indonesia *email: intantia.aryani@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.25965 submitted 31 august 2020. revised 30 september 2020. accepted 18 october 2020 abstract the author investigated the use of aave by brian imanuel or rich brian in his rap song lyrics. this study aimed to identify the grammatical features of aave in brian’s amen album. further, this study was also explored the underlying effect on brian’s use of aave. this study applied a descriptive-qualitative method. the context of the data in this study was song lyrics. the results are as follows: brian rap song lyrics’ contained 7 out of aave’s 13 grammatical features. those are copula absence, invariant be, completive done, specialized auxiliaries, negation, nominal, and ain’t. the causal effect on the use of aave by brian is influenced by the environment or neighborhoods where he grew up. growing up around his friends who use aave in their daily conversation leads him to obtain aave’s native-like control. likewise, aave’s use was the main effect of the linguistic marketplace in order to project identities in stable ways. keywords: aave; sociolinguistic; hip-hop  lyrics of living the dream song, he illustrated the image of the underdog or coming from a low urban terrain, as in “started from the bottom, not going back to trappin’, i’m just a youngin’ with a dream hope to make it with my team.” brian states that he is not rich, but at least he has not lost hope. it is a characteristic of rappers who are trying to make it in the industry. given the opportunity to adapt with aave linguistic style, brian, an asian with a background as non-native english is interesting to be analyzed, regarding his use of aave in his song lyrics. the case of asian rappers is still a minority, and no one has attempted to study this phenomenon of asian rappers and their use of aave. the grammatical features of aave employed by brian are fascinating to be investigated to show that this dialect is socially constructed, which also happens to belong to a particular culture. this study has two objectives: first, to identify aave’s grammatical features in brian’s’ song lyrics. the theory of wolfram (2004) used to analyze the data he postulates 13 grammatical features of aave. they are copula absence, invariant be, completive done, sequential be done, remote been, simple past had + verb, specialized auxiliaries, irregular verbs, subject-verb agreement, other verb phrase structures, negation, nominal, and question formation. second, the introduction in 2010, 11-year-old brian imanuel began to be exposed to american culture. he studied english by watching youtube videos and listening to songs from rap singers such as childish gambino, 2 chainz, macklemore, and tyler. in particular, they often use african american vernacular english (aave) in their song lyrics. (staehr & madsen, 2015). moreover, in 11, brian has already acquired aave as a linguistic style associated with hip hop. it could be seen in 2015, he tried to adopt the hip-hop style and named himself as rich chigga. the term chigga is modified from nigga, an acronym for naturally intelligent god gifted african, where nigga is used in addressing black (makoni, 2017, p. 12). in 2015, brian moved to the united states of america and, for the first time, released his song, namely “living in the dream.” as mentioned before, brian has already adopted the hip-hop style, which aave linguistic style in his song lyrics. there are rules of authenticity in hip-hop along with the use of aave to demonstrated poor urban with rampant gang violence and what background they came from (astuti, 2018). it includes talking about race and social class and the discrimination that often ensues for the urban. brian has followed the rules in his song language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 67-72 68 most young individuals or hip hop community (and several others across speakers of other languages) already formulated substantial long-term relationships with african american vernacular english and distribute a standard paradigm as part of the hip hop culture. such an interaction has drawn along young folks from quite diverse backgrounds in the world and made everyone realize as if they are somehow part of a collaborative, politically involved youth community. hiphop culture across cultural fashion trends might be a path for youngsters from various social and cultural origins to counter and reconstruct ethnicities. eventually, the hip-hop phenomenon had such an impact on the creation of urban immigrant youth identities (hassa, 2010). aave speech style assesses audiences’ role as urban and culturally diverse and demonstrates the affiliation they share with other young people (cutler, 2015, p. 237). the term african american vernacular english or aave developed in part of the speech of many black citizens of the northern united states (wardhaugh & fuller, 2015 p 46). while not every black american speaks aave, aave’s use is not limited to black americans only (carter, 2013). aave is characterized primarily by its distinct grammatical and phonological features such as the absence of the suffix –s on finite verbs (e.g. ‹she like cheese›). a further feature is the urge to eliminate the verb to be when it contracted in standard english (e.g., he __ excellent). labov in wardhaugh & fuller (2015) has enlightened, “if you can contract be in standard english, you can delete it in aave” p. 48. in particular, wolfraim (2004) hypothesizes 13 grammatical features of the aave. the first is the exclusion of a copula/auxiliary in the combination of is and is. the disappearance of copula in urban aave is nearly stable. second is invariant, as ‹be here in a minute› is undoubtedly the most recognizable grammatical aspect of aave to the extent of getting stereotyping. the application of ‹habitual› is arranged by and will be the form of will. in the construction of ‹she›s here in a minute,› the ‹be› derives from the absence of/l/in front of the labial (she›ll be). alim (2001) believes that it is primarily included in hip-hop phrases. the third is completive done with the verb›s past tense, as in ‹the dishes were washed.› the feature of this grammatical use in aave is a complete one, pointing to an event completed in the past, but it can also be used to demonstrate a change of state or a step-up procedure, as in a phrase as ‹i done told you not to late.› fourth is concurrent, a combination of recognition of social environments — neighborhoods — sustains a causal effect on aave’s use. bloomaert (2010) defined identity as a fluid, hybrid, and differentiated at the micro-interaction level. on the other hand, language is mostly a valuable element for creating a social identity, interfaces, and other stylistic identifiers such as apparel, gait, patterns of consumption, and other forms or attitudes on whether they conceptualize their identities. maintaining speech patterns, getting dressed, walking, or often dancing from certain cultural circles all over state boundaries and indigenous boundaries is progressively aspect of how younger folks structure their self-identity (terkourafi, 2010). urban teenagers who have been closely associated with hip-hop are part of this movement once they embrace ways of communicating, walking, and acknowledging urban african american adolescence (bucholtz, 2011). people express their origin and whom they would like to be through language or language style (cutler, 2015, p. 237). many people are faced with preferences regarding how they would like to design their language to demonstrate which cultural circles they affiliate. once groups of individuals cross ethnic lines and adopt one another’s language style and other cultures, there is indeed a tendency for intensified crossethnic awareness and tolerance. in particular, dialect refers to a specific group of languages (anderson, 2010). dialects can be geographical (e.g., southern american english), racial (e.g., aave or chicano english), or social status (e.g., cockney english; rickford, 2002), which constitutes a dialect from a language that becomes a debatable topic. however, the dissimilarity continues to be more socio-political than linguistic (anderson, 2010). the distinction over what is perceived the standard version of the language and what is not always a matter of power – certain types of language approved by the government and other state institutions are mostly regarded to be the ‘proper’ form of the language (anderson, 2010), while other forms are assigned to ‘non-standard’ dialects. standard dialects, such as british received pronunciation, are portrayed quite positively than non-standard dialects (e.g., morales, scott, & yorkston, 2012). for example, in the united states, the non-standard southern american dialect is related to lower social status, lower education levels, and is viewed by many as the least acceptable use of american english (dent, 2004). these contrasts play an essential role in sociolinguistic indicators for listeners, offering a full range of stereotypical details on speakers’ status. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 67-72 69 completing and performing together in sentences such as ‘this chocolate is melting by the time we get there,’ reflecting a current or future conditional state. this concept seems to act as a perfect future similar to the standard english ‘must have melted’ in the scenario mentioned above. the fifth is remote been, underscored by the use of the past tense form, which reflects an event in the distant past. a sentence such as ‘i was introduced to him’ refers to an incident that took place, literally or figuratively, in a distant time frame. sixth is simple past had + verb, one of aave’s newer features to signify a simple past tense action. in sentences such as ‘they went outside,’ this usage is similar to using the simple past (e.g., they went outside). seventh is a specialist auxiliary. there are many filling auxiliaries specializing in aave. among these auxiliaries are the usage of coming to signify a state of indignation (e.g., walkin’ here as he owned a goddamn place), the use of stable to denote constant intensification of action (e.g., john be steady steppin’ in them number nines), and the use of finna to signify an imminent future or expected occurrence (e.g., i am finna go). the eighth is irregular verbs, which includes the extension of the past as a participle (e.g., i went down here), the participle as the past (e.g., they saw it), the bare root as the past (e.g., they raced there yesterday), and the regularization of the past tense (e.g., everyone knew it). ninth is the subject-matter of the agreement. there are two facets of the subject-concord that are common in urban aave, one related to the addition of the suffix – s (e.g., walking for she walks) and the other related to the conjugated forms of the past (e.g., people were there) and present forms (e.g., people are home). the tenth is another verb word form. there are types of verb structures that distinguish aave, but they are confined to and complemented by distinct lexical verbs. for example, aave’s verb beat can act as an intransitive verb, as in ‘we beat’ for ‘won.’ the use of say can also be extended in aave to refer to non-human and inanimate objects, as in ‘the rock says ‘boom.’ the eleventh is a negotiation. the negation composition in aave invests in negative concord or multiple negations in whereby a specific negative assertion can be established. both in the verb phrase and in the post verbal indeterminate, as in ‘it was nothing.’ aave also engages in the form of negative concord that includes a pre-verbal, indefinite, and verbal negative, such as ‘no one likes him,’ which is similar to the regular expression ‘nobody like him.’ construction like this was used for emphasis, particularly if it is stressed indefinitely. negative concord can also be transmitted by clauses, as in ‘it ain’t no cat can get in any coop.’ aave uses ‘ain’t’ as a general pre-verbal negative for the present tense (am not, is not) and for the perfect auxiliary ‘haven’t/hasn’t’ as in ‘she hasn’t been there lately.’ the twelfth is nominal; the lack of inflectional ¬–s is possessive and plural (e.g., the dog tail was wagging). moreover, there is a pattern of –s ¬ absence applicable to the measurement of quantifier nouns, as in ‘it’s 4 miles from here.’ the thirteenth is the development of queries. two components of question composition discern the syntax of aave, which involves an auxiliary inversion subject. in the first place, questions can be raised without subject-auxiliary inversion (e.g., where). second, questions can remain subject-to-auxiliary inversion (e.g., i asked him if i could eat with him in comparison to the regular pattern i asked him if i could eat with him). hip-hop language typically overlaps with aave in terms of phonology, grammar, syntax, and expression styles (cutler, 2015, p. 232). for example, it is customary to refer to events and circumstances that are constant or repeated and appears quite frequently before a progressive verb (e.g., going to church). hip-hop has distinctive lexical features (e.g., madd, mackalicious, chill, and phat) and word definitions (e.g., yo, know what i’m saying) can be found on web platforms such as urbandictionary.com. cultural differences between rappers from different parts of the world and diverse cultural backgrounds can exist (bloomquist and hancock, 2013). midwestern rappers are pronounced ‘she’ and ‘she’ as ‘hurr’ and ‘thurr’ (blake and shousterman, 2010). in comparison, southern rappers use special lexis and phonology as the pronunciation of ‘thing’ as ‘thang’ (bloomquist and hancock, 2013). astuti (2018) article conducted a study to identify the grammatical features of africanamerican vernacular english (aave) in logic’s everybody and to reveal the underlying factors of this dialect use. this research applied a descriptive-qualitative method. the context of the data in this study was song lyrics. the study concluded two main results: first, logic only employs 11 out of the 13 features in the entire 222 data. they are copula deletion, remote been, question formation, subject-verb disagreement, future form, use of ain’t, concord negation, negative inversion, irregular verbs, non-standard pronouns, and nominal. lack of subject agreement is the most dominant feature with the lack of verbal marker –s for third-person singular occurring most often. features that are not found in the data are halanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 67-72 70 bitual be and intensified equative be. a possible explanation for this is that both are not prevalent features in aave, so it is not surprising that there is zero datum found in the lyrics. second, logic employs aave features to establish himself in the hip-hop community for aave is an integral part of hip-hop, an african american culture. the neighborhood he grew up in may also have played a role in his using aave. having grown up in an african-american household with an africanamerican father and siblings, he has, without a doubt, been exposed to aave daily. lastly, he uses aave as a way to identify himself as black. african-americans in the u.s. know how to speak aave and logic being a half-black and identifying as one uses this dialect as a representation tool. moreover, in his thesis, setiawan (2018) conducted a study to investigate how and why the african-american singers show grammar deviations in their song lyrics. the object of the study was song lyrics by african-american singers in billboard.com year 2016. seventeen songs are being analyzed. the study results are; first, there are seven morphological features of aave found in the 2016 popular song lyrics. they are: particular use of be and be an omission, double negatives, verbal –s absence, particular use of be an omission in i’ mma and gonna or gon,’ ain’t acting as present and past marker, the use of finna, and the use of two kinds of been which are bin and bin. the second result is that there are four main reasons why african-american singers’ 2016 song lyrics show deviations from english grammar. they are: african-american people want to recall the period of slavery years ago; african-american people want to state themselves as real africans who use english; african-american people want to show that their language is systematic and rule-governed; african-american people want their language to be approved as other english language varieties. these two previous studies are investigated the grammatical features of aave and the reasonable use of aave in the song lyrics. thus, these studies were only focused on african-american singers. furthermore, the current study intended to fill the gap by allocating different research data. the object of this study is rich brian, an asian rapper, and the data is gathered from his song lyrics. the research questions of this study are: (1) how are the grammatical features of aave in rich brian’s song lyrics? (2) are social environments—neighborhoods—exert a causal effect on the use of aave? how? methods this research applied a descriptive-qualitative approach to obtain cases deemed rich information to saturate the data (lambert, 2012). the form of the data in this study was in lingual units such as expressions as in phrases, sentences or clauses found in rich brian amen album song lyrics. fourteen song lyrics are being analyzed. the main instrument was the researcher herself, while the second instrument was in the form of a datasheet that helped the researcher analyze it. the data were collected qualitatively by listening to the album and reading the transcribed lyrics carefully and repeatedly. then, the researcher classified the data as proposed by wolfram. finally, the researcher interpreted the result and concluded the research study. results and discussion the grammatical features of aave in rich brian song lyrics. out of all the 13 grammatical features of aave proposed by wolfram, rich brian only employs 7. they are copula absence, remote been, use of ain’t, concord negation, negative inversion, subject-verb disagreement, future form, question form, nominal, irregular verb, and nonstandard pronoun. copula/auxiliary absence the absence of a copula and auxiliary for contractible form has been one of the most often described aave (wolfram, 1969). consider the following extracts: she gon’ need another fella. she ‘bout 30 years old. everybody show up ‘cause they know i’m here. she a vegan you can see it. if that can mean she gon’ end up on my nitrous. she so clean, man. these extracts show a pattern in which copula deficiency only occurs in the 2nd and third-person environment. it shows that aave is resistant to the omission of a verb be when expressed by first person singular. invariant be invariant be in sentences referred to as nonfinite be and habitual be is probably the most salient grammatical trait of aave. the use of habitual be derived through phonological processes that affect contracted forms of will and would be as follows: she told me that she be worried. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 67-72 71 every week i be on the face. i be ridin’ right down melrose with a thicky named rose. completive done a persistent structural trait of aave is the use of done with the past tense of the verb. i done seen you glow like that i must say that i’m proud. the use of done in data (10) about an event undertaken in the recent past, it has also been used to emphasize a state change or to escalate an occurrence. specialized auxiliary some other auxiliary fillings of different semantic-pragmatic functions that implicitly distinguish aave from certain vernacular forms of english are as follows: finally getting hard, so you know what’s finna happen next. it’s my dream and ain’t nobody finna wake me up. the use of finna in data (8) and (9) links to a direct future or expected occurrence. negation rich brian uses double negation in a single negative proposition by using negative auxiliary don’t with the negative word no as in the following: i don’t need no education, internet’s my favorite teacher. the negative concord above can be expressed in two ways in standard english (s.e.). one can interpret it as i don’t need education and omit the word no. on the other hand, one can omit the negative auxiliary don’t instead. negative concord can either be extended through clauses, as seen in the following data (11), referring to simply there is no fun and games. at the same time, data (12) denotes that he doesn’t need to look at the past. ain’t no fun and games. ain’t no lookin’ back. nominal the characteristic of the noun phrase in aave is probably the absence of inflectional –s on plurals as in the following: show some attitude and bitch i won’t show. not checkin’ my statement ‘til i got 4 mill. there is a type of associative plural ‘em as in (16) i put ‘em in their feelings for the girls the use of ain’t ain’t is used as a negative indicator in aave, which corresponds to any present tense of be + not and have + not. this feature can occur in the first person, second person, and third person environment, as in the following: don’t test me because my skin ain’t thick. bumping lil wayne, feeling like we ain’t got time to think. then i realized i ain’t even bring my paper. makin’ up for the competition that i ain’t do. neighborhood influence brian imanuel is an indonesian, who was born in jakarta. he moved to the united states of america and started his carrier as a rapper at seventeen. without a doubt, he acquired native-like control of aave from rapper song lyrics as he learns it from the internet and moves to the united states of america. he shows his upbringing in some songs from his amen album. born in jakarta, but i live like i’m from calabasas. landed in chicago, met the customs, mean muggin’ mothafuckers let me tell ya something, and i almost got deported back to the home town, ‘cause i didn’t know what road my hotels on, then i met my manager, sean 88 chillin’ in the passenger, and i’m feelin’ tripped out, seein’ him for the first time, worked overseas for a year, that’s a long run. still missin’ home, but i’m havin’ my fun, uh, i would never quit, i’m too legit, indonesian mc hammer in this bitch, beat your ass if you correct my grammar in this bitch. these excerpts show brian influenced by the environment or neighborhoods where he is hanging up with. hanging out around his friends who use aave in their daily conversation leads him to obtain native-like control of aave. aave is used as an identity representation tool by black people in america. brian once tries to identify himself as a part of black people using the term chigga. however, he never says that he identifies himself as black in his song lyrics. he uses aave in his lyrics to further conform to the rule of authenticity in hip-hop. it is evident, african-americans know how to speak this dialect and do speak it even though not every day and not necessarily employ all the features in their practice. brian does the same where he does not use all the 13 features proposed by wolfram, but he uses them reasonably frequently and correctly. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 67-72 72 conclusion based on the previous chapter’s discussion regarding the aave use in brian amen album song, two conclusions can be drawn. first, brian only employs 7 out of the 13 grammatical features in aave. they are the absence of copula, invariant be, completive done, specialized auxiliaries, negation, nominal, and ain’t. second, brian is influenced by the environment or neighborhoods where he grew up. hanging out around his friends who use aave in their daily conversation leads him to obtain native-like control of aave. as the linguistic market offers styles, younger folks might cross ethnic borders (e.g., brian from indonesia) and draw styles from one another to achieve social identity securely. references alim, h. s. (2001). i be the truth: divergence, recreolization, and the ‘new’ equative copula in african american language. paper presented at nwav 30, raleigh, north carolina, october 13. anderson, s. r. (2010). how many languages are there in the world? linguistic society of america. astuti, p. p. (2018). the use of african-american vernacular english (aave) in logic’s everybody. english language & literature journal, 6(7), 637646. blake, r., & shousterman, c. (2010). diachrony and aae: st. louis, hip-hop, and sound change outside of the mainstream. journal of english linguistic, 38, 230-247. blommaert, j. (2010). the sociolinguistic of globalization. cambridge university press. bloomquist, j., & hancock, i. (2013). the dirty third: contributions of southern hip hop to the study of regional variation within african american english. journal of southern linguistics, 37, 1-27. bucholtz, m. (2011). race and the re-embodied voice in hollywood film. language and communication, 31(3), 255-265. carter, p. m. (2013). shared spaces, shared structures: latino social formation and african american english in the u.s. south. journal of sociolinguistics, 17, 66-92. cutler, c. (2015). white hip-hoppers. language and linguistics compass, 9(6), 229-242. dent, s. r. (2004). attitudes of native and nonnative speakers of english toward various regional and social u.s. english accents (master’s thesis). retrieved from the digital repository at iowa state university. (paper 14451). hassa, s. (2010). ‘kiff my zikmu’: symbolic dimensions of aracic, english and verlan in french rap text. language of global hip hop, ed. by m. terkourafi, 44-67. continuum. lambert, v. a., & lambert, c. e. (2012). qualitative descriptive research: an acceptable design. pacific rim international journal of nursing research, 16(4), 255-256. makoni, b. (2017). urban languages in african contexts: toward a multimodal approach to urban languages. in garcía, o., flores, n., & spotti, m. (eds.). the oxford handbook of language and society. morales, a. c., scott, m. l., & yorkston, e. a. (2012). the role of accent standardness in message preference and recall. journal of advertising, 41, 33 –46. rickford, j. (2002). how linguists approach the study of language and dialect. retrieved from https:// web.stanford.edu/~rickford/papers/ setiawan, m. a. t. (2018). an analysis of the english grammar deviations in the 2016 song lyrics by african-american singers (undergraduate thesis). retrieved from the digital repository of universitas sanata dharma yogyakarta. staehr, a., & madsen, l. m. (2015). standard language in urban rap – social media, linguistic practice and ethnographic context. language and communication, 40, 67-81. terkourafi, m. (2010). the language of global hip hop. continuum. wardhaugh, r., & fuller, j. m. (2015). an introduction to sociolinguistics: john wiley & sons, inc. wolfram, w. (1969). a sociolinguistic description of detroit negro speech. center for applied linguistic. wolfram, w. (2004). the grammar of urban african american vernacular english. handbook of varieties of english, 2, 111-32. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa59db7111d • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 67 evaluating the reading section of english national standardized school exams (usbn): (a field study in smk nu ungaran) rizky mega susanti magister of linguistics diponegoro university – semarang, indonesia email: mega92rizky@gmail.com abstract with regard to the role of english in indonesia that is mainly used for academic purpose, it is important to sharpen the two skills, reading and writing, more than the other two skills, listening and speaking. based on that fact, this study focuses on reading skills, especially in reading comprehension skills. reading comprehension skill is closely related to literacy levels that nowadays considered important by educational institution. the data was taken from reading comprehension questions in english usbn question sheet and the students’ answer sheets. the participants are students of xii grade of smk nu ungaran that are randomly chosen. the result of this study showed that out of 50 students, 59% of them are best cope with editing task, followed by 56% in dealing with reading comprehension task, 50% of gap-filling task, 48% with short answer task and the least is 22% in vocabulary task. this meant that the proficiency level of reading comprehension of students in xii grade smk nu ungaran still needs to elevate. they were still lack in term of vocabulary and understanding the ideas implicitly delivered in the text. keywords: reading skills, reading comprehension, usbn introduction reading is regarded as as one of the most important skills in a language. students can continuesly develop other skills such as writing and speaking or other language components through reading comprehension. this is in line with nunan (1991, p. 82) stated that four language skills have close interaction in which reading gives more opportunities for learners to develop other skills. therefore, the students are encourage to interact with various kind of texts in order to develop other skills. the ability to understand and use written text is an important precondition for developing personal knowledge and skill. it is also important to participate in cultural and social life; reading makes many areas of knowledge and life accessible. text does not only convey information and facts, but they also deliver ideas, moral concepts and cultural contents. this makes reading crucial to further education and lifelong learning. besides, reading comprehension requires the reader and text interaction which results in the successful of reading comprehension. reading comprehension is one of language competences emphasized by the government for the english teachers to deal with. it is stated in pp no. 19 year 2005 that language education should develop language competence with special emphasis on reading and writing according to the literacy level set up for every level of education. besides, students are expected to be able to comprehend various kinds of texts, such as descriptive, recount, narrative procedure text according to the content of curriculum of language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 68 2013 as current curriculum. as english in indonesia is mainly used for academic purpose, it is important to sharpen those two skills, reading and writing, more than the other two skills, listening and speaking. based on those reasons, this study focuses on reading comprehension skills. the 2013 curriculum is competency and character-based curriculum. based on the ministry of culture and education regulation no. 59 year 2014 stated that 2013 curriculum is one of the government's efforts to resolve the various problems being faced by the world of education today. the theme of 2013 curriculum is generating indonesian people which are: productive, creative, innovative, affective; through the strengthening of attitudes, skills, and knowledge which are integrated. based on the theme, the implementation of 2013 curriculum is expected to produce a productive, creative, and innovative human. in addition, the 2013 curriculum also becomes the guidelines in designing various kinds of exam, including final exam or usbn. to design a standardized test as usbn test, teachers need to consider at least three things; core standards (ki), competence standards (kd) and graduate competence standards (skl) as they are mentioned in the 2013 curriculum. those three components become the guidelines to create the learning materials, design the lerning methodologies, and develop the assessment which then realized in syllabus and lesson plan. while in designing a reading assessment, the teachers need to involve literacy level and types of reading performance. in sma/k context, there are four core competence that must be reached by the students at the end of learning process as stated in permendikbud no. 59 year 2014. as it is realized on the curriculum, the cc1 was attached in the content of the textbook implicitly to make the students realize about themselves as god’s creature to do good things toward the nature and others.with regard to cc2, the learning materials and exepriences were provided in a form of independent activity, activity in pairs, and group discussion which aimed to develop students’ social skills. while, to reach cc3 and cc4, the classroom activities were carried out in an integrated manner through listening, reading, speaking and writing which have been developed based on scientific approach. hence, the practical core competences that have to be designed by the teacher are core competence 3 (factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and procedural knowledge) and core competence 4 (metacognitive knowledge) here are the core competence and basic competence for english subject of xii grade students in sma/k based on permendikbud 24/2016: table 1. core competence and basic competence of xii grade (based on permendikbud 24/2016) kompetensi inti 3 (pengetahuan) kompetensi inti 4 (keterampilan) 3. memahami, menerapkan, menganalisis dan mengevaluasi pengetahuan faktual, konseptual, prosedural, dan metakognitif berdasarkan rasa ingin tahunya tentang ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi, seni, budaya, dan humaniora dengan wawasan kemanusiaan, kebangsaan, kenegaraan, dan peradaban terkait penyebab fenomena dan kejadian, serta menerapkan pengetahuan prosedural pada bidang kajian yang spesifik sesuai dengan bakat dan minatnya untuk memecahkan masalah 4. mengolah, menalar, menyaji, dan mencipta dalam ranah konkret dan ranah abstrak terkait dengan pengembangan dari yang dipelajarinya di sekolah secara mandiri serta bertindak secara efektif dan kreatif, dan mampu menggunakan metoda sesuai kaidah keilmuan language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 69 kompetensi dasar kompetensi dasar 3.1 menerapkan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan teks interaksi interpersonal lisan dan tulis yang melibatkan tindakan menawarkan jasa, serta menanggapinya, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya. (perhatikan unsur kebahasaan may i help you?, what can i do for you? what if ...?) 4.1 menyusun teks interaksi interpersonal lisan dan tulis sederhana yang melibatkan tindakan menawarkan jasa, dan menanggapinya dengan memperhatikan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan yang benar dan sesuai konteks 3.2. membedakan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan beberapa teks khusus dalam bentuk surat lamaran kerja, dengan memberi dan meminta informasi terkait jati diri, latar belakang pendidikan/pengalaman kerja, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya 4.2 surat lamaran kerja 4.2.1 menangkap makna secara kontekstual terkait fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan teks khusus dalam bentuk surat lamaran kerja, yang memberikan informasi antara lain jati diri, latar belakang pendidikan/pengalaman kerja 4.2.2 menyusun teks khusus surat lamaran kerja, yang memberikan informasi antara lain jati diri, latar belakang pendidikan/pengalaman kerja, dengan memperhatikan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan, secara benar dan sesuai konteks 3.3 membedakan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan beberapa teks khusus dalam bentuk teks caption, dengan memberi dan meminta informasi terkait gambar /foto /tabel/grafik/ bagan, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya 4.3 teks penyerta gambar (caption) 4.3.1 menangkap makna secara kontekstual terkait fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan teks khusus dalam bentuk caption terkait gambar/foto/tabel/grafik/bagan 4.3.2 menyusun teks khusus dalam bentuk text caption terkait gambar/foto/tabel/grafik/bagan, dengan memperhatikan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan, secara benar dan sesuai konteks 3.4 membedakan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan beberapa teks news item lisan dan tulis dengan memberi dan meminta informasi terkait berita sederhana dari koran/radio/tv, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya 4.4 menangkap makna secara kontekstual terkait fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan teks news items lisan dan tulis, dalam bentuk berita sederhana koran/radio/tv 3.5 menerapkan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan teks interaksi transaksional lisan dan tulis yang melibatkan tindakan memberi dan meminta informasi terkait pengandaian diikuti oleh perintah/saran, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya. (perhatikan unsur kebahasaan if dengan imperative, can, should) 4.5. menyusun teks interaksi transaksional lisan dan tulis yang melibatkan tindakan memberi dan meminta informasi terkait pengandaian diikuti oleh perintah/saran, dengan memperhatikan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan yang benar dan sesuai konteks language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 70 membedakan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan beberapa teks prosedur lisan dan tulis dengan memberi dan meminta informasi terkait manual penggunaan teknologi dan kiat-kiat (tips), pendek dan sederhana, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya 4.6 teks prosedur 4.6.1 menangkap makna secara kontekstual terkait fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan teks prosedur lisan dan tulis, dalam bentuk manual terkait penggunaan teknologi dan kiat-kiat (tips) 4.6.2 menyusun teks prosedur, lisan dan tulis, dalam bentuk manual terkait penggunaan teknologi dan kiat-kiat (tips), dengan memperhatikan fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan, secara benar dan sesuai konteks 3.7 menafsirkan fungsi sosial dan unsur kebahasaan lirik lagu terkait kehidupan remaja sma/ma/smk/mak 4.7 menangkap makna secara kontekstual terkait fungsi sosial dan unsur kebahasaan lirik lagu terkait kehidupan remaja sma/ma/ smk/mak according to wells (1987, pp. 18-19), literacy level includes performative, functional, informational and epistemic. in performative level, the learners are targeted for having ability to communicate in english to cope with the demands of everyday life or for survival purposes. in a functional level, the learners are supposed to have ability using language to meet their daily needs such as, reading newspaper, using telephone, writing letters, etc. in an informational level, the learners are expected to be able to get involved in communication using english spoken as well as written, not only for transactional and interpersonal purposes but also for accessing information and knowledge. in an epistemic level, the learners are expected to be able to express the knowledge in an intended language. the epistemic grade is considered as the most difficult grade for the learners. at this level, the learners are targeted to have available ways of acting upon the language. according to pisa (the oecd programme for international student assessment) in 2015 conducted a study showed that more than 86% of indonesian 15 year olds read at pisa level 2 or below – that is, they are unable to consistently perform level 3 skills such as ‘locat[ing] and… recognis[ing] the relationship between several pieces of information in a text. therefore, the literacy level of indonesian students with average age 15 years old are still need to be improved. brown (2004) identifies four types of reading performance that serve as organizers of various assessment tasks. they are: 1. perceptive. this type is fundamental and basic for second language learners. at first, a learner needs to recognize alphabetic symbols, capitalized and lowercase letters, punctuation, words and grapheme-phoneme correspondences. assessment on this basic reading skill can be conducted in different ways: reading aloud, written responses, multiple-choice, and picture-cued items. 2. selective. this category deals with lexical and grammatical aspects of language. some possible tasks to assess those aspects are: multiple-choice with form-focused criteria, editing task, picture-cued task, and gap-filling task. 3. interactive. it has a combination of form-focused and meaning-focused objectives in which meaning gets more focus. texts given in this task are little longer, from a paragraph to a page in length. the format of charts, graphs and other graphics may be much more complex. kinds of questions can be: cloze-task, impromptu reading plus comprehension questions, short-answer task, language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 71 editing, scanning, ordering, and reading charts/graphs/diagrams. 4. extensive. extensive reading involves longer texts, such as journal articles, technical reports, longer essays, short stories and books. the assignments for this category can be skimming task, summarizing or responding, note-taking and outlining. the table below illustrates the level of literacy and types of reading performance in relation with the educational level in indonesia: table 2. literacy levels, reading performance types and educational level in indonesia no. level of literacy types of reading performance educational level 1. performative perceptive elementary school (sd) 2. functional selective interactive (introduction) junior high school (smp) 3. informational selective interactive extensive (introduction) senior high school (sma/k) 4. epistemic extensive university level based on the table above, students of xii grade which are in sma/k, should have informational literacy level and their reading performance should be selective reading, interactive reading and a slight introduction to extensive reading. an evaluation on the implementation of english national examination exercise once has been done by widya et al. in 2015. they conduct the research in ex rsbi private sma in yogyakarta. they use stake’s evaluation model, thus they gather the information of the input (antecedents) of english tryout, document the process (transactions) of the implementation and the results (outcomes). the results are (1) the input of the implementation is good if it is viewed from the dimensions of the preparation that include the orientation of question writing, committee, schedule and supervision; (2) the process is good if it is viewed from the dimensions of the implementation that included security matter, objectivity of the implementation, and students’ perceptions; (3) results show that question items are good in terms of difficulty levels, distractor functioning and reliability. english tryout gives good benefits and there are no obstacles in the implementation of english tryout. although the evaluation done in this research has been described thoroughly, the proficiency level of four basic skills is not mentioned in detail. therefore, the writer assumed taht this present research was different in topics as this study only focus on reading proficiency reflected by the students’ test result on reading section of usbn question sheets. smk nu ungaran is one of the largest vocational high schools in ungaran. it has five departments with approximately 1,500 students. as one of the favorite schools in semarang regency, it has good reputation in national exam result year by year and it has graduated its students almost 100% per year. concerning to its great achievement, the writer decided to conduct my research on reading comprehension in its english usbn in order to investigate the students’ reading proficiency level. this research attempts to answer the following questions: 1) have the reading comprehension questions given to the students fulfilled the competence standards in the curriculum? 2) have the questions considered the literacy level and types of reading performance? 3) how is the students’ reading proficiency reflected in the test result? language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 72 methodology the participants of this research were xii grade students of smk nu ungaran as the population. they were randomly taken as the sample. the data were reading comprehension questions taken from question sheet of english usbn as well as the students’ answer sheets. the method used in analyzing the data and presenting the result was qualitative descriptive with some tables and chart to make some part of the analysis clearer. the writer tried to pair competence standards and core standards set by the government with the question forms given to the students. except that, the writer also considered the four levels of literacy and types of reading performance in examining the accuracy of the question forms for the students. findings and discussion text genre and task type reading section that the writer analyzed consists of various kinds of text: job application, procedure text, narrative, descriptive, tourism leaflet, dialogues, short conversation and announcement. those kinds of texts can explore informational literacy level needed by sma/k students. in informational level, students are expected to have an ability to use language to access knowledge and to use it in both formal and informal situation. the table below showed the genre text used in english exam and their relations to basic competence, literacy level and type of reading performance. table 3. text genre in english exam (usbn) text genre basic competence (kd) literacy level type of reading performance job-related reading --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- job application kd 4.2. job application letter informational interactive procedure text kd 4.6. procedure text informational interactive announcement kd 4.4. grabbing contextual meaning related to text structure and language items informational interactive tourism passage kd 4.4. grabbing contextual meaning related to text structure and language items informational interactive personal reading --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- narrative kd 4.4. grabbing contextual meaning related to text structure and language items informational interactive descriptive kd 4.4. grabbing contextual meaning related to text structure and language items informational interactive dialogue kd 4.1 spoken/written simple interpersonal text kd 4.5. transactional text functional selective, interactive language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 73 text genre basic competence (kd) literacy level type of reading performance short conversation kd 4.1 spoken/written simple interpersonal text kd 4.5. transactional text functional selective, interactive as we can see, the organization of text genre involved in english usbn has fulfilled the basic competence, literacy level and types of reading performance. the table above also indicate that the core competence and basic competence set by the government has appropriately adapted the literacy level as well as the types of reading performance proposed by brown (2004). thus, the writer could barely say that the reading section of english usbn has good quality and it supposed to be able to measure the students reading proficiency based on the level of sma/k. the questions given to the students are varied from reading comprehension questions, short-answer task, editing task and gap-filling task. they consist of two basic forms of questions: 30 multiple-choice task and 5 essay task. the composition of each task type is shown on the chart below: chart 1. composition of reading task type in english usbn question sheets as shown in the chart above, reading comprehension task gets the largest portion. it is interesting to see that the gap between reading comprehension task and the other task types is quite large. if we look back at the core competence that have been presented in the previous part of this paper, it is stated that xii grade students supposed to have an ability to understand, apply, analyze and evaluate factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge based on their curiosity in science, technology, art, culture and humanities along with humanity, nationality, statehood, and civilization insights related to causes of certain phenomenon and events, and also apply procedural knowledge of specific fields according to their talents and interests to solve problems. based on this core competence, reading comprehension task is the most advantageous in promoting the students understanding of certain topics 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% question forms 49% 14% 26% 6% 6% reading comprehension task short-answer task gap-filling task editing task vocabulary task language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 74 concerned in the passages. reading comprehension tasks in the reading section of english usbn have represented a sample of the test specifications for toefl reading passages, which are derived from research on a variety of abilities good readers’ exhibit. many of them are consistent with strategies of effective reading: skimming for main idea, scanning for details, guessing word meaning from context, using inferences, using discourse markers, etc. shortly, reading comprehension task is a ‘one fit all’ task type that can be effectively used to assess learner’s reading comprehension. that is why the portion of this kind of task is the largest among the other reading task types. gap-filling tasks in this reading section are presented in dialogue. it is in the second place after reading comprehension task. i would like to highlight the literacy level here; vocational high school students should be in informational level in literacy. it means that they are supposed to be able to use language in formal and informal situation. by giving them gap-filling task in dialogue forms, students need to explore their mental experience related to expression used in such situation illustrated in the dialogue. the least three types, short-answer task, editing and vocabulary task, are closely related to the students’ knowledge of language items both words relation and sentence relation as a whole. actually, language items have been covered in reading comprehension task, so that these three task types are not much exposed in reading section. analysis on students’ answer sheets dealing with various kinds of task types in reading section has made students struggle in answering the task. ideally, the result of the test reflects the students’ proficiency. in this following section, the writer examined the results of the test on reading section that have been done by the students. the following chart exposed that the students mainly have best performance in editing task. this kind of task is obviously helpful for those who lack of vocabulary as it mainly deals with grammatical aspect of the language. by memorizing the grammatical pattern, such as tenses, a student can easily answer this task type. chart 2. percentage of correct answer on each question forms reading comprehension task is in the second place. students seem to have adequate skills in skimming and scanning text to cope with the task. however, the high percentage of its correct answer may be influenced by the number of questions. due to its large numbers, the percentage of correct answer shown will also be as high as the number of percentage of students' correct answers 56% 48% 50% 59% 22% reading comprehension task short-answer task gap-filling task editing task language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 75 questions. the same indication is also prevailed in gap-filling task. i cannot assume that the students have adequate knowledge on using language in certain context, but at least by looking at the chart above i can say that they might succeed in exploring their mental experience to such situations because the dialogues given are relatively familiar to them. students are mostly lack on vocabulary items relating to synonym. although the word meaning is inferred in the passage, they seem to have difficulties in guessing the similar meaning. lack of reading interest can be the major cause in this case. vocabulary item is about nothing but memorizing. the key to make them have billion vocabs is exposing students to reading and listening as many as possible in comprehensible and meaningful way to make it effective. based on the findings reflected in the graph above, students’ reading proficiency was still lack of score. therefore, teachers need to examine their teaching methods and materials to be delivered to the students in order to enhance the level of their skills. further, teachers need to identify what makes students encounter difficulties in reading section. in spite of just improve the teaching methods and materials, it would be more effective if the teachers also take account students’ problems in understanding the materials. conclusion task presented in reading section of english usbn in smk nu ungaran has fulfilled the core competence and basic competence set in permendikbud 24/2016. it also takes literacy level and types of reading performance into consideration to organize the reading section. however, the ratio between reading comprehension task with the other task is too large. it will be more effective if each task type is fairly distributed so that the result will be more valid and reliable. the result of reading section shows that students of xii grade in smk nu ungaran still have lack proficiency in reading skills. out of 50 students, 59% of them are best cope with editing task, followed by 56% in dealing with reading comprehension task, 50% of gap-filling task, 48% with short answer task and the least is 22% in vocabulary task. as we can see, the percentage of correct answer is not even close to 70% for each task type. it means that students’ reading proficiency is absolutely in need to be improved. the improvement measures can be carried out in teaching and learning activity. teacher must ensure to prepare a proper reading material along with the task and deliver it to the student in the most effective ways regarding the students’ needs, lacks and wants. notice that teacher should make the learning activity runs in a communicative and meaningful way to make the students motivated in learning english as foreign language. references: permendikbud, no. 19 (tentang standar nasional pendidikan 2005). permendikbud, no. 24 (tentang kompetensi inti dan kompetensi dasar pelajaran kurikulum 2013 2016). afflerbach, p. (2016, february). reading assessment: looking ahead. the reading teacher, 413419. brown, d. h. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. new york: pearson education inc. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 76 klingner, j. k. (2004). assessing reading comprehension. assessment for effective intervention (pp. 59-70). michigan: michigan state university. marin, j. h. (2009). exploring teacher's practice for assessing reading comprehension abilities in english as a foreign language. profile, 71-84. nunan, d. (1991). language eaching methodology: a textbook for teachers. london: prentice hall. pisa. (2015) results (volume i): excellence and equity in education. retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264266490-en widya, n., & aman. (2015). an evaluation of the implementation of english national examination exercise at ex-rsbi private sma. jurnal penelitian dan evaluasi pendidikan, 217229. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaae3d2010c3 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaafe91b1259 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa82e35104d • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle october 2011.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 73 the evaluation of the present french textbook used in senior high schools in semarang and its surroundings sri rejeki urip, astini su’udi, mursid saleh semarang state university abstract school based curriculum (sbc) as one of the decentralization in education authorizes teachers to develop their own teaching materials. the fact shows that the teacher is still minimal in writing, including writing textbooks. to facilitate french teachers in writing a french textbook, a guideline is needed. in exploration phase of research and development , one of the objectives is to find out the quality of french textbook used today. knowing its strengths and weaknesses is useful because the information can be used as data for developing a guideline for writing a better french textbook. to collect the data, the methods used were (1) document analysis, (2) in-depth interviews, (3) questionnaires, and (4) focus group discussion. to analyze the data, the constant comparative method was utilized. for the trustworthiness of the data, triangulation, member-checking were applied. by using the french textbook evaluation instrument set by bsnp and equipped with cunningsworth criteria, the six volumes of bonjour chers amis were evaluated. there are four components to be evaluated: feasibility of contents, feasibility of presentation, feasibility of language, and practical considerations. the findings reveal that the criteria of french textbook evaluation of bsnp has not been implemented optimally. these findings provide the information of the quality of the french textbook currently used in semarang and its surroundings. the information can be used as an overview what things are to be followed and avoided in developing a guideline for writing a french textbook integrating sbc and cefrl. key words: french textbook, content feasibility, presentation feasibility, language feasibility, practical considerations. introduction decentralization of education has produced some policies. one of them is school based management. this policy gives wider autonomy to schools and supports them to take participative decision involving all of schools’ elements: teachers, students, principals, staffs, parents, and community to develop and to improve the quality of school based on national education policy. (mpmbs, 2001: 3). another policy related with school based management is the existence of school based curriculum. ministry of national education defines curriculum as a set of plans and regulations of objectives, contents, and teaching learning materials, also the ways used as guideline to organize teaching learning activities to achieve certain objectives of education (bnsp 2006:5). school based curriculum (sbc) is an operational curriculum which is 74 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 developed and implemented at every level of schools. sbc consists of the objective of school, structure and content, academic calendar, and syllabus. sbc offers more opportunities to teachers to develop teaching materials particularly textbooks. teachers can create their own textbook that can be more appropriate with the competence and the need of students. the reality shows that there are not many teachers writing a book or a textbook (swisma 2009). there are many reasons why teachers do not create their own textbook, among others (1) they think that they are not competent to write a textbook, (2) there is no guideline that can be used to help teachers to write textbooks. from the identifications of the problems above, it can be concluded that the empowerment of teachers in developing textbook is needed by creating a guideline that can be used to help french teachers to write a textbook. for producing a guideline, a research and development is required. before developing a guideline, the evaluation of the existing french textbook will be done to find out its strengths and weaknesses. review of related literature in this part, some theories related with language teaching materials are presented. language material development teaching materials are anything which are used to help to teach language to learners. (tomlinson 1998:viii-xiii). most people associate the term ‘teaching materials’ with coursebooks or textbook. the two terms: ‘materials’ and ‘coursebook’ are often used interchangeably. according to tomlinson, a coursebook is a textbook which provides the core materials for a course. it aims to provide as much as possible in one book and it is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use during a course. such a book usually includes work on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, function and the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking tomlinson states that language learning materials refers to anything which is used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of language. however, tomlinson (1998:2) mentions some types of teaching materials as follows: (1) a textbook, (2) a workbook, (3) a cassette, (4) a cd-rom, (5) a video, (6) a photocopied handout, (7) a newspaper, (8) a paragraph written on a whiteboard. in brief, anything that presents or informs about the language being learned. the roles of teaching materials in foreign language teaching teaching materials are a key component in most language programs (richards 2001:251). teaching materials have multiple roles in foreign language teaching. cunningsworth (1995: 7) states that coursebook can serve as (a) a resource for presentation material (spoken and written), (b) a source of activities for language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 75 learner practice and communicative interaction, (c) a reference source for learner on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, (d) a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom language activities, (e) syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives that already have been determined), (f) a support for less experienced teachers who have yet gain in confidence. the important role of teaching materials demands the teachers to pay attention to select carefully teaching materials that they will use in their teaching learning process. the criteria of good language teaching materials there are many criteria that can be used to evaluate coursebooks. cunningsworth (1995:24) uses a checklist for evaluation and selection of coursebooks. there are (1) aims and approaches, (2) design and organization, (3) language content, (4) skills, (5) topic, (6) methodology, (7) teachers’ books, (8) practical consideration. the board of education national standard have released criteria for evaluating french textbooks in the end of 2009. the criteria is classified in three groups: (1) feasibility of contents, (2) feasibility of presentation, (3) feasibility of language. for the feasibility of contents, there are six sub-components, namely (1) the suitability of teaching materials with the competence standard and basic competence, (2) the accuracy of the material, (3) the currentness of materials, (4) the implicitness of pragmatic rules, (5) attractiveness, and (6) skills. feasibility of presentation consists of three subcomponents, namely (1) the techniques of presentation, (2) the support of presentation, and (3) the presentation of learning. in the subcomponent of “the technique of presentation”, there are six elements that are evaluated, (a) the consistency of the systematization of the book, (b) the systematization of chapter, (c) the proportion between chapters, (d) the gradation and development, (e) the variety of the exercises, and (f) the consistency in commands and instructions. in the subcomponent of “the support of the presentation”, there are seven elements evaluated. there are (a) the self-assessment of learners, and bilan, (b) the table of conjugation, (c) glossary, (d) index, , (e) bibliography, and (f) audio material. in the subcomponent of “the presentation of learning”, there are four elements assessed, namely (a) involvement of learners, (b) communicative approach, (c) gender, (d) cross cultural understanding. in feasibility of language, there are two subcomponents (1) the accuracy of using the indonesian language, and (2) communicative. in subcomponent of “the accuracy of using the indonesian language”, three elements assessed. they are (a) the accuracy of the indonesian structure sentence, (b) the effectiveness of indonesian sentence, and (c) the 76 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 accuracy of indonesian spelling. in communicative subcomponent, there are four elements to evaluate, namely (a) legibility, (b) technical words, (c) the suitability of the intellectual development of learners, and (d) the suitability with the socio-emotional development of learners. from the two criteria used to evaluate the textbooks above, substantially , both of these criteria have the same elements, except the practical consideration. in this component, cunningsworth (1995:4) groups it in four sub-components, namely (a) the price of book is appropriate with the quality of the book, (b) the book is bounded strongly and long lasting, (c) the cover of the book is interesting, and (d) the book is easy to obtain. there are many reasons for materials evaluation activities. cunningsworth (1995:14) says that the intention to adopt new coursebook is a major and frequent reason for evaluation. another reason is to identify particular strengths and weaknesses in coursebook already in use. he also states that different criteria will be applied in different circumstances (1995:2). in line with cunningsworth (1995), tomlinson (1998:5) says that the systematic procedures of materials evaluation can be used as a means of informing materials development. research methods the objective of this research is to describe the quality of the present french textbooks used in senior high schools in semarang and its surroundings. the approach used in this phase is qualitative approach. qualitative approach is a research of which the objective is to describe and to analyze phenomenon, social activities, perception, thinking, situation (sukmadinata 2008: 60, saleh 2008: 3). by using the criteria of textbook evaluation from bsnp equipped by the criteria of other expert, the french textbook bonjour chers amis has been analyzed. the data gathered is the quality of the present french textbook used in senior high schools in semarang and its surroundings. the source of data is french textbook actually used in senior high schools in semarang and its surroudings. this book is “bonjour chers amis”. there are 6 volumes, volume xa, xb, xi a, xi b, xii a, and xii b. one volume is used for one semester, and (2) the teachers opinion about the french textbook bonjour chers amis. there are four techniques of collecting data used in this phase. technique of document analysis has been carried out to analyze the present french textbooks used in senior high schools. for analyzing the 6 volumes of ‘bonjour chers amis’, the instrument of french textbook evaluation published by bsnp and equipped with the cunningsworth criteria was used. technique of in-depth interview, questionnaire, and focuss group discussion were used to get some language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 77 information about the quality of french textbook “bonjour chers amis constant comparative method was used to analyze the data in this research. (cohen and crabtree 2006 in http://www. qualres.org/homecons-3824.html). strauss and corbin describe the steps for coding that they call (1) open coding, (2) axial coding, (3) selective coding (strauss and corbin 2007, dornyei 2007). the term ‘trustworthiness’ is established by lincoln and guba . this term is used to substitute the concept of reliability and validity in qualitative research (morse et all 2002 in http://www.ualberta.a/~iiqm/backissues/1_ 2final /pdf/morseetal .pdf). in this research, the technique of (1) triangulation, and (2) member-checking were implemented. two types of triangulation were applied in this research: (a) technique of collecting data triangulation. this type was used to check out the consistency of findings generated by different data collection. the techniques of in-depth interview, questionnaire, and focus group discussion were used in this research to reveal the consistency of findings. (b) triangulation of source. this type of triangulation is used to examine the consistency of data gathered from different sources. in this research, the data related with the quality of french textbook was obtained from the analysis of french textbook “bonjour chers amis” and from respondents (french teachers) member-checking is described by lincoln and guba as “the most crucial technique for establishing credibility in a study. it consists of taking data and interpretation back to the participants in the study so that they can confirm the credibility of the information and narrative account (in creswell and miller 2006: 127). the focus group discussion organized in this exploration phase has given the opportunity to the participants to give the credible information or data. every member of participant could check the information from others about the subject discussed during the fgd. the significance of the study is that this result can be used as data for researcher to create a guideline for developing a french textbook integrating school based curriculum and the common european framework of reference for language for senior high school students that will be done in the following phase of research and development. findings and discussion in this section, the profile of french textbook bonjour chers amis and the analysis of this book are discussed the profile of french textbook bonjour chers amis french textbook currently used in senior high schools in semarang and its surroundings is bonjours chers amis. the book was written by a team of five members of the association of french 78 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 teachers (mgmp) in semarang, and is published every year. the profile of bonjour chers amis can be seen from the following tables. table 1 shows the six volumes of bonjour chers amis which are used to class one to class three, the number of pages of each volume, the number of units, the number of pages of each unit. from the second table, we can get the information about the theme and sub-themes of each volume. table 1 the six volumes of bonjour chers amis book x a book x b book xi a book xi b book xii a book xii b class x x xi xi xii xii number of pages 56 72 67 70 64 58 number of units/leçons 2 4 4 4 4 3 number of pages of unit/leçon l 1 : 8 l 2 : 25 l 1: 12 l 2: 16 l 3: 17 l 4: 14 l 1: 15 l 2 : 14 l 3: 15 l 4 : 12 l 1: 15 l 2 : 17 l 3: 12 l 4 : 14 l 1: 13 l 2 : 12 l 3: 14 l 4 : 12 l 1: 13 l 2 : 12 l 3: 13 the analysis of french textbook bonjour chers amis the six volumes of bonjour chers amis were analyzed by using the evaluation criteria of french textbook created by the the board of national education standard and some of cunningsworth’s criteria. there are four main components to be assessed (1) feasibility of contents, (2) feasibility of presentation, (3) feasibility of language, (4) practical considerations. the following are the results of the analysis. feasibility of contents for the suitability of teaching materials with the competence standard and basic standard, there are several elements to be evaluated. for the elements of completeness of the materials, the six volumes present the materials that reflect the competence standard, and basic competence. for example in book x b, for listening skills, students are asked to listen to and imitate the dialogue read by the teacher (exercise 7, page 9). furthermore, students are asked to identify the new vocabulary that they get from the dialogue that they listen (exercise 8, page 10). in the next exercise, students were asked to language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 79 answer several questions related to the dialogue. table 2 the theme and sub-themes of each volume of the books for speaking skill, in exercise 2 page 6, students play the role about the activities happened in the classroom. this material is appropriate with the competence standard and basic competence for speaking skill. in exercise 6 on page 54, the students answer the questions related to the provided documents. this is suitable with competence standard and basic competence for reading skill. for writing skill, in exercise 20 on page 14, the students are asked to write their e-mail address. this is related with the standard of competence and basic competence for writing skill. on the element of the vastness of materials, the six volumes of bonjour chers amis present the descriptions that support the achievement of basic competence. the examples can be seen from the variations in practice. for the element of the depth of the material, students are not trained in listening skill optimally. for example in the book xi a with the theme of vie familiale, and which is broken down in 4 unités , namely : relations familiales; maison, pièce, appartement; rendre visite à quelqu'un; and lettre, the researcher found only seven exercises for listening skills. for the accuracy of materials, there are some sentences that are not commonly used by the french, for example super ta chambre (book xi a, exercise 11 page 23). the french uses ta chambre est super. for the accuracy of the grammatical rules, there are some inaccurate sentences in using the rules of language . for example in book xa : (1) observez les dessins et écoutez les dialogues et jouer book x a book x b book xi a book xi b book xii a book xii b thème: sub thème identité : salutation présentation vie scolaire classe bibliothèque leçon supplémentaire amitié vie familiale relations familiales. maison, pièce, appartement rendre visite à quelqu’un lettre vie quotidienne activités de famille repas télévisions vêtements loisirs sport et passe temps musique et danse lire faire des courses vacances week end endroits touristique service publics 80 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 le role devant la classe (page 14), (2) bonne nuit, ma petite, dormez bien! (page 18). from the evaluation of the elements of simple sentence pattern, it is concluded that some compound sentences are used. it is also revealed from the result of interviews with the teachers that some sentences used in the book bonjours chers amis are compound sentences. students are still difficult to study the compound sentences.most of the compound sentences are found in the instructions, for example (1) complétez le au desous avec les mots ce que vous écoutez! (exercice 2, page 8 books x b). the grammar used is appropriate with the theme. the tenses used are le présent, le futur simple, le passé composé. for the recency of materials, some of the materials used are the newest material, such as the names of french used in the present (page 20 books xa). in the implicitness of pragmatic rules, on element of “language used is appropriate with the social situation”, there is a structure of language that does not match with the variety of language, for example bonne nuit, ma petite, dormez bien! (page 18 ,book x a). in this sentence, the structure of a far social distance is used for a context of close social distance. in attractiveness, the element of indonesian culture has not been discussed. but in the book used in a higher class, little by little this element is discussed. the authentic texts have not been used in book x. at higher grade, authentic texts are used. the texts are taken from wikipidia and sport magazine. feasibility of presentation in the technique of presentation”, there are six elements that are evaluated, (a) the consistency of the systematization of the book , (b) the systematization of chapter, (c) the proportion between chapters, (d) the gradation and development, (e) the variety of the exercises, and (f) consistency in commands and instructions. it can be concluded that from the six volumes of bonjour chers amis, volume 1 does not have the same organization as the other five volumes. in each chapter, there are exercises for all four skills, although these four skills are not proportionately explored. some teaching materials presented in the six volumes have not followed the criteria of evaluation set out by bsnp, that the verb is presented from simple to difficult, from the regular verbs into irregular verbs, and verbs of high frequency to low-frequency verbs. in bonjour chers amis, the verbs used are adapted to the theme. the six volumes do not contain the self-assessment of learners. the examples of self-assessment of learners are: i can introduce myself in french. yes / no / hesitate. i could expose my family. yes / no / hesitate. the books do not provide glossary, index, or audio material. in this book, the language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 81 exercises involve students, such as playing a role in greeting and introducing themselves. this book does not fully use the communicative approach, because some exercises still emphasize the grammar. not all of the volumes presents women and men equally. this means that the concept of equality is not presented intentionally. feasibility of language in subcomponent of “the accuracy of using the indonesian language”, three elements assessed. they are (a) the accuracy of the indonesian structure sentence, (b) the effectiveness of indonesian sentence, and (c) the accuracy of indonesian spelling. the six volumes do not contain these components, because bonjour chers amis does not use indonesian for the commands or instructions, so there is no evaluation for these components. the sentences used in bonjour chers amis, especially in the instructions, are not simple sentences. similarly, some texts taken from magazines, internet, or other textbooks published in france do not use the simple sentences. indonesian is not used in this book, thus the elements technical words, the suitability of the intellectual development of learners, and the suitability with the socio-emotional development of learners can not be evaluated. practical considerations in the component of practical considerations, there are four elements assessed, namely (a) the price of book is appropriate with the quality of the book, (b) the book is bounded strongly and long lasting, (c) the cover of the book is interesting, and (d) the book is easy to obtain. the four elements are met in the six volumes of the book. conclusion from the above analysis, it can be concluded that (1) some criteria of evaluation of french textbook from bsnp have not been optimally fulfilled in the french textbook bonjour chers amis, (2) the book bonjour chers amis is not equipped with (a) introduction, (b) table of content, (c) glossary, (d) index, (e) audio transcription, (f) bilan, (g) the student self-assessment. (3) the research results will be used to conduct the following phase of the research and development. references badan standar nasional pendidikan.2006. kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan jenjang pendidikan dasar dan menengah. jakarta : bsnp badan standar nasional pendidikan dan pusat perbukuan depdiknas. 2009.instrumen 1 dan deskripsi penilaian buku teks pelajaran bahasa prancis. jakarta. badan standar nasional pendidikan dan pusat perbukuan depdiknas. 2009. instrumen 2 dan deskripsi penilaian 82 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 buku teks pelajaran bahasa prancis. jakarta. cohen, d and crabtree, b.2006. “lincoln and guba’s evaluative criteria” in qualitative research guideline project. july 2006. in http://www.qualres.org/homelinc3684.html [accessed 19/52011] creswell, john w., and miller, dana l. 2006. “determining validity in qualitative inquiry” in theory into practice.volume 39, number 3, summer 2000. college of education. the ohio state university in http://web.media.mit.edu/~kbrennan/ mas790/04/creswell,%20determining %20validity%20in%20qualitative%20in quiry.pdf [accessed 26/5/2011] cunningsworth, alan. 1995. choosing your coursebook. great britain: heinemann english language teaching. depdiknas. 2001. manajemen peningkatan mutu berbasis sekolah. buku 1 konsep dan pelaksanaan. jakarta. dornyei, zoltan. 2007. research methods in applied linguistics. oxford: oxford university press. lincoln and guba’s evaluative criteria in cohen d, crabtree b.2006. qualitative research guideline project. july 2006. in http://www.qualres.org/homelinc3684.html [accessed 19/52011]. morse, j.m., barrett,m., mayan,m., olson, k., & spiers, j. 2002. “verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research”. international journal of qualitative methods 1 (2), article 2, in http://www.ualberta.ca/ ~ijqm/ [accessed 24/5/2011] richards, jack c.2006. communicative language teaching today. cambrigde : cambridge university press. saleh, mursid. 2008. enam tradisi besar penelitian pendidikan bahasa. semarang: unnes press. strauss, anselm and juliet corbin.2007. dasar-dasar penelitian kualitatif.tatalangkah dan teknikteknik teoritisasi data.terj. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. sukmadinata, nana syaodih.2008. metode penelitian pendidikan. bandung: program pascasarjaan universitas pendidikan indonesia dengan pt remaja rosdakarya. swisma. 2009. guru dan dosen minim menulis. http://www.harianglobal.com/ index.php?option=com_content&view= article&id=26543:guru-dan-dosen-inimmenulis-buku-teks-&catid=56: edukasi &itemid=63[accessed 29 january 2010] the constant comparative method in www.health.herts.ac.uk/.../ constant_comparative_method. htm [accessed 4/5/2011] tomlinson, brian. 1998. materials development in language teaching10th printing 2007. united kingdom: cambridge university. language circle october 2011.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 1 teaching translation by using a cooperative work procedure (classroom action research at english department of language and arts faculty, semarang state university) rudi hartono semarang state university abstract translating indonesian texts into english versions is a complicated task for students to do. it is shown by them when they do translation in the classroom. the problems usually come into their mind when they have to search equivalent words, appropriate grammar and accepted structure for target language they will produce. this scene can be observed when they do translating activity individually. they just do it themselves without doing collaboration with their friends. they only look up a dictionary and think of it themselves. in this situation a teacher just assigns the task and assesses it, no more to do. as a result, the translation products of the students are poor. therefore, in order to improve the students’ translation ability and quality of translation, the teacher should teach the students translation by using a cooperative work procedure (cwp) in their translation process. this procedure can lead the students be able to translate well and produce good translation products because they do translating process in a collaborative group. key words: teaching translation, translation, source language, target language, cooperative work procedure introduction the main problem of translation is finding out the equivalence (larson, 1984). in relation to this statement, nida (1969:12) defines that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. sperber and wilson in bell (1991:6) state that translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. so, the equivalence is the main point that should be solved by all translators. here the translators should be able to find out the closest and most natural meaning of words for the target language they aim. the problem of equivalence itself can be felt when someone translates or teaches his or her students translation. the students are usually complaint that they are difficult to translate the text given to them by their teacher. the difficulties they often have are finding out the equivalent words, appropriate grammar and structure for their translation. this happened particularly when they translate indonesian texts into the english ones. 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 based on the pilot study done in the previous semester, for example, it is shown that almost students who took part in translation class had difficulties in the vocabulary, grammar, and structure equivalence. this fact can be seen in the following chart. based on the chart above, it can be explained that vocabulary (45%) is the most difficult aspect in translation, while grammar (30%) is less difficult than vocabulary or more difficult than structure, and structure itself is the easiest of all. according to the observation and interview, the difficulty of vocabulary itself means that the students are not easy to find out equivalent words when they translate them into english. then the difficulty of grammar equivalence means that they are difficult to find out appropriate grammar based the grammatical rules of english. meanwhile, the difficulty of structure is that the students are difficult to determine accepted structure in english language. this situation almost happened every semester, particularly in the even semester on which the students took translation subject that obliged them to translate the texts from indonesian into english. the main factor that made them difficult to translate was translating the texts by keeping conventional procedure. in the translation process each student did translating activity individually. practically the students never asked one another. they just looked up their dictionary and thought of everything themselves. the teacher himself did not monitor or lead them to do the best. he just assigned them and assessed their translation products. as a result, the students’ translation quality was poor. this atmosphere is not good to leave behind, so that there should be a solution to overcome those problems. the alternative solution to eliminate the problems above is applying a cooperative work procedure (cwp) in teaching translation. this procedure is not a new language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 3 one but it will be effective to lead the students to become a good translator. it means that through this procedure they will be trained to translate the texts in group and managed to produce a better quality of translation. in relation to this problem, gerdingsalas (2000) says that a good translator should define some essential startingpoints for the approximation to a text to be translated, such as the author of the text, the aim of the text, the readership, and the standard to be used, for which it is important to identify and categorize the author, the message, the kind of discourse, the translator and the readership. all these points are primary requirements for those who want to be a good translator. so the procedure that can send the students to this goal is applying cooperative work procedure (cwp). according to gerding-salas (2000) the cooperative work procedure can send the translator students to be 1) a translator who is aware that misunderstanding of the text will decrease translation quality, so they have to use effective strategies in translating process, for examples, underlining words, detecting translation difficulties, and searching appropriate equivalences contextually, 2) a translator who knows that the meaning is not only delivered or transferred through words but also through diagrams, pictures, and charts, and 3) a translator who is able to understand deeply the essence of meaning, taste, register, style, etc and to map the format of source text, such as references, paragraphs, text dints, columns, tables, and else by paying attention to target text units. this procedure can motivate translator students to be productive translators and to produce a better quality of translation. in addition benny hoed (2003) and xianbin (2005) comment that a translator should be able to transfer the message from source language into target language. he or she has a central role in translation process and has to decide to choose whether he wants to use foreignization ideology or domestication ideology. it means that here the translator should be consistent on his or her choice whether he or she tends to the source text or the target text. this consistency is also a problem for him or her. the followings are the steps of a cooperative works procedure suggested by gerding-salas (2000): (1) the teacher makes a selection of the material to be translated. texts must be chosen according to previously defined objectives for translation practice, taking into account the degree of difficulty of the texts (semantic, cultural, stylistic, etc.), the topic or the specific knowledge area (science and technology; social, institutional, economic and/or political topics; and literary or philosophical works), the translation problems to be solved, and so on. 4 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 (2) after browsing through the text (scan reading and/or skim reading), the students, assisted by their teacher, should identify the source, the norm, the type of text, the register, the style and the readership of the text selected. it is a kind of game of the imagination in which the text is real but the client and her/his needs are imaginary. (3) the students should read the whole text at least twice: the first reading will be comprehensive and general, to become acquainted with the topic and to understand the original, always bearing in mind that meaning is context-determined. (4) the second reading must be a "deep" reading, placing emphasis on items where translation problems may appear. in other words, this is what i have called "reading with translation intention," i.e. doing pre-editing and assessing the quality of the writing (reminder: not all texts are well written). in my opinion, when translating into the target language, if the translator detects mistakes (usually due to misprints) in the original text, s/he should be entitled to amend them in her/his version if too obvious or else consult the client or an expert in case of doubt. when doing this "reading with translation intention," students should first underline unknown terms and then they should mentally confront potential translation difficulties in the text with suitable translation procedures. (5) the teacher then divides the text into as many segments as students in the group. depending on the degree of difficulty and the length of the text, these segments may be paragraphs, columns, pages or even whole chapters. then, each student is assigned a fair portion of the text. the segment distribution order should rotate so that a different student begins a translation unit every time. (6) if the topic is already quite familiar to the students, they do a preliminary translation. as this is the first approach to the text, it will probably lack naturalness, since students tend to transfer source language units of translation to target language units of translation ("one-to-one translation," newmark, 1995a). this first approach can often be made orally and suggested annotations may be written in the margins. (7) if the topic is completely unknown to the students, they should consult complementary literature. in other words, before beginning the transfer process, they should resort to various documentation sources, especially parallel texts (those which are similar in nature and style) in the language of the original. this allows them to achieve a deeper understanding of the topic under study. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 5 (8) once the "one-to-one" version is accomplished, the students do a second version of their own translation—this time a written draft— handling the most suitable translation strategies and procedures and being faithful in the transfer of ideas. (9) with the original text in front of her/him and being careful to follow the same correlative order of the source language text, each student reads out her/his own version of the translated text, making the necessary pauses between sentences. (10) the students and the teacher follow the reading of each text attentively. as a monitoring activity, everybody should feel free to stop the reading at the end of a given sentence and have the reading of the segment repeated, when the situation warrants comments, suggestions, questions, contributions, etc. the students have to "defend" their work against criticism. (11) during this procedure, the students and the teacher need to set up all necessary conventions with regard to the homogeneity of the terms and the coherence and cohesion of the final version. (12) as newmark states, "translation is for discussion" (newmark, 1995b). students should then be encouraged to take notes and discuss the (in)convenience of the contributions and comments arising from this analytical reading of each one of the different versions proposed. (13) as a metacognitive activity, the students, assisted by the teacher, analyze the translation strategies and procedures used, and discuss the reasons taken into account in the choice of each analyzed criterion: "the ability to discuss translations in an objective way is central to a translator's competence", (kussmaul, 1995). (14) the students hand in the final version of their revised and post-edited segments, which have already been amended in the light of the whole text. the work must be typed, doublespaced and paged according to the original. (15) the teacher makes a final revision (second post-edit), gives formative evaluation and makes comments, emphasizes findings, "happy" solutions and creative acts, on the one hand, and analyzes failures and weaknesses in the process, on the other. the study the present study aims to find support from empirical evidence to see if a cooperative work procedure is effective in teaching translation at the sixth semester university students of english department. this study employs a classroom action research (car) proposed by elliott that has popular stages: plan, action, 6 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 observation, and reflection (macisaac, 1996:2). this research was conducted in one class consisted of 20 students that had specific problems in translation. they faced the problems of vocabulary, grammar, and structure when they did translation individually. the pre-test was given as a starting point that informed the condition before the research. then the students were interviewed in order to know the information of their problems in translating texts individually from indonesian into english. to complete the information taken from the students, the observation was done in the classroom. having had the information from three sources: pre-test, in-depth interview, and observation, the classroom action research was conducted then. the cooperative work procedure was planned to do. then the action was conducted by dividing the class into five small groups of four. each group was given a task of translation. they had to translate an indonesian article into english. in their group the students translated the text together cooperatively. they did discussion and collaboration. the teacher controlled the class and monitored the groups. he instructed and sometimes solved the students’ problems during translating the text. it can be said that in this situation students and students, teacher and students do a good interaction and communication. during the students translated the text, the teacher observed the situation and jotted down the activity done by the students in the classroom. he also took photographs as the facts of the action and observation. after three fore stages were conducted, the teacher did reflection by doing interviews to all groups of students and giving them questionnaires to answer. all information was obtained as the data of research to support findings and the result of the research. findings and discussion based on the pre-test of translation, the students’ translation scores were fair. almost the students got score 60 that indicates not good quality of translation. they did some distortions in meaning, unacceptable grammar, rigid structures, and non-standard terms. below is the table of pre-test result of translation test from indonesian language into english. tabel 1 the result of translation pre-test no. partisipant’s code pre-test score 1. code 1 61 2. code 2 59 3. code 3 57 4. code 4 63 5. code 5 60 6. code 6 60 7. code 7 62 8. code 8 58 9. code 9 63 10. code 10 57 11. code 11 60 12. code 12 60 13. code 13 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 7 14. code 14 52 15. code 15 58 16. code 16 62 17. code 17 65 18. code 18 55 19. code 19 60 20. code 20 60 average score 60 according to the initial interview before the research was conducted, the students responded some questions given and said that doing an individual translation project or before applying a cooperative work procedure (cwp), the translation process was slow, there were not evaluation and revision of translation, translation task was a heavy burden, and the translation product was not good. then based on the observation before the cwp was conducted, the students just did their translation project themselves and only looked a dictionary, while the teacher just assigned and assessed their translation product. later, according to the questionnaires given, they commented that before the cwp application they really faced the problems of vocabulary, grammar, and structure in translation process. on the contrary what happened after the cwp was conducted? all progressed well and seemed successful. for examples, the students’ translation scores increased from 60 to 77.80 and the atmosphere of translation process changed extremely, from individual activity to group activity. here the students can do discussion and share the problems one another interactively and the teacher helps them communicatively. automatically their translation quality improved well. all students feel that the last condition is better than the previous one. some data in the tables below can be seen and compared, as the facts that the cwp is effective to use in teaching translation as a way of improving the students’ translation quality. those data are taken from pre-test and post test and also from interview and observation. the following is the comparison of the translation result between pre-test and post test. tabel 2 the progress of translation result no. individual participant group participant pre-test score post-test score progress score 1. kode 1 i 61 76 16 2. kode 2 59 3. kode 3 57 4. kode 4 63 5. kode 5 ii 60 75 15 6. kode 6 60 7. kode 7 62 8 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 8. kode 8 58 9. kode 9 iii 63 78 18 10. kode 10 57 11. kode 11 60 12. kode 12 60 13. kode 13 iv 68 80 20 14. kode 14 52 15. kode 15 58 16. kode 16 62 17. kode 17 v 65 80 20 18. kode 18 55 19. kode 19 60 20. kode 20 60 average of progress score 17.80 based on the table above, it can be seen that the average progress score before and after the cwp application is 17.80. it indicates that the action is successful. it means that all students in group increased their scores of translation and improved their translation quality. it is the fact that the cwp is effective to apply in the translation class. the other data that can support the effectiveness of the cwp that was successful to send the students to be good translators are the data in the diagram below. diagram 1 the classroom activity after the cwp application language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 9 based on the information above, there is a different condition before and after the cwp application. the activity of translation leads the students to produce a collective product of translation that is regarded as the better result of translation. here the teacher positions himself not only as a teacher but also as a director or manager, while the students are as players who tend to show a good performance and work of translation. it seems very harmonious. it must be remembered that finally the real final objective of learning is to help learners be professional in their job. the following information is taken from the interview. it proofs that the cwp application has changed the bad condition into the good one. look at the diagram below. diagram 2 the condition after the cwp application the last findings can be seen in the table below taken from the questionnaires. it describes the students’ comments before and after the cwp application in the translation process. tabel 3 the students’ response after the cwp application item statement response yes no 1 there is a difficulty in translating a text from indonesian into english if it is done individually. 13 (65%) 7 (35%) 2 the vocabulary is a problem in translating a text from indonesian into english if it is done individually. 10 (50%) 10 (50%) 3 the grammar is a problem in translating a text from indonesian into english if it is done individually. 9 (45%) 11 (55%) 10 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 4 the structure is a problem in translating a text from indonesian into english if it is done individually. 12 (60%) 8 (40%) 5 vocabulary, grammar, and structure problems are decreased when the cooperative work procedure (cwp) is applied. 19 (95%) 1 (5%) 6 the cwp is effective to lead students to produce a good translation product. 19 (95%) 1 (5%) the data above were taken from the questionnaires given to 20 students as respondents of the research. it informs that the translation project done individually has caused the difficulties of vocabulary, grammar, and structure for students. on the contrary the cwp applied in the teaching translation activity has led the students to be successful in producing good products of translation. conclusion the research findings inform completely that the cooperative work procedure is very effective to apply in teaching translation activity because it can create conducive situations for students to produce a good translation product. by doing collaboration and discussion, the students in their groups monitored and directed by the teacher can be able to translate indonesian texts into english ones successfully. so, it is suggested that teachers of translation can apply this procedure in their classroom to overcome their students’ problems and difficulties in translation process, particularly when they translate the texts from indonesian into english. finally their students will become good and professional translators. references bassnett-mcguire, s. 1991. tanslation studies. revised edition. london: routledge. bell, r.t. 1991. translation and translating: theory and practice. london: longman group uk limited. hoed, b. 2003. “penelitian di bidang penerjemahan”. jawa barat: lokakarya penelitian ppm stba lia. cataloging-in-publication data. catford, j.c. 1978. a linguistic theory of translation. oxford: oxford university press. choliludin. 2006. the technique of making idiomatic translation. bekasi: visipro divisi dari kesaint blanc. gerding-salas, c. 200. teaching translation problems and solutions”. translation journal. volume 4, no. 3 july 2000. retrieved from http://accurapid.com/journal/13educ.ht m on june 11, 2009. james, k. 2006. “cultural implication for translation”. retrieved from http://accurapid.com/journal/22delight. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 11 htm last updated on: 02/25/2006 08:03:34). kussmaul, p. 1995. training the translator. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. larson, m.l. 1984. meaning-based translation: a guide to crosslanguage equivalence. lanham: university press of amerika,ô inc. macisaac, dan. 1996. introduction to action research. http://www.physics.nau.edu/~danmac. newmark. 1988. a textbook of translation. united kingdom: prentice hall international (uk) ltd. nida, eugene a. dan taber, charles r. 1982. the theory and practice of translation. leiden: e.j. brill. nord, c. 1997. translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. manchester, uk: st. jerome publishing. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaa1c261158 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfea9deb0f1050 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 9 improving students’ argumentative writing skill through rubric and group feedback karolis anaktototy english education study program pattimura university, ambon, indonesia e-mail: wakwyoya@gmail.com abstract this study intends to gain comprehensive understanding about the implementation of rubric and group feedback and to know students’ argumentative writing achievement. this study was conducted at the fourth semester students of english education study program of teacher college pattimura university in ambon academic year 2015/2016. action research method was used in this study. data collection instruments used were students writing assessment rubrics, questionnaires, and record / field observation sheets of both observer and researcher. descriptive statistics was used in analyzing data. the results shows that the synergy of rubric and group based feedback have improved students’ argumentative writing skills. in pre cycle the average score of the students was 66.26 while in cycle i the average score was 72.09. in cycle ii the students’ average score rose to 78.00. overall, more than 70% of the students have acquired good score for their argumentative writing. rubric and group feedback strategy in fact has improved students’ argumentative writing skill. key words: argumentative writing, rubric, group feedback introduction writing an essay in english has always been the most demanding task to be accomplished by indonesian students. it is not only due to the context of learning english as a foreign language in which exposure to the use of english is mostly limited in the classroom but also because of the nature of writing which is the most difficult skill among the four language skills. considering the complexity of writing skills there has been innovative ways proposed and tried out by language experts and practitioners to make the learning of writing easier and enjoyable for students. so far, the most common used approach to teach writing is the process approach. this approach is used because a step by step accomplishment of the writing task is needed in order to make the process of writing become reasonable and easier for students. it is also to show that writing is a multiple process not a single process. studying at university demands students to possess adequate writing skills in order for them to cope with given writing tasks. moreover, as part of educated community they have to learn how to communicate knowledge and information they learned through writing. in this research, an interview had been conducted at fourth semester academic year 2015/2016 of english education study program pattimura university who enrolled in writing 3 course. this course focuses to study argumentative essay. according to the students, argumentative essay is a difficult text to write because they have to argue logically based on facts and not merely on their own opinion. it certainly takes time to find references related to the topic that will be written and requires concentration to develop language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 10 coherent and logical arguments. a learning process approach has been applied but it needs to be repacked using strategies or ways that empower students to learn so that the skill of writing can be mastered gradually. to overcome students argumentative writing problems as well as to improve their writing skills, rubrics and group based feedback were choosen to be applied in the teaching and learning process. so far, rubric is used as a means of evaluating the results of students' writing. however, it can also be used as a learning tool or instructional tool. covill (2012) stated that the use of rubrics as a learning style is in line with social cognitive theory to improve students' writing ability. cognitive theory supports the use of rubrics to improve writing skills as rubric can facilitate cognitive processes at the time of writing. plant (2015) suggested several reasons why a teacher or lecturer should use rubric in learning process, namely (a) rubric can improve the work of the students and help them monitor their work; (b) rubric is easy to be used and explained even for students who possess basic capabilities; (c) rubric helps students to think and focus more on the quality of their work and the work of other students. besides, andrade (2000) mentioned that through rubric, lecturer can deliver what he hopes to explain. the expectation of the lecturer on the task to be completed by the students can be clearly highlighted in a rubric. moreover, rubric also provides information about what students are doing well and what should be improved. rubric can also support the process of learning, skills development, development of comprehension, and critical thinking. bennett jr. (2008) mentioned that in the learning process, having clear and standardized criteria can save time in the evaluation process, help explain to students what to expect, shows what is taught, helping students to participate in their own learning process, helping classmates to give constructive feedback during the planning to the writing process, and help lecturers to provide a consistent and honest assessment. turgut and kayaoglu (2015) also advocated rubric as a learning tool in writing instruction. they stated that the integration of rubric in the process of writing helps teachers to plan and shape writing instruction by breaking the course into measurable and observable components. in doing so students are expected to be able to develop their writing skill independently. according to manuputty (2015) practice writing through a process approach provides many opportunities to apply rubric. the better students understand the learning rubric, the better they evaluate their own work without depending too much on the lecturer. through learning rubric, the role of the lecturer will be changed as a facilitator of learning instead of as an agent of knowledge transfer. furthermore, according to lu and zhang (2013), in order to write better arguments it is necessary to use rubric to evaluate the arguments of others. they cite the opinion of some experts about the inability of students to write and evaluate the argument and stated that the inability of students might be due to inadequate learning process, less prior knowledge of students, and inadequate teaching and training to write formally. from these opinions of experts, it is clear that rubric has a strong theoretical foundation to be applied in teaching writing to improve student writing skills. wyngaard and gehrke in turgut and kayaoglu (2015) conducted a study on the relationship between the use of criteria measurement and improvement in writing skills using an analytical rubric. students used analytic rubrics that contain clear descriptions for each component that will be developed. they discussed the rubric with students and equip students with the rubric to evaluate the results of their own writing. at the end of the semester they evaluate students’ writing using the same rubric. they concluded that the use of rubrics is very effective to improve student writing. language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 11 meanwhile, according to patchan, schunn, and clark (2011) without guidance, students usually edit their writing by focusing on revising grammar, misprinted word, or rewrite several sentences that are still not properly written while the addition of the substance and the development of writing is ignored. by doing so, the result of students’ writing is not growing significantly. however, when students write using rubric, they will be able to change the way they revise their work. this certainly will affect the way and the quality of feedback given to their classmates. as a writing evaluation tool and guidelines for argumentative writing an analytic rubric has been prepared following the concept of rubric writing proposed by mertler (2001) as seen in appendix a. the analytic rubric was designed to evaluate students’ ability to write argumentative essay which was broken down into three aspects namely content, organization, and language use. the score of each aspect was combined to gain the total score of every student. the same rubric was used by students to develop their writing. rubric can be integrated with group feedback to achieve a better writing result. after a student wrote an essay using rubric, the next activity is to provide feedback on the results of student writing that took place in their respective groups. liu and hansen in abu bakar, et.al (2012) stated that joint revision is supported by four theories, namely the theory of process writing, writing together (collaborative writing), as well as vygotsky’s perspectives interactionists and second language acquisition theory. furthermore, dix and cawkwell (2011) assert that "the collaborative, social and cognitive dimensions of peer group response draw on pedagogical process approaches theories recognizing that when writing is responded to, it can be revisited, evaluated and ultimately revised to enhance the message." (p.45) moreover, pritchard and honeycutt in dix and cawkwell (2011) mentioned that the effectiveness of the process of writing is associated with the dynamics of social and cognitive of feedback in group that is giving response to students’ writing through criteria in order to have good writing results. there are also some basic theories that put the emphasis on learning to write through group discussion. grabe and kaplan (1997) stated that one of the ways used to give feedback on the product of student writing is by interacting in group. this is based on understanding that the writing process carried out requires an audience other than the teacher in connection with the providing of feedback. in this process the students are more exposed to the language learned and used to respond to their group members’ writing product. from this experience they can see the same problems and weaknesses in their own writing. at the same time they can use creative and innovative ideas that they get from the other group members’ writing.. students also need to learn to accept the logical response from the reader and use it constructively in the improvement of their writing. grabe and kaplan (1997) also put forward several arguments in favor of the use of feedback in a group that is; (a). research in the field of rhetoric, critical literacy, and social construction explain that knowledge is constructed through negotiations that occur in a community. knowledge can not be released from a scientific community and knowledge will change when the community is reconstructing itself. this argument is used to support the idea of group-based feedback in learning writing skill. this perspective is also in line with the approach of readerresponse and post-structuralist to the analysis and interpretation of the text that is coherence of texts are created and recreated by the reader and is not inherent in the text. all three of these disciplines together provide a strong argument for an effective way for students to read texts and receive feedback; (b). the theoretical argument for feedback in group arises from a combination of disciplines of sociolinguistics and cognitive language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 12 psychology (socio-cognitive). socio-cognitive approach of learning argues that the best way to gain knowledge is through negotiation interactions. according to this view, students will develop the ability to write effectively when they engage in transactions involving their writing products and the products of their classmates; (c). another argument that supports group feedback is derived from the results of research on cooperative learning. in the process of cooperative learning, the group can work together in various forms to complete tasks and projects that support the success of the learning process and is usually followed by writing activities at the end of the learning process. similarly, tang and tithecott (1999) stated that giving feedback in group is widely implemented in line with the changing paradigm of learning to write from productoriented to a process-oriented approach. this led to an emphasis on the process of helping students to know how to write through a process approach that is planning, writing the draft, and revising. so the feedback in a group provides an opportunity for students to practice their writing and evaluate others’ writing based on defined criteria. in addition, the learning activities promote interaction among students to make students as a learning center. through group feedback, lecturer creates a balance between learning undertaken by lecturer and student-centered activities. in addition, hu, zamel, and rollinson in kustati and yuhardi (2014) explained that the reason for using the students’ feedback in teaching writing skills is because; (a). students find feedback from fellow students as a source of valuable information to supplement information provided by the lecturer; (b). students found that feedback from lecturer is too general, vague, poorly understood, and more mandatory than the feedback from fellow students who are believed to be more specific; (c). process of giving response and revision provide more effective revision and critical reading; and (d). feedback in group provides a real audience for students’ writing. the ideas proposed by researchers and practitioners are the evidence to assert that feedback is an important part of the process of learning to write. the use of feedback in group will gradually accustom students to take responsibility for their own work. in line with this, hyland (2003) stated that feedback in group can be done since the beginning of writing activities. students can work together in the pre-writing activities to discuss the idea in order to complete the writing assignment given. they can also give feedback to each other on the ideas that have been collected and the outline of writing that they have made. this is all intended to increase awareness and knowledge on how to develop students writing. the use of feedback in a group is an attempt to make the learning process centered on the student. through feedback in group there will be enthusiasm and motivation for students to learn and increase their participation in learning. students will increase their level of cognitive awareness because they are aware of their strengths and weaknesses of their classmates and learn to solve problems they encounter. according to qu and yang (2010), the implementation of feedback and self-assessment will make the final evaluation to be more rational and better. it will make faculty understand the learning process of students. rubric has been the guidance for the students when composing their argumentative essay. however, when students start the process of giving feedback in their respective group, they were provided with a list of guiding questions to give them focus on giving feedback for their classmates writing product. based on the description of learning problems related to argumentative writing faced by students as well as the study of theories that have been presented, this study was focused to answer the following questions: (1)how is the process of improving students argumentative writing skill through language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 13 the integration of rubric and group-based feedback? (2) to what extend does the integration of rubric and group based feedback can increase students argumentative writing skill? methodology this action research was conducted using the model of kemmis and mctaggart consisting of four stages namely planning, action, observation, and reflection (burns, 2010). this study was conducted to overcome students problem in writing argumentative essay. 42 students from english study program at pattimura university who enrolled in this course were chosen as the population of the research. the instruments for this study were questionnaire, observation checklist, and students writing product. the initial step was to observe the learning process of the students to identify their problems in writing argumentative easy. based on the identified probems, rubric and group based strategy was chosen to be used integratedly to assist students in writing argumentative essay. the next step was planning the action using rubric and group based strategy to be implemented in the learning process. during the learning process the researcher and the collaborator took turns in observing and taking notes to see the effectiveness of the strategy and the dynamic interaction in group feedback. the last step was a reflection on the process of learning from the beginning until the end. the reflection was done to see whether data and notes taken were in accordance with the aim of the study or not. besides, the reflection was intended to identify things that were not smoothly executed as expected during the learning process. the result of reflection was discussed with the collaborator for further improvement in the next cycle. this study was implemented in two cycles. quantitative data was gathered through students writing product at the end of each cycle. the writing product was scored based on an argumentative writing rubric. the rubric consist of three aspects of writing namely content, organization and language use. from these aspects, seven criteria were developed to score students writing ability.they were (a) formulation of thesis statement; (b) topic sentence supported by relevan information; (c) thesis statement is supported by pro and cons argument; (d) comprehensive introduction and conclusion paragraph; (e) well organized information; (f) appropriate vocabulary, and; (g) acceptable grammar. quantitative data was obtained using likert scale. while qualitative data was obtained through classroom observation and field record. to answer the two questions of this study, descriptive statistics was used to analyze the quantitative data while for the qualitative data, content analysis was used to interpret the implementation of rubric and group based feedback during teaching and learning process. results and discussions results the result showed that argumentative writing skill of students has increased from pre cycle to cycle i and from cycle i to cycle ii. this is the impact of the application of rubrics and providing feedback in group. students’ average score in every cycle indicated that there has been a gradual improvement of student argumentative writing skill. for pre cycle, students’ average score was 66.26 and the number of students who scored ≥ 70% was only 21.42%. after the implementation of the first cycle, the average score of students increased to 72, 09 or increased 5.83 points compared to the average score in pre cycle, while the number of students who achieved score ≥ 70% increased to 64.27% in cycle i. in the second cycle the average score rose to 78, an increase of 5.91 points and the number of students who received grades ≥ 70 rose to 95, 23%. comparison of the average score of students can be seen in figure 1. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 14 figure 1: the average score of students’ argumentative writing for every cycle to have the average score of students’ argumentative writing, three aspects of writing have been scored. the writing aspects were content, organization, and the use of language. the average score for each aspect can be seen in figure 2. figure 2. the average score of students’ argumentative writing for content as seen in figure 2 the average score of students for content in pre-cycle was 68.26 and in the first cycle students’ score increased to 72.35, a rise of 4.09 points. in the second cycle the average score was 75.02, with an increase of 2.67 points. 66,26 72,09 78 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% pre-cycle cycle i cycle ii students average score 68,26 72,35 75,02 64,00% 66,00% 68,00% 70,00% 72,00% 74,00% 76,00% pre-cycle cycle i cycle ii students average score for content language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 15 figure 3. the average score of students’ argumentative writing for organization for writing organization as seen in figure 3, the average score of pre-cycle was only 54. after the action on the first cycle the average score rose to 63.54, or increased 9.54 points. after the implementation of the second cycle then an increase in the average score became 70.66 or rose 7.12 points. figure 4. the average score of students’ argumentative writing for language use the average score for language use in pre-cycle was 74.07 while for the first cycle the average score was 77.92. so there is an increase of 3.85 points. in the second cycle the average score rose to 88.26, a rise of 10.34 points. discussion before students apply rubric for writing and give feedback in group it is necessary to explain in detail the indicators contained in the rubric as well as the guidelines of feedback. this is important because there is no doubt that providing feedback as an important part of the writing process often cannot be implemented properly by the students because there is no clear guidance on how to give feedback. as cheng and warren in vasu, ling, and nimehchisalem (2016) stated that students require guidelines to provide feedback to their classmates because there is still a feeling of discomfort for them to provide feedback for the work of their classmates. added by glade, hammersley, and clark-ellis that if the process of giving feedback would be successful then the student must have a clear understanding of what is feedback and why they should do it. 54 63,54 70,66 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% pre-cycle cycle i cycle ii students average score for organization 74,07 77,92 88,76 65 70 75 80 85 90 pre-cycle cycle i cycle ii students average score for language use language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 16 if they understand the true reason for giving feedback then they will do it well. based on the result of data analysis, it can be explained that the learning process of writing argumentative essay through rubric and giving feedback in group has been done in a proper way. as a result it can improve student writing skills. the learning process was designed since the first meeting of the first cycle to the last meeting of the second cycle using rubric as well as feedback in group. through this way of learning there has been a place for students to interact with each other to provide input to each other’s writing. the impact of the feedback received is the emergence of awareness of students of any deficiencies shown by their peers thereby expanding their knowledge and writing skills. in general students have made improvement in all three aspects. however, there are still some improvements needed for certain criteria in each aspect. for content aspect, improvement is needed for formulating thesis statement. thesis statement is the key point to build the writer’s argument which is of course followed by topic sentence and supporting details. the content of the writing is regarded sufficient if the thesis statement (claim) is supported with enough factual information. according to bae and lee cited by aryadoust (2016) that the insufficiency of content in students’ writing is due to limited knowledge of the topic or issue, lack of ideas to develop their writing, the weaknesses in analyzing and evaluating information and lack of argument technique. for writing organization, students need to learn to write effective background that explicitly addresses the issue. besides, students need to sharpen their ability in organizing facts and details in a coherent and cohesive way. it was found that students are still lack of ability in organizing information that they synthesized from different sources. indeed, for writing organization the result of this researh is supported by brammer and rees (2007) who said that organization of writing is the most neglected aspect during writing and revising process by students. the most neglected criterion for language use was the use of connectors to join different parts of the essay. the lack of connector usage also reflects the weaknesses of organizing ideas in their writing. it is a matter of fact that these three aspects have the same contribution to shape students over all ability in argumentative writing. in the process of learning to write argumentative essay the integration of rubric and feedback in group is a new way because it has never been done before with the students at english education study program of teacher’s college pattimura university. therefore, in terms of pedagogical aspect, the synergy between rubric and group based feedback is a new way that is done to address the problem of learning to write argumentative essay of students at english education study program of pattimura university in ambon. empirically the implementation of rubric and feedback in group has proven to improve student argumentative writing in certain level. the result of this research may only be used in this group of students. however, the teaching procedures of using rubric and group feedback may be used as teaching reference for teacher and lecturer to improve students writing skill. conclusion the evidence from this study implies that the learning process of argumentative essay through rubric and feedback in group has been performing well to increase students’ writing skills. the result of the study has highlighted that during the learning process students were active and interactive with each other in their respective group to discuss and negotiate ways of improving their argumentative essay. the result of this study also has proven that students were motivated to use the rubric in writing and doing feedback in groups in order to revise their essay. the data analysis showed that the writing skills of the students increased language circle: journal of language and literature 14(1) october 2019 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 17 gradually from one cycle to the next cycle. therefore it can be concluded that rubric and group feedback strategy had been successfully empowered students to increase their argumentative essay writing skill. even though the integration of rubric and group based feedback strategy had successfully improved students’ writing skills, it is suggested that prior to writing activity students should be trained to use rubric and how to give substantial corrective feedback. in this sense, a list of guided questions for giving feedback may be discussed with the students. references abu bakar, et al. (2012). the brief review of theoretical underpinnings, definitions and typical configurations of collaborative writing. international journal of applied linguistics & english literature, 1(4), 197-202 andrade h., g. (2000). using rubrics to promote thinking and learning. educational leadership. vol. 57, (5), february, 1-7 aryadoust v. ” examining the development of paragraphs writing ability for tertiary esl students: a continuous assessment study.internet download accessed at. http://www.ajsotl.edu.sg/article/examining-the-development-of-paragraph-writing-abilityof-tertiary-esl-students-a-continuous bennett, p. e, jr. (2008). using rubrics to teach science writing. essays on teaching excellence.towards the best in the academy, 20(8), 1-6 brammer c., & rees m. (2007). peer review from the students’ perspective: invaluable or invalid. composition studies, 35(2), 71-85 burns a. (2010). doing action research in english language teaching: a guide for practitioners. new york: routledge. covill, a. e. (2012). college student’s use of a writing rubric: effect on quality of writing, selfefficacy, and writing practices. the journal of writing assessment, 5(1), 1-11. dix s., & cawkwell, g. (2011). the influence of peer group response: building a teacher and student expertise in the writing classroom. english teaching: parctice and critique, 10(4), 4157 glade f., hammersley l., & clark-ellis p. (2016). considering the value of peer response. internet download accessed at http://www.csuscsus.edu/wac/wac/teachers/peer response article.html. grabe w. dan kaplan, robert b. (1997). theory and practice of writing. an applied linguistic perpective. london and new york: longman. hyland, k. (2000). second language writing. new york: cambridge university press kustati m., & yuhardi, (2014). the effect of the peer-review technique on students’ writing ability.studies in english language and`education journal, 1(2), 71-81. lu j. dan zhang z. (2013). assessing and supporting argumentation with online rubrics. international education studies, 6(7), 66-77. manuputty r.(2015). redifining conventional criteria and standard for teaching of argumentative essay. jurnal tahuri, 12(1), 69-74. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1) october 2019 18 mertler, c. a., (2001). designing scoring rubrics for your classroom. practical assessment, research & evauation, 7(25), 1-9 patchan, m.m., schunn, c. d., & clark, r. j. (2011) writing in natural science: understanding the effects of different types of reviewers on the writing process. journal of writing research, 2(3), 366-386. plant, a. (2015). rubric use in the primary classroom: ways to improve student writing. internet download accessed at https://readingrecovery.org/images/pdfs/conferences/.../plant_amy.pdf qu w., & yang, s. (2010). a peer and self-assessment project implemented in practical group work. journal of language teaching and research, 1(6), 776-781 tang, g. m., & tithecott, j. (1999). peer response in esl writing. tesl canada journal, 16(2), 2038. turgut, f., & kayaoglu, n.m. (2015). using rubric as an instructional tool in efl writing courses. journal of language and linguistic studies, 11(1), 47-58. vasu, k., ling, c., h., & nimechchiselam v. (2016). malaysian tertiary level esl students’ perceptions toward teacher feedback, peer feedback and self-assessment in their writing. international journal of applied linguistics & english literature, 5(5), 158-167. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab1da4a11a7 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 13 the schematic structure of english and indonesian research article introductions kasyfur rahman ikip mataram ahmad sofwan semarang state university abstract the article reports an investigation on the differences between the schematic structure of english and indonesian research article introduction. by selecting thirty research articles from each group and analysing them using the cars model (1990, 2004), this study has unravelled several differences. at the macro level, the english articles respectively have a higher percentage of reviewing items of previous research, indicating gap, and summarising methods. while their indonesian counterparts tend to have a greater deal with making topic generalisations, presenting positive justifications, and stating the value of the present research. in addition, while the indonesian articles have more unidentified schematic elements and lack outlining the structure of paper, the english ones demonstrate a higher degree of move reiteration. at the micro level, the english articles are characterised by the use personal deixes as self-mention, and more variation of linguistic clues in claiming centrality. on the other hand, their indonesian counterparts are depicted by the absence of self-mention, the use of code mixing, and a major tendency in using amplifiers and evaluative adjectives in claiming centrality. these differences might be partially influenced by the writers’ culture, knowledge, editorial policy, social environment, and in certain cases, the technical problems. key words: schematic structure, genre analysis, contrastive rhetoric, research article introduction, education. introduction the growing access to the source of information has recently enabled scholars to disseminate their scholarly works widely, especially in the form of published research articles in a scientific journal. meanwhile, there has been considerable interest among researchers in analysing the generic structure, discourse features, and history of such publications. among these aspects, the structure of research articles has been to date the most attractive concern as swales (2004: 207), quoting montgomery (1996), claims it to be ‘master narrative of our time’. the introduction section of a research article, being devoted to introducing the research topic to the readers (yakhontova, 2003:105) as well as attracting interest in the topic and henceforth, the readers (swales & feak, 1994:156), is remarkably essential. however, simply like composing the other sections of a research article, writing the introduction is undoubtedly a formidable task and more problematically, academic writers admit encountering more 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 difficulties in constructing the introduction than its continuation (swales, 1990:137; hopkins & dudley-evans, 1988). many of recent findings of research on the structure of research article introduction dealt with disciplinary variation. samraj’s (2002) findings, for example, suggested that between two interrelated disciplines, i.e. wildlife behavior and conservation biology, variation in the realization of the structure of rais possibly occurs. she found that rais of conservation biology promoted greater centrality claims than those of wildlife behavior. supports for her findings are provided by shehzad (2005) and kanoksilapatham (2011) whose research was concerned with the field of computer science and civil engineering respectively. these researchers reported several typical ways the writers of each corresponding discipline realised the schematic structure of their article introductions, which were presumably influenced by their disciplinary conventions. nevertheless, cross-linguistic studies on cultural variation in the structure of rais appear to have been given less attention than on the disciplinary variation. research on the structure of indonesian research articles is as well limited. in fact, to account for cross-linguistic differences of research article structure is essential since in writing, transfer of l1 to l2 or foreign language often occurs in terms of linguistic pattern and rhetorical convention (connor, 2002). similarly, prior contrastive studies on the organization of research articles across languages (e.g martin, 2003; zhang & hu, 2010) revealed the tendency of different preferences between articles written in different languages. there is also a tendency that genre changes due to temporal and geographical factors partly inherently and partly as a result of intertextual acceptance and rejection (swales, 2009: 14). this study investigates the contrast between research article introductions in education across english and indonesian by addressing (1) elements in the schematic structure, (2) the realization of the schematic structure, and (3) the differences between the schematic structure of the english and indonesian rais both at macro and micro level. methods the data comprise thirty articles in education published in 2010. fifteen english research articles were collected from internationally recognized refereed journals in education with high impact factor according to thomson reuters journal citation report® 2010, involving educational researcher, learning and instruction, journal of research in science teaching and language learning and technology. fifteen indonesian journals were selected from several domestic journals, namely, cakrawala pendidikan, jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran, jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan, and jurnal pendidikan dasar. the selection of journals were based on an assumption that language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 15 these journals belong to discourse community of educators and educational researchers. to analyze the schematic structure of these rais, a modified cars by swales (2004) model as a theoretical framework was used, as follows. move 1: establishing a territory step 1-1 step 1-2 step 1-3 claiming centrality and/or making topic generalisations and/or reviewing items of previous research move 2: establishing a niche step 2-1a step 2-1b step 2-2 indicating a gap or adding to what is known presenting positive justifications move 3: presenting the present work step 3-1 step 3-2 step 3-3 step 3-4 step 3-5 step 3-6 step 3-7 announcing present research descriptively and/or purposively presenting rqs or hypotheses definitional clarifications summarising methods announcing principal outcomes stating the value of the present research outlining the structure of the paper swales (1990, 2004) the analysis was then split into three main stages. the first stage of analysis, identification of macro level of each group of rai, was presented in a table to identify the occurrence of move and steps each research article realizes. afterward, the frequencies of the total numbers of steps were presented in order to find out the tendency of each step then was followed by the analysis of the move sequence. the next stage of analysis, the identification of micro level of rai, was the description of linguistic details, including common lexical and tense choices in the realization of each move and step provided with samples taken from the data. the identification of lexical choices used semantic categories of major word classes based on the work of biber (2006). at this juncture, the analysis answered research question 1 and 2. finally, the differences between the schematic structures of each group of research article introductions at macro and micro level were identified and complemented by elaboration about the implications that could be drawn from the findings. results and discussion based on the data, there are two typical types of research article structures: ones 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 using imrd-like format have embedded literature review in the introductions while the other ones have dedicated sections for literature review. those with embedded literature reviews result in long introductions. nonetheless, the articles in two of the english journals, educational researcher and journal of research in science teaching, do not clearly state which parts of theirs are the introductions. in response to this, the american psychological association (2010:27) whose manual for scientific publication is among the most prominent standards mandating that all types or research articles must have an introduction section which is not necessarily labelled because of the clarity of its position. secondly, it is easier to identify the introductory parts by observing whether they can match the cars (1990, 2004) model presented in the theoretical framework. the initial untitled parts, based on my investigation, are much likely to match the three moves thus are regarded as the introduction sections. according to holmes (1996), some journals might have untitled introductions due to editorial policy, yet those are still recognisable. in their indonesian counterparts, the issue of untitled introductions is also identified. two of the journals, jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran and jurnal pendidikan dasar do not clearly state which parts of their articles are the introductions sections. interestingly, these two journals are likely to use the imrd–like format. hence, the introductions should be the first sections which are untitled and are immediately followed by the method section. this study shows that in the english data, nearly all the schematic elements in the theoretical framework are available except the step announcing the principal outcome. the data also suggest unidentified schematic elements involving stating implication of findings, describing background information on research setting and justifying hypotheses. similarly, the indonesian data also follow the majority of schematic elements in the theoretical framework but with more exceptions. the indonesian articles miss three steps including adding to what is known, announcing principal outcome, and outlining the structure of paper. the indonesian articles also demonstrate more unidentified schematic elements. in the realisation of these schematic elements, both english and indonesian article introductions typical linguistic features which are generally similar but differ to a certain extent. move 1 step 1, claiming centrality, it is found that the english data use more linguistic resources while the indonesians tend to use amplifiers often followed by evaluative adjectives. in the english introductions, common lexical entries used to realise this step are evaluative adjectives such as important, considerable, critical, major, increasing, serious, vital, and prominent. while common nouns used are cognitive nouns such as interest, language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 17 attention. the writers also use some amplifiers such as extensively, increasingly, significantly, and the others functioning to emphasise the salience of the topic. similarly, in the indonesian data this step is characterised by lexical entries showing the salience of the topic (e.g. penting (important), menentukan (determinant), diperlukan (needed)) often preceded by amplifiers (e.g sangat (extremely), paling (most)).  assessment of the quality and impact of research output is important to all academics. (e2)  one of the curricular domains in which strategy variety and flexibility have been extensively investigated is multidigit subtraction. (e7)  untuk mencapai kemampuan itu, kemampuan kolokasi-menyandingkan kata secara tepat, lazim, dan berterima-merupakan aspek yang sangat menentukan. (i2) (to achieve such ability, collocational competencethe ability to collocate words appropriately, naturally, and acceptablyis a very determinant aspect.)  aktivitas penelitian merupakan hal yang penting dilaksanakan oleh guru dalam rangka pengembangan profesi. (i3) (research activity is an important matter for teachers to do in developing professionalism.) move 1 step 2, making topic generalisations, in the english data is mostly realised referring to statement of practice often using such lexical entries as use, implement, and incorporate as well as statements of phenomena signalled by time adverbials today or now. in the indonesian data this also occurs but many articles tend to show problematic phenomena(e.g belum optimal (not optimal), kurang (less), kesulitan (difficulty), hambatan (obstacle)).  as today’s public schools become more culturally and economically diverse, the demographic divide between teachers and students deepens. (e1)  the use of peer assessment (pa) in higher education is not new. (e5)  secara umum, guru hanya memanfaatkan bahan referensi/acuan yang ada di perpustakaan sekolah masing-masing, ataupun dengan membeli di tokobuku. (i2) (commonly, the teachers simply make use of references in their school libraries or purchase in the bookshops.)  pada saat ini kegiatan pembelajaran di perguruantinggi (pt) belum dilakukan secara optimal. (i9) (nowadays, teaching activities in higher education have not yet been done optimally.) step 1-3, reviewing items of previous research, in the english articles, the writers use simple present tense, present perfect tense, and past tense. they also use such common nouns referring to the product (research, report, study, experiment, 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 evidence) or the producer (scholar, author), mental verbs (examine, identify, observe, validate, asses). in their indonesian counterparts this is less. in the realisation, the writers use common nouns referring to the products of research (penelitian (research), hasil (result), temuan (finding)) or the producers by showing the names of the researchers  karlsdottir and stefansson (2002) carried out a longitudinal study over five years, aimed at identifying what differentiates the good from the poor writers and explaining the reasons for the difficulties experienced by some children. (e8)  a particularly inspirational study was conducted by jiang and nekrasova (2007), in which they utilised corpus-derived recurrent word combinations as materials in two online grammaticality-judgment experiments. (e14)  adanya pengaruh factor social terhadap perkembangan konsep diri individu telah dibuktikan oleh rosenberg (ref). (i5) (the effect of social factor on individual selfconception development was proved by rosenberg (ref).)  hal ini ditemukan oleh gasperz (2007) yang mencatat bahwa lulusan pt kurang memiliki keterampilan pemecahan masalah (i9) (this was found by gasperz (2007) noting that graduates of higher education have low skill in problem solving.) move 2 step 1, indicating gap, in the english articles, is committed by showing the limitation of previous studies, scarcity of research on the topic, and the other gap indicators utilising typical linguistic features such as attitudinal verbs (neglect, jeopardise), attitudinal noun (uncertainty), evaluative adjectives indicating negative attribute (little, limited, lacking), evaluative adverbs (inadequately, severely), negation devices (not, no) and contradiction connectors (however, nevertheless, yet, lamentably). in the indonesian this occurs in few articles. furthermore, the writers of the indonesian articles use linguistic signals such as negation devices ‘belum’ and ‘tidak’ as shown below. these two lexical entries are equivalent to the english ‘not’.  researchers have been arguing for the potential benefits of implementing online pa (ref), yet have spent little time identifying how students interpret and what students do in such a learning environment. (e5)  most studies in this area examined a limited number of teaching contexts with inquiry instruction addressing single science topics. (ref) (e9)  namun, penelitian mengenai ketidaklaziman dalam pembelajaran bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing (bipa) belum pernah dilakukan. (i2) (nevertheless, research on unnaturalness in teaching bahasa indonesia as a foreign language has yet not been done) language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 19  vygotsky tidak melakukan kajian yang mendalam tentang bagaimana bahasa secara operasional berfungsi bagi perkembangan hidup manusia. (i15) (vygotsky did not do an in-depth study on how language operationally functions for the development of human life.) move 2-1b, adding to what is known is only realised in the english data. the tense used to realise this step is past tense while the lexical items used are deictic reference (we) and activity verb (extend). the following excerpt illustrates this step.  we tried to extend these studies by (a) working with a more extensive and systematic set of multidigit subtractions in our tests…. (e7) the last step in this move, presenting positive justifications, is often by announcing the rationale of the present research, positing ideal ways to fill the gap created which are applied in the research, or by showing the novelty of specific methods used in the previous or present research. the linguistic features for this step in the data are cognitive nouns (e.g. reason, rationale), mental verbs (egreed, believe) and the most obvious linguistic signals are positive evaluative adjectives (robust, powerful). in the indonesian data this step is quite common. the main indicators for this step are the evaluative adjectives showing a positive attitude (relevan (relevant), tepat (appropriate), sesuai (suitable)) and causative connector (karena (because)).  the inquiry units used in this study feature powerful, dynamic scientific visualizations. students use the visualizations to experiment. (e9)  there are several reasons for the focus on this particular educational stage, high school physics, which are elaborated below. our research is grounded in a theoretical framework centered around students’ identity. we believe that this focus provides a basis for understanding. (e12)  materi pokok larutan elektrolit dan non elektrolit tepat dibelajarkan dengan metode inkuiri, karena sifat-sifat larutan elektrolit dan non elektrolit dapat diamati (i7) (the main topic of electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions is appropriately taught with inquiry method since the characteristics of electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions can be observed)  untuk dapat memenuhi kebutuhan guru bermutu, konsep manajemen strategic sangat sesuai untuk diterapkan. (i13) (to meet a demand of qualified teachers, the concept of strategic management is very applicable.) in move 3, the first step, announcing present research is realised by almost all the articles both in the english and indonesian data. common lexical entries used by the writers are common nouns 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 referring to the producer (penulis(writer), peneliti (researcher)) or the product (penelitian (research), makalah (paper)), cognitive nouns representing the purpose (maksud (aim), tujuan (objective)) or verbs derived from these purposive nouns (bertujuan (aim), bermaksud (intend)), communication verbs reflecting the description of the content of the research (mendeskripsikan (describe), melaporkan (report)), and spatial deixis (ini (this)).  this article investigates the contradiction between the promise of college students of the millennial generation and persistent findings about pre-service teachers’ views on cultural diversity… (e1)  the analyses reported in the present paper were therefore intended to (a) examine the general prediction that initially-supported collaborative work lead s to social gains alongside achievement gains;. (e6)  berdasarkan paparan di atas, maka penulis merasa perlu untuk meneliti, dengan tujuan untuk menemukan secara empiris tentang pengaruh variable konsep diri, sikap siswa pada matematika dan kecemasan terhadap hasil belajar matematika. (i5) (based on the description above, the writer feels in need of a study intended to empirically find out the effects of variables self-conception, students’ attitude toward mathematics and anxiety on mathematics achievement.)  penelitian ini dilaksanakan dengan maksud: (a) meningkatkan keaktifan mahasiswa dengan membiasakan mahasiswa selalu berfikir… (i6) (this study was conducted to: (a) improve students’ active participation by having them accustomed to think…) step 3-2, presenting research question or hypotheses, is also quite common in the both groups of data. in the english data, furthermore, the writers commonly start by using personal deixis such as i or we. the other common nouns used are technical nouns such as question, hypothesis, and research question. in the indonesian data, common nouns used to present the research questions are permasalahan (problems) and rumusan masalah (statement of problems) while common type of verbs used are communication verb (diajukan (propose)) and mental verbs (dirumuskan (formulate), diharapkan (expect)).  more specifically, i aim to address the following questions… (e1)  based on the literature overview, we formulate the following hypotheses…(e5)  rumusan hipotesis yang diuji dalam penelitian ini adalah pemberian pelatihan cara-cara penelusuran referensi dari sumber internet efektif untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan guru-guru smpn 3 tabanan tentang cara-cara penelusuran referensi dari sumber internet. (i3) (the hypothesis language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 21 examined in the current study is that the training of the tips in searching references from internet sources is effective to improve knowledge of teachers of smpn 3 tabanan about the tips in searching references.)  berdasarkan paparan latar belakang masalah penelitian ini adalah (a) bagaimanakah penerapan model pembelajaran learning community yang dapat meningkatkan keaktifan mahasiswa? (i6) (based on the explanation of the background, the problems in this study are (a) how is the learning community teaching model which can improve students’ participation applied? step 3-3, is similar the previous step, is also common in both groups of data. however, this does not appear to functionally occur to present the present work. rather, it majorly functions to introduce the general research topic in order to familiarise readers with specific terms with regard to the research topic. to clarify formal and extended definitions, the writers of the english articles use some indicators such as present tense, technical terms (e.g. phenomenography, cooperative learning, and collaborative learning), linking verb (be) and relationship verbs (e.g. refer, concern, reflect, involve). while in the indonesian data, common nouns used are definisi (definition) or ialah (be) while the verbs used are relationship verbs such as merupakan (be), adalah (be), and the like.  cooperative learning typically involves highly structured, wide ranging programs of activity, and make use of jigsaw method, in which students carry out individual tasks, and then share outcomes with other members of group members (ref) (e6)  by inquiry we refer to learning experiences that engage students in various combinations of identifying questions, collecting and interpreting evidence, formulating explanations, and communicating their findings, that are consistent with science standards and recent reports (ref) (e9)  definisi kolokasi dijelaskan oleh baker (1992) sebagai kecenderungan sejumlah kata untuk bergabung secara teratur dalam suatu bahasa, tetapi kata yang mana dapat berkolokasi dengan kata apa tidak ada hubungannya secara logis. (i2) the definition of collocation is explained by baker (1992) as a tendency of several words to pair regularly in a language, yet there is no logical relationship between the collocated words.)  menurut sund & towbridge (1973) inkuiri diartikan sebagai proses mendefinisikan dan menyelidiki masalah-masalah, merumuskan hipotesis, merancang eksperimen, menemukan data, dan mengambarkan kesimpulan masalah-masalah tersebut. (i7) (according to sund & 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 towbridge (1973) inquiry is defined as a process of defining and investigating problems, formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, collecting data, and drawing conclusions from such problems.) step 3-4 summarising methods, is very common in the english data indicated by more than half of the sample articles realising this while in the indonesian data this is very uncommon. to realise this, some english writers prefer simple present tense, while the others prefer simple past tense. this step is characterised by the use of technical nouns (data, control group, units, and model), abstract nouns (measurement, design, analysis, assessment, methods, and observation). some of them typically mention the subjects of the research using animate nouns such as children, students, or teacher. similar to the english articles, common linguistic features used in the indonesian articles are lexical entries referring to the participants in the research (e.g. peneliti (researcher), guru (teacher), siswa (students)) as well as to the research procedure, and the technical nouns referring to specific method, strategies, or instruments (e.g. stad, tgt, strategi (strategy), tes (test)).  in order to do this, data from a groupwork intervention that led to confirmed achievement gains (howe, et al, 2007) were examined for evidence of change in classroom relationship, and for effects on these of social context and group activity. this intervention involved teachers and students from single and mixed-age upper primary (elementary) classes, … (e6)  to support the participating teachers, we implemented a targeted professional development model (refs). (e9)  kegiatan pengembangan dan implementasi perangkat dilakukan secara bersama-sama oleh peneliti bersama beberapa orang guru pelajaran ipa smp. pemanfaatan perangkat psbi di kelas dipadukan dengan strategi kooperatif tipe stad dan tgt. (i8) (the development activities and implementation of the media were done together among the researchers and several science teachers of smp. the application of psbi media in class was integrated with cooperative learning strategies stad and tgt.)  strategi pembelajaran konvensional yang selama ini diterapkan akan diubah dengan strategi pembelajaran pemetaan informasi yang menitikberatkan pada peran guru sebagai fasilitator. bentuk tes formatif yang akan digunakan adalah bentuk tes formatif pilihan ganda... (i10) (the conventional teaching strategies that have been so far implemented will be changed with information mapping strategy emphasising the teachers’ role as a facilitator. the formative test language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 23 type that will be used is multiple choice items …) step, 3-6, is realised less in the english but more in the indonesian data. the data suggest the use of simple present tense, cognitive noun (insight), common nouns (study, benchmark), activity verbs (provide, serve), and evaluative adjective (potential) to realise this step. in the indonesian data, the use of mental verbs such as diharapkan (expect) and abstract nouns ‘manfaat’ (benefit) and ‘kontribusi’ (contribution) become the most common features of this step.  …, this article investigates not only the continuities, the themes that permeate the literature, but also the discontinuities. analysis of the changes overtime in the reported findings in the research literature may provide insights about today’s millennial-generation pre-service teachers that do not emerge from a traditional synthesis.(e1)  as explained in the method section, the selected authors are assumed to have provided sample of reasonably accomplished scholarship, so that the patterns identified by the analysis can serve as a potential benchmark for junior academics in developing their publication profiles. (e2)  hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan kontribusi kepada pihak-pihak: (a) guru dan dosen yaitu dapat menguasai dan menerapkan model pembelajaran keterampilan menulis ilmiah dengan model learning community, … (i6) (the result of the present study might contribute to the following people: (a) teachers and lecturers, that they can master and apply a model of teaching scientific writing skill with learning community model,…)  hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat bermanfaat dalam upaya meningkatkan kualitas hasil belajar siswa terutama keterampilan berpikir tingkat tinggi dalam bidang bidang ipa di jenjang smp. (i8) (the result of the present study is expected to be beneficial in an attempt of improving the quality of students’ learning outcomes especially of their high order thinking skill in science at smp level.) the last step, outlining structure of paper only occurs in the english data.among the linguistic clues available for this step in the data, sequential connectors (first, next, then) become the most apparent indicators. this can be seen below.  this articles first reviews the notion of impact factor as used in web of science journal rankings and prior research on google scholar in the library and information sciences. (e2)  the next few sections will first discuss four domains that are relevant to our conceptual framework: interest, 24 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 recognition, performance, and competence. (e12) furthermore, the differences between the schematic structures of the two groups are explained in turn. at the macro level, it is found that the data tend to suggest similarities rather than differences. yet, the differences are strongly obvious if a closer analysis is taken in terms of the steps. apart from these, the difference is also found in terms of move sequence in that moves in english articles are more cyclical. the indonesian articles also suggest more unidentified schematic elements. moves steps english rais indonesian rais percentage (%) percentage (%) move 1 1 13.37 12.59 2 9.88 20.28 3 21.51 10.49 in move 1, english articles spend most spaces to review items of previous research, while their indonesian counterparts mostly prefer making topic generalisations. this finding differs from zhang & hu’s (2010) findings in which chinese articles mostly realise step claiming centrality in move 1. further, previous research in the english context is considered very important as a foundation for new research. as nwogu (1997) comments, the aim of referring to previous research is to indicate that the current research is originated from a lively tradition of well-known works in the field. this step also corresponds to the next move since the step of gap indication and adding to what is known are often associated with the context of previous research. the indonesian articles, on the other hand, show making general statements about the topic as the more preferable step. similarly, only a few indonesian articles review previous research, and in some cases the review tends to be theoretical or be based on the writers’ own observations. rather than of cultural differences, it is assumed that the issue of fewer reviews of previous research is more of non-cultural issues. there are at least three possible issues to be the reasons why indonesian writers have fewer reviews of previous research. first, even though in recent times sources of information are widely available as references, many indonesian researchers do not have adequate skill in comprehending contents of the references especially written in languages other than their first language. second most possible reason is the lack of knowledge in searching or accessing the intended references. this can be associated with language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 25 lack of knowledge in the advanced use of search engine. the last and weakest possible reason might be the unavailability or inaccessibility of the relevant references. on the internet, for example, the references the writers need might be available, yet are commercial and unaffordable. moves steps english rais indonesian rais percentage (%) percentage (%) move 2 1a 12.21 1.40 1b 0.58 0.00 2 4.65 11.89 furthermore, for move 2 in english, the highest frequency of occurrence belongs to the step indicating gap. this also confirms swales’ (2004) account that gap indication is the most common way to create a research space. the indonesian articles, in contrast, more focus on presenting positive justifications rather than indicating gap. this is perhaps the influence of fewer reviews of previous research since gap indication is often associated with criticism to previous studies. actually, indicating gap is not necessarily indicated by making criticism to previous research. it can be realized by using polite gap indication by asserting the scarcity of research on the topic or by asserting less investigation on it. this difference seems cultural and confirms the previous study by zhang and hu (2010) that eastern mindset tends to be associated with being humble and avoiding criticism to others’ works. moves steps english rais indonesian rais percentage (%) percentage (%) move 3 1 12.79 14.69 2 5.81 6.29 3 5.23 6.29 4 6.98 1.40 5 0.00 0.00 6 1.16 4.20 7 1.74 0.00 26 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 in move 3, the difference between english and indonesian is that indonesian articles have more frequencies in stating the value of present research but fewer frequencies in summarizing methods. in summarizing methods, 7 out of 15 english articles realize this, implying that this step is common in english rais while in their indonesian counterparts, it is very few; only 2 out of 15 rais realizing this step. however, the ways the english and indonesian articles realize this step are similar by describing the research procedure, design, often subjects/objects of research and the role they play in the research. additionally, in stating the value of present research, indonesian articles have 4.20 % of step frequencies compared to the english ones with 1.16 % of total available steps. nevertheless, the differences in the other remaining steps such as presenting rqs or hypotheses and definitional clarifications in this move are relatively insignificant. in step definitional clarifications, for example, although the percentage of its frequencies in indonesian articles is slightly higher than in the english articles, both are equal in its actual numbers. the motive why writers define terms could be that they assume that their readers are unfamiliar with the terms. this might occur due to a very wide range of audiences of the journals in which the articles are published. the sample journals in this study cover a very broad area in education; hence it is not surprising that definitional clarifications are necessary to accommodate wider audiences. finally, outlining the structure of the articles is very uncommon in the indonesian articles since none of the sample articles realize this step. whereas, 3 out of 15 articles realize this in the english data, implying that this step is also relatively uncommon in the english educational articles. in general, the linguistic features the english and indonesian rais used to realize the schematic structure are relatively similar with the following exceptions. for step 1-1, in claiming centrality, the english and indonesian rais have a relatively similar number of rais realizing this step. nonetheless, in its realizations the english writers employ more various lexical entries and linguistic resources. english articles use several lexical items actually having equivalences in indonesian such as challenge and interest or use statements that the research topic has attracted many previous researchers. these variations in this step realization seem to be uncommon in the educational research articles in the indonesian context. instead, the indonesian writers tend to mostly use amplifiers (e.g. sangat (extremely), paling (most)) often followed by evaluative adjectives (e.g. penting (important), kuat (strong)) in step 1-2, making topic generalizations, the differences between the english and indonesian articles is that language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 27 the english ones typically realize this step in very brief sentences while the indonesian ones tend to make longer generalizations of topics. in some cases, indonesian articles also realize this step by identifying problems occurring in the phenomena under study which are indicated by nouns representing problematic phenomena (e.g kesulitan (difficulty), hambatan (obstacle)). one might think that this phenomenon is the influence of the nature of research. while it is true that some research methods such as classroom action research and educational design research are established to solve real world problems in education, the numbers of the indonesian research articles reporting studies that employ these methods are few; only three articles are based on these methods. further, the numbers of indonesian articles realizing this step are greater than their english counterparts. for step 3-1, the difference that can be found is in terms of lexical entries used; none of indonesian articles use personal deixis i and we as self-mention. this might be considered very informal and less academic in the indonesian educational contexts to use such personal deixis, while it is very common to use such linguistic features in the english articles. in an interesting paper on self-mention in research articles, hyland (2001) points out that self-mention has a role to construct a credible authorial identity. by using selfmention, the writers attempt to show their unique roles in interpreting phenomena. on the other hand, hyland (2001) contends that the use of impersonality (avoidance of self-mention) is an approach to amplify the credibility of the writers and to elicit the authority from the reader. perhaps the writers of indonesian articles and indonesian journal editors still adopt the positivist view that academic research is best displayed as if without any human agency in its process. in presenting rqs the english articles based on the data invariably use research questions or questions while the indonesian articles mostly use statements of problems or simply problems to refer to research questions. this phenomenon might be the influence of social environment in the indonesian research context in that statements of problems have been conventionalized to refer to research questions. for the step of definitional clarifications, the difference between the english and indonesian rais is the use of code mixing in indonesian articles. some articles define terms or refer to previous authors’ claims by citing their english version without any translation attached. the probable motivation for this occurrence is to gain wider audiences and to show the expertise of the writers in the field. the following excerpts illustrate the code mixing.  sejalan dengan itu, dalam oxford collocations dictionary (2002:vii) dijelaskan bahwa kolokasi adalah ”the 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 way words combine in a language to produce a natural-sounding speech and writing”. (i3)  gluek (1996) mengatakan bahwa: management strategic is concept of the set decision and action which result in formulating strategy and its implementation to achieve of the corporation”. (i13) for the remaining steps in move 3, except outlining the structure of paper and announcing principal outcomes, the differences in linguistic realization do not seem notable and therefore it is safe to assume that these remaining steps suggest similarities rather than differences at the micro level. conclusion and suggestion in the english data, nearly all the schematic elements in the theoretical framework are available except the step announcing the principal outcome. the indonesian data follow the majority of schematic elements in the theoretical framework but with more exceptions. in the realization of these schematic elements, both english and indonesian article introductions make use of typical linguistic features which are generally similar but differ to a certain extent. at the macro level in terms of moves, the findings suggest similarities rather than differences yet in terms of steps, significant differences are quite apparent in each move. despite the differences irrespective of the language with which the rais are written, there seems to be a tendency that educational scientists do not normally announce their findings in the introduction sections. the differences in presenting rqs or hypotheses and definitional clarifications are also minor. it is recommended that the teaching of genre is still recommended especially for adult learners because it helps them get started with piece of academic writing. regarding the cultural variation in the schematic structures, exposing the differences is crucial to sensitize efl students therefore the pattern they apply and the realization they perform can match the international standard as english is increasingly becoming global academic lingua franca. these may also imply the importance of knowledge of the differences between genre realized in different cultures that can be incorporated when designing material and tasks for english academic writing for efl students. references american psychological association. 2010. publication manual of the american psychological association (6th ed.). washington, d.c.: author. biber, d. 2006. university language: a corpus-based study of spoken and written registers. amsterdam: john benjamins. connor, u. 2002. new directions in contrastive rhetoric. tesol quarterly, 36/4: 493-510. retrieved october 20, language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 29 2011. https://crossculturalrhetoricsdwrl. pbworks.com/f/connor-new.pdf holmes, r. 1997. genre analysis and the social sciences: an investigation of the structure of research article discussion sections in three disciplines. english for specific purposes, 16/4: 321-377. retrieved october 17, 2011 from http://newresearch.wikispaces.com/file/vi ew/esp+discussion.pdf hopkins, a. & dudley-evans, t. 1988. a genre-based investigation of the discussion sections in articles and dissertations. english for specific purposes, 7: 113-121. hyland, k. 2001. humble servants of the discipline? self-mention in research articles. english for specific purposes, 20: 207-226. retrieved june 9, 2012 from http://www2.caes.hku.hk/kenhyland/files/ 2010/12/self.esp_.pdf journal citation reports® (jcr) social science edition. 2010. retrieved january 17, 2012 from http://www. ucm.es/bucm/edu/doc17644.pdf kanoksilapatham, b. 2011. civil engineering research article introductions: textual structure and linguistic characterisation. the asian esp journal, 7/2: 55-84. retrieved october 17, 2011 from http://www.asian-espjournal.com/vol7-2-kanoksilapatham.pdf martin, p. m. m. 2003. a genre analysis of english and spanish research paper abstracts in experimental social sciences. english for specific purposes, 22, 25-43. retrieved october 17 2011 from ftp://124.42.15.59/ck/201102/165/099/ 412/767/a genre analysis of english and spanish research paper abstracts in experimental social sciences.pdf samraj, b. 2002. introductions in research articles: variations across disciplines. english for specific purposes, 21: 1-17. retrieved october 17, 2011 from http://informatik.unibas.ch/lehre/fs10/cs3 04/_downloads/samraj_on_introductions .pdf shehzad, w. 2005.corpus-based genre analysis: computer science research article introductions. unpublished dissertation.national university of modern languages, islamabad. swales, j. m. 1990. genre analysis: english in academic and research settings. cambridge: cambridge university press. swales, j. m. 2004. research genres: explorations and applications. cambridge: cambridge university press. swales, j. m. 2009. worlds of genremetaphors of genre in bazerman, c., bonini, a. & figueiredo, d. (eds.) genre in a changing world. colorado: the wac clearinghouse, pp. 3-16. swales, j. m., &feak, c. b. 1994. academic writing for graduate students: essential tasks and skills. ann arbor: the university of michigan press. yakhontova, t. v. 2003. english academic writing for students and researchers.lviv: pais zhang, y. & hu, j. 2010. a genre-based study of medical research article introductions: a contrastive analysis between chinese and english. the asian esp journal, 4/1: 72-96. retrieved http://newresearch.wikispaces.com/file/view/esp+discussion.pdf http://newresearch.wikispaces.com/file/view/esp+discussion.pdf http://www.asian-esp-journal.com/vol7-2-kanoksilapatham.pdf http://www.asian-esp-journal.com/vol7-2-kanoksilapatham.pdf ftp://124.42.15.59/ck/2011-02/165/099/ ftp://124.42.15.59/ck/2011-02/165/099/ http://informatik.unibas.ch/lehre/fs10/cs304/_downloads/samraj_on_introductions.pdf http://informatik.unibas.ch/lehre/fs10/cs304/_downloads/samraj_on_introductions.pdf http://informatik.unibas.ch/lehre/fs10/cs304/_downloads/samraj_on_introductions.pdf 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 october 17, 2011 from http://www.asianesp-journal.com/may_2010_ebook.pdf appendix source of english research articles borrero, n. e. & yeh, c. j. 2010.ecological english language learning among ethnic minority youth.educational researcher.39/8: 571-581. (e3) castro, a. j. 2010. themes in the research on preservice teacher’s views of cultural diversity: implication for researching millennial preservice teachers. educational researcher.39/3: 198-210. (e1) chen, y. & baker, p. 2010. lexical bundles in l1 and l2 academic writing. language learning and technology. 14/2: 30-49. (e14) de smedt, b., et al. 2010. frequency, efficiency, and flexibility of indirect addition in two learning environments. learning and instruction. 20: 205-215. (e7) elola, i. & oskoz, a. 2010. collaborative writing: fostering foreign language and writing conventions development. language learning and technology. 14/3: 51-71. (e15) falk, j. h. & storksdieck, m. 2010. science learning in leisure setting. journal of research in science teaching.47/2: 194-212. (e10) lee, h., et al. 2010. how do technologyenhanced inquiry science units impact classroom learning? journal of research in science teaching.47/1: 7190. (e9) robinson, j. p. 2010. the effects of test translation on young english learners’ mathematics performance. educational researcher.39/8: 582-590. (e4) tolmie, a. k., et al. 2010. social effects of collaborative learning in primary school. learning and instruction. 20: 177-191. (e6) van aalst, j. 2010. using google scholar to estimate the impact of journal articles in education.educational researcher.39/5: 387-400. (e2) vinter, a. & chartel, e. 2010.effects of different types of learning on handwriting movements in young children. learning and instruction. 20: 476-486. (e8) wilson, c. d., et al. 2010. the relative effect and equity of inquiry-based and commonplace science teaching on students’ knowledge, reasoning, and argumentation.journal of research in science teaching.47/3: 276/301. (e11) winke, p., et al. 2010. the effects of captioning videos used for foreign language listening activities. language learning and technology. 14/1: 65-86. (e13) yang, y. & tsai, c. 2010. conceptions and approaches to learning through online peer assessment. learning and instruction. 20: 72-83. (e5) zahari, z., et al. 2010. connecting high school physics experiences, outcome expectations, physics identity, and physics career choice: a gender study. journal of research in science teaching.47/8: 978/1003. (e12) http://www.asian-esp-journal.com/may_2010_ebook.pdf http://www.asian-esp-journal.com/may_2010_ebook.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 31 source of indonesian research articles adi, n. 2010. evaluasi hasil belajar mahasiswa. jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan. 16/3: 321-327. (i12) jufri, a. w & sulistyo, d. 2010. efektivitas pembelajaran sains berbasis inkuiri dengan strategi kooperatif dalam meningkatkan keterampilan berpikir siswa smp.jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran. 17/2: 159-165. (i8) leonard& supardi, u. s. 2010. pengaruh konsep diri, sikap siswa pada matematika, dan kecemasan siswa terhadap hasil belajar matematika. cakrawala pendidikan. xxix/3: 341-352.(i5) muharram., et al. 2010. pengembangan model pembelajaran ipa sd berbasis bahan di lingkungan sekitar melalui pendekatan starter eskperimen. jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan. 16/3: 311320. (i11) mustaji. 2010. pengembangan model pembelajaran berbasis masalah dengan pola belajar kolaborasi. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran. 17/2: 187-200. (i9) nilakusmawati, d. p. e. 2010. kajian pengetahuan guru mengenai internet sebagai salah satu sumber referensi dalam penyusunan karya tulis ilmiah. cakrawala pendidikan. xxix/2: 147-160. (i2) novrida, l. 2010. pengaruh strategi pembelajaran dan bentuk tes formatif terhadap hasil belajar matematika dengan mengontrol inteligensi siswa. jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan. 16/3: 300-310. (i10) roesminingsih, e. 2010.mutu guru dalam perspektif manajemen strategik di sekolah dasar.jurnal pendidikan dasar. 2/1: 9-16. (i13) said, m. 2010.ketidaklaziman kolokasi pembelajar bipa dan implikasinya terhadap pembelajaran bahasa. cakrawala pendidikan. xxix/2: 204213.i(3) suhardi & suyata, p. 2010. analisis kontrastif bahasa lio-indonesia dan pengimplementasiannya dalam model pembelajaran bahasa kedua. cakrawala pendidikan. xxix/2: 227-238. (i4) sulistina, o., et al. 2010.penggunaan metode pembelajaran inkuiri terbuka dan inkuiri terbimbing dalam meningkatkan hasil belajar kimia siswa sma laboratorium malang kelas x. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran. 17/1: 82-88. (i7) suparji. 2010. kualitas butir soal buatan guru-guru smp mata pelajaran matematika dan ipa di kabupaten sumenep. jurnal pendidikan dasar. 2/1: 48-52. (i14) supriyadi. 2010. model belajar learning community untuk meningkatkan keterampilan menulis ilmiah mahasiswa. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran. 17/1: 11-22. (i6) wachidah, s. 2010. wacana interaktif kelas antara guru dan siswa kelas, 1, 2, 3 sekolah dasar dalam proses pembelajaran tematik. jurnal pendidikan dasar. 2/1: 53-63. (i15) wahab, r. 2010. model bimbingan perkembangan untuk meningkatkan kecakapan sosial-pribadi anak berbakat akademik.cakrawala pendidikan. xxix: 127-146. 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you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaa080810fa • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa95fe51139 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle october 2011.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 27 enhancing students’ writing skill through task-based approach maria johana ari widayanti semarang state university marie_wied@yahoo.com abstract writing is a communicative action where there is an interaction process between writer and readers through a text. the relationship has a value as the final result to decide what a message the writer wants to give to the readers. the writing process implies to the text itself which contains a cooperative work between writer and readers. task based approach is an alternative language learning that is based on tasks. students have to do and complete some exercises that are given by a teacher. while the writing process is an action to produce a language as naturally as speaking process. through writing, we communicate our ideas to readers. journalism, as a subject for english students in our department, aims to give a writing skill for students by following journalism’s norms. therefore, the writing skill is important because through writing, students can write a news story in english language that can be published in a newspaper following the journalism norms. key words: task based approach, journalism introduction in the communication frame, writing skill is an interesting activity that can be done through a writing form so we can communicate to others. in communication, we can share our ideas, opinions, and knowledge to others. communication can be done through writing on a paper (or sending an email) or speaking directly. writing, as a communication activity, says through a text the interaction process between writer and readers. this approach puts the value as the final aim of writing. writing, as a communication activity, suggests an interaction process between the writer and readers through a text. this approach puts the value as the final aim that can be accepted by readers. the teacher should motivate students in choosing what kind of message they suppose to be sent and who will receive the message. in the writing process, there is a lack of interaction between the writer and readers, so the writer should anticipate it by producing a cooperative text. as stated by murcia (2001:207) by producing a cooperative text, the writer has to write a text clearly, the text should have a relevant between one sentence to another, the text should give an interesting information and can be remembered easily. murcia adds that readers can interpret the text as the 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 writer’s hope if the signs are available. the signs should be completed by the writers including linguistic accurate, presentation clearness, the coherence of ideas. the writer should avoid bad hand writing, errors in grammatical and spelling, so that the readers can understand and interpret the text easily. when we complete our text, we should reread what we wrote to revise our writing. how to write a good writing has been taught in our department. students learn the process of good writing since the second to fifth semesters. the writing process is taught step by step. in second semester, students learn to write some simple good sentences when they take sentence based writing subject. in the third semester, students have to take paragraph-based writing subject. in this subject they learn how to write long and complex sentences well. they also learn how to write their ideas in writing forms. in the fourth semester, students have to take genrebased writing subject. in this subject, students are introduced some genres in writing forms and they write some genres as their assignments. in the fifth semester, students have to take academic writing subject. in this subject, they learnt how to prepare a final project. journalism is a subject that should be taken by students in sixth semester. because students have enough ability to produce a good writing, they should take journalism subject. the aim of this subject is giving a writing skill to students how to create ideas to be a good news story that can be understood by readers. the description of this subject is to publish the main issues in news stories both spoken and written news stories. the aim of this subject is to give a skill so that students can acquire and understand the characters of news. they can explore writing news stories. therefore, as a subject, journalism is important for our students. sumadiria says (2005:2) that journalism is an activity to collect, write, edit, and publish news and writing for newspapers, magazines, and other mass media such as radio, television, and internet. journalism is a professional field which deals with publishing any daily events to mass media. as a professional job, the news story should follow the journalism standards so that the news can be a qualified story. those standards require news to be balanced, objective, concise and clear, and recent (up-todate/accurate). students should write a news story by following those standards. this study aims to solve the following problems: (1) how can the application of task-based approach improve students’ ability in writing news story in journalism class? (2) can the application of task based approach change the students’ behavior in writing a news story in journalism class? review of related literature task-based teaching language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 29 task-based language teaching is probably the most promising and productive one among the recent innovations in the field of second language teaching because the one which has drawn much attention from both second language teaching profession and second language researchers. there are three distinctive variations over the last ten years that they can be put under the general category of task-based language teaching because they all consider the use of content-based tasks as the most important feature of their innovations. at the task-based approach, learning is based on task that provides an alternative for learners. based on a task, a teacher does not need to decide what language will be learnt because an exercise is given based on the completeness of an assignment when students do the exercise. this exercise follows some steps, they are: (1) pre-task teacher introduces topic that will be discussed and give some instructions to students about what they have to do. teacher may help them to remember what language can be used to complete their task. the pre task step involves games by recording students’ task. students can write some notes to revise their task. (2) task students complete their task by doing it in partners or in groups. they can use the languages sources when the teacher monitors their task. (3) planning students prepare a brief report and tell to the class the process when they do the task both orally or in written. they prepare their presentation in a group before they present it in front of class. the teacher will help them explain about their task pleasantly. (4) report students present their report both orally or in written in front of class. the teacher will give feedback to students. he also records the students’ reports to compare one task to another. (5) analysis then the teacher will make highlight in the relevant parts to be analyzed. he may ask students to create an interesting feature in the text itself. he also writes language highlights to be analyzed. (6) practice finally teacher will select the language area to practice students’ ability based on students’ need and the important task or report phase. students do some exercises to increase their selfconfidence and write some notes. richards says a task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (ie. as a response). for example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command, may be referred to as tasks. task may or may not involve the production of a language. a task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. the use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of a language for its own sake. (richards, platt and weber, 1986: 289). while crookes states that task is a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, or at work." (1986). prabhu adds that task is an activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process, was regarded as a `task'. (1987: 24). nunan adds that a task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is a principle focused on meaning rather than form (1989:10). therefore, we can say that a task is a piece of an activity or work that usually is done objectively which involves the benefit of language which is focused on the result of the task itself than the language. a task also typically has a set of procedures usually predetermined by the instructor for the learners to follow for its completion. a a preference rule system for defining a task a. necessary conditions 1 a task is a learning activity. 2 a task is a meaning-focused activity. 3 a task is activity which leads to a specific outcome b. typical conditions 1 a task requires the use of the target language as the primary means for its completion. 2 a task has a definite beginning and ending point. 3 a task has a set of predetermined procedures. meyers (2005:1) says writing is an activitya process. writing is a way to produce a language which you do naturally when you speak. we say something, we language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 31 think what we want to say, we move to the next statement. writing is not difficult. meyers adds that writing is a speaking to others on papers – or computer screen. writing is partly a talent, but it’s mostly a skill, and like any skill, it improves with practice. writing is an action a process of discovering and organizing your ideas, putting them on paper, and reshaping and revising them. like speaking, writing is a way to communicate ideas, but unlike speaking, in writing, we can not see and hear our readers so we must think about their reactions. we have to choose a subject that interests them and try to present it in an interesting way. we have to reread what we write and then we rewrite it until we express our meaning strongly and clearly. according to meyer, here are six steps of writing process diagram (2005:3-11): 1. explore ideas a. consider the subject b. consider the purpose c. consider the audiences 2. pre write-using one or more of these methods a. brainstorming b. clustering c. free writing 3. organize a. select b. outline 4. write a first draft a. write quickly to record your thoughts b. put notes and new ideas in the margins 5. revise the draft a. read it aloud b. add or omit material, and move material around 6. produce the final copy a. edit b. copy over, or print a clean copy c. read carefully for errors, and then make another clean copy. journalism sumadiria (2005:2) says that etimologically, journalism derives from journ. in french word, journ means daily report or notes. journalism is an activity that relates in noting and reporting daily news. journalism has a relationship with mass media and mass communication words. journalism is a set of mass media which has a function as an interesting daily reporting, started from collecting to publishing for audiences about every event in the world.. amalia states journalism relates with the correspondent activity (http://jurnalistikuinsgd.wordpress.com/200 7/04/26/pengantar-ilmu-jurnalistik/) f. fraser bond in an introduction to journalism (1961:1) says journalism embraces all the forms in which and through which the news and moment on the news reach the public. it means journalism is an effort to produce words and pictures which relates with ideas or thoughts. adinegoro, as cited by sumadiria (2005:3) says that journalism is a practical skill to collect, to edit, and to publish news stories in newspapers or magazines. he 32 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 adds journalism is also an art skill. roland e. wolseley in understanding magazines (1969:3) adds that journalism is collecting, writing, processing, and publishing information to audiences through newspapers, magazines, televisions, or radios. from the definition above, we can say that journalism is a job activity to prepare, search, collect, process, and publish any daily events which is factual and actual to audiences through some media as soon as possible. according to sumadiria (2005:4) journalism is divided into three parts, they are: newspaper and magazine, which includes daily and weekly newspapers, tabloid, or magazines; radio broadcast journalism including radio publication; television journalism including television publication, and on-line (internet) journalism. while journalism product is divided into news, views, and advertising which is published on newspapers, magazines, tabloid, television, radio, and internet. the news group includes straight news, comprehensive news, depth news, depth reporting, investigative news, feature news, photo news. the views group includes article, opinion, caricature, essay, audience letters. marshall mcluhan as quoted by rakhmat says that every media has its own rules, which has relation with media (1996: 248). there are some journalism languages in general. there are simple, brief, clear, attractive, democratic, logic, avoid the informal conversation, avoid a foreign language, using an active sentence, and using a popular nature. simple means choosing a simple word which can be understood by all audience. brief means to be to the point, to tell the news directly. clear means to be pure, not biased, be honest. attractive means to motivate audience to read the news stories. democratic means that there is not any difference, social status, education level among audiences. logic means that journalism language should be accepted logically and with common sense. avoid the informal conversation that we usually speak in a market, bus station, café, or others. avoid a foreign language means that journalism languages should avoid difficult words which only few audiences who understand the words. therefore, synonyms should be written. using an active sentence, it means that using an active sentence is easier to understand the news stories. using a popular nature means that the journalism language should be accepted by all levels and ages (populist). there are some qualities of news: news should be balanced, objective, concise and clear, and recent. news is balanced. it means that balance is a matter of emphasis and completeness. a reporter must constantly strive to give each fact its proper emphasis, to put it in proper relation to every other fact, and to establish its relative importance to the meaning of the story as a whole. news is objective. it language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 33 means that news is the factual report of an event as it occurred. objectivity means that the news comes to the consumer untainted by any personal bias or outside influence that would make it appear anything but what it is. news is concise and clear. it means that news should be direct, terse, and logically coherent. it should be well paced, unified, and above all, written so clearly that the meaning of the story is absolutely plain. news is recent. it means that emphasis on the time element of a story is necessary because people are aware of the transitory nature of existence. things are always changing, and news consumers want the most recent information on subjects of concern to them. research methods the subject of this research was all students of semester vi english letters, faculty of languages and arts, semarang state university. the object was 21 students of one class of english letters which took journalism class. the research was done for 6 months in english letters department, faculty of languages and arts, semarang state university. this is an action research which began with the teacher willingness to improve the learning activity. this research was done through some action cycles, they are planning, action, observation, and reflection. here is the picture of action research according to arikunto (2002: 23): the collecting method that was used in this research based on observation, notes, interview, and questioner. observation was used to observe and note the process of activity in the classroom. note was an activity in writing important information during the learning process. interview was done among students to know the improvement of the research, and questioner was done to know the students’ comprehending about journalism itself. the data was collected by using descriptive analysis. score 1 to 4 was done to evaluate the learning improvement. here are the criteria to know the increasing of learning: (1) the planning observation reflection action 34 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 students’ ability in understanding writing process; (2) the students’ ability in understanding writing process and quality of news and journalism languages.; (3) the students’ ability in understanding writing process and quality of news and journalism languages and the application in writing news story; (4) the students’ ability in understanding writing process and quality of news and journalism languages and the application in writing news story based on interview and investigative reporting . findings and discussion this research applied task-based approach by giving task to students. according to nunan (1989:10) a task is a piece of paper work which involve learners in understanding, manipulating, producing, and interacting with the target language while the learner’s attention is focused on the meaning than in the form. as the researcher, i explained to students about the understanding of writing process consisting of six process, they are exploring ideas, pre write-using one or more of these methods, organizing, writing a first draft, revising the draft, and producing the final copy. meyers adds (2005:1) writing means an activity – a process. writing is a way to produce a language which you do naturally when you speak. we say something, we think what we want to say, we move to the next statement. writing is not difficult. meyers adds that writing is a speaking to others on papers – or computer screen. writing is partly a talent, but it’s mostly a skill, and like any skill, it improves with practice. writing is an action a process of discovering and organizing your ideas, putting them on paper, and reshaping and revising them. like speaking, writing is a way to communicate ideas, but unlike speaking, in writing, we cannot see and hear our readers so we must think about their reactions. we have to choose a subject that interest them and try to present it in an interesting way. we have to reread what we write and then we rewrite it until we express our meaning strongly and clearly. the application of task-based approach for english letters students in writing news story in cycle i, i prepared media, method, and lesson plan. the lecturer taught and explained the quality of news. students were given pre test. then students were explained task based approach and how to apply it in the writing process. students were given test 1 to know the comprehending of the task-based approach and wrote their ideas in writing form. the observation result at cycle 1 was: students did not understand taskbased approach and students could not write a news story by applying task-based approach in writing news story. in cycle ii, lecturer and observer prepared all media, teaching material, and the method to revise cycle i. the lecturer language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 35 taught and explained the writing process completely from exploring ideas up to producing a writing product. lecturer explained the qualities of news and asked students to observe the daily events. they were given the second test by asking them to write the factual events. the aim of the second test was to know how far they understood writing a news story by following writing process. the observation result at cycle 2 was: students have understood how to write a news story by applying writing process and some students could not understand how to write a news story by applying writing process. in cycle iii, lecturer and observer prepared all media, teaching material, and the method to revise cycle ii. the lecturer explained the writing process completely, qualities of news, interview reporting and investigative reporting. the lecturer asked students to observe, do an interview and investigate a factual event, then they reported it in a news story. test iii was done to know how far students could write a news story after they did an interview and an investigation. the result of the cycle iii observation was: (1) all students have understood the writing process completely which was started by developing idea up to produce a news writing; (2) all students have understood and comprehended the quality of news based on journalism languages; (3) all students have understood and could write a news story based on the interview and investigative reporting. during the research, the observer observed and made some notes about all activities inside the classroom. the observer also did an inteview to know the development of learning process. then the observer distributed questioner to students. the aim of those steps was to know how far the students’ comprehension about journalism and standard in writing a news story. 36 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 this was a descriptive analysis. data was got based on task, observation, interview, and quesioner that was presented descriptively. below was the picture the increasing of students’ ability in understanding and writing a news story from cycle i to cycle iii. in cycle i, students did not understand task based approach. they could not apply the writing process. it could be seen from question no 1. organization: introduction, body, and conclusion. in writing news story, students could not organize sentences well. they could not separate introduction, body, and conclusion well. in question no 2. logical development of ideas: content. the development of idea was not clear enough. they repeated sentences frequently. the content was not clear. in question no 3. grammar. there were many grammatical errors. for example: (1) cosplay or costum player is competition which is each of contestants should wear japanesse clothes such as japanesse superhero, japanesse comics, and so on. they also shown their action like the real superhero. the winner of this competition will get some prize from officer. it should be written: cosplay or costum player is a competition which each contestant is wearing japanesse clothes such as japanese superhero, japanese comics, and so on. they also show some actions like the real superhero. the winner of this competition will get some prizes from the committee. (2) this selection was not only in semarang state university but also there was nine university joined it. it should be written: this selection was not only in semarang state university but also nine universities which participated it. in question no 4. punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. students wrote the general idea, but there were some mistakes in punctuation, and spelling. they did not follow the six steps in writing process as meyer’s suggestion. below were the spelling errors, such as personil, attarktive, applaus, jurnalis. students should write personel, attractive, applause, journalist. in question no 5. style and quality of expression. students wrote long sentences. they repeated words frequently. they did not focus the topics. the result was only 5 students (23%) who understood task-based approach, and they applied the writing process in their writing product, while 16 students did not understood taskbased approach and applied writing process in their writing product. in cycle ii, students were asked to write a news story based on the factual events in their surrounding. they were explained the writing process completely. they were also explained the qualities of language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 37 news and journalism languages to support their writing product. in this cycle, more students understood and applied the taskbased approach and writing process than in cycle i. in question no 1. organization: introduction, body, and conclusion. students could organize the sentences well. though they did not develop their ideas maximally, they have divided introduction, body, and conclusion in some paragraphs well. in question no 2. logical development of ideas: content. students have showed the development of idea well, although some points had not been exposed optimally. some students wrote unrelated sentences. in question no 3. grammar. the grammar was well enough but there were some inappropriate sentences. it was not an important problem because readers could understand the meaning of their writing products. in question no 4. punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. some students got difficulties in punctuation and spelling. in mechanics of writing, they followed meyer’s instruction. in question no 5. style and quality of expression. students could express their ideas in writing form. they did not write long and non-sensical sentences. they did not repeat words frequently. the style and quality of writing was better than in cycle i. in this cycle, 12 students (60%) could apply writing process in writing a news story. those students followed the journalism languages and standards. but 9 students did not apply the writing process and they did not follow the journalism languages and standards in their writing products. in cycle iii, students were asked to create a news story based on interview and investigative reporting. in question no 1. organization: introduction, body, and conclusion, students could arrange sentences well. they wrote an attracting title. the introduction, body, and conclusion were written well. some supporting ideas were written completely. in question no 2. logical development of ideas: content. the development of idea was clear. topics were written clearly. in question no 3. grammar. there were not any grammatical errors. students wrote well. in question no 4. punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. there were not any punctuation, and spelling errors. students wrote upper and lower case well. in the writing mechanics, students have followed meyer’s instruction. in question no 5. style and quality of expression. students have expressed and explored their ideas in their writing product. they did not write long sentences. they increased their vocabularies by using some difficult words. their style was well. in this cycle, 18 students (90%) applied writing process in writing a news story. they followed journalism languages 38 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 and standards. they applied interview and investigative reporting based on a factual event or fact. only 3 students (10) who did not apply writing process and interview and investigative reporting in their writing products. from the result from cycle i to cycle iii, we could see there was an improvement in writing a news story. the application of task-based approach can change students’ behavior in writing a news story there was an improvement in writing news story from cycle i, ii, and iii. in cycle i, the result was only 5 students (23%) who understood task -based approach, and they applied the writing process in their writing product, while 16 students did not understand task-based approach and applied writing process in their writing product. in cycle ii, 12 students (60%) could apply writing process in writing a news story. those students followed the journalism languages and standards. but 9 students did not apply the writing process and they did not follow the journalism languages and standards in their writing products. in cycle iii, 18 students (90%) applied writing process in writing a news story. they followed journalism languages and standards. they applied interview and investigative reporting based on a factual event or fact. only 3 students (10) who did not apply writing process and interview and investigative reporting in their writing products. the observation result was reached from the pre observation when students did not know anything about task-based approach and writing process. they were confused when the researcher asked them to write a news story based on a factual event because they did not know anything about journalism languages and standards, and also the qualities of good news. after they were explained the task-based approach, writing process, journalism languages and standards, qualities of good news, interview and investigative reporting, students could write a good news story. the result of interview showed that students only understood the general journalism. they only knew that journalism was collecting and publishing information, but they did not know the journalism languages and standards. they did not know how to search and find the news stories. they did not know what sort of news when they read a newspaper, listen news on the radio, or watch news on television. they did not know the terms of hard news, soft news, color stories, yellow journalism. at the end of the research, students understood terms in journalism. it motivated them to learn more about journalism and produce a news story. they hope it could be published on a news paper. the questioner result presented there was a behavior change among students in writing a news story. in question no 1. do you know what journalism is before you participate in this class? there were 9 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 39 students who answered yes, while 12 students answered no. we could say that less than half students understood journalism before they attended this class. in question no 15. do you know what soft news is? all students (21) answered yes. in question no 16. do you know what hard news is? all students (21) answered yes. in question no 30 and 32. do you know what interview and investigative reporting are? all students (21) answered yes. it could be said there was a change behavior among students in writing a news story. conclusion writing a news story is a skill that has been learnt by all english department students who took journalism subject. during the learning process, students were explained the meaning of journalism, rules in writing a good news story. more practices were better for students. it could be seen from cycle i, ii, and iii. there was an understanding improvement among students in writing a good news story based on journalism rules and standards. students’ motivation in creating a good news story increased. references arikunto, s. 2002. prosedur penelitian. edisi v. jakarta: rineka cipta. breen, m.p. 1984. process syllabuses for the language classroom. in c.j. brumfit (ed.), general english syllabus design. (elt documents no. 118, pp. 47-60). london: pergamon press & the british council. foley, j. 1991. a psycholignuistic framework for task-based approaches to language teaching. applied linguistics. meyers, a. 2005. gateway to academic writing. new york: pearson education murcia, c.. 2001. teaching english as a second language or foreign language. australia: thomson learning inc nunan, d. 1989. designing tasks for the communicative classroom. cambridge: cambridge university press. oshima, a. 2006. writing academic english. new york: pearson pica, t., l.hollday, , n., lewis, & l. morgenthaler, 1989. comprehensible output as an outcome of lingusitics demands on the learner. studies in second language acquisition prabhu, n.s. 1987. second language pedagogy. oxford: oxford university press. richards, j., platt, j., & weber, h. 1986. longman dictionary of applied linguistics. london: longman. sumadiria, as haris. 2005. jurnalistik indonesia menulis berita dan feature. bandung: rosdakarya sutopo, djoko. 2003/2004. paparan mata kuliah journalism. willis, d. 1990. the lexical syllabus. london: collins. willis, d. 1993. comments on michael h. long and graham crookes's "three approaches to task-based syllabus design." tesol quarterly 27(4): 726733. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 10-16 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x sadia shepard’s foreign-returned: pakistani immigrants’ view on american values azka ashila*, melania shinta harendika universitas brawijaya, indonesia *email: ashilazkaaa@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.23882 submitted 31 march 2020. revised 7 august 2020. accepted 19 september 2020 abstract sadia shepard’s foreign-returned talks about the life of pakistani immigrants in america, especially hasan, who struggle to live a better life in the u.s. american values become the main focus in this study to see their influences in certain characters’ point of view of this short story. the data are selected conversations and the narrations in sadia shepard’s foreign-returned as well as traditional american values and the sociological data of pakistani diaspora in america in the 2000s. this research reveals that most of the characters, both firstand second-generation pakistani immigrants, practice american values in certain ways. however, values are fluid. not everyone in the u.s.a believes in american values; on the other hand, non-americans are possible to practice american values. in brief, how much the american values influence the characters’ minds and behavior does not depend on whether they are firstor second-generation immigrants. keywords: american values; first-generation; second-generation; foreign-returned  from muslim countries (considine, 2018). however, this does not stop people to come to america. this is interesting, then, to figure out why america is like a “magnet” for the immigrants? america’s becoming an attractive place for newcomers is not a brand-new idea. europeans are interested to go to the u.s.a. since a long time ago to establish colonies that were free from the controls that existed in their former society, which then leads them to believe in american exceptionalism (bancroft, 1874; datesman et al., 2005). with their notion of exceptionalism, americans shape “the american values” which has allowed the united states to take in millions of people from diverse cultures all over the world and create a remarkable american identity (datesman et al., 2005; wang & fan, 2013). there are at least three pairs of american values; individual freedom and self-reliance, equality of opportunity and competition, and the american dream and hard work. these values are depicted in countless literary works that represent the life of immigrants in the united states. the stories are varied, one of them is about their decision to leave their homeland to survive in america. sadia shepard, a pakistani american, represents the life of immigrants in her short story entitle foreign-returned (sadia shepard, n.d.). this short story talks about the life of pakistani immigrants from both first introduction people believe that america offers them a promising future for everyone who wants to make a significant difference in their life, and this is popularly known as the american dreams (datesman et al., 2005; wang & fan, 2013). this belief triggers lots of people around the world are eager to be in america to pursue their dreams. dream, for many americans, is an integral part of their own identity and it has vital functions within american culture (kasiyarno, 2014). american dream and american values are inseparable. the dream is traditionally understood as an american myth to have success, fame, and wealth through hard work and thrift. the values of democracy, personal freedom, upward mobility, and openness are often expressed in american popular culture (kasiyarno, 2014; laitinen, 2009). americans trusted and asked for the american dream to become a reality in which there was space for solidarity and humanity. this condition, however, might be different after the 9/11 bombing incident (ghaffarkucher, 2012; the 9/11 commission report, n.d.) because of the rise of islamophobia. this phobia leads americans to be skeptical about their moslem brothers. thus, it became a complicated situation for immigrants especially those who came language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 10-16 11 in america and believing in individual freedom strengthens his idea that he does not necessarily practice the rituals in his religion. when hina asks hassan on her first day of work on whether he practices his five-time prayer in office, hassan said to hina, “prayer was a personal matter,... best avoided in the workplace,” (shepard, 2018). this is quite contrary to what hina does. although she is a second-generation pakistani immigrant in america, of which we can assume that she believes more in the american values, she is told that she is very disciplined in doing the muslim five-time prayers. from this contradictory condition, hasan might be considered as a “not-so-good muslim”. muslims are out in two different stereotypes. one can be considered a good muslim if he or she obeys the rules and regulations about what can and cannot be done, and what should and should not be done as a muslim (considine, 2018). americans may see hassan as an ordinary, typical, or maybe liberal muslim, but inside the muslim community, hassan can be considered as a “not-so-good muslim”. there are various probabilities why hassan chooses not to do prayer in front of the public. hassan might be afraid that if he appears to be a typical male muslim like what american media portrayed (considine, 2018), he would be seen as an ‘extremist’. or it can also be a stereotype breaker that not every moslem pakistani does the fivetime prayers a day. hassan comes from pakistan to u.s.a to participate in the persistent lure of the american dream (shepard, 2018); therefore, he tries to fulfill the expectations of his families and communities by not ruining their expectations, by avoiding american prejudice of being an extremist muslim. moreover, it can be concluded also that someone’s religiosity is not related to his condition of being the first or the second generation of immigrants. the way shepard contrasts the first and the second generation of pakistani immigrants in america is interesting. shepard offers a condition that might be controversial from what is stereotyped in pakistani america. however, shepard’s surprise here is interesting to make the readers realize that one size does not fit all, in this case, not every stereotype applies to all. hina’s attempt to be a good muslim as it is mentioned before, everyone has a choice for their life, and this is believed by americans as individual freedom. therefore, people in the u.s.a. are free to believe (or not) in a certain religion or way of life. in shepard’s foreign returned, hina chooses to believe in islam as her reand second-generation, from the way the characters live their life as immigrants in america to how they believe and live their values in their daily life. this short story depicts also that not all immigrants can easily achieve american dreams because they have also to compete with everybody else in america (ashila, 2019). therefore, it is hard for those who have high expectation and they cannot gain it. methods this paper implements a postmodernism approach to literature, which believes that truth is a matter of perspective. in postmodernism, truth is considered as a matter of perspective and not universal. moreover, because of the huge globalization, different cultures are getting mixed (khaleque et al., 2015). we can see the effect of this on literature. furthermore, postmodern authors tend to use irony in their writings (connor, 2004; sheeba, 2017). therefore, the data on pakistani diaspora in america in the 2000s (considine, 2018; quraishi, 2019) are taken as well as the terminologies related to immigrant integration, traditional american values and elements of literature are used to give a clear explanation on the depiction of american values in the short story. the data of this research also consists of shepard’s foreign-returned. dialogue, narrative, plot, and the characters as well as some key points related to the characters’ point of view on american values are used as the discussion in this paper. results and discussion hassan’s ideology on his religion practice as a first-generation pakistani immigrant in the u.s.a., hassan is expected to be the unofficial ambassador of his home country. his family and relatives in his former country expect him to be wealthy or successful when hasan decides to move to the u.s.a. it is, then, something that becomes a big responsibility or “burden” for him. before leaving for the u.s.a., hassan has arranged to marry sara, his cousin, who then he brings along to the u.s.a. pakistan is a muslim-majority country which leads to the assumption that every pakistani is a religious person. this, however, is not the same as hasan’s belief. “back home, his religious practice had been limited to an annual trip to the masjid for eid...” (shepard, 2018). it shows that hasan is not a person who does five-time prayers a day as what is taught in islam. living language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 10-16 12 ligion and she takes it responsibly, one of the proves is that she manages to keep her daily prayers even in her workplace, “she reached under the desk and pulled a prayer rug from her duffel bag. she explained that she had arranged with tom, their team leader, to offer her daily prayers in the conference room on the eleventh floor,” (shepard, 2018). furthermore, in another scene, hina is portrayed not eating any meat given by hassan and his wife, sara, because she is afraid that the meat is not halal, “’thank you, but i only eat halal,’ hina said, piercing a roasted potato with her fork and chewing it methodically,” (shepard, 2018). these conditions show how consistent she is in practicing her religion. also, she even joins the islamic center. her demeanor reflects how she works for her freedom to do her responsibility as a muslim. hina’s choice to be a good muslim is quite challenging because, after the 9/11 tragedy, those who are considered good muslims may be labeled as extremists, terrorists, and also being very conservative (considine, 2018). hina, however, breaks all those stereotypes. she proves that she can be considered a good muslim as well as a good american. she fulfills her duty as an american, one of the proves is that she went campaigning for the election, it means that she is aware of her country’s political condition and she took part in it. shepard’s interesting way of depicting hina as a brave pakistani american tells the readers that it is not always easy to achieve the american dream as a moslem american because of the labels that might be imposed on his/ her. hina, however, is told as someone true to herself. she does not sacrifice her belief just to be what americans want her to be. on the contrary, she lives her american values by maintaining her freedom as well as her duty as an american citizen. hina’s decision to make a life on her own hina bhati is a second-generation pakistani immigrant who was born and raised in america. she is raised in michigan, then in new york along with her family from gujranwala, pakistan. she is the oldest sister among her four siblings; therefore, she has to take care of her siblings. some principles are not the same between pakistani’s and american’s. as a pakistani, it is a common thing to get married to someone chosen by the parents at an early age – this happens with hasan. hina, on the other hand, rejects a marriage proposal when she is twenty years old because she does not want to get married at that time. this, of course, shocks her parents. even though she knows that her parents forbid her to do this and that, she knows and believes that she can be whatever she wants to be because she has the right to choose whatever good for her life. by presenting this sequence of event, shepard highlights hina as someone who believes and relies on herself, as to how the individual freedom works. hina said, “i’m not interested in marriage. i want to make a life that i choose.” it is pretty clear that hina has a vision about her life and she takes care of it even though she has to sacrifice her relationship with her parents. hina thinks that marriage is not what she wants for her life. hina’s parents, as the first-generation immigrants might see marriages are a form of exchange between kin groups and women are seen as precarious gift (tarar & pulla, 2014), which is in contradictory with the notion of equality as one the american values which posit both men and women at the equal position. hina, on the other hand, does not see herself as a gift and she does not think that rejecting marriage can be such a shame for her family. to be more extreme, hina believes that as an american she can survive without her parents’ help, a point of view that is on the opposite of pakistani’s; which then leads hina to leave her parents and live her life with her personal choice. competitiveness between hassan and hina bhati hassan has been eight weeks working in the bank when hina was assigned to his desk. when he sees hina for the first time, he is questioning why his boss places hina at the same desk as him, especially when he knows that hina is much younger than he is. hasan’s uneasiness proves that he does not believe in the notion of equality. hasan sees himself as someone more superior than hina; because he has stayed longer at the office and because he is a man. ideally, while living in the usa, hasan should realize that this thought may not be applicable in the u.s.a. because americans believe in equality: everyone can work together regardless of their sex or their seniority. by this notion, americans believe that everybody has the same right to do anything so long as it does not hurt anyone else. it is not easy for hasan, however, as the first generation of pakistani in the u.s.a to practice the value of equality. hasan’s belief is normal as a pakistani because most asian nations are highly valued seniority (chen & chung, 2002). they believe that the older the people are, the more experienced they are. hassan, as a first-generation immigrant whose asian values still deeply rooted in his mindlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 10-16 13 set, undoubtedly sees hina as an inexperienced employee. this is an occupational closure, a term in a patriarchal society where a contest between men and women happens (kruger et al., 2014). men, as the dominant groups’ established gender inequality in the labor market by setting the criteria that make women ineligible for powerful positions. in hassan’s case, he is also worried and irked to the fact that the office places them together. the equality and competition issue that hassan and hina have is reasonable because they both come from a different social background (hina is grown up in america, while hasan is not) even though they share the same home country. hasan should realize that occupational closure (kruger et al., 2014) cannot be applied in america’s workplaces which applies the equality of opportunity where women and men are having the same chance to have a powerful position in their work or job. hina, even though she is a female employee does not make her less appreciated, she even gains compliments from her team leader instead. even though hassan is a male employee and has been in the bank longer than hina, it does not make him an ace employee either. hasan’s being annoyed because of his superior feeling is not surprising for the asian readers. the way shepard presents this issue might lead the readers to understand that this kind of problem might occur due to hasan’s culture shock. there are some contradictions among his values brought from his country of origin and the american values. shepard exaggerated something that hasan is annoyed because he has stayed eight weeks longer in the office. eight weeks is not a long time to feel that superior. this exaggeration, however, is a clear depiction for the readers that such a thing might happen in real life. hina bhati as tom’s secret weapon fighting for decades, the equality of opportunity in the american workplace cannot be easily realized equally all over america, especially in terms of gender and race. hassan feels isolated and annoyed because the only interaction that hassan can have is with hina, the pakistani girl that he felt most competitive with. shepard does not mention explicitly on why this happens. thus, it leads the readers to various interpretations. this, however, may be highlighted that it is not always easy to be immigrants in the u.s.a. because of this paradox of equality. also, for hina bhati, being a pakistani woman in an american workplace is not easy. as a second-generation pakistani immigrant, hina gets some privileges, one of them is to learn a lot since she was a child in the american education system which she believes better than pakistani’s. hina, moreover, knows the boundaries she will face as an immigrant but she keeps on trying, as the practice of hard work as the american value. on the other hand, hina got better preliminaries as she is growing up in america. both experiences and preliminaries make her works suitable in an american workplace and make her works stand out. even though she is a minority in terms of her race and religion, her works are preeminent and it is approved by her team leader, tom. “’watch out, hassan! she is unstoppable!’ tom said as he passed their desk, chuckling to himself ” (shepard, 2018). the way tom acknowledges hina as the unstoppable worker means a lot to hina, as one of the appreciations and recognition of being herself. hina believes as long as she keeps her works right and remarkable, she will be doing fine in her workplace, and tom, her team leader, will keep satisfied with her works. however, hina is quite competitive towards hassan. she likes to think that she is the only tom’s secret weapon, someone that no one recognizes about and that will give a person a benefit over the competitors (secret weapon | meaning in the cambridge english dictionary, n.d.). it is portrayed in a dialogue when hassan also considers himself as tom’s secret weapon. “’well, he has two secret weapons, then,’ hassan suggested. ‘me and you.’ ‘perhaps,’ hina said as if she didn’t quite agree” (shepard, 2018). hina does not agree with the idea of hassan’s statement because when hassan makes an occasional mistake in his works, hina catches them. she has great attention to detail and that is why hina does not think hassan has those qualities to be a secret weapon. hassan, on the other side, thinks that he is more experienced than hina because he is older and has been working longer than hina (although it is only eight weeks long), cannot excuse the way hina talks about how great she is on her works. hina believes that the education she gets in america is what makes her works different and better from hassan’s, as she says mockingly, “it may be because of the way that i was taught in school. instead of using rote memorization, we were taught cognitive problem-solving. my father says that’s the real advantage of american education.” (shepard, 2018) on the other hand, as the first-generation immigrant, hassan does not have the privilege of american education as hina has. that major language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 10-16 14 difference builds a great difference in their works, too. moreover, hassan is irked by the way hina distinguishes them as different pakistanis since hina is an american-born pakistani. it is stated in the dialogue between hassan and sara when he retells his conversation with hina in the office later that day. “that evening over dinner, hassan did his best impression of hina for sara. ‘you see, that’s why american pakistanis like me are superior to pakistani pakistanis like you,’” (shepard, 2018). hassan is aware that he cannot get the privilege of great education like hina bhati. nevertheless, they still have the same opportunity in their workplace as america serves the value equality of opportunity. shepard not only presents the superiority between man and woman but through hina, shepard mentions the superiority between firstand second-generation pakistani americans. this can be seen as a paradox of the notion of equality. americans who are proud of the notion of equality are competitive which then leads to the sense of superiority between one another. hina bhati’s hard work as a second-generation immigrant, hina bhati goes through the acculturation process where she performs american along with pakistani culture. one of the american values that she possesses is hard work. hina, in her early twenties, takes her job seriously. she teams up with her co-worker, hassan, “hina suggested that she and hassan review each other’s work for errors, sharing files back and forth, before forwarding them to tom” (shepard, 2018). hina is a second-generation pakistani american who learns how to work hard from her parents. when she was a child, “when her three younger sisters and brother were small, it was hina who took care of them while her father finished the night shift in his store and her mother worked at the hospital” (shepard, 2018). as the first-generation immigrants, hina’s parents have to build a proper living for their children, because they start everything from zero. the only way to do that is through hard work and since then, hina learns a lot from them. even though hina has an issue with her parents which makes her move out of her parents’ house when she rejects an arranged marriage, she does not stop her education. she even finishes her degree in two years. her hard work and struggles despite her family issues make her the first college graduate in her family. hina’s hard work in her job also has an outstanding outcome. her busy day prepping presentations, studying traffic studies, checking her, and hassan’s work, makes her promoted to the managerial position. hina bhati possesses hard work value and chases her american dream as an immigrant who does not forget her roots. her hard work makes her a visionary yet bold and remarkable american-pakistani muslim who aims for her american dream. she beats the odd and proves herself that she is going to live her american dream. she has a dream to move to a big house with her siblings and to become a vice president as well as to pursue her master’s degree. hina bhati proves that her hard work and diligence make her eligible for a powerful position in her job than hassan. ali and mona ahmed’s american dream having a steady job is one of the ways americans manifest their material wealth to get their american dreams. all of the private fortunes in the usa are built by people who are successful in business, many of whom start life with very little (datesman et al., 2005). therefore, many immigrants came to america bringing nothing but hope and a strong belief that they can change their life. hassan, as a first-generation immigrant, has his american dream to settle in a proper house for him and his wife, sara. therefore, as a firstgeneration immigrant who just came to america and started everything from zero, hassan still has a long way to go to have a victorian house, the house that sara dreams of. every sunday when he goes to ahmed’s house, he sees a life he aims in america, “on sundays, they felt closest to the people they wanted to be” (shepard, 2018). the reason he felt that way is that the ahmeds have everything that hassan works for. ali ahmed is a pediatric gastroenterologist, he has a wide circle of acquaintances, membership at a local golf club, a timeshare in florida. his wife, mona, organizes charity events for the islamic center in stamford. ali ahmed and his wife are the characters who possess material wealth and they are living their american dream as immigrants. the reason is that both of them have reputable and steady jobs. they possess great wealth and keep on being productive. mona ahmed also goes canvassing with her group and holds a multicultural book club in her house with her husband, ali. one evidence of their material wealth is his big house where he invites their relatives for a bbq and lunch by the pool every sunday in summer, “the ahmed’s house was a big white colonial with green shutters, framed by carefully landscaped shrubs and trees. there was a semicircular driveway and a four-car garage with a guest apartment above it” (shepard, 2018). language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 10-16 15 a home, that hassan says, will take a decade for him to get. the ahmeds show a perfect picture of what it likes to be a successful immigrant in america. as first-generation immigrants, they taste the american dream and their acknowledgeable success. ali and mona ahmed are symbols of what hassan and sara imagine in america, a successful life that remains out of reach for hassan and sara. sara values material wealth that she does not want and does not like to be seen as ordinary. she aims for a life that ali and mona have, but she does not work as hard as they do. sara still has a mindset like most pakistani women, she is dependent on her husband, that is why sara does not do much in her life. that is also a reason why she tells a lie to mona because she sees mona as her role model she aims in america. hassan, on the other hand, thinks that there is nothing wrong to be ordinary. in the end, hassan is fully aware that maybe what he has and offers to fulfill his american dream with his wife is not enough. his effort and struggle to gain success, great material wealth does not attain the standard of american hard work. hassan and sara as the foreign-returned when ali and mona ahmed hold lunch by the pool in their house every sunday in summer, hassan and sara do not miss this opportunity. unfortunately, their visit to the ahmeds every sunday makes hassan’s wife, sara, commits a lie to mona ahmed when she exaggeratedly says that she also has a high-class way of life. it is stated in the dialogue between hassan and sara on their car on their way back to their house after their visit to ahmed’s. “’because,’ sara said, her voice becoming small, ‘i can tell what she thinks of us.’ ‘what does she think of us?’ hassan asked, surprised to find that he cared. ‘she thinks we’re . . . ordinary,’ sara said. hassan started to interject: what was wrong, he wanted to argue, with being ordinary? with fitting in?” (shepard, 2018). hassan thinks it is better to be seen as ordinary, as it is the fact than to commit a lie. he realizes that his qualities to gain a successful life in america just have not met the standard. in the end, hassan and his wife have to leave the u.s.a. and go back to karachi because hassan cannot renew his h1-b visa. “they sit in sara’s parents’ kitchen drinking tea and talking about their time in the u.s., trading theories about why hassan’s contract was not renewed. true, it might have been his performance review. but it could also have been his name. or his nationality.” (shepard, 2018) the reasons and probabilities are varied, maybe hassan does not try so hard that his performance review cannot get him to stay in his job, or maybe he cannot renew his h1-b visa because of the rise of the islamophobia. he flies back to karachi and calls himself a foreign-returned. conclusion the american values in sadia shepard’s foreign returned are implicitly and explicitly seen within the characters, especially the main character, hassan, and hina bhati. coming from different backgrounds, these two characters show different points of view of each value. this study shows that value is fluid and someone’s origin country affects the way characters think and react towards each other. american values may not be able to be possessed by everyone. even non-americans can also possess american values and apply them in their daily life. the characters in this short story practice both the values of their former country, pakistan, with the american values. therefore, it is suggested for the next researchers who have the intention to conduct a study over pakistani immigrants in america to see over the cultural assimilation and cultural habits of pakistani diasporas in america. researching the portrayal of cultural identity is also suggested. it is also suggested that the next researchers conduct a study about the feminist side of the women characters in the story since the main character in this short story is a pakistani woman who plays a big role in the story even though she is a minority in terms of her race and her religion. references ashila, a. 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(2013). american values reflected in names of us supermarkets, the top five values and american dream. open journal of modern linguistics, 3(4), 348–355. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x implementation of task-based learning in teaching english in indonesia: benefits and problems muhammad badrus sholeh universitas negeri makassar, indonesia email: badrus2011@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.26004 submitted 1 september 2020. revised 30 september 2020. accepted 18 october 2020 abstract a variety of approaches exist in foreign language teaching and learning; task-based learning (tbl) is one of them. it is an innovative approach that is developed from the communicative approach. the concepts of tbl have proven successful in classrooms. in this study, the writer conducted a literature review of task-based learning in teaching english dealing with the benefits and problems in implementing this approach in indonesia. this paper seeks to review task-based learning (tbl), covering the definition of ‘task’ and task-based learning (tbl), the characteristics and stages of tbl, the teacher and students’ roles in task-based learning, and also the advantages and disadvantages of task-based learning. it also addresses the application, the benefits and problems of task-based learning in the sense of indonesian efl context. this will help educators and language teachers in indonesia to attach more importance to the contextual differences when applying task-based learning in indonesia. keywords: task-based learning; teaching english; indonesia; benefits; problems  ning. language development has been seen as a result of natural processes. tasks are done daily, such as writing a letter or reporting or talking to someone over the phone. tbl seeks to develop inter-language students through the provision of a task and, after that, language to solve it (skehan, 1998). tbl tasks enable students to engage and improve their language skills considerably. tasks assisted in task-based learning are seen as resources that teachers and learners can use to meet clear language goals and objectives (samuda and bygate, 2008). this approach encourages the actual use of language, which facilitates the effective integration of skills. nunan (1999) endorsed this concept by explaining that tbl requires listening, speaking, reading, and writing to complete the question presented by the same exercise challenge. as a result, tbl facilitates and encourages incorporating skills by undertaking daily-life activities that develop communicative skills for students as it provides students the chance to learn the language target continuously. students see learning as a way to explore constructive class activities that establish real dialogue in which problems are solved, and ingenuity displayed. implementing this approach in class typically leads to real-life activities that allow all the language skills to be introduction appropriate teaching methods influence successful learning in foreign languages. the 20th century saw a series of approaches and methods, such as the grammar-translation method, direct method, communicative approach, etc. such methodologies and methods have variously influenced the teaching of foreign languages. task-based learning (tbl) started to gain a growing interest in the late 20th century to promote communicative skills growth. some contemporary work, such as the studies by long and crookes (1991), and skehan and foster (1999), also reflect task-based learning’s focus. task-based learning (tbl) aims at using authentic language across practical activities. this approach promotes meaningful and student-centered communication. students can use terms in their tasks freely and creatively. prabhu (1987) first introduced the idea of tbl in his bangalore project that centered on communication through the participation of students in doing “task.” they were provided clearly with a set of problems and information/opinion gaps addressed through the english medium under the guidance of teachers. prabhu said that the focus of language was inhibiting language learlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 2 nunan (2004) describes tasks as activities that can stand alone as fundamental units and involve authentic language comprehension, manipulation, or interaction while emphasizing meanings rather than forms. tasks provide the necessary exposure and language usage opportunities needed to acquire the target language because the tasks are typically performed in pairs or groups. exposure occurs when students listen to the teacher’s instruction, to the speech of their friends, and when they have to read hand-outs to complete the tasks. when learners have to communicate, they will acquire the language faster and more efficiently (willis, 1996). meanwhile, harmer (1998: 71) said task-based learning puts the focus of learning on the progress of specific tasks. task-based learning is an approach aimed at encouraging students to act at their speed and for processing and reorganizing their inter-language within their degree and field of interest. richards and rodgers (2001: 223) identify task-based learning as an approach that focused on using tasks as the center planning units and language teaching. tbl is a framework for language teaching that concentrated on the students’ allocated tasks. it is the focal point of language teaching activities that tasks are given. generally, students’ tasks can be assumed to be tbl’s basic principles. for this situation, however, the students’ task toward the beginning of the material/ meeting turns into this approach’s sign. when a new type of material is given, the teacher can create a great deal of elaboration from various interactions that teachers sometimes insert an idea in the students’ minds. in tbl, students will be expected to get a handle on the information to be transmitted initially in any case. afterward, the teacher’s draft will be restricted to false or true conclusions or maybe pure improvement. this approach will more enhance the role of teachers as supervisors. from the definitions above, it could be inferred that task-based learning is an approach that expects students to execute the task and utilize the task as the basis of unit preparation, preparing and executing practical activities that are essential to the learning process. task-based learning promotes the role of tasks as a significant element of the language classroom, as it gives a superior explanation for initiating learner acquisition processes and encouraging foreign language learning. hence, tbl depends on a language learning theory rather than a language structure theory. the objective of task-based learning is to enhance the activities of language students rather practiced. it helps students discover various communicative opportunities inside and outside the classroom that support language practice by performing near or related activities to everyday life. students play central roles in task-based learning. they have the amount of opportunity and duty to negotiate course content, select language forms from his / her linguistic repertoire, and explore different options for task performance and task results (breen & candlin, 1980). taskbased learning incorporates the best ideas from communication language instruction to shift the traditional learning method, where students may not have learned to communicate. it establishes a specific language use objective and provides a natural language analysis context. tasks in language classrooms are a central component of task-based learning because they provide a framework that stimulates learning processes and facilitates second language acquisition. consequently, one of the factors determining the task’s complexity will be the cognitive demands placed upon the learner in a task-based approach (robinson, 2001). the paper seeks first to review task-based learning literature on the concept of task-based learning (tbl), the characteristics and stages of tbl, teacher and student roles in task-based learning, and the advantages and disadvantages of task-based learning. it also discusses the implementation, benefits and problmes of taskbased learning in the indonesian efl context. methods this is a literature review focusing on the concepts of task-based learning and the implementations of this approach in indonesian context. it also discuss the benefits and problems of implementing tbl in indonesia. this librarybased research reviewed some studies, researches, or literatures including books and peer-reviewed journal articles. the searched databases included eric, wiley online library, oxford academic, researchgate, semantic scholar, google scholar, global research & development services, citeseerx and academia. keyword searches were carried out using the following combinations: task-based, task-based learning, tbl, tbi, tblt, esl, efl, elt, and language acquisition. following this, more content was checked for reference lists. result and discussion definition of task-based learning (tbl) https://grdspublishing.org/index.php/index language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 3 than the activities of teachers. it is up to the teacher to perform various tasks that help learners experience the target language spontaneously, individually, and initially (willis, 1996: 25). each task will give students new personal knowledge of the target language, and at this point, the teacher plays a significant role. the teacher must be responsible for the awareness-raising process that must be followed by the experimental task. simple pair work and group work are frequently used in task-based learning to promote student engagement and collaboration. even more formal cooperative learning models can be used in task-based learning. task-based learning applies to all levels of language ability, but the activity’s essence varies from level to level. another essential feature of task-based learning is that it is not intended to dictate or control the learners’ language forms. however, as they talk, learners will make some mistakes, but they must see their mistakes as a nominal part of learning. learners must feel free to experiment for themselves and risk-taking with the target language. therefore, the teacher should encourage them not to say anything but to take the risk of doing something wrong. characteristics of task-based learning swan (2005) proposes the following taskbased learning characteristics: real-world language. task-based learning (tbl) is a teaching approach that fundamentally handles language as a communication device instead of a study or subject. tbl relies on real-world language use. it underscores the activities of the real world. it means that tbl concentrates on communication and interaction between the students who perform the task at the correct time using the appropriate language. task-based learning also offers students chances to talk in the target language and also the opportunity to rehearse the language before using it outside the classroom in a real circumstance. learner-centered. tbl allows the teaching-learning cycle to be more learner-centered. the teacher opens up the possibility for the students to prepare and track their own learning by utilizing task as the essential unit of learning. it is up to the teacher to create and give various tasks that will allow the students to practice the foreign language naturally, independently, and originally. focus on meaning. task-based learning is an approach that emphasizes on meaning rather than form. that is, instead of doing discrete form-based exercises, students perform a group of communication tasks. students are encouraged to convey their thoughts on the lesson’s theme, both orally and written. such ideas should be the basis of a meaning analysis from a communication operation. completion of task. task-based learning lets students to complete a task. the emphasis of the classroom activities is the task. language is the tool that students use to achieve to accomplish the task. the task is an activity that uses language to get a specific result. besides, nunan (2004) proposes the following 8 task-based learning principles: scaffolding: students should get support from the lessons and materials. task chains: every activity and task will build on the previous task. recycling: the language recycling will maximize the learning opportunities. organic learning: language skills gradually “grow.” active learning: students learn best through the constructive use of the language they are using. in other words, they learn by doing. integration: the teachers will explain the grammatical structure and how to the fabric for communication purposes. reflection: students should have the ability to reflect on what they know and how well they do. copying to creation: students should not only learn and practice what was written for them, but they should also be able to use their imagination and creativity to solve real-world problems. stages of task-based learning task-based learning provides teachers an alternate teaching approach. the teacher does not describe which language to study in a task-based lesson. the lesson is based on a specific task being performed. the language being learned is decided at the same time because the students accomplish the task. frost (2004) reveals the following stages: pre-task. teachers start the topic and provide detailed guidance to the students about what to do at the task level, and may support the students remember some vocabulary that may be helpful for doing the task.. pre-task stage can involve playing a video of people doing the task. it offers students a detailed outline of what to expect. the students should set aside notes and require the effort to plan for the task. ellis (2006) notes that the initial step are to pre-task the different activities that teachers and students may conduct before beginning the task. the pre-task method aims to train students to fulfill the task of promoting learning. task. the students do a task in pairs or groups while the teacher supervises and provide guidance. the second steps include a conversatiolanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 4 nal lecture, mainly in nature, and offers opportunities for risk-taking students. the next step in this phase involves common expectations and successful scaffolding for the learners’ communication activities. planning. students formulate an oral or written report to explain what occurred in their task. instead, in their classes, they practice what they would say. meanwhile, the teacher is available to ask students for recommendations to clarify their language issues. report. after that, students present orally or read the written report back to class. the teachers choose the order of when the students should present their reports and may provide some immediate feedback about the material to the students. the teachers can also play a recording at this point in performing the same activity to compare the students. this process has some pedagogical objectives, such as providing consistent task results, promoting reflection on how the task was done, and finally promoting disturbing ways in the learner’s task. analysis. then, the teacher points out the important components of the recording text for review by the students. they can be asked to note fascinating characteristics in this text. the teacher may also illustrate the vocabulary used for the student’s interpretation during the study process. practice. finally, the teacher chooses language fields to learn depending on the students’ needs and what resulted from the phases of the challenge and study. students then conduct activities to boost their self-confidence and valuable language notes. teacher and students roles in task-based learning richards and rodgers (2001) suggest that the creation of classroom interaction is the responsibility of both teachers and students in taskbased learning. within a task-based learning, teachers and students’ positions change as collaborative research tbl approaches learning and teaching. through task-based learning, students and teachers have specific responsibilities. richards and rogers (2001) discuss the teachers and the student’s roles in task-based learning, while far from being comprehensive. three main roles should be played by teachers implementing task-based learning in the foreign language classroom: selector and sequencer of tasks: teachers have an important function in choosing, chancing, and making tasks and afterward shaping them according to students’ needs, interests, and language skills. getting ready students for tasks: some pre-task preparation is significant for students. such preparing activities can include introducing subjects, explaining task directions, helping students learn or remembering valuable words and phrases to promote the task easy to complete, and fractional presentation of the task process. awareness-raising: the teacher utilizes a combination of shape-focusing strategies that incorporate care-focusing pre-task practices, the review of the provided text, controlled access to parallel tasks, and the utilization of featured materials. while students in the foreign language classroom who incorporate task-based learning will play three key roles: participant group: students perform several duties in pairs or small groups. for students who are increasingly acclimated with full-class activities and/or individual work, pair or group work can need some adjustment. monitor: the tasks used in task-based learning are to promote learning. classroom activities will help students learn how to use communication language. students must “attend” the message in task work, yet in addition how normally such messages are stuffed. risk-takers and innovators: several tasks allow students to generate and interpret messages lacking complete linguistic resources and previous experience. the purpose of these tasks is said to be this. students will need to acquire the abilities to guess from linguistic and contextual hints, ask for clarity, and communicate with other students. advantages and disadvantages of task-based learning some experts have suggested some of the advantages of task-based learning, so the teachers can use them to enforce it. firstly, task-based learning offers a clear setting for the use of language. the ordinary meaning can be achieved by providing a variety of tasks to the students. hence the students directly study the language. the students must work together to complete the assignment assigned to the instructor. in a natural context, students have many opportunities to learn a language (larsen, 2000:144). second, task-based learning is student-centered. the teacher should only present the word in pre-task according to the teaching procedures in tbl. in the work cycle and language orientation, students may then use their language. it leads the students to become active learners. nevertheless, they track the students even while they do the job (willis, 2006). thirdly, the students participate in task-based learning. therefore they are more likely to be associated with language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 5 learning the target language (willis, 2006). the teacher may use them as guides to choose taskbased learning to teach english according to some of the advantages listed above. in addition to some advantages, taskbased learning also has weaknesses or disadvantages. because there are many learning activities using task-based learning, students also spend plenty of time. the teacher would say this if they are going to apply task-based learning. another disadvantage is that the teacher should clarify the task at the pre-task stage, so he or she has limited time to use the language or provide a role model. implementation of task-based learning in teaching english in indonesia several researches have been conducted in indonesia on task-based learning. these studies primarily analysed the application of tbl on a tertiary level and in public school classrooms. they highlighted the factors that restricted tbl’s introduction in classes, including the confidence of teachers and other contextual factors in indonesia, such as the english exams program, availability of resources, students ‘ different needs, and language skills levels. hutagulung (2004) performed the first empirical analysis. in her work, she used a descriptive qualitative design. it was also announced that task-based learning implementation runs effectively and adequately to junior high school at the first-grade level. it shows that task-based learning is being introduced in indonesia in many english classrooms. the english teacher of smp negeri 28 surabaya is one of the teachers who introduce task-based learning. wisnu did a research in 2006. a vocational high school in cimahi, west java, undertook this research. it attempted to see the potential application in a local context of task-based learning in teaching speaking. this research also attempted to evaluate factors leading to the instruction implementation and clarify the importance of using qualitative data in exploring tbl implementation. it was stated in this study that tbl may be applied when the instructor (1) adjusts different task cycles; (2) prolongs other task cycles; and (3) adopts specific language teaching methodologies in the tbi setting. the next research is carried out in sman 5 bandarlampung by desmayenni (2012). this research aimed to find out whether task-based learning (tbl) increases students’ participation during the process of teaching and learning and the descriptive writing ability of students at sman 5 bandarlampung’s first year students. the qualitative data was used by questionnaire and observation sheet to see students ‘ involvement during the learning process. meanwhile, quantitative data was used to know the students’ ability to write descriptive text as the learning tool through the score of students. the first-year action research (car) was done in two stages. ideally, if the teacher is actively engaged in the teaching-learning process with at least 75 percent of students and 75 percent of students, the indicators of this research success will earn 70 or more or better. it can be said that during the teaching learning process, tbl will increase students’ participation and the descriptive text writing skills of students. the next study was conducted by zahro (2005). the study’s research question is “how can task-based learning enhance reading understanding of students at ibb 10th at the sma muhammadiyah 2 gentengteaching-learning year 2014/2015?”. and the research question aims to see how task-based learning can increase the understanding of reading among students. taskbased learning has been applied in small groups or pairs in teaching and learning, 69,4 percent (20 students) in cycle 1 and 88 percent (26 students) in cycle 2. task-based learning has improved student comprehension in two cycles from the average student ratings (61.3) in cycle 1 to (72) in cycle 2. based on the research findings, task-based education will help enhance students’ understanding of reading in the sma muhammadiyah 2 genteng academic year 2014-2015. besides, a study was performed by simamora (2018). in this work, the researcher used quantitative research methods because tblt will enhance the student’s ability to write a descriptive text. the study was designed in two groups before the post-test phase. besides, the results indicated that there are significant differences between the preand post-test approaches and that the student writing ability was developed efficiently. the results from the research show that t-value was 6,441; the t-table is at least 2,145 and 0,00 < 0,05. the null hypothesis is therefore dismissed for the experiment, and the test hypothesis is accepted. in short, tblt can enhance the student’s writing ability. task-based learning is also explored through listening skills. a study was carried out by arnoi (2018). the study aimed to determine the effect on the listening output of the first grade of sma al-kautsar bandar lampung of the task-based language teaching (tblt). this research was carried out using a quantitative methodology using a single pre-test design. research language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 6 findings found that there has been a statistically significant improvement in the listening performance of students at first-grade sma al-kautsar bandar lampung with a sense level of 0.05 after being educated in task-based language teaching (tblt). the statistical result has shown that the t-value (9.523) was higher than the t-table (2.045), and the meaning value (0.00) was lower than (0.05). from the above findings, it may be inferred that tblt has a positive influence on students’ listening performance. these studies indicate that tbl, given its positive effect, primarily has on schools in indonesia’s teaching and learning sense of foreign languages. the research discussed in this article thus contributes to tbl literature in indonesian contexts. benefits of task-based learning in teaching english in indonesia task-based learning provides many benefits as it is communication-based, allowing previously acquired information to be passed to current communicative contexts (nunan, 2004). it aims to engage learners in practical language usage (ellis, 2009). task-based learning makes students connect precipitously. the students are allowed to use any vocabulary and grammar they learn. for example, a role-play needs the student openly uses words. it gives students the opportunity to evaluate their vocabulary. it additionally allows students to learn and benefit from certain words, thereby increasing their trust level. the cognitive ability and communication skills of the learners are established in the course of a task. students’ attention is based on problem-solving rather than on individual language systems. it inspires more motivated students. automaticity. automation for language learning is intended to improve efficiency, accuracy, and stability. (rider i.et al, 2007). it is additionally recommended that automaticity is almost indigenous. research into cognitive psychology and acquisition of second language indicates that automaticity is accomplished in an authentic communication situation using creative language rules (rider et al, 2007). learning based on assignments makes ready for automaticity. cognitive language theories recommend that real-life learning situations are useful for automatic language knowledge (ellis, 2009). task-based learning allows language learners to master vocabulary. in general, teachers are responsible for teaching, and students do not participate. words that are taught are quickly forgotten, and when the teacher considers creativity to involve students in the pre-task, it’s beneficial to students. the alternatives suggested to increase vocabulary include predicting titleor subject-related terms and creating terms in a web word through brainstorm, cooperative dictionary search, and matching words with a meaning list (newton, 2001). in the course of the assignment, it is found that a glossary allows the learner to acquire vocabulary, so these words are not preserved, but words extracted from active processing have been learned better (newton, 2001). a better interactive glossary is helpful than a standard glossary. interactive glossary is the place where students communicate. the instructor must make additional efforts to create an engaging glossary. it is also worth encouraging students to negotiate new definitions rather than relying on external sources. while the issue of vocabulary quality acquired through group work persists, learners make impressive progress. vocabulary preparation is also said to occur naturally when students participate in collective task-based experiences. completing the task if students are motivated to document new terms and rewrite them and if the original words are evaluated in various meanings and ways to boost their language comprehension. the teacher must guarantee that students can meet and investigate new vocabulary without direct teachers’ assistance through training and use this vocabulary to accomplish significant task objectives (newton, 2001). language learning does not take place without the knowledge of encouragement and language resources. task-based learning forces students to utilize language in an engaged and community way. students can discuss it turns to talk and also evaluate diverse correspondence methodologies. task-based learning makes conditions that naturally improve language learning. it gets ready for students to utilize their language in the real world. maximizes the communication scope. taskbased learning offers students the conditions to acclimatize what they feel and comprehend when carrying out the task. by completing the challenge, students buy new language items and use the language they have recently purchased. tasks empower students to learn and acclimatize language components they effectively perceive and comprehend. they allow students to create their recently gained knowledge into new communications contexts creatively. they involve students in purposeful communication and provide students with opportunities to test diverse communication methods and equip them with vocabulary for language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 7 their public use. experiential learning. experiential learning will build a critical conceptual foundation for task-based learning. the imminent personal knowledge of the students is the starting point for this approach. intellectual development is claimed as students take part and focus on the task sequences. active participation is viewed as fundamental to this approach; therefore, it centers on learners. this goes against the method of transmitting information in which the students passively gain teacher awareness. experiential learning has different origins in various fields. psychologist david kolbe has brought together multiple aspects of social psychology, humanist education, developmental education, and cognitive theory (nunan, 2004). problems of implementing task-based learning in teaching english in indonesia while task-based learning can lead to effective teaching-learning in indonesia’s efl classroom, some school settings may still be some issues (ismail, 2017). they are defined as follows: teachers with limited language proficiency. when teachers want to integrate task-based learning in the efl classroom, they should have sufficient language skills to guide and model student learning. or on the other hand, they can have adequate language instruction to promote student language acquisition. going to professional workshops or language events may help inspire teachers to develop their language skills. inadequate teacher training in tbl methodology. it could be an issue unless teachers are trained in task-based learning. in this case, teachers should follow tbl-designed textbook materials as it could be a simple route for teachers to figure out how to framework students adequately. therefore, teachers must offer sufficient in-service training for teachers to rehearse tbl in their classrooms. finally, teachers could join some development workshops in tbl aimed at gaining tbl professional knowledge. teachers will feel more confident in implementing tbl in the teaching and learning process. traditional examination-based syllabi. numerous teachers are worried that tbl would sabotage students’ opportunity of success in conventional examinations, particularly if they put more emphasis on grammar and consistency than on the ability to communicate appropriately. school tests or outer open tests are often essential motivators for students to study a language. everything that does not directly relate to them is also considered a waste of time. if their tests do not assess oral communication, students frequently worry about the importance of oral participation. lack of sufficient resources. resources can allude to time, location, technology tools, tbl supplementary materials, and so on. a few schools in rural areas, for instance, might not have the internet in the classroom. therefore, teachers should consider these confinements when planning task-based lessons. linguistic insufficiency. students who are beginners without linguistic resources find taking part in a challenge very challenging. it may be incredibly difficult and strenuous to continue the conversation while speaking about activities such as role-play or explaining the discrepancies learners can consider. they may not understand what the task needs and may find it difficult to be understood in the task. students may eventually be unmotivated to do the task and will lose their self-confidence. various and different classes. a class of students with varying skills, styles of learning, and levels of motivation. thus, the tasks endorsed might apply to a few students, and it might be so challenging for others, and it might be so simple for some others, and they might believe it is spending a lot of time to do the task. at the same time, it isn’t easy to account for learners with specific previous knowledge levels. students with insufficient knowledge may seem that the tasks so challenging, and high-understanding learners will find the tasks too straightforward and tedious simultaneously. large class sizes. learning and teaching based on tasks may need some additional time to complete the tasks. in addition to big class size issues, teachers may not have sufficient opportunity to deal with each student and track their learning procedure or progress. in answer, teachers may pick and train some significant -level students. we will help other students teach, or model target skills and learn informative abilities all alone. class room condition. suppose the classroom used in implementing task-based learning is too cramped (uncomfortable, overcrowded). in that case, the teachers should adjust the classroom or reduce energetic activity among the changes you need. conclusion with a view of the theoretical context and practical aspect of task-based learning, it appears that tbl is better than the conventional teaching approach because students are involved language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 1-9 8 in the communicative classroom. the students can be shifted from passive to active using tbl implementation. students will have the opportunity to learn a specific language with authentic materials. the language skills and communication skills of the learner will be built through taskbased learning. tbl can help language students use their language skills to communicate their meaning fluently and accurately in a long-term project. briefly, the tbl looks like a realistic approach to encouraging foreign language learning among l2 learners and improving their language skills and communication skills. it is recognized that it would be difficult and risky for teachers in a foreign language classroom to apply tbl, particularly in the secondary school context effectively. nevertheless, its advantages could well outweigh its disadvantages. in the background of indonesian efl, where there is little or no practical use of english outside the classroom, many students study english as a subject, not as a functional language, and their target is to achieve high scores in highstakes testing. this condition seems to be incompatible with the communicative practices carried out in tbl. the pedagogical benefits of tbl are numerous: (1) helping learners to interact spontaneously, (2) leading automaticity, (3) giving language learners opportunity to learn vocabulary, (4) providing necessary conditions for language learning, (5) maximizing scope for communication, and (5) providing experiential learning. there are also many problems in implementing tbl in the indonesian efl context, such as teachers with limited language proficiency, inadequate teacher training in tbl methodology, traditional examination-based syllabi, lack of appropriate resources, linguistic deficiency, and diverse classes, large class sizes, and classroom condition. task-based learning would be more feasible and effective if it can be modified to be a context-sensitive teaching method, teacher interests, values, and experiences align better with tbl concepts. references arnoi, k. n. 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(2015). the implementation of task-based learning to improve the tenth grade students’ reading comprehension of sma muhammadiyah 2 genteng in the 2014/2015 academic year. unpublished thesis. university of muhammadiyah jember. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 55 cross curricular english education and its possible application in indonesian curricular system alim sukrisno semarang state university abstract this article is about cross curricular english education viewed from its possible application in indonesian curricular system. cross curricular education can take place in the form of project work, thematic teaching and so on. in the indonesian curricular system, cross curricular education manifests itself in bilingual education in which the medium of instruction is english. in junior and senior high schools this programs is better known as rsbi or sbi. investigation in the field indicates that this program has been prematurely applied since some basic requirements of its application have not been met. therefore, should this program be continued an investigation must be conducted to see which parts of the program should be modified, replaced, or even removed altogether. key words: curricular, education, rsbi, sbi, thematic, bilingual introduction in this article, i attempt to present the notion of cross curricular teaching based on some materials available in the internet. the website articles to be reintroduced are among others the reports of vogt, zorro and baracaldo, deller and price, calabrese and rampone, mahisto, et al., and some unauthored reports of similar vein, such as „building cross-curricular connections‟, „from cross-curricular planning to tailoring for learner diversity‟ and „cross-curricular theme as practically useful to exploit in an english classroom with nine-year-old beginners‟ to begin with, the notion of crosscurricular teaching will be defined. then, the idea of cross-curricular thematic instruction will be highlighted. crosscurricular activities will be the next thing to be dealt with. finally, a possible application of the idea of cross-curricular teaching in the indonesian curricular system will be highlighted. the discussion of the afore-mentioned notions of cross-curricular teaching will be elaborated in the following subsections. the notion of cross-curricular teaching according to http://answers.com/q/ what_is_the_definition_for_cross_curricula r, „cross curricular studies cut through traditional subject matter lines and explore relationships of subjects to one another‟. why do we have to engage ourselves in cross-curricular studies? some of the reasons are the changing needs of http://answers.com/q/%20what_is_the_definition_for_cross_curricular http://answers.com/q/%20what_is_the_definition_for_cross_curricular http://answers.com/q/%20what_is_the_definition_for_cross_curricular 56 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 students as well as the complexity and diversity of curriculum planning. in relation with foreign language education, the role of a foreign language, i.e. english, is very important. in line with this, vale and feunteun (1995) assert, „english is not an isolated educational issue. the child has needs in terms of learning‟. they add that „children need a lot of opportunity for review, recycling and consolidation of language, ideally through a variety of cross-curricular contexts (p. 66). cross-cultural implementation in the field one of the realizations of cross-curricular education is by conducting cross-curricular projects (roa et al., http://apinillamvargas.doc). this is a study conducted on elementary students, the aim of which is to analyze in what way children learn english through the implementation of cross-curricular projects. there are three research questions posed in this project: (1) how do cross-curricular projects contribute to the process of english language learning in first graders? (2) how is children‟s learning expressed through the implementation of cross-curricular projects? (3) what kind of connections do children make between the content of curricula for elementary school and the projects developed in the efl classes? an elementary class was chosen to carry out the project. a natural process of learning involving all language skills together with a wide variety of guided and free activities focusing on content rather than on language was taking place in the activity. at the end of a one-year activity, the authors found out the answers to the previously mentioned questions: (1) „cross-curricular projects is a way of learning english through content in which the target language is the vehicle of interaction and knowledge, not the subject of the study‟, (2) „children‟s learning is expressed by means of the transfer of activities done during the english class to daily lives; making connections across subjects; making inquiries to find cross-curricular relationships according to their experiences and using the language they know, like body language, drawings, written and spoken english and spanish language‟, (3) „children identified themselves as part of a community‟ and they „talked about healthy habits and uses of water‟ which are topics that they had to study in their curricular. (2) another example of cross-curricular activity done in the field is through cross-curricular thematic instruction (vogt, in http://eduplace.com/rdg/res/ vogt.html). the background of carrying out this activity is as follows: teachers who use cross-curricular themes create active readers and writers by engaging students in authentic literacy tasks that emerge naturally from interesting and worthwhile topics and ideas. authentic http://apinilla-mvargas.doc/ http://apinilla-mvargas.doc/ http://eduplace.com/rdg/res/%20vogt.html http://eduplace.com/rdg/res/%20vogt.html language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 57 tasks are defined as „ones in which reading and writing serve a function for children …‟ and which „involve children in the immediate use of literacy for enjoyment and communication‟ (hiebert, 1994, p. 391). they focus on student choice and ownership; extend beyond the classroom walls; involve a variety of reading and writing opportunities; promote discussion and collaboration; build upon students‟ interest, abilities, background, and language development (hiebert, 1994; paris et al., 1992). cross-curricular themes integrate the language arts (reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and thinking) across a variety of content areas, such as science, social studies, art, and so forth (p. 1). integration of a wide variety of real life phenomena will give solid foundation for future need. therefore, subject matters offered in school should be integrated to cater for the real world needs of the children. the reason for this is: because our lives require us to integrate what we have learned in an interdisciplinary manner, teaching children through merged disciplines better prepare them for applying new knowledge and understanding. additionally, when students view their learning as having personal relevance, they put more effort into their schoolwork and achievement (willis, 1995). through cross-curricular thematic instruction, as vogt (p. 2) claims, students will be facilitated in:  acquiring, communicating, and investigating worthwhile knowledge in depth,  integrating and enriching the language processes of reading, writing, listening, speaking, and thinking,  practicing reading different kinds of materials for varied purposes,  using prior knowledge of the world and past experiences with language and text to create relationships among various sources of information,  making choices, interacting, collaborating, and cooperating,  applying what they learn in meaningful and „real world‟ contexts,  informally assessing their understanding and application of what they are learning,  participating and learning, regardless of ability, level of language development, or background, and  learning effectively in self-contained, multi-age, or departmental classrooms. in the context of learning through cross-curricular activities as suggested by roa et al. and vogt in which the language of instruction is not the children‟s native language, but a foreign language, working out cross-curricular activities in a curriculum agenda may not run smoothly. they are bound to face no end of constraints and hindrances. let‟s take the case of indonesian curriculum as a point of discussion. 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 cross-curricular ideas in indonesian curricular system nowadays, the idea of teaching through cross-curricular method has been mushrooming. this is done under the name of rsbi (rintisan sekolah bertaraf internasional/pilot of international standard school) (kompas, 2011) which is then, after some time, promoted to become sbi (sekolah bertaraf internasional) or international standard school. though, not exactly the same as the activities conducted by roa et al. and vogt, in a more or less similar nature, sbi attempts to present limited content subjects with english as a medium of instruction. this has been massively promoted to the extent that a lot of schools propose and some claim that they are schools of international standard. at a closer investigation in the field, their claim is far from justifiable. as we can readily see, that sbi is just a name, a popular one. the aim of establishing sbi is often times not based on scientific, educational nor pedagogical foundation. to say the least, sbi is a popular label which attracts rich parents to send their children to a particular school. on the other hand, the school tries to benefit from this situation to raise funds, of course for the development of that particular school. this idea is not wrong if things required for establishing sbi has been adequately met. however, the case indicates otherwise. it goes without saying that the essence of sbi is fine and it should be promoted so that our educational condition enables our children to face the globalized future. however, to engage ourselves in this business, some necessary preliminary preparations must be undertaken. we have to conduct an analysis to see what constraints and difficulties if crosscurricular type of teaching is introduced. if we are honest with ourselves, there are some problems which have to be fixed first, among others: (1) the availability of teachers capable of handing cross-curricular classes, (2) the availability of textbooks for classroom teaching and learning, (3) the relevancy of the program with national learning assessment, (4) the readiness of students to learn content courses using english, (5) the financial support needed to run the program, etc. these are among other things that we have to ponder and seek the answers. there are of course more problems in the field looming large. let‟s elaborate the problems one by one. first, a lot of things can be retold with regard to teacher preparation. instant programs of creating bilingual teachers are the current trend taking place at some school wishing to be labeled rsbi or even sbi. facts in the field clearly demonstrated that the participants of english training for non-english teachers have been less than enthusiastic. more often than not, the participants are not regular attendants. for some reason or others, different faces appeared in each session. anyway, language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 59 commitment to set sbi is not concretely supported by a key element to the program. participation in the training process cannot be said to be encouraging nor adequate for bilingual teachers, who are supposed to deliver their content knowledge in english. at the end of the day, with their foreign language capability which is far from being enough, they are forced to act like english teachers with extra burden; the burden of transferring content knowledge in english to their students who in turn also have numerous problems of their own. if there is strong commitment not only from the headmasters but also on the part of the elected bilingual teachers, crosscurricular program will be realistic. of course training these teachers in english in a systematic manner is a must and prerequisite to setting up sbi program. this training should be conducted seriously and responsibly until a desired result is achieved prior to really running sbi program. second, not less important than the first problem is the provision of bilingual textbooks, designed for students whose command of english is disheartening. who is then supposed to write the textbooks? do these bilingual teachers have to do the job? are they capable of doing so in terms of time, fund and linguistic knowledge? is the government willing to provide fund? problems of this kind should be premeditated by the authority prior to carrying out this ambitious program. third, besides textbooks, another problem appears. this has something to do with evaluation. how will the crosscurricular program be evaluated especially in comparison with the regular program? another problem related to this is the questions whether the national school examination is commensurate with the material presented in bilingual program— with test items presented in english? if there is no consistency between the bilingual program with the test type, what the teachers and students have done in the sbi program will be questionable. this is a problem worth pondering. fourth, should the cross-curricular/ bilingual program be carried out, are the students, the majority of whom do not master english either at listening, reading, speaking as well as writing level required to do everything in english during the bilingual classrooms? what kind of students who are liable to attend sbi classes is another thing posing another complex problem. does every student in the sbi school has the right to attend the program? is the student recruitment for this program based on merit or based on parents‟ wealth? related to this, how many bilingual teachers are needed to run the program? problems of this kind should be sorted out before a school is labeled sbi? fifth, another problem is about funding. is the school capable of running the program without collecting money from parents? money is a fundamental element for any program to be successfully carried 60 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 out. preparation for non-curricular teachers, textbooks, teaching media, all cannot be separated from financial provision. so far, what has been practiced by certain schools in running a bilingual program has been collecting fund from parents. this is of course against the nineyear free education stipulated by the educational policy makers. as a matter of fact, for the time being there are more problems outweighing the goodness of cross-curricular or bilingual program. these predicted problems are things outlined by mehisto et al. (http://eltj.oxfordjournal.org/content/63/3/27 5, p1) asserting that „at classroom level, however, clil teachers face a number of obstacles including a lack of training, a poorly defined methodology, and a scarcity of materials.‟ problem number 1 seems to be the first thing to be fixed. without a strong commitment of content teachers to improve their english language and the willingness to do more than just becoming teachers, the next problems are irrelevant to talk about. but when teachers are committed, other things can be sorted out in some way or other. recently, there have been numerous criticisms voiced by a number of knowledgeable experts against the practice of rsbi and sbi in indonesia. at least, these criticisms have been issued in a wellknown national newspaper, kompas, for three successive days, 17, 18, and 19 march, 2011. all three articles are voicing disagreement and concern over the carrying out of sbi program which are increasing in number, while the real practice in the field is deviating from the original concept of sbi foundation. conclusion from what has been briefly discussed in the previous sections, two brief conclusions can be offered. first, cross-curricular teaching is a kind of teaching content areas using language/a foreign language as the vehicle of instruction. various programs can be conducted, such as by creating project work, cross-curricular thematic instruction, bilingual program etc. second, facts from the literature show that cross-curricular activities have gained various kinds of success. however, in indonesia cross-curricular program commonly labeled bilingual program needs to be strengthened, adequately implemented, and rightly evaluated. if problems raised above are not dealt with, bilingual program is just „building a castle in the sky‟, or at least it will not be as effective and fruitful as it is expected. references elt journals, 2009, volume 63, issue3, pp. 275---277 (in http://eltj. oxford journals.org/content/63/3/275.full… kompas, 2011. 17 march, p. 12 kompas, 2011, 18 march, p. 12 kompas, 2011, 19 march, p. 12 mehisto, p., frigols, m., and marsh, d. 2008. uncovering clil. macmillan (on http://eltj.oxfordjournal.org/content/63/3/275 http://eltj.oxfordjournal.org/content/63/3/275 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 61 line:http://eltj.oxfordjournal.org/ content/63/3/275, p1) roa, a. p, perez, s. and chaparro, m. v. poster session ‘cross-curricular projects in the learning of efl from first graders’. on line: in http://apinillamvargas.doc (read only) unauthored article. from cross-curricular planning to tailoring for learner diversity. on line: in http://ed1.edb. hkedcity.net/cd/languagesupport/public ations/ compendium/ download/ 0607/ 0607-teacher. unauthored article. building crosscurricular connections. on line: in http://kronsenkranz.wordpress.com/ 2010/11/22/building-cross-curricular ... vale, d. and feunteun, a. 1995. teaching children english: a training course for teachers of english to children. cambridge and new york: cambridge university press. vogt, m. e. 1997, cross-curricular thematic instruction. on line: in http:// w.w.w.eduplace/ rdg/vogt. html. willis, s. 1995. “refocusing the curriculum. making interdisciplinary efforts work.” ascd education update, 37 (1), 1— 8. zorro, i. and baracaldo, d. a. 2006. crosscurricular and a cross cultural bridge in a teacher preparation program (handouts). on line: in http://nation/ eltconference,org/resources/2006/ imelda_zorro_deisy_baracaldo_a _cross-curricular_ant. http://eltj.oxfordjournal.org/%20content/63/3/275 http://eltj.oxfordjournal.org/%20content/63/3/275 http://kronsenkranz.wordpress.com/%202010/11/22/building-cross-curricular http://kronsenkranz.wordpress.com/%202010/11/22/building-cross-curricular http://nation/%20eltconference,org/ http://nation/%20eltconference,org/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 47 animal poetics in british contemporary poems: forging individual’s concern about environmental conservation henrikus joko yulianto semarang state university abstract in times of today‟s changing global world, each of us needs to have a kind of steel armor to shield us from any threatening and daunting global impacts. yet, we cannot just sit still or stay indolently to let any hazards take over or disrupt the living concordance and convenience. in case of environmental issues for instance, problems such as deforestation, pollution, global warming still become prevalent issues that people are coping up with. literature as one social and cultural product should play roles in evoking people‟s understanding about the importance of conserving and preserving our environment. it is through ecocriticism or a criticism that harmonizes ecology and literary criticism that literature can participate in disseminating the values of green living. poetry is one of literary genres that best describes one‟s vision of environment; contemporary british poetry is another example of the work that remarkably captures the sight and vision of the poets about problems related to the conservation of wildlife in their respective habitats. keywords: environmental issues, contemporary poetry, conservation of wildlife, ecocriticism introduction in this recent time, the skyrocketing physical infrastructure building shows human‟s modernity. each piece of land is allocated for any building for business plans and often the building does not really consider the surrounding ecological safety. the decreasing number of lands because of these development plans makes human‟s dwelling be more crowded and weather be stifling hot. in many places, humans devastate forest lands by doing illegal logging, forest burning, and land clearing for business purposes as well. these practices certainly threaten the habitats of wildlife such as biodiversity of flora and fauna not to mention cause them to be extinct. a newsletter reported by greenpeace organization says that the world marine life has been endangered by the non-degradable ten million tons of plastic waste that are floated away to the seas as well as by the exploitative and inappropriate fishing practices (www.greenpeace.or.id). not only tigers but also the number of diverse birds and other rare animals are being threatened because they lose their shelter and habitat to live. in our daily life, http://www.greenpeace.or.id/ 48 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 we also contend with many environmental problems such as air and water pollution, landslide, flood, heaping rubbish, river shallowing, etc. in which many of these are caused by humans‟ detrimental practices towards environment. sea otter is one of the endangered animals in many areas in the world. according to u.s. fish & wildlife service, the number of sea otter has been declining due to some human‟s destructive acts such as commercial fishing, hunting, pesticides, etc. to protect the otter and other endangered animals from disappearance, they designated critical habitats for them, in which the endangered animals are conserved in their habitats (http://www.fws.gov). as a part of cultural artifact living in our culture, language needs to take some roles in coping up with these problems. literature as one part of language studies has managed to support environmentalists‟ concern towards ecological crisis through a critical study called ecocriticism. through ecocriticism, literature wants to play a more active role in evoking people‟s awareness and concern for preserving their natural environment for a better life. formerly, literature as an aesthetic discourse tended to center only around things that nurture literary knowledge or it is called prose literacy in today‟s context. yet, the fanciful and counterfeit illustrations of the literary text tend to exclusively drag literature in an ivory tower; it does not give a contact nor touch on urgent day-to-day issues especially those related to ecology and environment. as glotfelty says that literature does not stand apart from the environment but joins in its whole system (1996: xix). this means that literature with its concern for ecological issues will harness empowerment not only to the literary study itself but also to those who read and appreciate a literary text. in a word, through its perspective towards environment, literature will be able to nourish readers‟ ecological knowledge so that they will take a more caring attitude towards their environment. in this paper, the discussion focuses on animal poetics in two contemporary british poems – the otter by seamus heaney and the banished gods by derek mahon as a medium of enhancement of one‟s ecological awareness and concern about environmental conservation especially in endangered animals conservation. by reading and appreciating poems that portray animal imageries, one will hopefully not only foster his knowledge of natural objects through eco-imageries and poetics but also nourish one‟s caring and love for his nature and environment. this paper addresses two problems: first, what animal poetics the two british poems describe; second, in what ways the depiction of the animal poetics in the poems serves as a medium for enhancing and forging individual‟s concern about ecological and environmental conservation. in forwarding these questions, the language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 49 discussion refers to assumptions given by some ecocritics in ecocriticism, the study of literature and environment. review of related literature poetry perrine & arp define poetry as “a kind of language that says more and says it more intensely than does ordinary language” (1992: 3). furthermore, they say that to understand language in poetry, one need to understand what poetry says. it is because language is employed on different occasions to say quite different kinds of things and hence language has different uses. language in poetry then consists of two kinds: denotation or “the dictionary meaning or meanings of the word” and connotation or what the word suggests beyond what it expresses or its overtones of meaning (1992: 37). one element of poetry in general is imagery or “the representation through language of sense experience.” the word „image‟ itself suggests a mental picture or something that is seen in the mind‟s eye; it is often known as visual imagery. yet, an image also represents a sound (auditory imagery); a smell (olfactory imagery); a taste (gustatory imagery); touch, such as hardness, softness, heat and cold (tactile imagery); an internal sensation, such as hunger, thirst, fatique, or nausea (organic imagery); or movement or tension in the muscles or joints (kinesthetic imagery) (1992: 49). other elements include figurative language, such as metaphor, simile, personification, apostrophe, metonymy, etc.; meaning and idea; tone, musical devices; rhythm and meter; sound and meaning; and pattern (1992). contemporary poetry mcclatchy in an introduction of his book the vintage book of contemporary american poetry, says that by the word „contemporary‟, he means, poets of this period (2003: xxx). he further says that contemporary poets sought an „impersonal‟ manner “that could brood over spiritual conditions rather than emotional instants”. besides, contemporary poets also felt the force of plain speaking – “of the colloquial, the commonplace, a naturalistic aesthetic that was free from design or pretense” (2003: xxvii). in contemporary american poetic tradition, one previous literary era will influence the former era – “beneath the landscape of trends and schools and movements run underground streams of sympathy and influence” (2003: xxiv). by quoting alexis de tocqueville‟s notion, he says that the subject of american poetry is mostly on the self (2003: xxiv). blake morrison in introduction of his book contemporary british poetry, elucidates that the new spirit in british poetry began to emerge in northern ireland during the late 1960s and early 70s. the new poets show greater imaginative freedom than the previous poetic generation, free from the constraints of 50 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 immediate post-war life. they have developed a degree of ludic and literary self-consciousness reminiscent of the modernists. the new poetry is often openended, reluctant to point the moral of, or conclude too neatly, what it chooses to transcribe. the new poetry wants to extend the imaginative franchise (1985: 12-20). meanwhile, john kinsella in landbridge – contemporary australian poetry, in the introduction says that “australian poetry is a geographic and psychological entity rather than a purely historical one” (1999: 15). he further explains that in many ways “it is possible to read australian poetry through and against the landscape, rural and pastoral models.” the word „pastoral‟, as kinsella explains, refers to the urban construct of the rural myth – as opposed to a specifically rural poetry (1999: 19) ecocriticism ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. it takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies (glotfelty, 1996: xix). william howarth, an ecocritic in his article “ecocriticism in context”, explains that the word „ecocriticism‟, „eco‟ and „critic‟ are derived from greek, „oikos‟ and „kritis‟. in tandem, they mean „house judge‟. an ecocritic then means “a person who judges the merits and faults of writings that depict the effects of culture upon nature, with a view toward celebrating nature, berating its despoilers, and reversing their harm through political action” (coupe, 2008: 163). scott slovic, another ecocritic, in his article “ecocriticism: containing multitudes, practising doctrine”, defines „ecocriticism‟ as “the study of explicit environment texts by way of any scholarly approach or, conversely, the scrutiny of ecological implications and human-nature relationships in any literary text, even texts that seem, at first glance, oblivious of the nonhuman world” (coupe, 2008: 160). yet, ecocriticism is not the same with other literary criticisms as it does not forward certain theoretical assumptions as new criticism or new historicism do. as slovic argues that “ecocriticism has no central, dominant doctrine or theoretical apparatus – rather, it is being re-defined daily by the actual practice of thousands of literary scholars around the world” (coupe, 2008: 161). nevertheless, what differentiates ecocriticism from other criticisms is that the former considers non-human and human contexts in a literary work as glen a. love an ecocritic argues that ecocriticism “encompasses non-human as well as human contexts and it is necessary to consider the interconnections between the text and the environmental surroundings” (2003: 16). meanwhile, karla armbruster & kathleen r. wallace explain that „environment‟ in ecocriticism does not only refer to „natural‟ or „wilderness‟ areas but it also includes cultivated and built language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 51 landscapes, the natural elements and aspects of those landscapes, and cultural interactions with those natural elements (2001: 4). ecocriticism principles as influenced by deconstructive assumptions, hold on dismantling the former relation that privileged humans and subordinated nonhuman as suggested by an ecocritic, patrick murphy. he says that “the human self needs to be related to the natural „other‟, that relationship being one of „heterarchy‟ rather than „hierarchy‟. it means that humans must replace the former opposition of humanity as „one-foroneself‟ and nature as „things-for-us‟ with the principle of „anotherness‟, by which culture opens itself up to „interanimation‟ with nature (coupe, 2008: 159). hochman calls ecocriticism as green cultural studies and suggests that “plants and animals are granted separateness, independence, and liberation” (coupe, 2008: 192). kate soper in her article “the idea of nature” sums up the multiple roles which nature can play in ecological discourses – „metaphysical‟, „realistic‟, and the „lay‟ (or „surface‟) ideas of nature: (1) employed as a metaphysical concept, which it mainly is in the argument of philosophy, „nature‟ is the concept through which humanity thinks its difference and specificity. it is the concept of the non-human, even if, as we have seen, the absoluteness of the humanity-nature demarcation has been disputed, and our ideas about what falls to the side of „nature‟ have been continuously revised in the light of changing perceptions of what counts as „human.‟ (2) employed as a realist concept, „nature‟ refers to the structures, processes and causal powers that are constantly operative within the physical world, that provide the objects of study of the natural sciences and condition the possible forms of human intervention in biology or interaction with the environment. (3) employed as a „lay‟ or „surface‟ concept, as it is in much everyday, literary and theoretical discourse, „nature‟ is used in reference to ordinarily observable features of the world: the „natural‟ as opposed to the urban or industrial environment („landscape‟, „wilderness‟, „countryside‟, „rurality‟), animals, domestic and wild, the physical body in space and raw materials. this is the nature of immediate experience and aesthetic appreciation; the nature we have destroyed and polluted are asked to conserve and preserve (coupe, 2008: 125). in finding out ecological aspects in a literary text, glotfelty argues that ecocritics can ask questions such as: how is nature represented in the sonnet?, what role does the physical setting play in the plot of this novel?, are the values expressed in the play consistent with ecological wisdom?, 52 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 how do our metaphors of the land influence the way we treat it?, how can we characterize nature writing as a genre?, in what ways has literacy itself affected humankind‟s relationship to the natural world?, how has the concept of wilderness changed over time?, in what ways and to what effect is the environmental crisis seeping into contemporary literature and popular culture?, what cross-fertilization is possible between literary studies and environmental discourse in related disciplines such as history, philosophy, psychology, art history, and ethics? (1996: xix). in sum, glotfelty assumes that all ecological criticism shares the fundamental premise that human culture is connected to the physical world, affecting it and affected by it. in practice, ecocriticism takes as its subject the interconnections between nature and culture, specifically the cultural artifacts of language and literature. in other words, ecocriticism has one foot in literature and the other on land; as a theoretical discourse, it negotiates between the human and the non-human (1996: xix). discussion there are two contemporary poems that i took as the samples in this discussion; they are the otter by seamus heaney and the banished gods by derek mahon. the otter by: seamus heaney when you plunged the light of tuscany wavered and swung through the pool from top to bottom. i loved your wet head and smashing crawl, your fine swimmer‟s back and shoulders surfacing and surfacing again this year and every year since. i sat dry-throated on the warm stones. you were beyond me. the mellowed clarities, the grape-deep the banished gods by: derek mahon near the headwaters of the longest river there is a forest clearing, a dank, misty place where light stands in columns and birds sing with a noise like paper tearing. far from land, far from the trade routes, in an unbroken dream-time of penguin and whale, the seas sigh to themselves reliving the days before the days of sail. where the wires end the moor seethes in language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 53 air thinned and disappointed. thank god for the slow loadening, when i hold you now we are close and deep as the atmosphere on water. my two hands are plumbed water. you are my palpable, lithe otter of memory in the pool of the moment, turning to swim on your back, each silent, thigh-shaking kick re-tilting the light, heaving the cool at your neck. and suddenly you‟re out, back again, intent as ever, heavy and frisky in your freshened pelt, printing the stones. silence, scattered with scree, primroses, feathers and faeces. it shelters the hawk and hears in dreams the forlorn cries of lost species. it is here that the banished gods are in hiding, here they sit out the centuries in stone, water and the hearts of trees, lost in a reverie of their own natures – of zero-growth economics and seasonal change in a world without cars, computers or chemical skies, where thought is a fondling of stones and wisdom a five-minute silence at moonrise. animal poetics in the two poems heaney‟s poem literally uses an animal image, „otter‟ as the title and the story; whereas, mahon‟s poem metaphorically portrays endangered animals as „the banished gods‟. the otter (to) has seven stanzas with four lines each while the banished gods (tbg) have five stanzas with five lines each. to depicts only one kind of animal, which is „otter‟ while tbg presents several animals such as birds (stanza 1), penguin and whale (stanza 2), hawk (stanza 3). „the banished gods‟ as metaphors of „the endangered animals‟ also represent other kinds of animals that the poet does not mention. in to, the poet expresses his feelings being enticed by the cute and wonderful behavior of the otter. from stanza 1 to stanza 7, he cherishes and praises the ways the otter swims or its physical appearance – when you plunged the light of tuscany wavered and swung through the pool from top to bottom (stanza 1) the second line seems to use hyperbole since it says that the way the 54 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 otter plunges into the water has caused the light in tuscany (a region of west central italy) to waver. the poet‟s amazement of the otter‟s physical appearance is expressed in stanza 2 line 1-2 – “i loved your wet head and smashing crawl, your fine swimmer‟s back and shoulders”; stanza 5 line 2-3 – “you are my palpable, lithe otter of memory”; stanza 7 line 3 – “heavy and frisky in your freshened pelt” (1982: 37). the „otter‟ does not only appeal to visual imagery but also tactile imagery since the poet also touches and fondles the otter by his hand. the images „plunged‟ and „swung through‟ (stanza 1) appeal to kinesthetic imagery, and so do the words „re-tilting the light‟ and „heaving the cool‟ (stanza 6) – „printing the stones‟ (stanza 7). the words „wet head‟ (stanza 2); „warm stones‟, „mellowed clarities‟, „grape-deep air‟ (stanza 3); „palpable‟, „lithe‟ (stanza 5) appeal to tactile imagery. meanwhile, the words „dry-throated‟ (stanza 3); „close and deep‟ (stanza 4); „heavy and frisky‟ (stanza 7) appeal to organic imagery. in tbg, the poet uses words that appeal to senses, too. „the banished gods‟ appeals to organic imagery since the gods are abstract beings but visible and tangible in one‟s imagination. the words such as „headwaters‟, „forest‟, „birds‟ (stanza 1); „penguin and whale‟, „trade routes‟ (stanza 2); „moor‟, „scree‟, „primroses‟, „hawk‟ (stanza 3); „cars‟, „computers‟ (stanza 5) appeal to visual imagery. meanwhile, the words such as „dank‟, „misty‟, „stone‟, „water‟, „the hearts of trees‟ appeal to tactile imagery. the words „forlorn‟, „reverie‟, „wisdom‟ appeal to organic imagery. in this poem, the poet illustrates the forest clearing as one cause of the declining and disappearing number of animals in their habitats such as in stone, water, and the hearts of trees. he imagines that all species of animals will restore to their former habitats when people do not excessively occupy themselves with economic activities and do any environmental disruptions and produce more cars and chemicals that all of these might endanger the environment itself. in terms of figurative meaning, the poem to suggests a somewhat symbolic meaning. a symbol itself means “something that means more than what it is” (perrine & arp, 1992: 80). while an image means only what it is, a symbol means what it is and something more (1992: 80). the „otter‟ as a figurative image may represent something beloved and cherished to the poet just as he dearly describes the otter as one kind of cute animal. looking at the sequence of event from stanza 1 to stanza 7, the image „otter‟ used by the poet seems to represent his imaginative or inventive power as the poet. imagination comes back and forth as it likes; yet, when it comes to someone, it engrosses one‟s mind and fancy and restores to its former fanciful energy as it were like invisible but acknowledgeable. this is expressed in stanza 4-5: language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 55 thank god for the show loadening, when i hold you now we are close and deep as the atmosphere on water. my two hands are plumbed water. you are my palpable, lithe otter of memory in the pool of the moment. meanwhile, in tbg the figurative image of „the banished gods‟ suggests something as ancestral, sacred, dignified, and respectable as the gods; yet, they are described as things that are endangered by human‟s devastating acts. looking at the stanzas, the image „banished gods‟ represents local cultural heritage or ancestral tradition that might be jeopardized by any recent global trends and development. the assumption is based on what the poet says in stanza 4 that the banished gods „have sit out there for centuries in stone, water, and the hearts of trees.‟ the loss of the ancestral culture might be caused by any daydream or absent-mindedness (reverie) of its own inhabitants probably in case of any dispute and disagreement. the vanishing ancestral culture might also be caused by the modernization and globalization trends as parts of environmental and cultural phenomena, represented by prospering economic growth, rapidly growing technology in automotive, computer, and chemicals that correspondingly also bring forth ecological impacts such as the endangered wildlife and their habitats. in stanza 5, the poet assuredly says that through thought and wisdom will people be able to restore to their former convenient and sustainable living harmony between humans and nature. its effects on forging individual’s concern about environmental conservation as william rueckert says that “poems can be studied as models for energy flow, community building and ecosystems” (glotfelty, 1996: 111); therefore, heaney‟s and mahon‟s poems representing animal poetics reveal their concern about the threatened existence of animals as the parts of living creatures in human‟s nature and environment. meanwhile, jhan hochman in his article “green cultural studies” argues that the studies and human culture should grant these nonhuman creatures (animals and plants) unromanticized difference, an autonomy apart from humans, a kind of privacy. they should ensure that plants and animals to have separateness, independence, and liberation (coupe, 2008: 192). this kind of awareness emerges in heaney‟s poem when he delightfully describes the amazing behavior of the otter, in which he treats the otter as similarly as he does to humans. he cherishes, expresses his love and praise for having the otter by his side – thank god for the slow loadening, when i hold you now 56 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 we are close and deep as the atmosphere on water (stanza 4). the poet‟s love for the otter through the visual and tactile imageries shows the change of attitude towards the animals. formerly, people tended to degrade animals as unworthy creatures but as people evolve and civilize, they begin to realize that animals like other non-human living creatures also have their rights and independence as parts of our nature. in accordance with this opinion, some ecocritics such as patrick murphy states that the relationship between humans and non-humans is no longer based on hierarchy, in which man is the center but it has been on heterarchy in respect of „anotherness‟ and „interanimation‟ in their relationship in nature (coupe, 2008: 159). in mahon‟s poem, the poet even represents animals as „the gods‟; this shows his respect and appreciation of animals. he assumes that the endangered animals should have their rights to regain their missing habitats and live in conserved and preserved homes. in view of ecocriticism, the relationship between human and non-human should consider the heterarchy and interanimation mechanism. another ecocritic from georgia state university, the us named randy malamud in his article entitled “poetic animals and animal souls” published by e-journal “society and animals” volume 6, no. 3 october 1998, asserts that “animal poetry may facilitate an enlightened, perhaps even a spiritually transcendent, outlook toward animals” (1998: 264). in his article, malamud refers to mesoamerican animal beliefs, in which mesoamerican people believe in “a private spiritual world of the self that is expressed through the concept of animal souls.” the mesoamerican beliefs then evoke some of poetry‟s enticements. accordingly, animal poetry may embody a displaced realm of contemporary western intellectual/aesthetic spirituality, which derived from the natural world that exceeds the merely human realm (1998: 266-267). by quoting frost‟s notion, malamud says that when a person chooses to make a friendship with an animal, she/he does so “to extend her sense of self by granting, creating, or recognizing the selfhood of another that would otherwise remain unrealized” (1998: 265). correspondingly, he also quotes from kowalski‟s notion that human‟s friendship with animals is to find out “an inwardness in other creatures that awakens what is innermost in ourselves” (1998: 270). in the two poems, the imageries „otter‟ and other animals show the poets‟ concern and appreciation of the animals as the human‟s „partners‟ and „friends‟. the use of „otter‟ is probably based on heaney‟s fondness of the cute and marvelous animal but more especially on his concern about the endangered species of the animal. european otter or lutra lutra family as the subfamily that exist language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 57 in european countries including ireland where heaney comes from, is the most widely distributed otter species. its range covers parts of asia and africa as well as across europe. the population of european otter declined across its range in these recent times because of pollution from pesticides such as organochlorine (ocs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (pcbs) as well as from other threats such as habitat loss and hunting (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/otter). meanwhile, an e-article published in october 2009 by u.s. fish & wildlife service entitled “sea otter critical habitat in southwest alaska,” says that the population and habitat of sea otter in southwest alaska are endangered. the service finalized designation of critical habitat for the threatened northern sea otter in southwest alaska. the critical habitat identifies geographic areas that contain the specific habitat elements essential for the conservation of an endangered species. it includes five discrete units from west to east, (1) western aleutian unit; (2) eastern aleutian unit; (3) south alaska peninsula unit; (4) bristol bay unit; and (5) kodiak, kamishak, alaska peninsula unit. in regard to the declining population of otter, the marine mammal protection act of 1972 (mmpa) has prohibited the seizure of marine mammals including sea otters (http://www.fws.gov). in mahon‟s poem, the poet depicts a critical habitat of the endangered animals from stanza 1 to stanza 4 because of some human‟s forest and land clearing – near the headwaters of the longest river there is a forest clearing, a dank, misty place where light stands in columns and birds sing with a noise like paper tearing (stanza 1). the stanza above wants to stress that the forest clearing has caused the animals‟ habitats to disappear. in stanza 2, the poet also describes that the sea is also threatened by human‟s commercial fishing that caused the marine mammals to be in jeopardy. in stanza 4, the poet again illustrates the critical habitats of the threatened animals that have disappeared – it is here that the banished gods are in hiding, here they sit out the centuries in stone, water and the hearts of trees, lost in a reverie of their own natures – despite the poets‟ concern about the endangered animals in the two poems, by referring to kowalski‟s notion as malamud has quoted, the poets‟ depiction of animal images in their poems reflects their intention to find out “an inwardness in other creatures that awakens what is innermost http://www.fws.gov/ 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 in themselves.” in to, heaney expresses his excited feeling when he holds the otter, he feels as if „they are close and deep like the atmosphere on water‟ (stanza 4). these lines show how affectionate and intimate the friendship between human and animal is. yet, the intimacy also suggests the poet‟s search for inner essence within their own selves. in stanza 5, the poet again enunciates his gleeful feeling but then by pointing to his former search for the inner self – you are my palpable, lithe otter of memory in the pool of the moment. in tbg, the poet‟s search for inner self pervades in each stanza through the illustration of the forest clearing and its cause of the disappearing animals, the restless seas due to commercial fishing, the seething moor and the forlorn cries of lost species, the vanishing animal habitats, and the hope for the regaining and returning of former wildlife conservation when people are willing to go back to nature. by returning to eco-principles, reading animal poetics in these two poems will hopefully be able to evoke individual‟s understanding about the importance of conserving and preserving animals and their habitats as the wise acts to create a more sustainable and convenient living. the poets‟ representation of animals does not only convey their views about the animals as the living creatures, in which their existence is important for human‟s life but it also encourage people‟s concern about maintaining their environment especially by taking care of their flora and fauna diversity and give them enough space for their sustainability. conclusion human culture in its diverse forms is a manufactured product; whereas, nature is more an inherent heritage for any living creature. accordingly, each living creature either human or non-human should live in harmony with each other. representation of animal poetics in literary texts especially poetry is one evidence and concern of humans for other non-human creatures. in terms of living harmony and conservation, human‟s superiority over non-human creatures should no longer be appropriate when we realize that nature has its own privilege and so do its wildlife and living creatures. the animal poetics in poetry then will be a medium of bridging the gap between human‟s indifference of the importance of the endangered animals conservation and the neglected privilege of the animals itself. similarly, the poetics will hopefully evoke people‟s understanding and concern in their participation in conserving and preserving the endangered animals in particular and our environment in general. references language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 59 armbruster, karla & kathleen, r. wallace (eds.) (2001), beyond nature writing – expanding the boundaries of ecocriticism, charlottesville, va: university press of virginia. coupe, laurence (ed.) (2008), the green studies reader – from romanticism to ecocriticism. new york: routledge. european otter, downloaded on en.wikipedia.org/wiki/otter glotfelty, cheryll & fromm, harold. (1996), the ecocriticism reader – landmarks in literary ecology. athens, georgia: the university of georgia press. greenpeace newsletter 1st edition (2012), “our blue planet”, can be downloaded on www.greenpeace.or.id kinsella, john (ed.) (1999), landbridge – contemporary australian poetry. north freemantle, wa: freemantle arts centre press. love, glen a. (2003), practical ecocriticism – literature, biology, and the environment. charlottesville, va: university of virginia press. malamud, randy. (1998), “poetic animals and animal souls”, downloaded on ejournal “society and animals” volume 6 no. 3 october 1998 on www.english.gsu.edu. mcclatchy, j.d.(ed.) (2003), the vintage book of contemporary american poetry. new york: vintage books. morrison, blake & motion, andrew (eds.) (1985), the penguin book of contemporary british poetry. middlesex, uk: penguin books. pearsall, judy & trumble, bill. (1996), the oxford english reference dictionary. oxford, ny: oxford university press. perrine, laurence & arp, thomas r. (1992), sound and sense – an introduction to poetry. orlando, fl: harcourt brace & co. u.s. fish & wildlife service. (2009), “sea otter critical habitat in southwest alaska”, downloaded on http://www.fws.gov http://www.fws.gov/ language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 203 enhancing teachers’ professionalism and students’ learning outcomes through lesson study galuh kirana dwi areni english department, faculty of languages and arts universitas negeri semarang, indonesia galuhunnes@gmail.com frimadhona syafri english department, faculty of languages and arts universitas negeri semarang, indonesia frimadhonas@gmail.com received: 5 january 2018. revised: 11 march 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract in this study, the writer as a teacher model, tried to explore: (1) the advantages and disadvantages of lesson study applied in a theoretical subject class; and (2) the effectiveness of it for students' learning outcomes. it was conducted in a class called introduction to linguistics with 30 students. there were four cycles and four colleagues who took part as the observers. in each cycle, she did plan, do, and see. then, descriptive analysis was used to elaborate teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes through observation sheets, discussion, and test. the result shows that there are some benefits, i.e. (1) the teacher can prepare her lesson plans and teaching media more carefully; (2) she can conduct her class more confidently and professionally; (3) she can get evaluation about her teaching process after her class ends; (4) the students can be more active and study more seriously; and(5) they can achieve better scores compared to other classes which don‘t use lesson study. however, there are also some disadvantages, e.g. (1) the teacher needs more time to prepare her lesson plans and teaching media; and (2) some students may feel depressed because of the observers‘ attendance. keywords: lesson study, teacher professionalism, students’ learning outcomes how to cite: areni, g.k.d., & syafri, f.. (2018). enhancing teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes through lesson study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 203—212. introduction teaching english in indonesia is considered to be teaching english as a foreign language (efl) because indonesia is a country where english is not the native language (paul, 2003). efl teachers often find difficulties in making their students use the target language, i.e. english, in their classes. this happens as their students not only have little exposure to english in their daily lives, but their native languages also have different structure and writing systems. as a consequence, students often feel afraid, shy, and not confident in expressing what they want to say in the target language. they prefer to use their native languages in most of their time in their english classes in order to avoid making mistakes. considering those phenomena, efl teachers need to spend more time and be more creative in designing their lesson activities so that their students will indirectly be able to produce the target language as they expected. the quality of teaching and learning should be improved from time to time. it mailto:galuhunnes@gmail.com mailto:frimadhonas@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 204 needs several supporting factors to consider such as methods, techniques, and strategies used in teaching and learning process, learning materials, and learning assessment. those factors are also influenced by the participants in the teaching and learning process, i.e. the teachers/lecturers and the students. for university level, lecturers have an important role in making academic atmosphere. to achieve this, they need to be professional in improving the quality of their teaching and learning process. in addition, to be professional lecturers, they need to explore their teaching knowledge and experiences. one of the factors that should be considered by lecturers is the teaching strategies they used in class. because they often lack of time, they only explain the materials by using power point in their teaching process. they do not care much whether all of the students have already understood about the materials they have explained. analyses and observations of students‘ reflection show that most of the students actually do not understand about the materials if their lecturers use teachercentered strategy. considering this, applying lesson study to improve lecturers‘ competence and professionalism needs to be done. taken from http://www.tc.columbia. edu/lessonstudy/lessonstudy.html, ―lesson study is a professional development process that japanese teachers engage in to systematically examine their practice, with the goal of becoming more effective. to provide focus and direction to this work, the teachers select an overarching goal and related research question that they want to explore. this research question then serves to guide their work on all the study lessons.‖ in addition, http://www.ets.org/flicc/pdf/nov4 lessonstudypacketone.pdf stated that ―lesson study requires 
teachers 
and 
other 
educators 
to 
work 
collaboratively 
to 
strengthen 
a given 
lesson until 
it 
has 
been 
refined 
as 
much 
as 
possible and 
then 
teach it
to
get
powerful
data
about how
well
the
lesson
works.‖ina lesson study, a lecturer does not work alone. s/he will work with some of his/her colleagues in teaching a class. the lecturer will be a teacher model and his/her colleagues will be the observers. hopefully by applying lesson study can improve the professionalism of lecturer and the students‘ motivation in joining the lesson so that they can get better scores. based on the background of the study, there are two research questions as follows. 1) what are the advantages and disadvantages of applying lesson study? 2) is lesson study effective to improve the students‘ learning outcomes? to answer both questions, the first thing to do is to prepare the lesson study instruments. basically, according to lewis (2002), as cited by sukirman (2013), lesson study has a simple idea, i.e. if a teacher wants to improve his/her teaching professionalism, one of the ways is by asking other teachers to collaborate in designing, observing, and evaluating his/her teaching and learning process. consequently, lesson study is appropriate to be applied if the teacher/lecturer wants to design an innovative and systematic strategy to improve students‘ understanding and competence of the given material. in a cycle of lesson study, there are three steps to do. they are plan, do, and see. in step of plan, the lecturer as a teacher model has to share his/her lesson plan to some of his/her colleagues who have a role as his/her observers. next, these observers http://www.ets.org/flicc/pdf/nov4%20lessonstudypacketone.pdf http://www.ets.org/flicc/pdf/nov4%20lessonstudypacketone.pdf areni, g.k.d., & syafri, f.. (2018). enhancing teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes through lesson study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 203—212. 205 will give some feedback of the lesson plan. the teacher model can then revise his/her lesson plan before doing teaching. in the second step, do, the teacher model will conduct the teaching by using the revised lesson plan, while the observers will also join the class to observe the students behavior and performance. finally, after the class ends, the teacher model and the observers will do the third step, i.e. see. in this step, the observers will give some more feedback of the teacher model‘s teaching process and students‘ behavior and performance. the cycle of lesson study can simply be seen in the figure below. figure 1 cycle of lesson study in this study, i will describe my experience when i became a teacher model of my department. i am a lecturer at english department, language and art faculty, state university of semarang, indonesia. there are two study programs in english department: education study program and literature study program. usually there are nine classes for one academic year; six parallel classes for education study program and three parallel classes for literature study program. in english department, there are more or less 40 lecturers who teach in both study programs. in the curriculum, the subjects are divided into skill subjects and theoretical subjects. the skill subjects such as reading, listening, speaking, writing, and grammar can be taught by lecturers from both study programs whereas the examples of theoretical subjects are introduction to linguistics, introduction to literary studies, theories and principle in tesol, and literary criticism. before starting the cycle, i decided to choose a class of introduction to linguistics to conduct my lesson study. this is a compulsory subject for 4 th semester students, both from education study program and literature study program. i had four parallel classes of introduction to linguistics, but i was instructed to conduct the lesson study only in one of those classes. there were 30 students in my class. i chose this class because it is considered to be a difficult subject for most of the students. they often get difficulties in understanding the theories of linguistics. the description of this subject is ―this subject focuses on basic theory and field of linguistics. the subject covers different schools, branches, approaches on the scientific study of languages. it includes the study of form and function of language from language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 206 the era of saussure up to the current schools of linguistics.‖this subject is a pre requisite subject for students before they take linguistics subjects such as morphology, syntax, or semantics; therefore, they must pass this subject so that they are able to take the subjects of the upper level. after proposing a class to conduct my lesson study, i had to propose the schedule of the lesson study to the head of the department and the secretary of the department who were the facilitators of this program. they chose four colleagues to be my observers. i had to choose a class in which my four observers did not have any classes because they had to join my class. the schedule can be seen on the next page. table1 schedule of the lesson study subject: introduction to linguistics code/credit: b2004026 / 2 teacher model: galuh kirana dwi areni, s.s., m.pd. moderator: dr. rudi hartono, s.s., m.pd. secretary: fatma hetami, s.s., m.hum. observers: 1. drs. alim sukrisno, m.a.; bambang p., s.s., m.hum.; frimadhona s., s.s., m.hum.; fatma hetami, s.s., m.hum. cycle learning material schedule (day, date, room, dan time) plan do see 1 morphology tuesday, 29 april 2014; b8 102; 13.00-14.00 wednesday, 30 april 2014; b3 220b; 13.00-14.40 wednesday, 30 april‘14; b8 102; 14.40-15.40 2 morphology tuesday, 6 may 2014; b8 102; 13.00-14.00 wednesday, 7 may 2014; b3 220b; 13.00-14.40 wednesday, 7 may 2014; b8 102; 14.40-15.40 3 syntax tuesday, 13 may 2014; b8 102; 13.00-14.00 wednesday, 14 may 2014; b3 220b; 13.00-14.40 wednesday, 14 may 2014; b8 102; 14.40-15.40 4 syntax tuesday, 20 may 2014; b8 102; 13.00-14.00 wednesday, 21 may 2014; b3 220b; 13.00-14.40 wednesday, 21 may 2014; b8 102; 14.40-15.40 from the table above, it can be seen that the teacher model conducted four cycles of lesson study. the moderator and the observers of this lesson study are lecturers of english department of fbs, unnes. the areni, g.k.d., & syafri, f.. (2018). enhancing teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes through lesson study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 203—212. 207 moderator functions to lead the discussions in plan and see steps. methodology in this study, i useddescriptive analysis to elaborate teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes. as stated in http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/stat desc.php,―descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. with descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is or what the data shows.‖ therefore, in this study, i will only describe the data that i got from observation sheets, discussion, and test to obtain the data of my analysis. a) observation sheet the observation sheets that i used for data analysis were the observation sheets made by myself and the observers. the observation sheets were mainly made to observe the students behavior and performance in class. b) discussion the discussions happened in the plan and see parts. the observers and i as the teacher model made discussion of what i was going to do in my class (in plan), and what i had to do next after the observers observed my class (in see). c) test according to brown (2004), ―a test is, in simple terms, is a method of measuring a person‘s ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain. a test is first a method. it is a set of techniques, procedures, or items that requires performance on the part of test taker.‖ the test was conducted to assess the students‘ competence after the teacher model finished the four cycles of lesson study. findings and discussion i will elaborate the findings in each cycle so that there will be clear description of it. then, in the discussion, i will give the whole analysis of the findings. cycle 1 in each cycle of lesson study, there are three steps: plan, do, and see. i took a role as the teacher model. there were four of my colleagues who took part as my observers; those were pak alim, pak bambang, bu dhona, and bu fatma. pak rudi, the secretary of the department, was the coordinator of the lesson study. there was also an administration staff to help in making documentation of the lesson study. after the schedule of my lesson study was approved, i had to prepare the teaching instruments such as syllabus, lesson plan, teaching material (handout), teaching media, and student worksheet. besides those, i had to prepare the observation sheets, both of my own observation sheet and the observers‘ observation sheets. i also needed to prepare the design of class sitting management and students‘ numbers to be pinned on students‘ shirts or blouses. questioners for students were also prepared to be given after class. in each step, i also had to make some notes of any activities done in the lesson study. i have mentioned before that in the lesson study, i used a class of introduction to linguistics. there were 30 students. the plan was held on tuesday, 29 april 2014, in room b8 102, at 1-2 p.m. first, i presented the students‘ need analysis to the observers. i did the analysis by doing interview to some students. i explained that in the previous http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 208 semesters, students felt that the introduction to linguistics subject was a difficult subject as the book is too thick and too difficult to understand. the students‘ low motivation in reading the material was also one of the reasons why i chose this class to be used in the lesson study. then, i presented my teaching strategy to the observers. i explained that i would use a cooperative learning technique, i.e. jigsaw reading technique, for my first cycle. there was no feedback from the observers about my teaching strategy. however, in plan cycle 1, i got feedback from pak rudi that the cycle of lesson study is different from the cycle of an action research, so i had to revise my lesson plan for this. in discussing the schedule of do, there were three observers who could not attend the class if i chose my 1 p.m. class; therefore, i changed the subject to my 3 p.m. class. i also got some feedback to change the items in the students‘ questioner because they did not match with what the observers would do in the classroom. i had to change 12 items of students‘ activities in class to be only 10 items. the plan ended at 2.30 p.m. and was closed by pak rudi, the coordinator of the lesson study. the do was held on wednesday, 30 april 2014, at room b3 317b; it started at 3 p.m. all of the observers came to the class and it was recorded by an administration staff. the process of teaching and learning ran well. the students were given numbers on their chests and their backs so that the observers could easily make notes about the students on their observation sheets. ten minutes before the class ended, i gave the questioners to the students to fill. the class was over at 4:30 p.m. the see was held on the same day and in the same room at 4:45 p.m. one of the observers, pak alim, started the see by giving some feedback that some of the students were not active in the discussion because it was dominated by superior students only; consequently, the teacher needed to ask some questions to assess the students understanding after the discussion. ibudhona agreed with pak alim‘s feedback and gave some feedback that the questions for the students could be given by using nht (numbered head together) technique as by using this technique the teacher would have to choose the students randomly. she also asked me to choose a ―recorder‖ in the discussion to make notes of the active students and a ―timer‖ to make sure that the discussion would take place only in the allocated time. pak bambang gave some feedback that the students also could be asked to make a little presentation to assess their understanding about the material. ibu fatma gave some advice that the students should learn to use english in the discussion as she found that most of the students used bahasa indonesia in doing the discussion. the see ended at 5:15 p.m. and was closed by pak alim. cycle 2 the plan was held on tuesday, 6 may 2014, at room b3 116. it started at 1:30 p.m. and was opened by pak rudi, the coordinator. it was only attended by two observers, pak alim and pak bambang. the same as the plan in cycle 1, i had to prepare the teaching instruments such as syllabus, lesson plan, teaching material (handout), teaching media, and student worksheet. besides those, i had to prepare the observation sheets, both of my own observation sheet and the observers‘ observation sheets. i also needed to prepare the design of class sitting management and students‘ numbers to be pinned on students‘ shirts or blouses. questioners for students were also prepared to areni, g.k.d., & syafri, f.. (2018). enhancing teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes through lesson study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 203—212. 209 be given after class. in each step, i also had to make some notes of any activities done in the lesson study. in plan cycle 2, i explained that the do would be the continuation of the previous meeting. i would ask the students to make presentations of what they had read and discussed in the previous meeting, then after that there would be some time for questions and answers session. i planned to use ―run for the answer‖ technique to check students‘ understanding before the class ended, but both of the observers asked me to use nht instead to activate the passive students. i also got some feedback to change the items in the students‘ questioner because they still did not match with what the observers would do in the classroom. as a result, i made some changes on the students‘ questioner without changing the number. the plan ended at 2 p.m. and was closed by pak alim. the do was held on wednesday, 7 may 2014, at room b3 317b; it started at 3 p.m. there were only three observers came to the class and it was recorded by an administration staff. the process of teaching and learning ran well. the students were given numbers on their chests and their backs so that the observers could easily make notes about the students on their observation sheets. ten minutes before the class ended, i gave the questioners to the students to fill. the class was over at 4:30 p.m. the see was held on the same day and in the same room at 4:45 p.m. one of the observers, ibu dhona, started the see by giving some feedback that the teacher should have given some questions to the students by using nht (numbered head together) technique as this technique would force the students to listen to their friends‘ presentation. pak bambang gave some feedback that the students could sit in their groups while they were listening to the presentation so that they could discuss in their groups if they had difficulties in understanding the presentation. ibu fatma agreed with pak bambang and ibu dhona, and she did not give any different feedback. the see ended at 5:15 p.m. and was closed by pak bambang. cycle 3 the plan was held on tuesday, 13 may 2014, at room b3 116. it started at 1 p.m. and was opened by pak rudi, the coordinator. it was attended by three observers, pak alim, pak bambang, and ibu dhona. the same as the plan in cycle 1 and cycle 2, i had to prepare the teaching instruments such as syllabus, lesson plan, teaching material (handout), teaching media, and student worksheet. besides those, i had to prepare the observation sheets, both of my own observation sheet and the observers‘ observation sheets. i also needed to prepare the design of class sitting management and students‘ numbers to be pinned on students‘ shirts or blouses. questioners for students were also prepared to be given after class. in each step, i also had to make some notes of any activities done in the lesson study. in plan cycle 3, i explained that the do would be almost the same as do in cycle 1 because i would use the same technique, i.e. ―jigsaw reading‖. however, based on some feedback given by the observers, i would also conduct nht after the discussion ended to assess the students‘ understanding of the material. there was not any feedback from the observers, so then the plan was closed at 1:30 p.m. by pak rudi. the do was held on wednesday, 14 may 2014, at room b3 317b; it started at 3 p.m. there were three observers, pak alim, pak bambang, and ibu dhona; meanwhile, language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 210 ibu fatma could not attend the do because she was still sick. the process of teaching and learning ran well. the students were given numbers on their chests and their backs so that the observers could easily make notes about the students on their observation sheets. ten minutes before the class ended, i gave the questioners to the students to fill. the class was over at 4:30 p.m. the see was held on the same day and in the same room at 4:45 p.m. one of the observers, pak alim, started the see by giving some feedback that some of the students, e.g. students no 16 and 21 were not active in the discussion; consequently, the teacher needed to ask them to prepare some questions to ask in the next meeting. ibu dhona agreed with pak alim‘s feedback because she also found that students no 10 and 14 did not master the materials and tended to be passive in the discussion. she also gave feedback that students had to make a summary of the material and submit it to the teacher before the class started. pak bambang found that students no 1, 8, 16, and 29 were not active in the discussion; they even talked different topics in the discussion. related to this, he gave feedback that the teacher had to move around the class to monitor the discussion. the see ended at 5:15 p.m. and was closed by pak alim. cycle 4 the plan was held on tuesday, 20 may 2014, at room b3 116. it started at 3 p.m. and was opened by pak rudi, the coordinator. it was attended by three observers, pak alim, ibu dhona, and pak bambang. the same as the plan in previous cycles, i had to prepare the teaching instruments such as syllabus, lesson plan, teaching material (handout), teaching media, and student worksheet. besides those, i had to prepare the observation sheets, both of my own observation sheet and the observers‘ observation sheets. i also needed to prepare the design of class sitting management and students‘ numbers to be pinned on students‘ shirts or blouses. questioners for students were also prepared to be given after class. in each step, i also had to make some notes of any activities done in the lesson study. in plan cycle 4, i explained that the do would be almost the same with do in cycle 2. i would ask the students to make presentations of what they had read and discussed in the previous meeting, then after that there would be some time for questions and answers session. i planned to use nht technique to check students‘ understanding before the class ended to activate the passive students. ibu dhona advised me to give some explanation first before the presentation that there would be nht so that all of the students paid attention carefully to their friends‘ presentation. the plan ended at 3:30 p.m. and was closed by pak rudi. the do was held on wednesday, 21 may 2014, at room b3 317b; it started at 3 p.m. there were only three observers came to the class and it was recorded by an administration staff. the process of teaching and learning ran well. the students were given numbers on their chests and their backs so that the observers could easily make notes about the students on their observation sheets. ten minutes before the class ended, i gave the questioners to the students to fill. the class was over at 4:30 p.m. the see was held on the same day and in the same room at 4:45 p.m. one of the observers, pak alim, started the see by giving some feedback that the teacher should have given some questions to the students by using nht (numbered head together) technique as this technique would force the areni, g.k.d., & syafri, f.. (2018). enhancing teachers‘ professionalism and students‘ learning outcomes through lesson study. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 203—212. 211 students to listen to their friends‘ presentation and to make the students active. it was proven by students no 16 who at first was passive in listening the presentation, but she became active in nht. pak bambang and ibu dhona found that some students did not listen to their friends‘ presentation carefully because the presentation was not interested and the presenters seemed not master the material. related to this, they gave some feedback that the students had to prepare their presentations well as this would also be one factor to assess students‘ understanding. the see ended at 5:15 p.m. and was closed by pak alim. discussion after having four cycles of the lesson study, i as the teacher model found out that lesson study is a very useful technique not only for the class teacher but also for the students. for the teacher, the first advantage is that i got a lot of feedback from the observers before (plan), during (do), and after (see) the process of my teaching about appropriate strategies that i should use in my teaching process. as a result, i could prepare my lesson plan better and teach more confidently and professionally although i needed more extra time to do this. second, i also got a lot of feedback about my students‘ attitude during the class. it is hard for me as a class teacher to observe my students while i am teaching in front of the class; therefore, the observers gave a huge help in doing this kind of observation. for the students, lesson study is very effective to be applied as the students studied better and more seriously because of the existence of the observers. from the questioners that i gave, they felt that they were also encouraged to be active in the discussion, to read the book that they were asked to read, and to have better scores in their test. however, there were also some students who got depressed because there were some of their lecturers observed them in the back of the class. conclusions and suggestions to conclude this study, there are some advantages and disadvantages of the implication of lesson study as follows. 1) for the teacher model, s/he can have a lot of feedback from the observers about his/her strategies in teaching and learning process. this may increase his/her professionalism and confidence in teaching. on the other hand, s/he must have more time to prepare the instruments used in the lesson study. 2) for the observers, they also can learn from the teacher model what kind of appropriate strategies to be used in their own classes. however, the observers also need to spare their time to attend the steps of the lesson study, i.e. plan, do, see, which have been arranged by the teacher model. 3) for the students, lesson study is an effective strategy to pursue their achievement in class as they can study better and more seriously. hopefully, this study can be a reference for teachers from different levels who are interested in having lesson study in their classes. it can also be used by other researchers who have the same interest in the same field. . language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 212 references brown, d.h. 2004. language assessment, principles and classroom practices. usa: pearson education. http://www.ets.org/flicc/pdf/nov4lessonstudypacketone.pdf http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php http://www.tc.columbia.edu/lessonstudy/lessonstudy.html paul, david. 2003. teaching english to children in asia. hong kong: longman asia elt. samples.jbpub.com/9780763749453/49451_crop_final jones and bartlett publishers.llc sukirman. 2013. upayameningkatkanmutuperkuliahanpadaperguruan tinggi melalui lesson study. artikeldipresentasikanpada workshop persiapanpelaksanaan lesson study di fbs unnes. http://www.ets.org/flicc/pdf/nov4lessonstudypacketone.pdf http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php http://www.tc.columbia.edu/lessonstudy/lessonstudy.html attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaafcea2112c • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x representations of christmastide in latin american christmas folk songs: a transitivity analysis sthephanny moncada linares*, xin zhi-ying xiamen university, china *email: sthephannyml@outlook.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.25903 submitted 27 august 2020. revised 19 september 2020. accepted 18 october 2020 abstract considered as the universal language, music has been historically a means of communication and personal expression about the inner and outer world of its creator, it is present in almost every social activity of human beings as in the habitual religious celebration of christmas across the largely catholic countries. therefore, the present paper will provide a descriptive text analysis of ten traditional latin american christmas folk songs on the base of the transitivity system informed by the hallidayan systemic functional linguistics theory. to reach this goal, both a quantitative and qualitative research method approach was applied. findings indicated that among the six analyzed transitivity process types, the material processes (32%) dominate the construal of the musical pieces, followed by the mental (23%), behavioral (18%), and relational realizations (13%) whereas the verbal and existential processes are relatively low all together representing an overall frequency of 14%. this reveals the singers’ attempt to represent the christmas season as a nostalgic time leap, an immediate enjoyment, and a rewarding exchange. keywords: christmas; folk music; latin america; representation; transitivity system lebratory and danceable songs like faltan cinco pa’ las doce (five minutes to midnight); año nuevo (new year); año nuevo, vida nueva (new year, new life); el año viejo (old year); árbolito de navidad (christmas tree); la víspera de año nuevo (new year’s eve); el mensaje de navidad (the christmas message); son para gozarlas (they are to enjoy); feliz nochebuena (merry christmas eve); and mamá, ¿dónde están los juguetes? (mom, where are they toys?), all interpreted by artists from venezuela, mexico, cuba, and colombia. these latter were the ones considered as a corpus to conduct this analysis and imply a more secular representation of christmas. music is undeniably one of the major influences on latin american people, it features lyrics that address daily life practices and personal experiences. for example, during christmastide, most of the songs describe the typical celebratory rituals involving christmas and new year’s eve that mainly include cooking and enjoying food, gift-giving, well-wishing, as well as drinking, singing, and dancing. within this context, a theory of grammar like the one postulated by the systemic functional linguistics (halliday, 1978, 1985, 1994, 2003; halliday & hasan, 1985; halliday & matthiessen, 2004, etc.), from its transitivity system, allows broadening the comprehension of introduction every year in every corner of the world where christmastime is celebrated, radio local stations start playing holiday music 24/7, announcing the beginning of this season and setting a celebratory mood. as a pivotal element of the cultural phenomenon of christmas, music has become one of the preferred vehicles to impinge directly on sentiments and thus, call for a collective experience of reconnection with home and close social circles, re-evaluation of the past, and projection towards the future. unlike the traditional festive religious songs widely popular in north america and europe that illustrate ancient pastoral traditions with choirs and lyrics referring the coming of jesus christ and the rejoice for his birthday, in latin america, christmas music has been mainly composed for dancing purposes under the label of tropical music, that is, a category employed in the music industry to designate latin rhythms originated in the hispanophone caribbean such as salsa, guaracha, cumbia, vallenato, etc. classical carols derived from old british winter themes such as ‘let it snow,’ ‘silver bells,’ ‘god rest ye merry, gentlemen,’ ‘o holy night,’ and some others, are replaced in latin america by more celanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 60 desiderative, and emotive sensing experience over a phenomenon. the ‘senser,’ an animate or inanimate participant, is the primary subject engaged in the conscious process, while the ‘phenomenon’ constitutes what is sensed including an object, an abstraction, a conscious being, and an action. relational. it construes the states of being and having of a subject, and comprises mainly two modes of operation, an attributive and an identifying. a commonly attributive clause characterizes the class membership or ‘attribute’ of a ‘carrier,’ and an identification clause implies that “x, the value, identifies the identity or label of y, the token.” verbal. it construes the interchange of symbolic meaning by a ‘sayer,’ a human or human-like speaker who tells, announces, claims, reports, etc. a ‘verbiage,’ that is, the content of what is said to a ‘receiver’, who is usually marked by the addition of to. behavioral. it construes, as an activity, the physiological and psychological behaviors of subjects. behavioral processes are partly mental and partly material in the sense that they involve a conscious process identified as a behavior and corporal postures and hobbies, all performed by a ‘behaver.’ existential. it construes the existence of an entity or event, the ‘existent,’ and is frequently signaled by the existential there. a summary of the above information is illustrated in table 1 and table 2. research on the field of linguistic and discourse analysis has tried to reveal the hidden messages encoded within diverse songs genres and styles of music. it is the case of fonseca (2015), who found that accordion music reproduces gender stereotypes by building specific versions of men and women from the base of certain societal power structures, similarly, nieto (2018) indicated that there has been an evolution and reversal of gender roles concerning loving relationships that have been reflected in the content of love songs. through a comparative investigation, hằng (2016) discovered that the image of mother depicted in english and vietnamese songs have more commonalities than differences in the sense that in both populations, and despite the historical and cultural factors, most mothers during wartime worry about their children’s safety and wellbeing, and during peacetime, they play the role of caretakers, teachers, and loyal friends. friday (2018), gusrayani, (2008), harbi, et al. (2019), kipsang (2016), paro (2013), among others, have conducted related studies. notwithstanding the existing research, through a literature review process, it became evident the lack of study to those compositions regarding one of the most important and memusical compositions (one of the most common text types) to elucidate how individuals portray meaning and represent it as a reflection of their own experiences with the physical, mental, and social world (fairclough, 2003; halliday, 1994; halliday & matthiessen, 2004). hence, the present paper seeks to analyze the lexicogrammar choices in ten latin american christmas folk songs to unveil the discursive representations arising from this festive season. language is known to be meta-functionally arranged in the sense that it construes and portrays the world of experiences by offering people choices to enact social roles and relations between the producer of a sign, the receptor, and the object through the interpersonal metafunction and its systems of mood (i.e., declarative, imperative, and interrogative), polarity (i.e., positive and negative), and modality (i.e., modal verbs); to transform meaning into texts using the textual metafunction and its theme-rheme structure, and finally, to represent several objects, their relations, and processes through the ideational metafunction and its transitivity system (i.e., process types, participant roles, and circumstances), being this latter the basis of the present analysis. under the theoretical principles of the ideational metafunction of language, there is the transitivity system by which people construe their inner and outer world experience of change with regards to the configuration of a process indicated by a verb phrase, participants in charge of the enactment of the process or impacted by it, and optional accompanying circumstances realized by adverbial or prepositional groups (halliday, 1994, 2003; halliday & matthiessen, 2004; matthiessen, martin, & painter, 1997). this system has been long used to conduct systematic text analysis as it makes possible to explore and unveil the speaker’s cosmovision through the choices of content in a created text that will ultimately allow “to say sensible and useful things about [it]” (halliday, 1994, p.36). the major and most recurrent processes in any text type have been documented to be the material, mental, and relational with their subtype, followed by the verbal, behavioral, and existential, all attended by the corresponding participant roles as briefly explained below. material. it construes doings and happening of concrete and abstract phenomena in which two participants are directly involved. one is the ‘actor,’ who performs the material deed, and the other one is the optional ‘goal,’ who is either impacted by the doing or benefited from it. mental. it depicts the perceptive, cognitive, language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 61 morable seasons of the year, that is, christmastide, and more importantly, its representations emerging from the view of the latin american society. therefore, to contribute to the theoretical-practical study of latin american christmas folk songs, the analysis of ten musical pieces is presented below. this paper first introduces the applied theory, it then outlines the followed methodology, and finally, offers, in detail, the corresponding outcomes together with a concluding remark. methods the corpus selected for the present analysis comprises ten latin american christmas folk songs selected from repeating patterns of cooccurring terms regarding the practice of christmastide. it was applied a combination of a quantitative and qualitative methodical approach, which sought to provide a descriptive and thorough understanding of the corpus guided by the theoretical fundaments of the transitivity system under the systemic functional linguistics. the methodological steps undertaken comprised (a) an identification phase of the ranking clauses as the basic unit of analysis; (b) a categorization phase of the constitutive elements of the transitivity system, that is, the processes, the participants, and the circumstances types; and lastly, (c) an interpretation phase on the findings. result and discussion based on the transitivity analysis conducted to the ten selected christmas folk songs from latin america, a total of 167 process types were identified together with their participants and circumstantial elements (see table 3). the material processes present a higher level of occurrence accounting for 32% (53 realizations) of the corpus. mental processes are placed second with 23% (38 realizations) of frequency. meanwhile, behavioral, relational, verbal, and existential processes have an overall occurrence of 18% (30 realizations), 13% (22 realizations), 8% (14 realizations), and 6% (10 realizations) correspondingly. the extracted semantic macrostructures (i.e., topics) of the studied songs and the exploration of their microstructures via the transitivity system resulted in the depiction of the following three representations employed by latin american singers to construe the overall notion of christmas: a nostalgic time leap from 53 material realizations, 32% correspond to motion verbs in spanish (e.g., is leaving, is gone, comes, etc.) that imply the abstract process of approaching and passing of time during the table 1. process and participant types adapted from matthiessen, martin, & painter (1997) process types participant examples (participant in italics, process in bold) material happening doing actor, goal malcolm (actor) learns about quantum physics (goal). quantum physics (actor) is learned by marcom (goal). mental perception cognition affection desideration senser, phenomenon he (senser) smelled the danger (phenomenon). i (senser) understand you (phenomenon). it (senser) hurt her feelings (phenomenon). heidy (senser) wants to have more money (phenomenon). relational attributive possessive intensive-identifying carrier-attribute possessorpossessed token-value john (carrier) is a wonderful man (attribute). she (possessor) had a fortune (possessed). philip (token) is the smartest student here (value). verbal sayer, receiver, target, verbiage the news (sayer) says that the war is coming to an end. i told him (receiver) to stay away from my family. people criticized the deputy (target) for his dishonesty. i’m grateful for your help (verbiage), she said. behavioral behaver he (behaver) smiled at me cheerfully. existential existent there is a newly discovered tribe (existent) in africa. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 62 christmas season. the main actors are portrayed by the inclusion of a lexicon that evokes new year’s eve (e.g., the old year; the year; the bearded year; another year; etc.), referring time and its measurement (e.g., the time; the dawn; the midnight), and indicates the conventional seasonal symbols (e.g., the christmas bells; the joy; the christmas tree). to a lesser extent, two instances of relational processes including its participants and circumstances (e.g., it’s five to twelve; the night being serene), plus three addition of three verbal processes (e.g., announcing; the clock warns us; i already say goodbye, compay, to this christmas) encode this sense of temporal transition. being christmas a celebration that commonly lasts 12 days, starting from december 25 with the christmas day to january 5 with the epiphany eve (in some latin american communities like the colombian, it traditionally begins on december 24 and stretches until january 6), this western holiday marks the end and arrival of a new year and is psychologically accompanied with a transient mood state. the reawakening of memories and the opportunity of renewing or strengthening social relationships during this fleeting period of the year triggers in people the powerful emotional experience of ‘nostalgia’ as noted by batcho (cited by american psychological association, 2011) and rosewarne (2018). through the analysis of the corpus, this sentimental yearning is particularly evident in the chosen mental processes of affection (e.g., it makes the sad when december arrives; suffers the sorrows), cognition (e.g., they don’t want to remember the new year’s party and aguinaldo), and perception (e.g., the memories that hurt us), which seem to emphasize the negative affects felt by the personae of the songs (e.g., some hearts; the one who; there are others; etc.) as a result of their reminiscence exercise that brings to the fore their unpleasant past experiences in the form of a yearly parallel between what has changed and what remains. christmastide, however, not only entails recognizing and voicing the ‘darkness’ of the last year (e.g., last year she said [verbal process] she would marry me this year and everything has been a lie, that’s why my life cries) but also serves as a catharsis mechanism that, driven by the bittersweet nostalgia sentiment, allows individuals to commit themselves into forgetting the sorry past and table 2. circumstance types adapted from matthiessen, martin, & painter (1997) circumstance types probe examples extent spatial temporal how far? how long? mary has been elected as president two times. it lasted all day. location spatial temporal where? when? the match took place in madrid. they’ll play next week. manner means quality comparison with what? how? what like? robert killed her with a shotgun. she runs slowly. we finished it as fast as we could. cause reason purpose behalf why? what is it for? for whom? i passed the exam thanks to my classmate. anne bet hoping to win. she did it for me. contingency condition concession default on what conditions? despite what? in the lack of what? we’ll have to stop the game in the event of a storm. beth won the lottery despite her bad luck. he was freed in the absence of evidence. accompaniment with whom? amy came with me. role what as? as the manager, she fired everyone. matter about what? as for me, i won’t press charges. angle says who? according to the who organization, the pandemic is growing fast. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 63 make way for achieving a brighter future. the aforementioned is represented in the lyrics of the song el mensaje de navidad (the christmas message), which, through the mental process of cognition ‘to forget’ (e.g., let them forget the old year; let them forget the memories) and one instance of the behavioral process ‘let die’ (e.g., let memories die) encourages the audience to stop thinking about the memories and conversely, embrace a new starting as it is indicated by the relational: intensive-identifying (e.g., more cheerful the days will be) and behavioral (e.g., the coming year, caramba, i will sing and enjoy again) linguistic realizations present in some of the other musical compositions. in this sense, the suffering of the ‘temporal or seasonal nostalgia’ “becomes a practice of forgetting” (santesso cited by rosewarne, 2018, p.94) after having purged the internal pain by the power of the forthcoming goals and the filial reencounters as explained below. thus, the traditional new year’s resolutions constitute a fresh start to move on to a more optimistic future and leave the nostalgia behind. this is perfectly encapsulated within the lines of the studied songs, thus, 12% (five realizations) of the mental processes depict the singer’s resolutions addressed to third parties and which, for this particular corpus, are embodied in the ethos of well-wishing intentions concerning the prospective attainment of immaterial goods such as prosperity, good luck, and a long-lasting life (e.g., let them be filled with good; i wish them a prosperous new year and adventure for those coming; we’re going to wish him/her good luck and may god keep him/ her from the dead). these expressions of goodwill are emphatically stressed by the singers’ verbal processes in the song el mensaje de navidad (the christmas message) interpreted by diomedes díaz (e.g., for those people goes the message of affection; preaching this message i have come, to tell you with soul and greatness). a last collateral effect of the christmas nostalgia found in the corpus reveals the intrinsic need of individuals to reconnect with the family bonds that, according to miller (2017), could represent one of the most significant contributions of christianity to the development of this celebration as it is the central image of the family. this relationship of parents to a child is explicitly portrayed in the analyzed songs by highlighting christmastide as a time of homecoming in which a maternal figure (e.g., the pretty old lady; mother; mom) awaits the arrival of the beloved one and this latter appears at her encounter. material processes accounting for motion in space (e.g., to leave the party; i’m running home) and three behavioral constructions implying the action of hugging (e.g., to hug mom) and waiting (e.g., who is waiting for me; we will wait together) denote the great importance of the domestic sphere in the temporal transition from the old to the new year. it is not surprising then to find that in some latin american societies “many people interrupt festivities before midnight on new year’s eve to go home” (mullins, 1997, p.64), however, not everything is enjoyment and there are some others who deeply table 3. frequency of process types process types/songs #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 material 53(32%) 7 50% 9 50% 2 25% 5 72% 5 56% mental 38(23%) affective 2 1 0 0 0 cognitive 0 1 0 0 0 perceptual 1 2 0 0 0 desiderative 0 3 22% 15 28% 0 0 0 behavioral 30(18%) 1 7% 0 2 25% 0 1 11% relational 22(13%) intensive-attributive 0 0 2 0 2 intensive-identifying 0 0 1 0 0 possessive-attributive 0 0 0 0 0 circumstantial 1 1 7% 0 0 3 37% 0 0 2 22% verbal 14(8%) 1 7% 2 11% 1 13% 0 1 11% existential 10(6%) 1 7% 2 11% 0 0 0 n=167 n=14 n=18 n=8 n=7 n=9 language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 64 long for this reunion as they are far away. this devotional yearning is illustrated in existential (e.g., i am so far; for the one who spends new year away; as the one who stayed in the hills) and material processes (e.g., another christmas without seeing my people) together with the stress on their sense of emptiness transmitted via relational: possessive realizations (e.g., they have no happiness) and their plea not to be forgotten conveyed by verbal and mental instances (e.g., mother, i humbly ask you to remember me on new year’s eve). ultimately and as perfectly indicated by rosewarne (2018), nostalgia is a sentiment especially fixated on time and is pivotal in the depiction of christmas as it revives the past but also sentimentalizes it, it elevates its meaningfulness. in this sense, the interpreted corpus represents this celebratory season as a bittersweet nostalgic time leap that places at its locus reminiscence, projection, and filial connectedness. an immediate enjoyment “christmas is coming: be merry for christmas only comes once a year” highlights ownby (1999) in his book, this seasonal sentiment could be one of the most anticipated and cherished by people. it is within this context of collective effervescence that latin americans hold celebrations with friends, family, and neighbors as an opportunity to gather and share lavish dinners, drink, dance to the rhythms of festive music, exchange commodities, among some others. altogether, these rites are a reflection of the well-known ‘festive indulgence’ resulting from giving way to one’s desires during christmastide, a season in which most individuals momentarily allow themselves to have a time of enjoyment without the restraints of the old year (evans, 2000). this “festival for the feelings (…) the seasonal cycle of plenitude” (nissenbaum, 1996, p.208), or simply the “parade of excess” (ace, 2003, p.10) is well illustrated through the analyzed songs through the recurrent use of the material and behavioral processes. thus, verbs of the kind ‘to drink, to toast, to eat, to party, to sing, etc.’ are employed to signal the different actions performed by people when participating in these gaieties, together with the circumstance of manner ‘with happiness’ used, in some cases, to emphasize that these activities happen pleasingly (e.g., i go out to party; drinking and drinking, with happiness; let’s toast; i’m going to eat cakes; i’m going to have fun; etc.). regarding this last point, it is noteworthy that the song feliz nochebuena (merry christmas eve) includes a large number of mental realizations employing the verb ‘i like’ to express which christmas rituals the singer enjoys the most (e.g., i like dancing, i like drinking, i like laughing; i like singing). moreover, relational processes both attributive and possessive indicate the positive loaded connotations singers assign to the instances of celebrations happening during the christmas and new year’s eve, and which are complemented with attributives such as ‘happy, good, pretty, bright’ to describe how these specific dates trigger in people cheerful emotions (e.g., they get cheerful; oh how good is christmas eve; it’s the most beautiful time of the year; etc.), even to the point of becoming an event for couples (e.g., it’s already a milestone for lovers). additionally, it is noteworthy to mention that among the referred participants there is not an explicit reference to the domestic focus, that is, the traditional family model as depicted by the christianity, instead the songs seem to portray it from a wider social sphere that mostly includes friends, lovers, and acquaintances who get together to party and follow their fleeting sense of selfindulgence (e.g., i want to spend it with you; spend it with friends; spend it with siblings; etc.). this idea is also supported by the need of individuals to interrupt the celebration and before midnight to reaffirm the filial bonds with the family, particularly with the mother (e.g., i’m running home to hug mom) as already explained in the former point. in broad terms, it can be observed that the corpus seems to accentuate the delightful emotional sense of immediate rejoice that people experience during these two holidays, a temporary moment’s respite from the past hardships, and the uncertainty of the future. a rewarding exchange the analysis of the corpus unveiled that singers resorted to a higher degree to the employment of material processes to draw attention to people’s social behavior in terms of rewards. being christmas, a celebratory season happening annually throughout the life course, it arises in individuals the expectations to be rewarded after a year’s worth of ups and downs, a goal traditionally achieved through the exchange of goods among friends, family members, and neighbors, that is, the main recipients. during christmastide, especially at the time of christmas eve, people get together to perform the ritual of gift-giving and receiving, a symbolic exchange (miller, 1993) by which they demonstrate the value they assign to their dearests inasmuch they mutually satisfy their immediate needs and exhibit their good faith. according to language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 65 haas and deseran (1981), the core of this type of transaction lies in its potentiality to portray the nature of the relationship between the receiver and the giver in the establishment of affective social bonds. this is explicitly encoded in verbs of the type ‘give (me), send (me), and bring (me),’ which imply a request from the speaker to be compensated either through intangible commodities like good health and love or tangible ones as money, hugs, and toys (e.g., what are you going to gift me; send me a big hug; mom, where are my toys?; etc.). it should be noted that the lyrics of the selected songs make a particular accent on those immaterial goods. likewise, this festivity season also allows participants to voice accomplishment in the form of gratitude for the virtuous fortune brought by the outgoing year and as a direct exchange for their good deeds. this is demonstrated in the data, although in a lesser extent, through the material processes realized by the verb ‘to leave (me)’, which denotes to give away something (e.g., it left me a goat, a goat, a black donkey, a white mare, and a good mother-in-law; it has left me very good, very beautiful things). from a more secular viewpoint, it bears resemblance to the classical nature of the thanksgiving holiday celebrated majority in the united states; despite in latin america this grateful acknowledgment commonly takes places on the same day of new year’s eve and not on a separate date as it is the case of north america. this sense of reciprocity that implies receiving something in reply for something given previously, enhances individuals’ desideration for maximizing rewards and minimizing possible punishments or losses. thus, on the one hand, the studied songs stress on the misbehaving acts performed by people throughout the year by signaling them via two mental processes of affection (e.g., forgetting heavenly money; christ child knew it), together with two material (e.g., if people use gold and nothing else; would it be that you did something bad), and one behavioral realization (e.g., they care about luxury and appearance), instances that highlight their overconcern for the possession of material goods and which, in turn, distort the symbolic exchange of a deserved reward (e.g., if they have a sincere heart, they will see the stars in the sky). on the other hand, the corpus unveils the side effects of this negative attitude through the inclusion of mental processes of affection of the type ‘feel bad and do not love me,’ which reflect the unfavorable feelings perceived by those who supposedly showed a socially undesirable behavior (e.g., today i feel very sad; christ child does not love me; do not feel sad anymore). this interplay between the awareness of the good and bad actions might serve as a mechanism of generosity to discipline people since as stated by belk and coon (1993), subjects mutually control their necessities and therefore, decide whether it is worthy to reward or penalize. suffice to evoke the explicit mentions presented in the lyrics mamá, ¿dónde están los juguetes? (mom, where are they toys?) with the mental and material allusions (e.g., i want to please you; christ child didn’t bring them). at last, this need for compensation and the avoidance of sanctions depicts christmas as a suitable time to stimulate the practice of rewarding exchange. conclusion from the analysis conducted on the selected corpus, it can be concluded that material processes (32%) are the ones dominating the construction of the musical pieces; these allow singers to show the concrete and physical actions either performed by themselves and the individuals mentioned in their compositions or indicate how their behavior is affected by these actions. alongside, participants are presented as well in terms of what they do, what have they experienced, what they feel, and how they behave through the use of the mental (23%), behavioral (18%), and relational (13%) transitivity processes. in overall, it can be stated that the leading discourse regarding christmastime in the latin american context represents it as a transient nostalgic time, as a temporal landmark of enjoyment that leads to over self-indulgence, and as a season to receive and exchange gratifications. it should be highlighted that the present analysis provides an initial theoretical-practical contribution to the literature of latin american folk songs as a portrayal of its social-cultural identity, this grounded in the field of discourse analysis and linguistics. further research is recommended on the interpretation of the same topic but including a larger number of corpora to enhance the validity and reliability of the outcomes, or the comparison of the nativity themes arising from christmas songs originated in diverse cultures across the world. references ace, c. (2003). before you wish for an “old-fashioned” christmas. in c. ace (ed.), stories behind the great traditions of christmas (pp. 9–20). zondervan. american psychological association. (2011, december). ’tis the season for nostalgia: holiday remilanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 59-66 66 niscing can have psychological benefits. belk, r., & coon, g. (1993). gift giving as agapic love: an alternative to the exchange paradigm based on dating experiences. journal of consumer research, 20(3), 393–417. evans, p. (2000). satirizing the spanish christmas: plácido (luis garcía berlang, 1961). in m. connelly (ed.), christmas at the movies: images of christmas in america, british and european cinema (pp. 211–221). i.b. tauris publishers. fairclough, n. (2003). analyzing discourse: textual analysis for social research. routledge. fonseca, c. (2015). discursivas de representación de género en la música de acordeón. revista palobra, “palabra que obra,” 11(11), 162-181. friday, f. (2018). a critical stylistic analysis of cobhams asuquo’s rap song “boosit.” international journal of innovative research and advanced studies, 5(8), 231-239. gusrayani, d. (2008). thematic and transitivity analysis of children’s songs and stories. jurnal sastra inggris, 8(1), 61-75. haas, d., & deseran, f. (1981). trust and symbolic exchange. social psychology quarterly, 44(1), 13. halliday, m. (1978). language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. edward arnold. halliday, m. (1985). an introduction to functional grammar. edward arnold. halliday, m. (1994). an introduction to functional grammar. edward arnold. halliday, m. (2003). on language and linguistics. continuum. halliday, m., & matthiessen, c. (2004). an introduction to functional grammar. hodder arnold. hằng, t. t. t. (2016). mother image in english and vietnamese songs – a literary analysis using transitivity system in systemic functional linguistics perspective (master’s dissertation, vietnam national university, vietnam). harbi, s., abdul jabar, m., md nor, a., & muhammad isa, n. (2019). ‘hey, jude! i wanna hold your hand’: transitivity process analysis on popular songs by the beatles. international journal of language education and applied linguistics, 9(1), 45-54. kipsang, s. (2016). the construction of gendered ideology in alcohol, bhang, and sex referenced kenyan popular music (master’s dissertation, egerton university, kenya). matthiessen, c., martin, j. & painter, c. (1997). working with functional grammar. arnold. miller, d. (1993). unwrapping christmas (d. miller (ed.)). oxford university press. miller, d. (2017). christmas: an anthropological lens. hau: journal of ethnographic theory, 7(3), 409– 442. mullins, g. (1997). culturegrams: the americas and europe. ferguson. nieto, r. (2018). the social evolution of the expression of love through music: a contrastive analysis of transitivity in hit song in english and spanish (1950-2009) (doctoral dissertation, universidad complutense de madrid, spain). http:// eprints.ucm.es/46903/1/t39725.pdf nissenbaum, s. (1996). under the christmas tree: a battle of generations. in s. nissenbaum (ed.), the battle for christmas. random house. ownby, t. (1999). american dreams in mississippi: consumers, poverty & culture, 1830-1998. university of north carolina press. paro, d. (2013). representations of women in american rap: a systemic-functional and critical discourse analysis (universidade federal de santa catarina, brazil). http://www.lle.cce.ufsc.br/docs/ tccs/2e9b761d07c426f0b0e60ef0a7eea285.pdf rosewarne, l. (2018). “i feel, for some reason, that this is a good time of year for looking backwards.” in l. rosewarne (ed.), analyzing christmas in film (pp. 93–170). lexington books. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa6885c10d8 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x the contrapuntal reading of colonial logic and the play of caricature in “houseboy + maid” by pramoedya ananta toer harfiyah widiawati1*, aris masruri harahap2, lambok hermanto sihombing2 1sekjen dpd republik indonesia, indonesia 2president university, indonesia *email: hwidiawati@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.25657 submitted 12 august 2020. revised 23 september 2020. accepted 18 october 2020 abstract pramoedya ananta toer’s works are highly distinguished for their strong realist characteristic and profound analysis of interactions among preand postcolonial human beings and their place in society. one of the works that portray such characteristics is “houseboy + maid”, the first story in toer’s collection tales from djakarta: caricatures of circumstances and their human beings. in this research, post-colonialism and contrapuntal reading proposed by edward said are used as methods to interpret a literary work whose narration is about two characters who live in post-colonial indonesia, or rather post-revolutionary indonesia. their unfixed identities which are interrelated through the changing event of the plot indicates that their very destiny cannot be separated from the “politicality, sociality, and historicality” of much bigger entities. keywords: post-colonialism; contrapuntal reading; identity; post-colonial indonesia; post-revolutionary indonesia apparently was supported by soekarno and was in antagonistic term with people who signed manifesto kebudayaan (manikebu). during revolutionary period of guided democracy, president soekarno insisted on the use of art as propagandist media for governance pursuit like those in china in russia. as a consequence, lekra was established to serve national interest on socialism, if not social realism. on the date of may 8, 1964, 16 writers, 3 painters and 1 musician signed a cultural manifesto that claimed resistance against the tendency of social-realist-oneness which they considered as limiting people’s freedom of expression, especially in art (mohamad, 1993). it is this political positioning that get him imprisoned during suharto’s authoritarian reign in late 60s to 70s. the fact that his works offers his readers the, then, “subversive” version of looking at indonesian history and social condition caused the banning of their distributions. the long sufferance that he has to undergo during his imprisonment, instead of crippling him, enables him to curiously delve into fundamental questions of being human. his strong empathy for humanity is thus manifested through social realist depiction of the characters in his works, sustained by detailed socio-economic setting and moving plot. pramoedya’s roman can, hence, be introduction one of the most prominent indonesian writers is pramoedya ananta toer. his works are highly distinguished for their strong realist characteristic and profound analysis of interactions among preand postcolonial human beings and their place in society. belonging to the tradition of social romance, pramoedya’s narrations portray real and true aspects of daily life without adding aesthetic make-up or exaggerated fantasy. largely indebted to realist legacy of western works such as gorki’s tolstoy’s and steinbeck’s, pramoedya’s works also show a naturalist tendency of profound historical research and vast use of documentations in order to maintain its faithfulness to the so-called reality. though they are trying to be as “objective” as possible, there is still prominent debate whether to consider them as versions of history, or merely as historical fictions. nevertheless, according to teeuw (2003, p. 192) there is no absolute realism in any roman, therefore historical narrative can only be considered as social document, but not as historical truth. in understanding pramoedya’s social documentation we have to keep in mind his activism in lembaga kebudayaan rakyat (lekra) which language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 51 a subject of an ongoing debate, we can at least define the term in connection to colonialism. according to loomba (1998) the term post-colonial is difficult to define because it includes and excludes, at the same time, too many entities that always refuse to be categorized within simplistic groups. some definitions, however, can be posed here as frame of reference. foulcher & day (2006) in their introduction to clearing a space: a postcolonial readings of modern indonesian literature stated that post-colonialism is a strategy of reading that inquires on the identification process of colonial traces in literature as well as criticism in order to evaluate the nature and significance of their textual effects. in the meanwhile, gandhi (1998) defines postcolonialism as “a theoretical resistance to the mystifying amnesia of the colonial aftermath” and thus “emerged both as a meeting point and battleground for variety of disciplines and theories” (pp. 3-4). in this writing, post-colonialism is used as a methodology to interpret a literary work whose narration is about two characters who live in post-colonial indonesia, or rather post-revolutionary indonesia. their unfixed identity which is interrelated through the changing event of the plot indicates that their very destiny cannot be separated from the “politicality, sociality, and historicality” of much bigger entities. the history of the nation-state indonesia, the social system of post-revolutionary indonesia, the economic condition of the family’s ancestor, the political stance they take despite their being uneducated and under-privileged; all of them constitute incorporated colonial subjects. it is at the very point that the postcolonial analysis of textual narrative begins its inter-disciplinary crossing of theories. to understand how they subjects in the story are incorporated or rather interpellated is to reveal how the dominant group in society executes power over the subordinated group. there are many ways of disseminating an ideology. according to althusser (in hawkes 1996), power is established through two types of apparatuses: repressive state apparatuses (rsa) which works by violence, and ideological state apparatuses (isa) which works by consent. the repressive apparatuses such as “the government, the administration, the army, the police, the courts, the prisons” work in the domain of the public, while the ideological apparatuses such as religion, family, school, arts, media, sport work in the domain of the private (pp. 121-123). although the isas appear to be quite disparate, they are unified by subscribing to a common ideology in the service of the ruling class’ common ideology. perceived as a social documentation of life. according to richard hoggart (in teeuw, 2003), …good literature recreates the sense of life, its weight and texture. it recreates the experiential wholeness of life […] good literature recreates the immediacy of life (pp. 194-195). reading pramoedya’s full-of-immediacyof-life narration in “houseboy + maid”, one can feel how crafty pramoedya is in playing with the notion of caricature to portray an earnest side of life: a deep sense of despair and loss which is elaborated in the theme of the wretchedness of the poor, fading hopes for change, and those who find ways to profit from a state of flux (vatikiotis, 2001). the question of whether literature is a social, political, or historical practice has been prominent (felski, 2011; guillory, 2013; rancière, 2004; shapiro, 1984), especially in the post-colonial period of twentieth century. responding to the concept of modernism, some thinkers begin to question the possibility of literary works as others than just a product of creative or interpretative imagination. edward said (1993), for example, opened the possibility to relate work of literature with the shaping of culture and the inherent idea of empire. as a consequence, a narration can be analyzed not only as an arrangement of signification process that constitute the whole structure of the story, but also as a significant element of political quest. this paper will try to look at the significant role played by the narration of a short story by pramoedya ananta toer, entitled “houseboy + maid” in such structural and political quests. being put in the political setting of post-revolutionary indonesia, the social realistic portrayal of the story enables one to approach the narration in the frames of post-colonialism. such method, in the end, is aimed to posit the sociality, politicality, and historicality of the story, in which themes such as hierarchical notion of human being, contrapuntal reading of narrative structure, interpellated subject as well as the concept of hegemony, and the use of caricature form a matrix of identity politics. in this matrix, one never has fixed identity because individual, family, and institutions (such as servitude and a nation) are always constituted of diverse political, economic, social as well as historical importance. it is the contrapuntal reading and play of caricature that made possible the ambiguous, if not ironical, positioning of identity. methods although up to now post-colonialism is language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 52 in pramoeya’s short story, “houseboy + maid” what unequivocally appear is not the rsa, but rather the isa. the ideology of colonial knowledge is disseminated not so much through literal violence but through systematized “force” as well, such as social interactions, family, circulation of knowledge and one’s economic position in society. the two characters of the story, sobi and inah, are always already an ideological subject in a sense that their daily-life-choices, whether they admit it or not and whether they are aware of it or not, show the particular ideologies they follow. nevertheless, it is faulty to think of them as completely victims of ruling class’ common ideology. although coming from under-privileged class of society, they give their consent not always necessarily out of their ignorance. sometimes they, consciously or not, grow to be important agents of effective resistance. such subtle resistance can only be theorized through the contrapuntal awareness of text analysis. even though, in althusser’s conception ordinary folks seem to be the victim of ruling power, it is useful to look at the very matter from opposite view point. in post-structuralist understanding of a text, the building of narrative meaning always have unfilled spaces from which counter-ideology can always corrupt the established signification. in other words, the anti-theses are always already subverting from within the building of a theses. in addition, edward said (1993) made use of this post-structuralist logic to reverse the colonial hierarchy by proposing what he calls contrapuntal reading. borrowed from the western classical music, contrapuntal is a concept which put two or more melodies together and then analyse the their relationship (de groot, 2010). the idea is not to form a harmonious synthesis, but to see and to find the uniqueness of each melody and to compensate the gaps between the two by reading in conjunction one with another. it is not only about adding outsider ‘vernacular’ perspectives to insider ‘mainstream’ interpretations, but it is also about valuing both and not assuming one is privileged as primary or foundational and the marginal an optional extra (sugirtharajah, 2007, pp. 153–165). broadly speaking, such reading method could envision us to political and also social reform (bartine & maguire, 2010). regarding this, mushakavanhu (2017) even suggested that the reading method can also help us understand the suppressed views and experiences. what most interesting and important when applying contrapuntal reading is not finding the similarities between two or more voices (also texts), but the contrast that can help us see things that may be implied. this is the goal of a contrapuntal reading: to identify the gaps or things that may be overlooked in one text that the other text suggests? (cronshaw, 2016). therefore, in conclusion, we can more or less understand the contrapuntal reading as reading a text with an understanding of what is involved when an author shows something, of the historical context beyond its formal limitation. we must read a text with an effort to draw out, extend, give emphasis and voice to what is silent or marginally present or ideologically represented. only by reading this way can we discuss the subtle operation of subordination of any entity in the text. we must keep in mind that each cultural work is a vision of a moment, and we must juxtapose that vision with the various revisions it later provoked. by pondering into what is not said by a text, instead of what it says, we will come to an even more critical awareness of the ideology as well as identity politics being displayed by the author. even if the author is being witty and conceal his real intention in the mode of parody or caricature, a critical reader will be able to grasp the politics of identity operated in the text. the theme of identity politics can be manifested in several techniques, one of which is through the use of caricature. fowler (1987, p. 173) sees caricature as “a distorting mirror up to life”. caricature is almost the same as parody in which it searches out any weakness, pretension or lack of self-awareness in its original by means of subversive mimicry. in pramoedya’s short story, what are being caricaturized, as presented in the subtitle of the book, are “the circumstances and their human beings.” it means that what is portrayed in the story is a ridiculed, if not burlesque, situation in which human being ceases being human once he is amount to unrenewed essence. it is through caricature that pramoedya is able to mock the existential reduction and social segregation that low class, colonized indonesians have to undergo. and such circumstance continues even during post-revolutionary period with its promised “freedom”. it is also through caricature that the disillusioned post-revolutionary indonesians question the fundamental principle of being. are being colonized means being inhuman? the notion of what is human and what is inhuman are profoundly explored through the burlesque revealing of dehumanized effect of colonialism. by giving his characters lack of awareness of identity, pramoedya posit them as truly actual agents of colonial criticism. consequently, self-identity becomes the site of political contestations among language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 53 conflicting ideologies. results and discussion “houseboy + maid” is the first story in pramoedya ananta toer’s collection tales from djakarta: caricatures of circumstances and their human beings (2000). all the stories in that collection realistically portray the condition of post-revolutionary indonesia in 1950s. before we go with the analysis, it is important to look at the plot of the story in order to have a spatial-temporal context of what would be the object of analysis. in so doing i will maintain the caricature atmosphere by keeping some direct quotations since the strength of this book lies in the ironical language, cleverly arranged by pramoedya. “houseboy + maid” is a story about two young siblings named sobi and inah. all their lives, they both always work as servants. there is no way that they can work as other than servants. it is said from the very beginning that ever since the time of jan pieterszoon coen, this family had servant’s blood – from generation to generation. servant without reserve! loyal down to the last hair on their bodies. […] had god remained as kind-hearted as he was in the old days, and willing to extend further this servant lineage, the thirtieth generation would certainly no longer be human, but – worms wriggling about in the dirt. and this was only logical (toer, 2000, p. 17). sobi and inah are “doomed” to be servants but they are both satisfied, if not proud, with their servitude: “a houseboy and a maid of the highest grade, they felt tortured if they were not taking orders. and their lives’ happiness depended upon the receipt of such orders” (toer, 2000, p. 19). by serving others, by taking orders they feel that their life is meaningful. this period of servitude brought [sobi] the greatest happiness in his life. especially when he was able to propose an improvement for his employer’s household—the ultimate satisfaction attainable for a houseboy (toer, 2000, p. 20). they always try their best to improve their service. during the dutch colonial period, sobi and inah served dutch. like their mother, they paid faithful service to their tuan. however, as the japanese occupation came, they became to despise dutch. sobi, for example, [j]ust like the others [,] hated colonialism—dutch colonialism, that is. what colonialism really was, he didn’t know. but to hell with it, he hated it too. whatever issued from the mouth of the japanese was the voice of truth. and everyone was obliged to believe it. luckily, he could be sincere in this. if not, his rank as houseboy would have been eliminated, like the lives of the romusha (toer, 2000, p. 19). for the sake of their “servitude”, they swallowed everything “taught” by their new tuan. for them life is so simple: they just did whatever they could do to survive. when the japanese withdrew from indonesia, they once again served the dutch. “sobi was once again a houseboy— a houseboy for a white people who, during japanese occupation, had had no value, no value greater than their own fingernails” (toer, 2000, p. 20). in the mean while inah who previously worked as an assistant of a laundry maid was now looking for a tuan. like her mother, she wanted to become a njai. the story goes by the conversation between sobi and inah who were exchanging their life experience. sobi is enjoying his life as a houseboy in a dutch family, especially because the daughter seems to “like” him. inah is not as “lucky” as her brother because the tuans she met are never faultless. sobi try to help his sister by arranging to meet his sister with tuan piktor. the story ends with sobi’s dream of becoming a brown “dutch” and the coming of tuan piktor, inah’s potentiallywould-be tuan. the colonial logic: a hierarchical determinism one of the problems posed in the story is the question of the possibility of living. for inah and sobi, the possibility of living seems to be limited into becoming servants. as typically found in realist stories, there is a kind of determinism in “houseboy+maid”. the determinism works in the notion of presence, and is believed as always already decide the two characters’ destiny. complexion is one of the most significant factors that build the story’s determinism. it is suggested that complexion determined people’s fortune. inah and sobi’s continued existence, for example, is made possible by their “fair” complexion, inherited from empok kotek. the complexion of this family lineage is a story in itself. […] all of the descendants had ugly complexions. it never changed. until one of the umpteenth generations, when empok kotek was born. blessed with tuberculosis, she developed a lovely glow. and she was considered beautiful (toer, 2000, p. 17). the lines suggest that even the possibility of having better complexion (which also means better life) can only occur through tuberculosis. the words “it never changed”—which goes in language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 54 accordance with the unchangeable fortune of its descendants—indicates the powerlessness of the individual as a subject. alteration is something given, rather than created. in this sense, an individual is an animal-like personae in this determined world; he can only wait and accept whatever comes to her/him. the determinism in the story develops from complexion, involving the issue of race. it is interesting to note that the race with “fairer” complexion will privilege over other race with “darker” complexion. the story shows, for instance, that the whites always have better position, better fate. that is why both inah and sobi want to become dutch, because by becoming dutch, all the white man’s privilege will immediately come upon them. “when someone becomes dutch,” he [sobi] said, full of self-confidence, “those scars and blotches disappear automatically! when did you ever see a dutch person with blotches? only indonesians get scabies. people like us, nah” (toer, 2000, p. 22). here we see that the determinism always involves a fundamentally essential binary logic, in which the dutch has the privilege over the indonesian. the binary logic that determines the principle of presence is of course metaphysically hierarchical: one is privileged over the other, one is re-presenting the other. therefore, it is just logical that inah, who has internalized the essential logic, prefer to become dutch: “tuan piktor must have a radio. maybe six radios. wouldn’t it be nice if he played them all at once? then lots of people would gather in front of my house to see. and i’ll be standing on the verandah. they’ll all whisper: ‘wah, inah is really dutch now,’ they’ll die of envy! really! but it’s their own fault if their skin is black and if their nostrils are an old way. my skin isn’t so black, it’s white and my nose has class”. she smiled happily. (toer, 2000, p. 24). the compartmentalization follows what, in reference to fanon (1963), is called traditional marxism, in which “economic substructure is also a superstructure. the cause is the consequence; you are rich because you are white, you are white because you are rich” (p. 32). if we look at the story, the social realist aspect of traditional marxist clearly dominates the story. there is a strong sense of economic determinism in which economy (material basic needs, capital) becomes the motor that determine the superstructure (principle, human value, cultural identity). the marxist model has penetrated deeply into the character’s mind, that it continuously strengthens the colonial myth in the story. not only inah, but also sobi admit and internalize the logic: and he [sobi] could now feel superior within the circle of houseboys who had merely indonesian employers. he had learned to separate himself from those houseboys who worked for the chinese and indonesians. he had learned how to sing: “yua olwees in mai haat” softly and out of tune (toer, 2000, p. 20). sobi’s white employer and ability to sing in broken english has posed him in a higher position in houseboy-hood. this adds to the list of binaries in which language becomes a determining factor. anyone speaking in english, in the language of the whites will immediately get the privilege over others. at this point the logos has indeed become “a historically constructed inaugural metaphor of presence” (spanos, 2000, p. 7). such metaphysical view suggests that the end is already there from the beginning, and this is of course relevant with the story lines suggested by the plot: the beginning determines the end. since the time of jan pieterszoon coen, the family’s ending has been known: it resides in the servitude, no matter what complexion that they have. here, the metaphysical principle of presence seems to strongly shade the whole story: in its plot, theme, and character(ization). the contrapuntal reading of colonial language to see how the metaphysical principle of presence shades the characters, it is important to see how inah and sobi come to that binary logic, or say, how the hierarchical principle of presence manifest itself in the body of the two characters. to be able to pose any possibility to this problem, we have to read the story contrapuntally. according to edward said (1993), contrapuntal reading means … reading a text with an understanding of what is involved when an author shows something, of the historical context beyond its formal limitation. [it] can be done by extending our reading of the text to include what was once forcibly excluded (pp. 66-67). cultural identity is a building that cannot exist by itself. it must be understood “not as essentializations but as contrapuntal ensembles, [which] can never exist by itself and without an array of opposites, negatives, oppositions” (said, 1993, p. 52). therefore, to see inah and sobi’s cultural identity, we must also focus on the opposition offered by the binary, which means to talk about the dark colored, we have to talk about the white colored; when we talk about the indonesilanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 55 an in the story, we cannot release ourselves from the dutch. what is more interesting from contrapuntal reading is it allows us to see how the opposition constitutes the sociality, politicality, and historicality in the story. inah and sobi are the product of the social formation of that time. looked from the setting of the story, which most probably in 1950s (that is the period when the japanese withdrew, indonesia declared its independence, and the dutch was trying to re-occupy the land), indonesia was still in its revolutionary state. the post-colonial enlightenment brought in itself a problematic conflict: the possibility of discarding the colonial identity, and at the same time the possibility of creating new identity which usually resides in national identity. however, it is not easy to build national consciousness, because the colonial past will still be haunting the social consciousness of the colonized. the meaning of imperial past […] has entered the reality of hundreds of millions of people, where its existence as shared memory and as a highly conflictual texture of culture, ideology, and policy still exercises tremendous force (fanon, 1963, p. 12). this is precisely what’s shown by the story. pramoedya’s post-revolutionary indonesia shows how the shared memory of imperial past still resides in people’s, like inah’s and sobi’s, mind. it shows how the two characters still bear the inferiority inflicted by the colonial logos. inah and sobi become interpellated subjects who don’t have to consciously understand the ideology, but practicing it anyway, inscribing it in their body. a good example is when they … suddenly felt disgust for the japanese. along with many others they felt they’d been tricked, even though they did not understand how the trick had worked. and white skinned people once again loomed large their estimation (toer, 2000, p. 20). they don’t necessarily understand the sudden hatred they felt for japanese, they just know that “they’d been tricked”. sobi and inah’s lack of conceptual understanding shows that the colonial logic has successfully manifested itself in all fields of political bodies that it has become an absolute “truth,” taken without further questions. he was happy if he never had to hear the word “politics”. because, in his estimation, politics covered every type of sin. his tuan had also told him so. and everything his tuan told him was a law, no less important than the law instituted by any government anywhere. the voice of tuan was the voice of god (toer, 2000, p. 20). the “truth” is even accepted transcendentally, because it has powerfully manifested itself as the social, economic, and political forces: as long as sobi and inah are socially, economically and politically safe they will surely do anything (chasing the japanese, avoiding practical politics). however, what determine the condition of “safe”? what is the ruling class that controls over the socio-econo-political power in the story? being set in post-revolutionary indonesia, such question is really problematic, first because during 1950s the japanese had just left, second, indonesia was just beginning to stand on its own, and third, the dutch was still trying to re-occupy the land. in such chaotic transitional period, it is of course difficult to precisely locate the dominant power of the society. even though historically indonesia won the de facto authority, the story shows that indonesian nationalism does not even affect sobi and inah. if indeed indonesia has won its independence, then why cannot inah and sobi liberate themselves from the dutch colonial logic? does it mean they have instead chosen to have dutch nationalism? what about when they devotedly served the japanese (“whatever issued from the mouths of the japanese was the voice of truth”)? does it mean that they also keep japanese nationalism in their heart? nationalism, identity, and politicality of “houseboy + maid” through the characterization of inah and sobi, pramoedya gradually makes the notion of identity politics become problematic in the story. if we are to perceive inah and sobi in terms of national bond, then the story seems to build its own discourse of nationalism (the one without capital n). here we cannot understand nationalism in a patriotic kind of sense, since inah and sobi definitely do not have such feeling. then what makes nationalism in this case? is it a shared memory as proposed by benedict anderson (1991)? what kind of memory? it seems that the only memory sobi and inah have is the “glorious” era of their mother, rodinah, the time when they have “a house with stucco walls and filled with […] two radios and a gramophone”. the only attachment that they have is reduced not to a grandeur, idealistic conception of imagined community (be it in the form of clientship or kinship) but simply to the basic material need. it is difficult, for example to derive any comradeship from the characters, not even a sense of belongness to their javanese ancestor, mpok kotek. here sobi and inah become just individulanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 56 als with free-floating identity, depending on the possibility of survival offered by the identity. however, even though their identity is free-floating, sobi and inah are not necessarily free subjects, they are in fact interpellated subject, or to pose althusser (1978)’s thought that individuals are always-already ideological subjects. here ideology must not be perceived in a kind of doctrine or principle in traditional marxist sense. by breaking the base-super structure model, althusser brings ideology (which previously occupies super-structure) to the everyday, to its material existence (also occupies base-structure). for example, the “ideology” that interpellated sobi and inah can be traced in the story, not only coming from the ruling class with its violence imposition (as in the case of the japanese with its romusha) but also from their mother (institution of family): “any time now you’ll be a dutch. after all, i’m not a djakartan, i am not an indonesian. mama always told me that. in fact, in the japanese time, mama even said that sobi and i were at least as respectable as the japanese. how nice it will be to be dutch” (toer, 2000, p. 24). the citation shows that rodinah has always inflicted to her children that they are not really indonesian. if we are to assume that the ruling class and dominant culture in this context is japanese, then rodinah can be considered as part of the subordinated class who has been interpellated and become the colonial ideological agent. as an ideological apparatus, rodinah passes on dominant culture’s ideology to her children, until they inscribe the same ideology in their bodies. however, it will be too simplistic to see inah and sobi as completely giving themselves up to the colonial logic. the subject-object relation between the dominant culture and the subordinated culture is more of dialectical bases rather than of deterministic one. here we can refer to gramsci (in strinati 1995) who suggest that … subordinated groups accept the ideas, values and leadership of the dominant group not because they are physically or mentally induced to do so, nor because they are ideologically indoctrinated, but because they have reason of their own (p. 166). thus, inah and sobi do not necessarily give their spontaneous consent to meet the dominant group’s ideas or ideology, but rather for their own safety. they don’t necessarily hunt the japanese for the hard life that the japanese have caused, or hating the dutch colonialism for the sufferance that they bear. although they want to be dutch, they don’t necessarily give their consent for any nationalist ideas, just like when they refuse to be indonesian. also, the need of becoming dutch does not necessarily come out of the thought that the dutch has all the quality of being human. it can also emerge out of their inhuman sides. “when we’re dutch, we can’t be embarrassed. we have to be bold enough to be naked. we have to be bold enough to get drunk. we have to be old enough to snarl godperdom at people. and we should always say things like: ‘after all, the japanese are animals, they’re bastards.’ my tuan does all these things. i watch everything he does and then i memorize it. it seems very easy to become dutch. if one’s clever enough like me to watch carefully and imitate, one can become dutch in one week.” (toer, 2000, p. 24) sobi’s naïve point of view portrays how his political consent can be given for a completely different ideal of dominant culture. also, if we get back to what rodinah has inflicted upon inah, we see that the ideology worked in rodinah’s mind—as well as sobi and inah’s—is not out of japanese nationalism. what is important for them is the privilege result of the nationality: other people’s respect. such importance on social status is a strong characteristic of javanese culture. in java there is a culture called teposliro which is awareness social station based on its hierarchy, from life within the family to the highest level of power (toer, 1995). within this culture, people are very much aware of their stand in society, and the hierarchical social place informs them of the power and position that one has. therefore rodinah’s, as well as sobi and inah’s, attachment to japanese nationality, instead of showing her consent of japanese nationalism, reveals her unconscious bond to javanese culture. we argue that this is exactly where the politicality of the story resides: it shows the dialectical hegemony of power. we cannot easily locate the “power” only within the dominant group, because the imposing dominant power almost always immediately followed by the power of resistance by the subordinated group. the use of caricature: showing the irony of colonial logic the use of caricature really helps to show the irony, or rather the inhumanity of colonial logic, because it enables one to play with the deterministic binary logic. it is interesting to note that in order to show the resistance of the subordinated culture, the writer does not use a character who can intellectually reveal the colonial myth. instead, pramoedya uses the myth itself to subvert from within the building of colonial logic. when sobi says that by becoming dutch language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 57 all blotches will automatically disappear, we are shown the power of myth that has successfully penetrated into the colonized mind, however at the same time the immense power of the myth reveals its own flaw: the myth has cruelly and inhumanly ranked human being merely on the basis of (vague) nationality (or, perhaps, should we say biological complexion). pramoedya does not only play with the social identity of the two characters, but he also goes further, questioning the fundamental possibility of identity: the identity of human being. what are the possibilities of being human? what make the identity of human being? that is more or less the questions posed by pramoedya in his story. as shown in the previous analysis, his story shows how history has rendered human being into an animal like personae, captured in the natural forces of hereditary and environment. this reminds me of naturalistic approach of the modernist realists who tend to picture human being that inherits personal traits and instinct in which s/he is a subject to social, economic forces in the family, the class, and the milieu into which s/he is born (abrams, 1957, p. 142). considering that pramoedya is very much influenced by zola, it is understood that his story shows such strong biological and environmental determinism. however, within pramoedya’s naturalistic picture we can still find his play of the notion of human identity. through the almost static plot of the story the third person narrator presents us one possibility, after another, of living, of existing, of becoming in this world. in inah’s and sobi’s world, becoming is simply eating and shitting. in that matter, the possibility of living is reduced to its most basic material value. “how simple life is [...] you’re hungry and you eat, you’re full, and you shit. between eating and shitting, that’s where human life is found. and each new life moves from hunger to shitting. and other lives then follow” (toer, 2000, p. 25). hunger and defecation seem to be the only possibility of living for inah and sobi. ironically such possibility renders them to be inhuman, to be like animals that simply react to the call of nature: life goes on around gratifying hunger and emptying the bowels (hua, 2000). the characters in the story seem to be lack of human qualities; they have neither emotions nor ambitions, empathy nor sympathy, dignity nor desire. the tough life that they have makes even the possibility to have some possibilities almost impossible—dignity rests not in the possibility of being “full,” liberated human, but in a simple “humane” ambition of becoming “half ” human, that is to say of becoming “brown dutch”. in such hard life, they are “losing their ‘milk of human kindness’, to borrow from shakespeare’s macbeth, in the face of a tough life in the capital city. demoralized by their bad lot, they turn into inhuman beings. they no longer have any sympathy nor empathy (hua, 2000). being colonized as long as their life time, they lose the possibility of having human qualities. the hierarchical principle of presence locates them as the inhuman. ironically, however, by looking into their historical identity as the colonized, and their social identity as the oppressed, we see that sobi and inah are just “human” victims of the “inhuman” colonization and social oppression. by caricaturizing this identity politics, here pramoedya again play with the problematic binary opposition. sobi and inah are rendered to be inhuman by not having human qualities such as desire and ambitions. at the same time it is such lack of desire that differentiates the characters from their colonizer and oppressor. they are not “inhuman”, they are not colonizing others because they are just “human” who don’t have ambitions over others. thus, by lacking the human qualities of having ambition (over others), they maintain the human quality of not colonizing others. to make it clear, let us look at rodinah’s view of ambitions: “what’s the point of living, if one cannot be happy and take pleasure in one’s birthright? and ambitions only produce anxieties among humankind. that is why she remained a maid” (toer, 2000, p. 18). her striking choice of remaining to be maid, of choosing to remain “inhuman” are based on an ironically profound perspective toward humankind. therefore, it is careless to think of under-privileged people as lacking human qualities. conclusion the “houseboy + maid” is set in post-revolutionary indonesia, a period of transition from colonialism to post-colonialism. such transition enables pramoedya to play with the colonial logic that set a segregated and hierarchical social system between the colonized and the colonizer. however, the colonial logic persists even after indonesia achieved its independence: the segregation among the privileged and the under-privileged refuses to go away even in post-revolutionary indonesia. where does the place of human being, then, among those hierarchical social system? language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 50-58 58 that is more or less what pramoedya questions through his use of caricature in his short story. nevertheless, though colonial logic seems to be so persistent, it does not mean that it is irresistible. through the contrapuntal reading of its textual structure, the building of its logic can be subverted and corrupted from within. by focusing on its own unfilled space, the binary logic can fruitfully be deconstructed. by playing with the binary of identity politics, pramoedya successfully displays the work of “caricatures of circumstances and their human beings.” his choice of using people without history in his story poses a kind of identity which is not based on limiting national or social boundary, but more of liberating humanity. in his caricatures, pramoedya “shows unflinching respect for human beings whatever their cultural origins” (mandal, 2000). references abrams, m. (1957). a glossary of literary terms (third ed.). holt, rinehart and winston. althusser, l. (1978). ideology and ideological state apparatuses: notes towards an investigation. in l. althusser, lenin and philosophy and other essays (b. brewster, trans.). monthly review press. anderson, b. (1991). imagined communities (revised ed.). verso. bartine, d., & maguire, e. (2010). contrapuntal critical reading and invitations to invention. interdisciplinary literary studies, 11(2), 38-71. cronshaw, d. (2016). a commission ‘great’ for whom? postcolonial contrapuntal readings of matthew, 28, 18–20 and the irony of william carey. transformation: an international journal of holistic mission studies, 33(2), 110-123. de groot, r. (2010). edward said and polyphony. in iskander, a, rustom, h (eds.). edward said: a legacy of emancipation and representation. university of california press, pp. 204–227. fanon, f. (1963). the wretched of the earth. grove press. felski, r. (2011). uses of literature. blackwell. foulcher, k., & day, t. (eds.). (2006). clearing a space: postcolonial readings of modern indonesian literature. yayasan obor inondesia & kitlv. fowler, r. (ed.). (1987). a dictionary of modern critical terms. routledge and kegan paul. gandhi, l. (1998). postcolonial theory: a critical introduction. columbia university press. guillory, j. (2013). cultural capital: the problem of literary canon formation. the university of chicago press. hawkes, d. (1996). ideology. routledge. hoggart, r. (1966). literature and society. in n. mackenzie (ed.), a guide to the social sciences. weidenfeld and nicholson. hua, l. (2000, december 31). pramoedya lays bare the cruelty of the city. the jakarta post. kurniawan, e. (1999). pramoedya ananta toer dan sastra realisme sosialis. yayasan aksara indonesia. loomba, a. (1998). colonialism/postcolonialism. routledge. mandal, s. (2000, december 24). asian individualist. vox, 8-13. mohamad, g. (1993). kesusastraan dan kekuasaan. pustaka jaya. mushakavanhu, t. (2017). anarchies of the mind: a contrapuntal reading of the poetry and prose of percy bysshe shelley and dambudzo marechera (doctor of philosophy (phd) thesis). university of kent. rancière, j. (2004). the politics of literature. substance 33(1), 10-24. said, e. (1993). culture and imperialism. vintage books. shapiro, m. j. (1984). literary production as a politicizing practice. political theory 12(3), 387-422. spanos, w. v. (2000). america’s shadow: an anatomy of empire. university of minnesota press. strinati, d. (1995). an introduction to theories of popular culture. routledge. sugirtharajah, r. s. (2007). margins and mainstream: an interview with r s sugirtharaja. in premnath, dn (ed.). border crossings: cross-cultural hermeneutics; essays in honor of rs sugirtharajah. orbis. teuuw, a. (2003). sastera dan ilmu sastera. pustaka jaya. toer, p. a. (1995, september). literature, censorship, and the state. suara independen, 04/i. toer, p. a. (2000). tales from djakarta: caricatures of circumstances and their human beings. equinox publishing. vatikiotis, m. (2001, march 8). pramoedya: indonesian despair. far eastern economic review. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 81 academic language functions in teaching content subjects salimatin mufidah, dwi rukmini, abdurrahman faridi semarang state university abstract this study focuses on the use of academic language functions and the problems of their use in the process of teaching content subjects by using english as a means of instruction. direct observation and recording were done to gather the data. based on the overall data analysis and interpretation, the teachers have used academic language functions in english, but not all teachers use full-english in the teaching learning process. they applied academic language functions for the purpose of acquiring knowledge and skills. furthermore, some teachers do not have adequate mastery of english because they just took a short english course. so, most content teachers sometimes find difficulties related to vocabulary/diction, grammar, pronunciation, intonation and they often switched codes from english to indonesian and vice versa. they have problems to express their idea in english due to their lack of vocabularies used and pronunciation. therefore, it is suggested that content teachers himprove their competence especially in the classroom interaction using english. key words : academic language functions, and content teachers. introduction academic language is the language that is used by teachers and students for the purpose of acquiring new knowledge and skills (chamot and o’malley, 1994:40). academic language differs in many ways from social language, the language that is used for purpose of interaction in social classrooms, the emphasis on academic language increases each year as students’ progress to higher grades. academic language is more difficult and takes longer to learn than social language (cummins, j. 1984), two factors affect language comprehension: context and cognitive complexity. academic language, on the other hand, may be less interactive and may provide limited context clues to assist comprehension. academic language has very specific purpose, including imparting new information, describing abstract ideas, and developing students’ conceptual understanding. the purposes are cognitively demanding, thus increasing the comprehension difficulties students’ experience. the identification of academic language is an inexact science, most probably because it is closely intertwined with academic content (chamot and o’malley, 1994:40). academic language consists primarily of the language functions 82 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 needed for authentic academic content. academic language functions are the tasks that language users must be able to perform in the different content areas. these differ from social interactive language functions such as a social language functions are greeting and addressing another person. sub categories of greeting are greeting a peer, a superior, or a subordinate, and making the greeting either formal or informal. on the other hand, academic language involves using language functions such as identifying and describing content information, explaining a process, analyzing and synthesizing concepts, justifying opinions, or evaluating knowledge. but academic language can also be interactive. teachers and students can discuss new concepts, share analyses, and argue about values in both teacherstudents and student-student interaction (chamot and o’malley, 1994:41). language functions needed in the grade-level academic classroom include explaining, informing, justifying, comparing, describing, classifying, proving, debating, persuading, and evaluating. (chamot and o’malley, 1994:41). most of these functions are necessary in all content area, e.g. in order to explain how a word problem in mathematics was solved, a student needs to organize the explanation so that it communicates the desired message in mathematically appropriate way. on the other hand, in order to justify a conclusion about the values of democracy as a form of government, a student might need to analyze the important features of democracy and compare them to other types of government. academic language is used to justify values in one culture and to analyze different values in another. in science, students might have to justify a conclusion from an experiment that requires them to analyze and reject alternative hypotheses (freeman and freeman, 2009; nunan, 1989.). academic language functions are the function when the language is used in the teaching and learning process, especially in delivering content material (allen and valette, 1998; zwiers, 2008.). therefore, the academic language instruction and opportunities for practice should be integrated with academic content instruction (chamot & o’malley, 1994:42). there are 11 academic language functions. they are: (1) seeking information, used to observe and explore the competency of students, to acquire information in the teaching learning process (e.g. use who, what, when, where, which and how); (2) informing, used to identify, to report, or to describe information (e.g. recount information presented by teacher or text, retell a story or personal experience); (3) comparing, used to describe similarities and differences in objects or ideas (e.g. make/explain a graphic organizer to show similarities and contrasts); (4) ordering, used to explain sequence objects, ideas, or events. (e.g., describe/make a timeline, continuum, cycle, or narrative sequence); language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 83 (5) classifying, used to make group objects or ideas according to their characteristics (e.g. describe organizing principle(s), explain why a is an example and b is not); (6) analizing, used to separate whole into parts; identify relationships and patterns (e.g., describe parts, features, or main idea of information presented by teacher or text); (7) infering, used to make inferences; predict implications and hypothesize (e.g. describe reasoning process inductive or deductive or generate hypothesis to suggest causes or outcomes); (8) justifying & persuading, used to give reasons for an action, decision, point of view; convince others (e.g. tell why a is important and give evidence in support of a position); (9) solving problem, used to define and represent a problem; determine solution (e.g. describe problem-solving procedures; apply to real life problems and describe); (10) synthesizing, used to combine or integrate ideas to form a new whole (e.g. summarize information cohesively; incorporate new information into prior knowledge); and (11) evaluating, used to asses and verify the worth of an object, idea, or decision. (e.g., identify criteria, explain priorities, indicate reasons for judgment, confirm truth). content area subjects interchangeably to refer to subjects of the curriculum such as science, mathematics, social studies, and language arts. chamot & o’malley (1994:5) introduce content area in stages to make students easier in the teaching and learning process. they explain that the goal of the science curriculum can be expressed in terms of concepts and generalizations, process of inquiry and discovery, scientific attitudes, and interest and appreciation. the study of science for concepts and generalizations suggests that students not only gain an understanding of the facts and theories of science but learn the importance of scientific knowledge for solving problems in their environment. scientific inquiry is the process by which individuals discover new information through the applications of data gathering, measuring, classifying, organizing, predicting, and problem-solving. students develop scientific attitudes such as an open-minded approach to data, interest in the experimental approach, and willingness to challenge suspect information. an interest and appreciation of science is important as students unlock the mysteries of the world and expand upon their naïve understandings of natural phenomena toward increasing scientific sophistication (allen and valette, 1998). content teacher is the teacher who specializes in a particular subject area of the curriculum, such as language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. content teachers are important resources for content selection. content specialist teachers have extensive knowledge about their subject areas and are also experienced in effective ways of presenting content-specific material. in addition, the content teacher knows what prior knowledge and skills are needed before 84 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 introducing particular topics. esl teachers should meet with grade-level content teachers to discuss aspects of the local curriculum students should know upon entering the grade-level classroom. content teachers should select content and they are guided by a curriculum framework. they rely mainly on textbooks for content selection then select certain topics. the content teachers should choose content based on their own experience in assessing the needs and interests of students. content teachers may use a combination of approaches to content selection. in any case, esl teachers can benefit from the advice of content experts (brown, 2001). chamot and o’malley (1994:26) mention that there are at least four reasons for incorporating contents subjects into english as a second language class: (1) subject area concepts and relationships provide a foundation for learning gradelevel information in important subjects. 2) students can practice skills and processes needed in the content areas. 3) content is more motivating than language alone. 4) content provides a context for learning and applying learning strategies. in teaching and learning content area subjects there are some components which are should be prepared: 1) content teachers, 2) curriculum, 3) textbooks, 4) curriculum analysis, 5) student’s interest. content teachers are the most important component in teaching and learning content area subjects. content specialist teachers have extensive knowledge about their subject areas and are also experienced in effective with of presenting content-specific material. in addition, the content teacher knows what prior knowledge and skills are needed before introducing particular topics (van lier, 1988). chamot dan o’malley (1994:33-37) explain guideline in teaching and learning content. they suggested a variety of ways in which calla teachers can make content more relevant and accessible to students learning english, they are :  activities: content should be taught as experiences rather than merely as facts.  prior knowledge: all new information needs to be linked to students’ relevant prior knowledge.  technical vocabulary: teach and have students use technical vocabulary appropriate to the content subject.  learning styles: address different student learning styles, use visual, auditory, and kinesthetic means.  overviews: follow general overviews of the lesson or unit with new information in chunks; include active practice  questioning: show the students how to ask and answer higher-level questions about content.  teacher monitoring: monitor students’ comprehension on an on-going basis.  student monitoring: teach students how to “know they don’t know”and what action to take. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 85  graphic organizers: show students how to use graphic organizers to identify prior knowledge, prepare study guide, and restructure prior knowledge. the followings are examples of graphic organizers and cycle.  resources: provide books, articles, other resources on content topics; teach students how to use them.  learning strategies: provide explicit instruction in learning strategies for understanding, remembering, and using content. this article describes the use of academic language functions and the problems of their use in the process of teaching content subjects by using english as a means of instruction. methods this study adopted an applied descriptive qualitative approach to analyze the patterns of interactions between teacher and students in the classroom especially to obtain description about the use of academic language function. the data are teacher-student interaction in bilingual classroom. the subjects were five senior high school teachers teaching content materials, including geography, mathematics, chemistry, physics, and biology. the data were obtained by using observation, recording and documents, and interviews and analyzed by using the calla (cognitive academic language learning approach) model designed by chamot (1995). the unit of analysis of this study is the utterances of the academic language functions used by the content teachers in teaching learning process. the validity of the data was achieved through triangulation. results and discussion the use academic language functions in teaching content subjects in english by five different content teachers is described to illustrate how they applied these language functions in their classroom as in the following graphs. graph 1 academic language functions used by geography teacher 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 seek information inform compare order classify analyze infer justify and persuade solve problem synthesize evaluate 86 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 graph 1 shows the description of how the content teachers develop classroom interaction in teaching content subject especially in using the academic language function in the teaching learning process in geography class at second grade with the topic disaster. the finding shows that the academic language functions used by the teacher are 15 seeking information, 26 informing, 2 comparing, 2 ordering, 3 classifying, 1 analyzing, 2 inferring, 2 solving problem, 3 synthesizing. based on the findings above, the teacher has used 91.82% (9 of 11). the teacher tried to use full-english but sometimes he still used indonesian when he couldn’t find the words in english. in this teaching learning process the teacher talks were dominated by giving information and seeking information. giving information refers to the teacher’s efforts to deliver some information to students related to the lessons that were being tough. it is commonly employed by the teacher during teaching learning process. the information given in the geography class involves facts, opinions about content or procedure, expressing own ideas, lecturing, and giving own explanations. besides, the teacher also asked questions. as shown in graph 1, the teacher gave information most of the time in the form of lecturing in order to explain the lesson clearly. these findings show that the teacher still become the center of content teaching process but the students are active enough to response the questions graph 2.academic language functions used by mathematics teacher graph 2 shows the description how the content teacher develops classroom interaction in teaching content subject especially in using the academic language function in the teaching learning process in mathematics class at second grade with 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 seek information inform compare order classify analyze infer justify and persuade solve problem synthesize evaluate language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 87 the topic derivative function. the finding shows that the academic language functions used by the teacher are 10 seeking information, 6 informing and 8 solving problem. based on the findings above, the teacher has not used academic language functions properly, only 27,27% (3 of 11). in this teaching learning process the teacher didn’t speak a lot because she used most of time for doing exercises and the teacher talks were dominated by asking information and solving problem. graph 3 academic language functions used by chemistry teacher graph 3 shows the description how the content teacher develops classroom interaction in teaching content subject especially in using the academic language function in chemistry class at first grade with the topic redox. the finding shows that the academic language functions used by the teacher are 16 seeking information, 25 informing, 5 ordering, 2 classifying, 1 analyzing, 3 inferring, 2 justifying and persuading, 9 solving problem, 3 synthesizing. based on the findings above, the teacher has used academic language functions properly that is 91.82% (9 from 11) from the functions of language in the teaching learning process. in this teaching learning process, the teacher talks were dominated by asking questions and giving information. giving information refers to the teacher’s efforts to deliver some information to students related to the lessons that were being taught. it is commonly employed by the teacher during teaching learning process. the information given in the chemistry class involves facts, opinions about content or procedure, expressing own ideas, lecturing, and giving own explanations. besides, the teacher also asked questions. as shown in graph 3, the teacher gave information most of the time in the form of lecturing in order to explain 0 5 10 15 20 25 1 seek information inform compare order classify analyze infer justify and persuade solve problem synthesize evaluate 88 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 the lesson clearly. in the teaching learning process the teacher has used english well. the teacher used bilingual in teaching content subject in order to make students easier to understand the material. the teacher has very good competence in teaching content. graph 4 academic language functions used by physics teacher graph 4 shows the description how the content teacher develops classroom interaction in teaching content subject especially in using the academic language function in the teaching learning process in physics class at first grade with the topic electromagnetic wave and it’s application. the finding shows that the academic language functions used by the teacher are 14 seeking information, 15 informing, 2 comparing, 1 ordering, 2 classifying, 1 analyzing, 2 justifying and persuading, 1 solving problem, 1 synthesizing. based on the findings above, the teacher has used academic language functions properly that is 91.82% (9 of 11). the teacher talks were still dominated by seeking information and informing. giving information refers to the teacher’s efforts to deliver some information to students related to the lessons that were being taught. it is commonly employed by the teacher during teaching learning process. the information given in the physics class involves, facts, opinions about content or procedure, expressing own ideas, lecturing, and giving own explanations. besides, the teacher also asked questions. as shown in graph 4, the teacher gave information most of the time in the form of lecturing in order to explain the lesson clearly. these findings shows that the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1 seek information inform compare order classify analyze infer justify and persuade solve problem synthesize evaluate language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 89 teacher still become the center of content teaching process but the students are active enough to response the questions. the teacher tried to use full-english but sometimes he still used indonesian when he couldn’t find the words in english graph 5 academic language functions used by biology teacher graph 5 shows the description how the content teacher develops classroom interaction in teaching content subject especially in using the academic language function in the teaching learning process in biology class at first grade with the topic food chains. the finding shows that the academic language functions used by the teacher are 31 seeking information, 38 informing, 2 ordering, 1 classifying, 1 analyzing, 5 justifying and persuading. based on the findings above, the teacher has used academic language functions that is 54,54% (6 from 11). the academic language functions used by the teacher are still dominated by seeking information and giving information. the teacher tried to use full-english, but sometimes he still used indonesian when he couldn’t find the words in english. interaction in this classroom was in three-way communication, there were interaction between teacher-students, studentsteacher and students-students. the interaction between teacher and students could be seen from the teacher’s activity in asking questions, giving information, justifying etc. the students-teacher interaction could be seen from the students’ activity like students’ response and students interaction appeared when the students had a discussion activity with their groups. the teacher is capable enough to create good atmosphere of teaching content subject. the class 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 1 seek information inform compare order classify analyze infer justify and persuade solve problem synthesize evaluate 90 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 seemed alive and the students were motivated. in the teaching learning process some teachers still made some mistakes related to vocabulary/diction, grammar, pronunciation, and sometimes the teachers often switched codes from english to indonesian or vise versa. the following are the examples of some mistakes in teaching content subject in english. the result of the study reveals that in the class under investigation it can be found that the most content teachers employed english as a medium of instruction during the class hour (about 70 %) although they sometimes make mistakes related to vocabulary / diction, grammar, pronunciation, intonation and they often switched codes from english to indonesian and vise versa. the results of the interview and observation show that the most content teachers have very good competence in teaching content. but, when they were teaching content subject in english it is not good as in indonesian. it is caused by many factors, they are: the first is, the education background of the content teachers were not english. they usually just take short course to learn english. beside that it is caused of some reasons, perhaps they are not brave enough to talk as they are afraid of making mistakes or maybe they do not understand what they are talking about. they are difficult to express their idea in english due to their lack of vocabularies used and pronunciation. as the result, teacher tends to use indonesian or even javanese to make the students clearly understand about the lesson. moreover, translation is become a solution to overcome their conversational gab problem. conclusion most content teachers have used academic language functions properly in the teaching learning process although they sometimes make mistakes related to vocabulary/diction, grammar, pronunciation, and intonation therefore the teacher should improve their competence of classroom interaction in english. the result of the study reveals that in the class under investigation it can be found that the most content teachers employed english as a medium of instruction during the class hour (about 70 %) .they sometimes find difficulties in using academic language functions related to vocabulary / diction, grammar, pronunciation, intonation and they often switched codes from english to indonesian and vise versa. based on the results of the interview and observation it can be found that most content teachers have very good competence in teaching content. but, when they were teaching content subject in english it is not good as in indonesian. it is caused by many factors. first, the education background of the content teachers is not english. they usually just take short course to learn english. beside that it is caused of some reasons, perhaps they are not brave enough to talk as they are afraid of making language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 91 mistakes or maybe they do not understand what they are talking about. they are difficult to express their idea in english due to their lack of vocabularies used and pronunciation. as the result, teacher tends to use indonesian or even javanese to make the students clearly understand about the lesson. moreover, translation is become a solution to overcome their conversational gab problem. it is suggested that in teacher-student interaction in a bilingual classroom, the teachers should use the academic language functions when they are teaching in the class. the teachers should speak english more than indonesian, be able to show their communicative competence, and become good models for the students to speak english. references allen, e. d. and valette, r. m.. 1998. classroom techniques: foreign languages and english as a second language. ny: harcourt brace jovanovich. baker, c. 2006. foundation of bilingual education and bilingualism (4th ed.) clevedon, england: multilingual matters. brown, h. d. 2001. teaching by principle. an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: pearson education company. chamot, a. u. & o’malley, j. m. 1994. the calla handbook: implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. ny: adison wesley longman, inc. chamot, a. u. 1995. implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. calla in arlington, virginia. retrieved june 10, 2010, from http://www.calla.com/ chamot/calla.htm/.. cummins, j. 1984. bilingual education and special education: issues in assessment and pedagogy. san diego: college hill freeman, y. s., and freeman, d.e. 2009. academic language for english language leraners and struggling readers: how to help students succeed across content areas. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. nunan, d. 1989. understanding language classroom. hernel hampstead. scarcella, r. 2003. academic english a conceptual framework technical report 2003-1. the university of california linguistic minority research institute. van lier, l. 1988. the classroom and the language learner. london: longman. zwiers, j. 2008. building academic language – essential practices for content classrooms. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. http://www.calla.com/%20chamot/calla.htm/ http://www.calla.com/%20chamot/calla.htm/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 83 differentiated teaching approach to support highly able students in mixed classrooms yuliati semarang state university abstract issues about fulfilling needs of highly able students have been discussed since some years ago. most highly able students along with their outstanding potential are considered as important aspects of a country’s bright future. their innate gifts which are outstanding need to be nurtured appropriately in order to meet success in their future life. providing positively supporting environment is essential for them (tomlinson, 1996). it is inevitable that those highly able students spend most of their time at schools. the support or provision for highly able students is generally far from enough since it is usually given by schools in terms of highly able counselors or learning support for highly able students (waters et al, 2003). hardly do schools provide highly able students with challenges within the subjects or curriculum enrichment. meanwhile, possibility to adjust curriculum by using differentiated teaching approach in order to meet their need is possible. in this paper, i analytically describe the reasons or justification of giving special supports to highly able students in general mixed classrooms. some components on how to adjust curriculum to meet or fulfill highly able students’ needs are also revealed. this differentiated teaching approach, even though mostly intended to support highly able students, is also beneficial for other students in the classrooms. keywords: differentiated teaching approach, highly able students, mixed classrooms introduction there are various types of characteristics used by many experts to identify highly able students. three major characteristics are mostly all about their ability to finish their work in short time, their ability to probe advanced and demanding questions, and their special interest which is usually different from that of other students and peers in general (pfeiffer, 2002). they tend to keep asking questions to their teacher or surroundings. the types of questions being addressed are usually advanced questions which demand deep analysis and understanding. they also have specific interests which are usually the interests of older people or adults (fox, 1981; ericsson et al 1993). these general characteristics need to be considered and accommodated in providing challenges to them to meet their needs in classrooms (tomlinson, 1995b). generally, teachers are the ones who know more about certain knowledge than students. yet, when dealing with highly able students, it commonly happens that students know more about certain knowledge than teachers (pfeiffer, 2002). teachers should be able to respond this situation positively. this can be a good chance for teachers to provide challenges to them. instead of putting themselves as 84 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 the more knowledgeable people or source of knowledge, teachers can posit themselves as facilitator for students. teachers can even benefit this situation to develop students’ autonomy during the teaching and learning process as well, e.g. by letting students finish tasks with only limited guidance (waters et al, 2003; tomlinson, 1996; national research council, 2000). rational for providing special challenge or provision to highly able pupils highly able students are students with exceptional ability. they have their own special innate ability and capacity to surpass others or peers in specific or certain fields. even though most highly able students perform outstanding strengths of intellectuality in some fields, they also sometimes become low or under achievers. this is assumed to have been caused by lack of challenges or inappropriate supports at schools so that they get bored, unmotivated, and unchallenged (waters et al, 2003). meanwhile, they spend most of their time at school. thus, providing appropriate challenge to fulfill their needs at school seems to be essential. some reasons taken into account for supporting highly able students in the formal education are as follows: prosperity or economic point of view and the issue of equity (waters et al, 2003). the future of people in a country is considered to be influenced and determined by their own efficiency or productivity as well as their ability to be creative. thus, the government has provided huge number of fund to support disadvantaged people in order to develop their potential. it is assumed that failure in catering highly able students could end up with putting them as disadvantaged groups or society (waters et al, 2003). thus, supporting them by providing appropriate challenge is reasonable. in order to deal with the issue of egalitarianism in providing support to highly able students at the classroom, we can assume that all students in the classrooms are highly able. by doing so, none of the students in the classrooms will be disadvantaged (tomlinson, 1996; waters et al, 2003). waters et al (2003) says that by considering all students highly able, we start to avoid the notion of hampering highly able students to explore and perform their high potentials. thus, providing special challenges to highly able students at schools will benefit all other students whether they are outstandingly highly able or just normal students with average ability. people’s literacy is said to be the most determining factor of a nation’s future and prosperity (waters, 2003). when people are literate, they will be able to be productive and even create innovations in their daily life. the other factor that might affect the nation’s future is the leaders of language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 85 that country who support knowledge development and solve problems in the country. it is assumed that highly able students when appropriately supported often end up being leaders in the future. in other words, they have outstanding innate ability in leaderships (bloom, 1985; pfeiffer, 2002; tomlinson & allan, 2000). nevertheless, there is another statement disagreeing with this notion by saying that highly able students sometimes are outstanding in certain academic fields or performance but lack of social and leadership ability (ccea, 2006). thus, again it is essential to provide appropriate or special provision to highly able students for the sake of their future and people’s future. there are some other reasons behind the issue of supporting special needs of highly able students. one of them is the issue of innate intellectual giftedness and how this giftedness can meet success in the future. this means that those children are benefited naturally. even though they are naturally born with such special gifts, this is not enough to guarantee that their future development will be as bright as their innate ability. the influence of home and school environments really effects their development (collins 2001 in waters et al, 2003). tannenbaum (1989) argues that we might see some special gifts owned by kids at their early ages. yet, it does not guarantee that they will gain success when they are adults later on. precociousness owned at the early stage and success at adult age needs to be bridged by providing challenges and positively supporting environment to them (tannenbaum, 1989). it is inevitable that success is determined or influenced by many factors, but it is also undeniable that any deficit in supporting their development could be the reason of their failure or becoming under-achievers (waters et al, 2003). a comprehensive study related to highly able students and their academic development has revealed the role of stimulation, challenge, and support from the environment around their development, especially school environment (gagne, 1991). it is said that the main area to address related to this issue is the environment of learning or schools. during their development, pupils need challenging environment to sharpen their knowledge and potential and drive them to the direction they are targeting. differentiated provision seems to be appropriate to promote equity and focus on the individual development at the classroom since every pupil is different regarding the issue of individual development and style of learning (gagne, 1991; tomlinson, 1997; waters et al, 2003). some other studies (reis et al, 1998; tomlinson, 2001; ccea, 2006) reveal that most highly able children spend their time in their classroom. this means that their development is really influenced and 86 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 determined by the classroom instruction. sadly, there are some experts arguing that instruction in regular or public classroom is usually far from sufficient in meeting their special needs and different learning styles (archambault et al, 1993; waters et al, 2003). this condition is also assumed to be the cause of failure for some highly able students in achieving their high potential. it even sometimes causes them to be underachievers even though they are highly able (waters et al, 2003). given that circumstances above, the responsibility of teachers is twofold. first, responsibility is providing highly able students with appropriate challenges to facilitate them to maximise their high potentials. second of all, teachers should be able to maintain the classroom community or classroom heterogeneity since the highly able students are studying in heterogeneous or mixed classrooms. thus, the purpose of providing challenges for highly able students in heterogeneous classroom is, then, to provide a learning situation or classroom where the highly able students can develop their special abilities as well as maintaining their involvement in the classroom (tomlinson, 1997). this provision is rather demanding for both the highly able students and the teachers. the most common practice or status quo is by putting the highly able students in a special group or by giving them special project or assignments to accomplish (cox et al, 1985; parke, 1989). therefore, the conventional or status quo regarding challenging the highly able students should be well considered in planning or providing challenges to highly able students in heterogeneous classroom. another consideration should be taken into account is the dynamics of the classroom, so that the challenges will not disadvantage the other students (tomlinson, 1996) the issue of providing challenges for highly able students is also challenging for all teachers, leaders and policy makers as well. many have suggested the focus of supporting highly able students especially in general class (tomlinson, 1996; pfeiffer, 2002; waters et al, 2003; ccea, 2006). the government needs to provide support to highly able students in the classroom by asking schools to deal with this issue so that those highly able students have bright chances to develop their potential and also promote the same chances to other students in the classroom (batterham, 2000). type of instructions needed to support highly able students teaching highly able students in general or mixed classroom is challenging for teachers. they have to be able to provide special differentiated teaching materials to accomodate the diversity of students’ needs (ness & latessa, 1979; parke, 1989; callahan, 1990; archambault et al, 1993; tomlinson, 1996). language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 87 in a heterogeneous classroom, there are students whose interests are in language; they can easily decode some words, comprehend meaning of texts easily, or communicate with the language well. yet, there are also other students whose interests are far from language but in sports, science, or music. some students are best in working or learning alone and some, in contrast, prefer to work in groups. in general, there is no unanimity in their needs and learning styles. thus, differentiated instruction plan seems to be a good strategy to meet their diversity in academic needs and learning styles (tomlinson, 1996). basically, teachers need to be able to identify needs, interests, and learning styles of highly able students. by that, appropriate instructions can be designed to support them. while they are learning, their knowledge will develop and they can also be independent learners. differentiated teaching approach to provide support to highly able students each student differs from one another in respect of the needs and style of learning. all of those different needs and styles in learning should be positively accommodated in the classrooms (hall et al, 2003). differentiated teaching or instruction is developed based on the theory that teaching approaches should accomodate all students’ diversity; learning needs, styles, and interests. this type of instructional teaching demands teachers to be susceptible to curriculum adjustment (hall et al, 2003). besides, it also requires teachers to permit curriculum alteration instead of demanding students to change their ways of learning to meet the demand of the curriculum (tomlinson, 2001). this type of teaching approach is assumed to be so flexible and lessens constraints that often block students in learning (rose & meyer, 2000a). applying differentiated teaching approach means accommodating various students learning ability, styles and needs in the classroom. it is intended to positively exploit every individual student’s success in learning (hall et al, 2003). in my opinion, this approach is suitable to respond and fulfill the needs of highly able students since it focuses on individual student within the classroom. thus, every student can benefit as well. curriculum adjustment as form of differentiated teaching approach there are three factors of curriculum which can be modified in developing differentiated teaching approach, they are: content, process, and product of the curriculum (tomlinson, 2001 in hall et al, 2003). below are the explanations of curriculum adjustment in order to respond highly able students (hall et al, 2003 p. 58). content adjustment some teaching elements and materials can be adjusted and differentiated to modify the content of the curriculum. this covers 88 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 performance, general idea, principles, and skills in teaching which can be differentiated based on the classes’ context. objectives, goals, and tasks of the teaching and learning should also be differentiated. the adjustments or alignments of those three elements are very essential since those three elements are the core of teaching and learning in the classroom. instructional design should be developed broadly. this means that it should pay attention to the concept of broad-learning and should not focus on every single minute guided activities to the students. teachers facilitate students to develop their knowledge, understanding upon certain concepts being learned, and skills to be autonomous learners out of the classroom. the content being given to student should be the same for whole students in the class room, but the level of difficulty and complexity should meet individual learners (hall et al, 2003). process adjustment grouping the students is still essential but it should be flexible and is used consistently. flexible grouping means that there should be dynamic change of the group members which could be based on the topics, learning interests, learning styles, and project being discussed or developed. this grouping is intended to promote students’ interaction, team work, and sharing knowledge. in order to make the groups work effectively, teachers can address some tasks to complete at the end of the group work (hall et al, 2003). effective management of the classrooms is advantageous for teachers as well as students. since the type of teaching approach being used is differentiated teaching, teachers must be able to organize and deliver the concepts effectively. this classroom management can also affect the dynamic of the teaching and learning process. teachers should bear in mind that highly able students are easy to get bored with anything that seems to be monotonous for them (hall et al, 2003). product adjustment assessment is the fatal issue to focus on. the focus of assessment should be on the point of readiness and progress of students in learning. the way teachers assess should be done prior to, during, and at the end of teaching learning process. these assessments are intended to inform teachers to relate to some issues in supporting students, such as type of methods, approaches, techniques which are suitable for students; needs of students; interests of students; and students’ learning style. thus, teachers can always improve their teaching every time (hall et al, 2003). challenging materials are suggested to be given to students. the level of the challenge should be a little bit above the students’ current knowledge. yet, teachers language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 89 have to be able to predict that even though the level of difficulty of materials is slightly above students’ current knowledge, the chance of students to accomplish that tasks or materials should also be considered. students will be frustrated if they feel that they fail to accomplish tasks given by teachers. indeed, the purpose of giving challenging materials is to direct students to do exploration during learning or accomplishing the tasks. each student should be given different types of responsibility in the classroom. they are encouraged or supported to perform their understanding in various ways (hall et al, 2003). some suggestions given to teachers to gain differentiation in the classrooms (hall et al, 2003) are:  elucidate main concepts in teaching. teachers are suggested to clearly explain all key ideas and concepts they are delivering and explaining to students so that students can fully understand the instruction.  use effective assessment as part of teaching instrument or tool rather than use it as a way to assess teaching and learning process. thus, teachers should do assessment at initial, on-going, and following the teaching and learning process. assessment is intended to improve teaching as 90 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 well as support students’ development.  promote high order thinking skills; critical thinking and creative thinking of students. teachers are suggested to design tasks which demand critical analysis, critical thinking, and creative thinking of students. thus, students will not only be targeted to understand concept but also apply it during or after the class.  get students engaged in classroom interaction and discussion. this can be applied by asking students to work in groups, discuss certain issues or topics, and express their ideas upon certain issues. feasibility of implementing differentiated teaching approach. this approach is developed based on readiness of students’ knowledge. the materials given are slightly above students’ current or possessed knowledge. the basis of these premiss is the theory of social constructivism and the notion of zone of proximal development (lev vygotsky, 1978). social constructivism is a theory that was founded by bruner with other colleagues of him such as tolman, lewin, bigge, and allport (baden and major, 2004). social constructivism puts learners’ prior knowledge as the basic elements used by learners to develop and construct new knowledge by engaging with peers and more able people, such as teachers (baden and major, 2004). other experts have applied this differentiated teaching approach and found the effectiveness of it. the application of this differentiated teaching approach covered effective classroom management, asking all students to work with peers in groups, and getting students engaged with peers (tomlinson 2001; waters et al, 2003). conclusion differentiated teaching approach is developed to support highly able students with appropriate challenges based on their needs, learning interests, and styles. this is beneficial for both students, regardless of their high ability or not, and teachers. first of all, this challenge gives more opportunity to students to maximize their ability and gain high potential. students have various different levels of competence and ability, learning interests, needs, and styles. differentiated teaching approach is essential to respond this situation. a second benefit is related to the development of other students. both groups of highly able and general students are studying in the same class. teachers can take benefits of stimulating and developing others students’ ability while supporting highly able students. this provision is given to all students at the same time. level of difficulty of the materials and time allocated to finish tasks language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 91 can be different for each student but, indeed, all students get the same provision. a third benefit is related to the issue of responding social relationship which is also promoted as the paramount issue in this provision. all students need and have to be able to communicate with peers or teachers especially during the teaching and learning process. this provision also considers that point by emphasizing on group work among students. a fourth benefit is that this provision is a challenge for teachers. most teachers work hard to teach and equip students with all skills demanded and instructed in the curriculum. adjusting curriculum in order to bring a better development and progress for students is always challenging. differentiated instruction or teaching approach is intended to respond and fulfill special needs of all students from many different backgrounds. regardless of students’ highly able, they are different from one another by nature. thus, they need different stimulation, provision, and support during the teaching and learning process. responding these differences by providing different stimulus, support, and provision is suitable. in addition to that, by adjusting the curriculum from three elements: content, process, and product, teachers are, indeed, accommodating and supporting highly able students’ need without neglecting the needs of other students. on top of all, this approach benefits all students and teachers in developing their potential for the sake of bright future of all. references a report for the council of curriculum, examinations and assessment (ccea). 2006. gifted and talented children in (and out) of the classroom. archambault, f., westberg, k., brown, s., hallmark, b., zhang, w., & emmons, c. 1993. classroom practices used with gifted third and fourth grade students. journal for the education of the gifted,16 (2), 13-28. baden, s. m. and c.h. major. 2004. foundation of problem based learning. new york: society for research into higher education & open university press. batterham, r..2000. the chance to change. canberra: commonwealth of australia. bloom. b. 1985. developing talenti in young people. new york: ballentine. callahan, c. 1990. a commissioned paper on the performance of high ability students on national and international tests. unpublished paper, university of virginia, charlottesville. cox, j., daniel, n., & boston, b. 1985. educating able learners: programs and promising practices. austin, texas: university of texas press. ericsson, k. a., krampe, r., & teschromer, c. 1993. the role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert 92 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 performance. psychological review, 100, 363-406. fox, l. h. 1981. identification of the academically gifted. american psychologist, 36, 1103-11. gagné, f. 1991. toward a differentiated model of giftedness and talent. in n. colangelo, & g. a davis (eds.), handbook of gifted education (pp. 6580). boston: allyn and bacon. hoh p. 2005. the linguistic advantage of the intellectually gifted child: an empirical study of spontaneous speech. roeper rev., spring, 27(3): 178-185. hall, t., strangman, n., and meyer, a. 2003. differentiated instruction and implications for udl implementation. national center on accessing the general curriculum (ncac): the u.s. department of education, office of special education programs maker, j. 1982. curriculum development for the gifted. rockville, md: aspen systems corporation. national research council. 2000. how people learn.: brain, mind, experience, and school.washington dc: national academy press. ness, b. & latessa, e. 1979. gifted children and self-teaching techniques. directive teacher, 2, 10-12. parke, b. 1989. gifted students in regular classrooms. boston: allyn & bacon. pfeiffer, s. i. 2002. identifying gifted and talented students: recurring issues and promising solutions. journal of applied school psychology. 19 (1), 31-50 . reis. s. m., kaplan, s. n, tomlinson, c. a., westbert, k. l, callahan, c. m., & cooper, c. r., 1998. how the brain learns, a response: equal does not mean identical. educational leadership, 56, (3). rose, d., & meyer, a., 2000a. universal design for individual differences. educational leadership, 58(3), 39-43. tannenbaum, a. j. 1989. gifted children: psychological perspectives. new york: macmillan. tannenbaum, a. j. 1997. the meaning and making of giftedness. in colangelo, n. & davis, g. a. (eds). handbook of gifted education (2nd ed., pp. 27-42). boston: allyn & bacon. tomlinson, c. 1995b. deciding to differentiate instruction in middle school: one school's journey. gifted child quarterly, 39, 77-87. tomlinson, c. 1996. good teaching for one and all: does gifted education have an instructional identity. journal for the education of the gifted. 20. tomlinson, c. a., & allan, s. d. 2000. leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. alexandria, va: ascd. tomlinson, c. a., 2001. how to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. 155-174. vantassel-baska, j. 1998. excellence in educating gifted & talented learners (3rd ed.). denver: love publishing co. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 93 van tassel-baska j. 2000. the on-going dilemma of effective identification practices in gifted education. the communicator, vol. 31. vygotsky, l. 1978. mind in society. cambridge, ma: hardvard university press. watters, j. j., and diezmann, c. m. 2003. the gifted student in science: fulfilling potential. australian science teachers journal 49(3):46-53. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 27 obama and natasha: how the last letters of their names are pronounced alim sukrisno semarang state university abstract this is a study about english pronunciation, particularly dealing with the pronunciation of the letter –a in final position of english words. the aim is to find a certainty of how to pronounce this letter, whether to be pronounced as [ə], [] or any other sound. the data under observation are an exhausted list of words ending in -a letter collected from oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary (oald). the result of the observation indicates that there are 847 words ending in –a. those words consist of 683 general words, 75 names of persons, 74 names of countries, and 17 names of states in the united states. out of the 847 words, 30 (0.03%) words have a deviating pronunciation pattern in their final –a letter. the majority of the words, 817 (96.45%) words demonstrate the sound [ə] in their final –a letters. the final –a letter in most of the 30 words is pronounced as long [a:], and not as short [] as often heard in the pronunciation of quite a few people. since all of these 30 words are words of very low frequency of occurrence, they are not significant in contributing something of value to english pronunciation, so they can be neglected. based on the result above, it can be concluded that all of the final –a letters in english words should be pronounced as [ə]; thus representing other english words, obama is pronounced as [oʊ ba:mə] and natasha as [nəta:∫ə]. a suggestion coming out of the above finding is that we should, beyond doubt, pronounce the final letter –a in english words as [ə]. this suggestion will bear a teaching-learning consequence in the classroom. key words: pronunciation, obama, natasha, letter, –a letters, [ə] introduction this introductory section deals with a number of issues relevant to the topic of my research report. the issues to be discussed are as follows: on numerous numbers of occasions, as an english lecturer handling english phonetic course as well as english pronunciation practice course at the english department, i often hear english pronunciation not only from the conversations of students but also from those of my teaching colleagues at the department. on other occasions, intentionally i observe the pronunciation of other people to make sure whether their english pronunciation is in conformity with the appropriate english pronunciation concepts (as recommended by a reliable dictionary) which i have so far studied and taught to my students, secondary school english teachers following a training course and whoever i happen to teach. 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 the focus of my observation whenever i am listening to someone‟s conversation in english is on his/her pronunciation, especially in the pronunciation of segmental and suprasegmental speech sounds. during my observations, there is the pronunciation of certain letters in the context of english words which is not in consonance with the pronunciation analogy i have got, studied and concluded from the pronunciation study originated from an english dictionary which displays pronunciation guide; for example, oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary (hornby, 2005). as an english teacher, specifically teaching english pronunciation practice course, i pay a great and keen interest on the appropriateness and preciseness of pronunciation. therefore, a slight inaccuracy of english pronunciation which i happen to hear and observe will become the focus of my attention. the result of my observation will give a very valuable input to me in improving my own pronunciation as part of my personal and professional development and in delivering the teaching materials which always involve the use of english pronunciation. quite recently, my attention has been concentrated not on the pronunciation of english words or sentences as a whole, but on the pronunciation of a certain letter in the alphabet which is sometimes present in english words. the thing confiscating my attention is the letter ‘-a’ which is distributed in the final position of a word, for example, in the last name of the president of the usa, obama, and his daughter, natasha (which become the title of the research and they represent the other english words ending in ‘-a’, i. e., visa, data, schema, etc.). the problem arising from my observation is that there is often inaccuracy in the pronunciation of that letter in the context of english words. quite many students, smp/sma teachers, applicants for english lecturers at the english department of unnes with s2 qualification, pronounce this ‘a’ letter occurring in the final position of a word as [], instead of [ə]. probably, this is a kind of interference of indonesian pronunciation into english. the reason is that in indonesian, letter ‘a’ regardless of its distribution is always pronounced as []. therefore, it is quite natural when a lot of english lecturer candidates in the 2009 period and in the previous periods, pronounced the „schema‟ as [skim], and data as [dt]. based on this pronunciation pattern, it can be expected that obama will be pronounced as obam[], and similarly natasha will be pronounced as natash[]. the pronunciation of english letters of indonesian native speakers differs from that of english native speakers, which is represented by the pronunciation of the secretary of state of the usa, hilary clinton, who visited indonesia in february 2009. on a number of occasions, she language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 29 mentioned the name of obama by pronouncing it obam[ə], and not obam[]. for other people or english teachers/lecturers who are not teaching pronunciation, this slight mispronunciation will certainly escape attention. however, the mispronunciation above, though very small and trivial, for me constitutes an important problem because a model of precise and accurate pronunciation will be a warrantee of english pronunciation which is accountable in the teaching of pronunciation. based on the principle that hesitation, let alone, consistent error in pronunciation is a disaster for the teaching of english, because a wrong model of pronunciation will always be copied by our students. related to the above background information, the pronunciation of the final ‘a’ in english words, whether to be pronounced as [] or as [ə] becomes an interesting problem to be solved in this research. in keeping with the discussion presented in the introduction, the problems attempted to be solved in this research are as follows: (1). how many english words ending in ‘-a’ are there in an english dictionary? (2). do we have to pronounce this letter ‘a’ as [] or [ə]? (3). if one type of the pronunciation can be used as a pronunciation pattern, is there any deviation in the pronunciation of the letter „-a‟ occurring in the final position of english words? related to the above statement of the problem, this research is aimed at: (1). finding out the number of english words ending in ‘-a’ available in oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary (hornby, 2005), (2). seeking accuracy in the pronunciation of the letter ‘-a’ occurring in the final position of any english word, and (3). offering a deviation of pronunciation pattern if it really exists. hopefully, the result of this study will be useful for several parties involved in the teaching and learning of english pronunciation. first, this study will give a considerable input, especially in the accuracy of the pronunciation of english words in general and that of english words ending in the letter ‘-a’ in particular. with this input, anyone, including us, english teachers, can teach the pronunciation of the letter „-a‟ with absolute confidence, because accurate pronunciation can be determined and modeled to the students. second, whenever the result of this study is disseminated to as many teachers and lecturers of english as possible, those 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 teachers and lecturers can have a proper and accurate pronunciation model which has been empirically examined. third, the target of teaching of english pronunciation, i.e. english students, can have a good and accurate pronunciation model which can be concretely applied in their daily conversation. review of the related literature this study originates from casual and intentional observation outside of a classroom: they are things present beyond teaching-learning activities in the classroom. therefore, this activity is in harmony with the article of bendazzoli and escalante (1992) entitled „from “real life” problems to research.‟ according to bendazzoli and escalante, out there or outside of the classroom, there is „environment space‟ where inside it there is a „problem space‟. within the environment space, problems either light or heavy are scattered around; they are either light or rather heavy, or even very heavy ones, which can be used as a material source for researches (researchable phenomena). these problems await our professional action (bendazzoli and escalante, 1992) to be picked up as our research problems. as has been mentioned somewhere in the introduction, the problem of this research does not pop us from an empty space, but it appears from an „environment space‟ (paez-urdaneta‟s model of professional competence in action adapted by bendazzoli and escalante, 1992). for teachers of english, this environment space of course exists within the environment domain of our real and daily life which is heavily engaged in the educational world and in the teaching of english. from the conversation among friends, interviews with candidates of new students, interviews with new recruits of teaching staff, unintentionally i came across problems which are worth paying attention to. these problems, according to bendazzoli and escalante, wait for our professional competence in order to be handled by developing them into research problems. in this research, the problem appearing from the environment space is concerned with english pronunciation. regarding the problem of english pronunciation, there are two contradictory opinions (goodwin, 2001). on the one hand, quite a few opinions or research results demonstrate that there has been no proper attention paid to the teaching of pronunciation. this is proved by bobda (1993) who stated that pronunciation evaluation found no place in the classroom in cameroon. to confirm this fact, purcell and suter (1980: 286) concluded that pronunciation exercise in class did not affect the pronunciation skill of the students. furthermore, they went on adding that „the attainment of accurate pronunciation in a second language is a language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 31 matter substantially beyond the control of educators‟ (purcell and suter, 1980: 286). in keeping with this fact, pennington and richards (1986) supported by stern (1992: 112), also reported the absence of proof confirming the practice of pronunciation training. contrary to the above reports, several research results indicate the presence of attempt to teach pronunciation in the teaching of english. robertson (2002) reported in a laboratory observation that korean children and adults experienced a significant improvement after obtaining a 6hour pronunciation training. therefore, goodwin (2001: 117) said that „… the teaching of pronunciation is so crucial to our students.‟ in line with goodwin‟s opinion, the english department of the state university of semarang (unnes), feels mandated to give its students a provision of appropriate english pronunciation. for this, the english department of unnes (kurikulum bahasa inggris 2008) explicitly includes pronunciation practice course in its curriculum. the aim is to give an adequate training and exercise for one semester to the students of english literature and education programmes. in this way, the english department hopes that its graduates will have an adequate competence in their speaking skill which is supported by appropriate english pronunciation which refers to standard pronunciation or „received pronunciation‟ (info@angloscene.com). in harmony with the mission of the english department of unnes to produce qualified graduates adequately skilled in speaking, this pronunciation research will to some extent engender a teaching model for english pronunciation. this model of teaching pronunciation will be reliable and valid since it is acquired from an empirical study which bases itself on the pronunciation model recommended by a reliable english dictionary (hornby, 2005). method of investigation this study is to a slight degree quantitative in nature. this is due to the fact that it involves the counting of a number of a certain group of english words together with their percentage. the rest of the research is to make an attempt of describing the pronunciation of the letter ‘a’ occurring in the final position of english words. the object of this study is all english words ending in ‘-a’ which are available in an english dictionary. the dictionary which becomes the source of the data is entitled „oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary‟ (hornby, 2005). the data were derived by means of inventorising all english words which end in „-a‟ available in the above-mentioned dictionary, from the letter a up to z. the data analysis was conducted by transcribing the collected words into mailto:info@angloscene.com 32 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 phonetic transcription by paying a special attention to the pronunciation of the final „a‟ letter. from the result of this transcription effort, the pronunciation of the words ending in ‘-a’ was identified and documented. in order to gain a more accurate result, the pronunciation appearing in phonetic transcription (offered by oald, hornby, 2005) of the inventorised words were compared with the phonetic transcription recommended by another dictionary. the way on comparing the pronunciation was by choosing in a random manner a certain number of the inventorised words and then comparing them with the pronunciation of the randomly selected words offered by another dictionary which is equally reliable and representative. for this purpose, the dictionary used as a pronunciation comparison was the macquarie dictionary (1990). the result of comparing the pronunciation of the inventorised words between two dictionaries would demonstrate accuracy and consistency of the pronunciation of the observed english words so that the result of the study can be determined to be the pronunciation pattern which should be taught to the students. the result of the word inventory serving as the data of this study and its subsequent analysis and comparison produce the findings of the present study. they will be available in the next section. data analysis and discussion of findings from the analysis of the inventories and the observed english words ending in ‘-a’ found in oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary (hornby, 2005), there are several findings. each of the findings will be discussed as follows: lexical item in the form of nouns letter a 1. acacia 2. academia 3. abracadabra 4. africa 5. agenda 6. agora 7. agoraphobia 8. agraphia 9. aha* 10. aka 11. a la 34. antenna 35. arabia 36. arabica 37. arcadia 38. arcana 39. area 40. arena 41. areola 42. aria 43. armada 44. arnica 45. aroma 46. arugula 66. barista 67. barracouta 68. barracuda 69. basilica 70. bazooka 71. begonia 72. begorra 73. belladonna 74. beluga 75. beta 76. bhangra 77. bilhaizia 78. biretta language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 33 12. alfalfa 13. algebra 14. alaska 15. alleluia 16. alpaca 17. alpha 18. alumna 19. america 20. ammonia 21. amnesia 22. amoeba 23. anna 24. anaconda 25. anaemia 26. anesthesia 27. analgesia 28. anathema 29. angelica 30. angina 31. angora 32. angostura 33. anorexia 47. asphyxia 48. aspidistra 49. asthma 50. ataxia 51. aura 52. azalea letter b 53. baa* 54. baba* 55. bacteria 56. baklava 57 balaclava 58. balalaika 59. ballerina 60. balsa 61. banana 62. bandanna 63. bangla 64. bania 65. baraza 79. black maria 80. bodhisatva 81. bologna 82. boma 83. bombora 84. bonanza 85. bonsella 86. bravura 87. brouhaha 88. buddha 89. bulimia 90. burkha 91. bursa 92. burnt sienna 93. bwana letter c 94. cadenza 95. caesura 96. cafeteria 97. camellia 98. camera 99. canada 100. canasta 101. candela 102. candelabra 103. candida 104. cannula 105. cantata 106. capoeira 107. capybara 108. carbonara 109. carcinoma 110. casanova 111. cassandra 112. cassava 144. concertina 145. conga 146. contra 147. copra 148. copula 149. cornea 150. cornupia 151. corolla 152. corona 153. corpora*** 154. cowpea* 155. cupola 156. cuppa 184. dysphoria 185. dyspraxia 186. dystopia letter e 187. echidna 188. echinacea 189. eclampsia 190. eczema 191. edema 192. egomania 193. eid ul adha 194. enchilada 195. encyclopedia 34 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 113. cataphora 114. catatonia 115. cava 116. cedilla 117. celesta 118. chacha* 119. charisma 120. chi hua hua 121. chikungunya 122. chimenea 123. chimera 124. china 125. chin-chilla 126. chipolata 127. chlamydia 128. cholera 129. chorea 130. chroma 131. chukka 132. ciabata 133. cicada 134. cinderella 135. cinema 136. citronella 137. coca 138. coca-cola 139. cochlea 140. cocoa* 141. coda 142. coma 143. comma letter d 157. dada* 158. dagga 159. data 160. deca 161. delta 162. dementia 163. dhania 164. dharma 165. dharna 166. diarrhea 167. diglossia 168. dilemma 169. diploma 170. docudrama 171. donga 172. donna 173. dopiaza 174. dosa 175. doula 176. drachma 177. dracula 178. drama 179. dupatta 180. dyslexia 181. dysmorphia 182. dyspepsia 183. dysphasia 196. enema 197. enigma 198. ephemera 199. era 200. erotica 201. errata 202. etcetera 203. euphoria 204. eureka 205. euthanasia 206. exa 207. excreta 208. exgratia 209. exotica 210. extra 211. extravaganza letter f 212. fantasia 213. fashionista 214. fauna 215. favela 216. fedora 217. fella 218. fermata 219. fibroma 220. fibula 221. fiesta 222. fistula language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 35 223. floribunda 224. flotilla 225. formula 226. forsythia 227. fuchsia letter g 228. gaga* 229. gaia 230. gala 231. gamma 232. gangsta 233. garda 234. gardenia 235. geisha 236. geneva 237. ghagra* 238. gharara 239. gondola 240. gondwana 241. gonna 242. gonorrhea 243. gora 244. gorgonzola 245. gorilla 246. gotcha 247. grandma 248. grandpa 249. granita 250. granola 251. grappa 252. guava 253. guerrilla 254. guinea 255. gurdwara 256. gurkha 257. gutta percha 261. haka 262. hakka 263. halma 264. halwa* 265. hare krishna 266. harissa 267. harmonica 268. hernia 269. hexa 270. hiragana 271. hiya 272. honoris causa 273. hoopla* 274. hosanna 275. hydra 276. hydrangea 277. hyena 278. hyperbola 279. hypermedia 280. hypnopaedia 281. hypothermia 282. hypoxaemia 283. hypoxia 284. hysteria letter i 285. idea 286. ikebana 287. iguana 288. impala 289. in absentia 290. inamorata 291. indaba 292. inertia 293. influenza 294. insignia 295. insomnia letter j 302. jacaranda 303. jaffa 304. jambalaya 305. japonica 306. jeboa 307. jibba 308. jojoba 309. junta 310. juvenilia a. letter k 311. kaaba 312. kahuna 313. kannada 314. kappa 315. karma 316. katakana 317. kejia 318. kiaora 319. khanga 320. kinesthesia 321. kippa* 322. kleptomania 323. koala 324. kofta 325. kookaburra 326. kora 327. korma 328. krona 329. kurta 330. kwanzaa 331. kwela letter l 332. labia 333. lacuna 36 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 letter h 258. ha* 259. hacienda 260. haematoma 296. intarsia 297. intelligentsia 298. intra 299. inyanga 300. iota 301. ischaemia 334. ladida* 335. ladolcevita 336. lahnda 337. laksa 338. lama 339. lambada 340. la nina 341. lapa 342. larva 343. latina 344. laurasia 345. lava 346. leukemia 347. libra 348. limba 349. listeria 350. llama 351. lobelia 352. loggia 353. lolita 354. lycra 355. lymphoma letter m 356. macademia 357. madonna 358. madrasa 359. mafia 360. magenta 361. magma 362. magna charta 363. magnesia 364. magnolia 365. maharaja 381. marina 382. marsala 383. masala 384. mascara 385. matilda 386. maxilla 387. mazurka 388. meaculpa 389. mecca 390. media 391. mega 392. melanoma 393. meladica 394. melodrama 395. menza 396. mestiza 397. meta 398. miasma 399. mica 400. militia 401. mimosa 402. miraa* 403. miranda 404. miscellanea 405. mocha 406. momma 407. mompara 408. monomania 409. moussaka 410. mozzarella 423. neuralgia 424. neurasthenia 425. ninja 426. nirvana 427. nostalgia 428. novella 429. nova letter o 430. obscura 431. ocarina 432. oceania 433. oedema 434. ojibia 435. okra 436. olestra 437. omega 438. onomatopoeia 439. opera 440. operetta 441. orca 442. orchestra 443. organza 444. oriya letter p 445. paedophilia 446. paella 447. pagoda 448. paisa** language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 37 366. mahatma 367. mahayana 368. malaria 369. mama 370. mamba 371. manana 372. mandala 373. manga 374. mania 375. manila 376. manna 377. mantra 378. margarita 379. marginalia 380. marijuana 411. multimedia 412. mwethya 413. myalgia 414. myeloma 415. myopia letter n 416. negana 417. nana 418. nappa 419. nausea 420. nebula 421. necrophilia 422. neplus ultra* 449. pakeha* 450. pakora 451. panacea 452. panama 453. panatela 454. panda 455. pandora 456. panga 457. pangaea 458. panorama 459. pantsula 460. papa** 461. papaya 462. papilloma 463. paprika 464. para 465. parabola 466. paranoia 467. paraphernalia 468. paraplegia 469. paratha 470. parka 471. pashmina 472. pasta 473. patella 474. patina 475. pavlova 476. payola 477. pea* 478. peach melba 479. pelota 480. peninsula 481. pennsylvania 482. penta 508. poppa 509. porphyria 510. prana 511. presbyopia 512. prima ballerina 513. primadonna 514. primula 515. proforma 516. propaganda 517. samba 518 samoa 519. sangoma 520. sangria 521. sapodilla 522. prorata 523. psychedelia 524. pudenda 525. puja* 526. pukka 527. puma 528. pupa 529. putonghua* 547. rota 548. rotunda 549. rubella 550. r(h)umba 551. rutabaga letter s 552. saga 553. saliva 554. salmonella 555. salsa 556. sarcoma 557. sarsaparilla 558. satsuma 559. saturnalia 560. sauna 561. savanna 562. scandinavia 563. scapula 564. schema 565. schemata 566. schizophrenia 38 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 483. penumbra 484. peoria 485. per capita 486. pergola 487. persona 488. persona non grata 489. peseta 490. peta 491. petunia 492. phobia 493. pianola 494. piazza 495. pica 496. pima 497. pinta 498. pinacolada 499. piranha 500. pizza 501. pizzeria 502. plasma 503. plaza 504. plea* 505. plethora 506. pleura 507. poinsettia letter o 530. qibla 531. qua* 532. quagga 533. quanta letter r 534. raga 535. ragga 536. raita 537. realia 538. recta 539. regalia 540. regatta 541. regina 542. replica 543. retina 544. retsina 545. ria 546. roma 567. schwa* 568. sciatica 569. scintilla 570. seborrhea 571. semolina 572. seneca 573. sepia 574. septicaena 575. sequoia 576. sevika 577. shamba 578. shangri-la* 579. sharia 580. sheila 581. sherpa 582. siena 583. sierra 584. siesta 585. sigma 586. silica 587. ska* 588. skua 589. soca 590. soda 591. sofa 592. solfa*** 593. soya 594. spa* 595. spatula 596. spaza 597. spectra 598. spermatozoa 599. stamina 600. stanza 628. tessitura 629. tiara 630. tibia 631. tikka 632. toccata 633. tombola 634. tortilla 635. tosa 636. trattoria 637. trauma 638. trivia 664. vicuna 665. villa 666. viola 667. visa 668. visakha 669. viscera 670. vista 671. vita 672. viva 673. viyella 674. vodka language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 39 601. stigma 602. stigmata 603. stoma 604. strata 605. subpoena 606. suburbia 607. sufuria 608. suggestopaedia 609. sultana 610. sutra 611. swastika 612. syntagma letter t 613. tabla 614. tabularasa 615. tafetta 616. taiga 617. tala 618. tanga 619. tantra 620. tapioca 621. taramasalata 622. tarantula 623. tata* 624. tempera 625. tempura 626. tequila 627. terra-cotta 639. troika 640. tsarina 641. tuba 642. tuna 643. tundra 644. tympana letter u 645. ujamaa* 646. ulna 647. ultra 648. umbra 649. urea 650. urethra 651. urticaria 652. utopia 653. uvula letter v 654. vagina 655. valhalla 656. vanilla 657. veda 658. vendetta 659. verbena 660. verruca 661. vertebra 662. via 663. viagra 675. vulva letter w 676. wanna 677. wicca 678. wisteria letter x 679. xenophobia 680. xhosa letter y 681. yada 682. yakka 683. yoga 684. yoruba 685. yotta the table above demonstrates that 685 english words ending in „-a‟ managed to be inventorized from oald. these words can be categorized as follows; words normally printed (not bolded or not given asterisk) the words with no asterisk are english words whose final „-a‟ letter is always pronounced as [ə]. let‟s take two random examples: 40 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 marijuana diucapkan [ ma:ri'hʊa:nə ] vendetta diucapkan [ vn'dtə ] the rest of the words belonging to this group receive a certainty in the pronunciation of their „-a‟ ending; that is, the „-a‟ letter must be pronounced as [-ə]. at this stage of analysis, this word group covers 95.62% (685 of the entire words managed to be collected, subtracted by 28 ending in „-a‟ which have a deviating pronunciation patterns plus 2 omitted words). these 30 words will be discussed later in sub-sections 4.3 and 4.5. whenever the above group of words (obtained from oald) are randomly compared with the same words which are listed in another dictionary, that is the macquarie dictionary (tmd), the pronunciation of these randomly chosen words will read as follows: oald tmd data [ 'deitə ] [ 'deitə ] marijuana [ma:ri'hʊa:nə] [mærə'wanə] vendetta [ vn'dtə ] [ vn'dtə ] schema [ 'ski:mə ] [ 'skimə ] tapioca [ tæpi'oʊkə ] [ tæpi'oʊkə ] uvula [ 'ju:vyələ ] [ 'ju:vyələ ] the above random comparison demonstrates that both oald and tmd present precisely the same pattern of pronunciation for the letter ‘-a’; that is, both dictionaries pronounce the final letter ‘-a’ as [ə]. if this pattern is applied to a wider population covering the whole population available in oald, the result will certainly be the same, except for the 28 words with a deviating pronunciation pattern. the bolded words in 4.1 with a single asterisk (*) the words belonging to this group receive varying pronunciation patterns on the ‘-a‟ at the end of each word. the words, which are marked -* and arranged in an alphabetical order, amount to 28 words. below they will be listed together and phonetically transcribed so that the variation of the pronunciation of their final letter ‘-a‟ can be clearly seen. 1. aha [ a:ha: ] 10. ha [ ha: ] 20. puja [ 'pu:dʒa: ] language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 41 2. baa [ ba: ] 3. baba [ 'ba:ba: ] 4. chacha [ 't∫a:t∫a: ] 5. cocoa [ 'koʊ koʊ ] 6. cowpea [ kaʊpi: ] 7. dada [ 'da:da: ] 8. gaga [ 'ga:ga: ] 9. ghagra [ 'ggra: ] 11. halwa [ 'hælwa: ] 12. hoopla [ 'hu:pla: ] 13. kippa [ 'kipa: ] 14. ladida [ ˌla: 'dida: ] 15. miraa [ 'mira: ] 16. neplus ultra [ ˌnei plʊs 'ʊltra: ] 17. pakeha [ 'pa:ki ha: ] 18. pea [ pi: ] 19. plea [ pli: ] 21. putonghua [ pu: 'tɔŋhwa: ] 22. qua [ kwa: ] 23. schwa [ ∫wa: ] 24. shangri-la ['∫æŋgri 'la: ] 25. ska [ ska: ] 26. spa [ spa: ] 27. tata [ tæ 'ta: ] 28. ujamaa [ ʊdʒa: 'ma: ] if we pay more attention, the above listed words are words which are not common, if not very foreign, in the english lexical inventory, except for one or two words, such as cocoa and spa, which are familiar to our ears. therefore, we can easily anticipate that those words will rarely appear, or even never be encountered by learners of english. as a consequence, the pronunciation of the last letter of those words cannot be used as a pattern or guide in our english pronunciation. words marked with doubled asterisks (**) in the table of sub-chapter 4.1, we can see two (2) words which are printed in bold letters and marked with double asterisks (**). those words are paisa** and papa**. both words receive two kinds of pronunctiation. paisa can be either pronounced as ['paisa:] or ['paisə] papa can be either pronounced as [pə'pa:] or ['pa:pə] therefore, the two words are included into the words which are ended with the sound [ə]. words which are bolded and given three asterisks (---***) 42 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 in the table 4.1, we can also see two (2) words which are bolded and marked with triple asterisks (---***). the words are solfa*** and corpora***. in oald (hornby, 2005), the two words are not supported with phonetic transcription. threrefore, these words are omitted from the list of the inventorised words. as a result, the total words collected and analysed becomes 683; that is 685 words subtracted by 2 words. words in the forms of people’s names apart from the common words listed in sub-section 4.1, oald also introduces words which serve as the names of people. the words above can be seen in the following table. 1. alexandra 2. alyssa 3. amanda 4. amelia 5. angela 6. anita 7. anna 8. antonia 9. barbara 10. belinda 11. brenda 12. brianna 13. christina 14. clara 15. claudia 16. cynthia 17. delia 18. diana 19. edna 20. eliza 21. ella 22. emma 23. fiona 24. georgia 25. georgina 26. glenda 27. hilda 28. jessica 29. joanna 30. julia 31. laura 32. linda 33. lisa 34. liza 35. lorna 36. lucinda 37. lydia 38. maria 39. martha 40. martina 41. melinda 42. melissa 43. mia 44. miranda 45. moira 46. monica 47. nadia 48. natasha 49. nicola 50. nora 51. norma 52. olivia 53. pamela 54. patricia 55. paula 56. philippa 57. priscilla 58. rebecca 59. samantha 60. sandra 61. sheila 62. silvia/sylvia 63. sophia 64. stella 65. susanna 66. t(h)eresa 67. thelma 68. ursula 69. vanessa 70. vera 71. veronica 72. victoria 73. virginia 75. joshua language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 43 the analysis of the above-mentioned names indicates that the final letter –a in all of those those names is pronounced as [ə]. words which are names of countries oald also includes names of countries all over the world and their pronunciations are phonetically transcribed. the following table contains the above mentioned words: 1. africa 2. albania 3. algeria 4. america 5. andorra 6. angola 7. antarctica 8. antigua and barbuda 9. argentina 10. armenia 11. asia 12. australasia 13. australia 14. austria 15. bolvia 16. bosnia-herzegovina 17. bostwana 18. bulgaria 19. burkina 20. burma 21. cambodia 22. canada 23. china 24. columbia 25. costa rica 26. croatia 27. cuba 28. dominica 29. eritrea 30. estonia 31. ethopia 32. gambia 33. georgia 34. ghana 35. grenada 36. guatemala 37. guinea ['gini:] 38. guyana 39. india 40. indonesia 41. jamaica 42. kenya 43. korea 44. latvia 45. liberia 46. libya 47. lithuania 48. malaysia 49. malta 50. mauritania 51. moldova 52. mongolia 53. namibia 54. nicaragua 55. nigeria 56. panama['pænəma:] 57. romania 58. russia 59. rwanda 60. samoa 61. saudi arabia 62. serbia 63. slovakia 64. slovania 65. somalia 66. sri lanka 67. st lucia 68. syria 69. tanzania 70. tonga 71. tunisia 72. uganda 73. venezuela 74. zambia of the 74 names of the countries of the world in the table above, all of them are spelled with ‘-a’ ending. all of the ‘-a’ endings in these words are pronounced with the sound [ə]: for example, „korea [kə'riə], uganda [yu: 'gændə], etc., except for the states of guinea ['gini:] and panama ['pænəma:]. 44 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 therefore, the above fact also facilitates learners of english in pronouncing english words ending with the letter „-a.‟ words which are names of the states in usa below are 17 words bearing the names of the states in the united states of america. these words are included in oald. 1. alabama 2. alaska 3. arizona 4. california 5. florida 6. georgia 7. indiana 8. louisiana 9. minnesota 10. montana 11. nebraska 12. nevada 13. north/south carolina 14. north/south dacota 15. oklahoma 16. pennsylvania 17. (west) virginia seventeen (17) out of the 50 names of the states in usa are spelled with final –a. interestingly enough, the pronunciation of the 17 states ends with [ə]; for example, oklahoma is pronounced as ['oʊklə'hoʊmə]. this fact confirms the assumption that most of the english words with –a ending are always pronounced with the sound [ə] and not []. conclusions and suggestions from the data analysis and the discussion of the research findings presented in the previous section, conclusions and suggestions are offered. conclusions first, as the answer of the first reseach question, there are 847 english words spelled with –a ending. second, as the answer of the second research question, 817 (96.45%) inventorised words receive pronunciation in their final letter. it is to be confirmed here that there is no [] sound in the final –a letter of the collected words as have often been heard so far. third, the answer of the third research question is that there are 30 english words ending with –a letter whose pronunciation deviates from the general pattern, that is [ə]. however, because the 30 english words have a very low frequency of use, learners of english can ignore those words. the last conclusion of this research is that the last letter of the names of obama and his daughter natasha, representing the other words with the same final –a spelling, must be pronounced as [ə], that is [oʊ'ba:mə] and [nə'ta:∫ə ] instead of [oʊ 'bm] and [n't∫] language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 45 suggestions based on the above conclusions, i offer two suggestions. first, learners of english should not hesitate to pronounce [ə] for the final letter of the majority of the english ending in -a. second, teachers or lecturers of english should make use of the result of this research in teaching their students how to learn english pronunciation, expecially in teaching the pronunciation of the english words ending in -a. references bendazzoli, g.m. and g.b. escalante. 1992. from “real life” problems to research. forum, volume 30, number 1, january bobda, a. s. 1993. testing pronunciation. forum, volume 31, number 3, july 1993. hornby, a.s. 1995. oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. oxford: oxford university press. ---------------, 2005. (7th edition) oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. oxford: oxford university press. purcell, e. and r. suter. 1980. predictors of pronunciation accuracy: a reexamination, language learning, 30/2, pp. 271-287. pennington, m. and richards, j. 1996. “pronunciation revisited”. tesol quarterly, 20:2 pp. 207-225. stern, h. 1992. issues and options in language teaching. oxford: oxford university press. goodwin, j. 2001. teaching pronunciation. in celce-murcia (ed.) teaching english as a second or foreign language, 3rd edn., heinle and heinle, pp. 136-153. robertson, p. 2002. „asian efl research protocols‟, the asian efl journal. (on line at http://www.asian-efljournal.com/decart2002a.htm. kurikulum bahasa inggris, unnes. 2008. the macquarie dictionary. 1990. 2nd revised edition. sydney: the macquarie library pty. ltd. http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/decart2002a.htm http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/decart2002a.htm language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x students’ problems in pronouncing non-existing english diphthongs in indonesian language yasinta anwar*, pasca kalisa universitas negeri semarang, indonesia *email: yasintaanwar6@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.26261 submitted 18 september 2020. revised 30 september 2020. accepted 18 october 2020 abstract one of the difficulties in learning the english language faced by indonesian students is how to pronounce english sounds correctly. for several indonesian students, producing english diphthong sounds could be difficult especially english diphthong sounds which do not exist in indonesian ([ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə] and [oʊ]). this study investigated the indonesian students’ problems english diphthong pronunciation. the objective of this study was to describe how well the english diphthong sounds are pronounced by the students and to find out the kind of errors that were mostly found in the pronunciation of students. the participants of this study were 35 students of the eleventh grade of smk n 2 salatiga. the instruments were the production test containing english diphthong sounds and interviews as additional data. in determining the achievement, the level of criterion by tinambunan’s criterion was used. based on the data analysis, the total average of the incorrect numbers of english diphthong sounds in pronunciation made by students was 69% which was categorized as fair. in addition to it, the kinds of errors mostly found in the students’ pronunciation english diphthong sounds were omission errors. according to the result of the interview, the causes of the errors were unfamiliarity of knowing english diphthong sounds, so the sounds of english appeared to pronounce with the closest indonesian sounds. keywords: english diphthongs; indonesian language; pronunciation problems semblance between them, the more efficiently the language can be understood by the students. as roach (2009) states that a diphthong is indeed a move or glide through one vowel to another. the diphthong is the english vocal system that will be extended to further types of vowels, which cause the difficulties faced by efl learners when trying to get efficient acquaintance. that is why several indonesian students find it difficult to understand certain english sounds since they do not recognize the english sound features in their language and because they have not been taught to produce certain english sounds. some previous studies have been conducted dealing with the pronunciation of english diphthong sounds. however, they focus on how the students produce or pronounce the english sound and try to analyze the errors made by the students. therefore, this research is different from the other researchers that have been mentioned above because this present research only focuses on the student production of the sound made by the students but also identify what kinds of errors are mostly found in students’ pronunciation. this research investigates how well the students produce the english diphthong sounds introduction english has been a significant language as several countries have adopted english across the world as a second language. in addition, english is one of all international languages, which is really important, not only as a feature of verbal communication but also as a feature of written communication. one of the difficulties in learning the english language faced by indonesian students is how to pronounce english sounds correctly. syafei (1988, p. 1) states that pronunciation is very crucial because if non-native speakers have a terrible pronunciation, no regard how well his or her knowledge of english grammar and vocabulary, they will not be able to communicate verbally. generally, a lot of english learners as a foreign language face difficulty in pronunciation. the difficulty incudes the pronunciation of some unfamiliar sounds. for several learners, producing english diphthong sounds is difficult. the culture and behavior in their first language may cause them. ramelan (1997, p. 9) states that the degree of similarity between the two languages also determines to learn difficulties. the more relanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 18 english vowel sounds. these difficulties may be caused by the difference between the sound system in indonesian and english. moedjito (2016) stated that segmental features are the most significant majority of pronunciation problems identified by the students. while, ramelan (2003, p. 22) explained that there are two types of features, segmental and suprasegmental features. the priority in pronunciation for efl learners is segmental features. consonants and vowels belong to segmental features. it means that vowel sounds are one of the causes which are caused many indonesian students faced the pronunciation problems. diphthongs are forms of vowels, in which a constant gliding motion connects two vowel sounds. jones (1956, p. 22) stated that the sound is called a diphthong when produced by gliding through one letter to the next. also, jones (1956, p. 24) mentioned that english has nine diphthongs in all; these nine diphthongs can be categorized as closing and centering diphthongs. in closing diphthong, there are five diphthongs ([eɪ], [oʊ], [aɪ], [aʊ], and [ɔɪ]). there are four diphthongs in centering diphthongs ([ɪə], [ʊə], [ɛə], and [ɔə]). besides, roach (2009, p. 19) stated that the most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is considerably longer and stronger than the second part. in the learning process, there will be an error and a mistake made by students. people often confused about the difference between those two words. brown (2000, p. 217) states, “differentiate errors and mistakes is necessary, two concepts which are technically very different.” ellis (1997, p. 17) in her books entitled ‘second language acquisition’ also explains, “we need to distinguish errors and mistakes. errors reflect gaps in the knowledge of the learner. these occur because the learner does not know what is correct. mistake reflects occasional performance lapses that occur because the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows in a particular instance.” besides, jing, xiaodong, and yu (2016) also stated that an error is a structural digression of students who are unfamiliar with the target language rules. while a mistake is related to insufficient performance concern, carelessness, or another aspect of performance. according to brown (2000, p. 223-227), several sources may influence errors in second language learning, they are: interlingual transfer. an interlingual transfer is often called as interference or transmission of language. brown (2000, p. 224) stated that a good deal interlingual transfers from the native language describe the beginwhich indonesian language or bahasa does not have through a pronunciation test. the pronunciation test is used to analyze the students’ problems in pronouncing the english diphthong sounds which do not exist in indonesian. besides, this research also finds out what kind of errors are mostly found in students’ pronunciation when distinguishing the english diphthong sounds which do not exist in indonesian. many indonesian students find it difficult to learn english as a second language. in learning speaking, many students get problems when they practice to mastering their speaking skill. one of the problems is inappropriate pronunciation, especially the difficulties in pronouncing english vowels, consonants, and diphthongs that do not exist in bahasa indonesia. al zayed (2017) argues that, “the more differences in sounds between the two languages, the more errors of interferences will occur” (p. 86). besides, ahmed (2017) also argues that most students were unable to pronounce some sounds that are not available in their mother tongue. that is why the learners make errors in pronouncing unfamiliar sounds of their native language. language is a matter of habit, especially in pronunciation. the ability to hear and identify the sound system of english is another problem in producing foreign sounds by organ speech. kosasih (2017) stated, that indonesian students as non-native speakers facing difficulty in pronouncing the non-existing diphthongs and consonants sounds, students have to learn continuously in a certain period to mastering their english pronunciation. the non-existent sounds cause different patterns that can vary between syllables, khan, shehzad, & ullah (2017) mentioned that “this liberty plays significant grammatical function and is practiced to give a different meaning to similar words” (p. 20). as stated by gilakjani (2011) that pronunciation as an ability to communicate. moedjito (2016) also argued that for effective oral communication, pronunciation is important. the speaker is intended to speak clearly and properly to be understandable. without taking into consideration pronunciation, the speakers and listeners will have different interpretations. the production of sounds that are used by the speaker to make meaning is called pronunciation. each english word has a different sound system, which causes difficulties in pronouncing the english word for most indonesian students. pronunciation has become a serious problem when learning english. many indonesian students still faced pronunciation problems with language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 19 ning phases of learning a second language. in other words, the first language causes interlingual errors. one of the common problems in foreign language teaching is language interference. ellis (1997, p. 51) also assumed that interference could be identified as a foreign language error used by learners whose mother tongue can be traced. intralingual transfer. an intralingual transfer is an essential element in the foreign language. brown (2000, p. 224) stated that the predomination of interference defines early stages of language learning. but after the learners have started to gain aspects throughout the current method, there is an increasingly intralingual universal communication in the target language. the context of learning. according to brown (2000, p. 226), he stated that the context of learning relates to the social environment. when it comes to school learning, the learning context refers to the teachers and the content in the classroom. in the case of school learning or classroom context, teachers and materials are very influential. strategies. according to brown (2000, p. 227), he stated that communication strategy is a conscious use of a verbal or nonverbal system for efficient information communication. the lack of knowledge causes much trouble when learners want to communicate using a foreign language. therefore, they use various forms of communication strategy to solve these problems. there are three types of pronunciation error, they are: substitution. crystal (1985, p. 295) stated that a type of error which are defined by the replacement of an item is called a substitution. while fromkin (in juniarti 2019) also adds that substitutions happened when a disturber replaced one element. the example of substitution is when a word ‘tears’ /tɪəz/ is pronounced /tɪerz/ or /tɛarz/. insertion is also called addition, is a type of error defined by the existence of an element that should not be existing in wellformed utterances normally (fauziati as cited in juniartuni, 2019). the example of insertion is when the word ‘tourist’ /tʊərɪst/ is pronounced [tʊraɪst]. another example is when the word ‘cared’ /keəd/ pronounced as /keɪrəd/. omission. fauziati (in juniartuni 2019) explained that the absence of an element that has to exist in the formed utterances is characteristic of omission or deletion. for example, in the word ‘late’ /lɪt/, while it is should be pronounced as / leɪt/. according to ellis (1997, p. 15-20), there are ways to analyze the data. they are: identifying errors. in this section, the researcher lists the correct phonetic transcripts of the words that are tested in the speaking test. then, the researcher listens to the recording of the students carefully and compare their pronunciation to the correct phonetic transcription. describing errors. in the next step, the researcher makes the phonetic transcription based on the students’ recording and correct the errors. then, the researcher classifies the types of errors including omission and insertion. explaining errors. after the errors are identified and described, the researcher explains why the errors occur and calculates the errors the students made in relation to english diphthong pronunciation and present them in the form of a percentage. evaluation. the last step is the researcher concludes the analysis of the errors in the speaking test. this study focuses on the students’ problems in pronouncing the vowel sounds of english [eɪ], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə[, and [əʊ] which do not exist in bahasa indonesia. the researcher uses speaking test to find out how well the diphthong sounds of english [eɪ], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə[, and [əʊ] are pronounced by the students. the students are asked to read aloud some words, and then their voice is recorded. after getting the data from the speaking test, the researcher analyzes the types of errors that may occur in pronouncing english diphthong sound [eɪ], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ]. the researcher uses an interview as additional data to know what kind of errors are mostly found in the students’ speaking test. the interview contains some questions related to the pronunciation problems experienced. after getting the result, the researcher writes down the conclusions and suggestions based on the findings. methods the researcher chooses a descriptive qualitative method in this research depending on the process and purposes. qualitative research is used to answer how well the participants pronounce the vowel sounds of english which do not exist in bahasa indonesia through data collection, data analysis, and the conclusion depending on data analysis (nassaji, 2015). according to arikunto (2010: 173), “population is a set of all elements possessing one or more attributes of interest.” the researcher chooses the participants of this study are the eleventh graders of smk negeri 2 salatiga. the eleventh graders (11 tei b) consists of 35 students with male and female. the eleventh graders’ students are chosen for the subject of this study. they are about seventeen years old. since they were in elementary school, they have learned language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 20 english, while listening and speaking skills are commonly taught. as appropriate with the specific social situation with such research questions, they have been chosen. they were also supposed to know best about what the researcher expects. the research instrument is a tool or device to measure phenomena being observed. arikunto (2010, p. 192) states that there are two types of instruments: test and non-test instruments. this test seems to be a compilation of queries or exams and other instruments. this research uses a test instrument (speaking test) and an interview. these tests are containing the vowels sound of english [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ]. speaking test. this test refers to measure the ability of the students in pronouncing the sounds [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ]. this test is reading test sheets containing 50 words conducted by the researcher. the students were asked to read a list of words that is pronounced loudly and correctly. several words are providing the english diphthong sounds [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ]. interview guide. according to esterberg as cited in sugiyono (201, p. 231), an interview is an exchange of information and opinions between two people through question and answer, which contribute to dialogue and a meaningful understanding of a particular topic. in this research, there were some basic questions concerning research problems in the interview. the questions concerned the background and the knowledge of the diphthong sounds and their difficulties in pronunciation. in this interview, the researcher received the information concerning the kinds of errors in pronouncing made by the participants. audio recording. as the students pronounced those words, the researcher is recorded the students’ pronunciation. in the pronunciation test, the instruments needed are a tape recorder and the list of words written in the pronunciation test sheet. as well as during the interview, the researcher is recorded the students’ answers. the researcher used a speaking test and interview to collect the data: doing a speaking test. the participants pronounce some words that consist of the english diphthong sounds which bahasa indonesia does not have. there were 50 words that had to be read. the participants are asked to pronounce the words containing the english diphthong sounds by reading aloud the word individually, while their pronunciations are recorded. doing interviews. in this section, the researcher wants to investigate more english language learning background. some questions related to pronunciation difficulties were answered by the students individually. the answers of the students were recorded as well. to identify the collected data, the researcher identifies the data through descriptive analysis. the researcher followed some steps they are identifying, describing, explaining, the criterion of interpreting data, observing the interviews, reporting the interviews, and drawing the conclusion. identifying the types of errors. in this step, the students’ pronunciations were checked after the researcher transcribed the students’ pronunciation into the phonetic transcription. then, the researcher compares the students’ transcription with the correct transcription in oxford learner dictionary. describing and explaining errors. in the next steps, the researcher describes the students’ errors after identified the students’ errors. the researcher will classify the types of errors which occurred and also make a table of students’ errors and count the percentage, which contains the total number of error produced by the students. the criterion of interpreting data. the researcher analyzed the result of this research using qualitative method. the researcher used criterion based on tinambunan’s criterion in tartiasih as cited in puspitasari (2016), which used to know how well the students produce english diphthong sounds whether poor, good, or excellent. table 1. tinambunan’s criterion number of errors (%) level of ability 0-25 26-50 51-75 76-100 excellent good fair poor observing the interview results. after conducting the error analysis steps, the researcher found the kinds of errors are mostly found in the students’ pronunciation. the researcher interviewed the students who had to be recorded. the researcher played and listened attentively to the audio recordings of the interviews. reporting the interviews. when conducting the interviews, the researcher only took relevant information from the interviewees and reduced some irrelevant information from interviewees. drawing the conclusion. the researcher concludes the data after got the identifying data. results and discussion based on the research conducted in smk n 2 salatiga, the data are gained from speaking tests and interviews. the speaking test is intended language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 21 to determine the ability of students to produce english diphthong sounds that are not found in bahasa indonesia. besides, interviews are used as additional data in this research. in the speaking test, 50 words provided by the researcher were required to be pronounced by students. the researcher provided 10 words for each sound. from 35 students, there were 1750 utterances gained in the speaking test. to see the students test results, we can see from the table 2. table 2. the students’ test result in pronunciation test english diphthong percentage of error correct [ɪə] 68% 32% [ʊə] 81% 19% [eɪ] 40% 60% [eə] 73% 27% [əʊ] 79% 21% based on the pronunciation test, it showed that the students find it more difficult in pronouncing the english diphthong sound [ʊə], then followed by the sound [əʊ], [eə], and [ɪə]. whereas in pronouncing the diphthong sound [eɪ], only a few students found it difficult to pronounce. most of the students omitted the english diphthong sound by the pure vowel sounds. some previous studies showed that the lack of certain sounds in the mother tongue of the students might cause them problems. as explained before that the english diphthong sounds [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ] do not exist in bahasa indonesia. a foreign student uses a vowel too close to the first part that is the general error. for the pronunciation of the sound [ʊə], based on the tinambunan’s criterion, in pronouncing sound [ʊə] the students’ level was classified as poor. the findings showed in the word ‘pure’ and ‘cure’; there were no students who pronounced it correctly. all of the students omitted the sound [ʊə] by the pure vowel [ʊ] and [ə]. the findings of this study were related to a study conducted by nafsik (2018), who found that the students omitted the sound [ʊə] by the pure vowel [ʊ]. this study also related to research done by sari, fatmasari (2019) who found that the students find it difficult in pronouncing diphthong [ʊə]. in line with donal’s study (2016), he stated that the different sound system between indonesian and english made indonesian students faced difficulties when pronouncing english words. some students also substituted the sound [ʊə] by the sound [ɛ], [ᴏ], [ua], and [oʊ]. for example, in pronouncing the word ‘curios’, one of the students pronounced as [kɛrɪəs], [korɪəs]. in the word ‘visual’, there were seven students pronounced as [vɪʒʊal], while in the word ‘tour’, three students pronounced as [toʊr]. next, in pronunciation of the sound [ɪə], [eə], and [əʊ], the students’ score was better than what they did in the pronunciation of the sound [ʊə]. the students’ level in pronouncing sound [ɪə], [eə], and [əʊ] were categorized as fair. the findings showed that many students omitted the english diphthong sounds [ɪə], [eə], and [əʊ] with some pure vowel sounds. the general error made is that they start it too closely with a vowel position. for example, when the students pronounce the word ‘era’ as [ɪrə], [ɪra], and [əra]. the student tended to pronounce the word ‘career’ as [karɪ r], [kərɪ r], [kɛrɪ r], and [kɛrə r]. there were only two students who pronounce the word ‘career’ correctly. almost all of the students pronounced the word ‘fear’, ‘real’, ‘tear’, ‘dear’ and ‘near’ as [fɪ r], [rɪl], [tɪ r], [dɪ r], and [nɪ r]. the students also pronounce the word ‘beard’, ‘here’, ‘mere’ as [bɪd], [bəd, [hɪ r], [hə r], [mɪ r], and [mə r]. this result is in line with donal’s study (2016) that a pure vowel sound replaced the most outstanding problem in pronouncing the diphthong [ɪə]. some students also substituted the sound [ɪə] by the sound [ɛ] because that sounds exist in bahasa indonesia. for example, in pronouncing the word ‘era’, there were eighteen students pronounced as [ɛra]. in the pronunciation of the sound [eə], some students omitted the english diphthong sound [eə] by the pure vowel sound [ɛ] and [ə]. from the table above we know that not only omitted the sound [eə] but the students also substituted the sounds by other sounds, such as [eɪ], [ɪə], and [aɪ] sounds. for example, the word ‘pair’, ‘hair’, and ‘fair’ that should be pronounced as [peə], [heə], and [feə] but many students pronounced as [peɪ r], [paɪ r], [heɪ r], [haɪ r], and [feɪ r], [faɪ r]. in pronouncing the words ‘care’, ‘bare’, ‘where’, ‘rare’, and ‘wear’, the students omitted the sound [eə] become pure vowel sound [ɛ] and [ə]. the students pronounced as [kɛ r], [kə r], [bɛ r], [bə r], [wɛ r], [wə r], [rɛ r], and [rə r]. while in pronouncing the words ’dare’, and ‘scary’, almost all of the students pronounced as [dɛ r] and [skɛrɪ], that’s mean the students omitted the sound [eə] by the sound [ɛ]. in pronouncing some words containing english diphthong sound [əʊ], the students omitted the english diphthong sound [ʊə] by the pure vowel sound [o]. for instance, the word ‘focus’, ‘bold’, ‘hold’, and ‘road’ that should be pronounced as [fəʊkəs], [bəʊld], [həʊld], [rəʊd], but the students pronounced as [fokəs], [fokʊs], [bold], [hold], language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 22 [həld], [rəd], and [rʊd]. as well as the word ‘snow’, ‘only’, ‘ocean’, ‘open’, ‘over’ and ‘home’ that should be pronounced as [snəʊ], [əʊnlɪ], [əʊʃn], [əʊpən], [əʊvə], and [həʊm] but many students pronounced it as [sno], [onlɪ], [oʃn], [opən], [ovə r], and [hom]. these findings were related to the study done by nafsik (2018), who found that more than 40% of the participants did error in pronouncing english diphthong sound [əʊ]. nafsik (2018) stated that the participants who did error in pronouncing english diphthong sound [əʊ] were because they were distracted by orthographic writing, or by vowels and diphthong sounds existing in their native language. moedjito (2016) claimed that sometimes the students were confused by orthographic writing because the same spelling is not often pronounced in the same manner. furthermore, in pronunciation of the sound [eɪ], the students did not make any error pronunciation. the students’ level in pronouncing the word containing english diphthong sound [eɪ] were categorized as good. in pronouncing the word ‘may’ and ‘they’, the students did not omit the sounds, but they have substituted the diphthong sound [eɪ] become pure vowel [aɪ]. there were seven students pronounced ‘may’ as [maɪ], and there were two students pronounced the word ‘they’ as [δaɪ]. sari, fatmasari (2019) stated in their study that when the speaker makes mistakes which are saying the word with the wrong phonetic transcription, it is called as cultural sound adjustification. in the word ‘late’, ‘wait’, ‘pain’, ‘race’, ‘take, ‘hate’, ‘game’, some of the students omitted the sound [eɪ] by the sound [ɛ], as many of the students pronounced as [lɛt], [wɛt], [rɛs], [tɛk], [hɛt], and [gɛm]. while the lowest percentage was the error of pronouncing the word ‘wait’’ with the percentage of errors at 11.42%. there were only two students omitted the english diphthong sound [eɪ] with pure vowel sound [ɛ]. in the word ‘great’, there were seventeen students pronounced as [grɪt] and two students pronounced as [grɛt]. followed by the explanation provided above, we know that many students made errors in pronouncing the words containing english diphthong sound [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ]. it was written in ramelan’s book (2003, p.4) that a foreign language student would be difficult to pronounce like native because it is out of his habit speech sounds. however, for many indonesian students, a whole new sound system is hard to hear or duplicate. these difficulties caused by the difference between the sound system in indonesian and english. ramelan (2003) also claimed that when the native language has different elements on sounds with the students’ target language, it is directly related to the difficulties students have in studying english as a second language. also, lanteigne (2006), as cited in donal’s study (2016), confirms some of the english sounds that not present in the learners’ mother tongue caused the difficulties in learning english. indonesian students should attempt to produce sufficient diphthong in english, as they tend to replace that by a pure vowel in indonesia we know that the diphthongs sounds are mostly omitted and replaced by the pure vowel sounds. as explained in the first chapter that this research not only to describe how well the students pronounce the english diphthong sounds which do not exist in indonesian but also to find out the kind of errors are mostly found in students’ pronunciation of english diphthong sounds which do not exist in indonesian. therefore, to find the kind of errors, the researcher using the interview as additional data. in this interview, the questions were related to the students’ english background, students’ knowledge of the diphthong sounds, and difficulty of students to pronounce english diphthong sounds. the researcher recorded the interviews. then, the responses of the interview were analyzed by the researcher. there were ten questions given to the participants. the first question was about the students’ come from. from the table above, we know that all of the students come from java, there is 34 students, or 97.13% of the total students who come from central java, there only one student who comes from bogor, west java. the second question about students’ parent’s english native language, there only one student or 2.85% of the student whose parents are english native speakers. next, the third question is about what language they usually use in their daily life. there were twenty students or 57.14% of students answered that their native language is javanese, four students or 11.42% of students answered that their native language is indonesian. another eleven students or 31.42% of students use indonesian and javanese language. then, the researcher asked questions about students’ knowledge of the diphthong sounds. the fourth question was about diphthong sound recognition in students’ native language. there were 34.28% of the students’ answered that there were any diphthong sounds in their native language. the fifth question was regarding their knowledge about the english diphthong sounds. there were 71.42% of the total of the students have known about english diphthong sounds. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 23 then, the researcher asked the students’ knowledge about diphthong sound [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ] in their native language. 60% of students stated that they have not known about diphthong sound [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ] in their native language. the researcher also asked whether or not they learned diphthong sound [eə] in their native language, 54.28% of the students answered that they didn’t learn diphthong [eə] in their native language. the next question was about their experience in being taught about how to pronounce diphthong sounds in their native language. there were 54.28% of the students answered that they have not been taught about how to pronounce diphthong sound [eə] in their native language. then, the researcher asked the student’s perception of whether or not they feel difficult in pronouncing diphthong sound [eə]. almost all of the students stated that they feel difficult when pronouncing diphthong sounds. the researcher also asked the students’ opinions about why they find it difficult when pronouncing diphthong sounds. there were 68.57% of the students answered that the unfamiliarity of diphthong sounds caused the difficulties, 17.14% of the students answered that english words have different spelling with indonesian, 11.42% of the students answered that the diphthong sounds have similar each other to pronounce, 8.57% of the students answered diphthong sounds as they don’t know, and 5.71% of the students answered because of the differences in the mother tongue. another purpose of this research is to decide what kind of errors are mostly found in students’ pronunciation. the researcher interviewed as additional data to answer that statement’s problems in which responses were had been described before. from the students’ responses, the researcher concluded that many indonesian students still lack knowledge about english diphthong sounds. most of them didn’t know about english diphthong sounds. it was because the english language is not their mother tongue. besides, the english diphthong sound [ɪə], [ʊə], [eɪ], [eə], and [əʊ] do not exist in their native lantable 3. students’ responses to the interview questions response percentage student origin salatiga semarang bogor 71.42% 25.71% 2.85% parents as an english native speaker yes no 2.85% 97.14% student native language javanese indonesian javanese and indonesian 57.14% 11.42% 31.42% diphthong sound recognition in student native language yes no don’t know 34.28% 45.71% 20% english diphthong sounds recognition yes no 71.42% 28.57% english diphthong sounds recognition in student native language yes no 40% 60% have studied diphthong sound in student native language yes no 28.57% 71.42% have studied how to pronounce diphthong sound [eə] in student native language yes no 45.71% 54.28% the difficulties in pronouncing diphthong sound [eə] yes no rarely 80% 17.14% 2.85% students’ opinion about the difficulties in pronouncing diphthong sound [eə] unfamiliar similar don’t know different spelling javanese mother tongue 68.57% 11.42% 8.57% 17.14% 5.71% language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 24 guage. some of them said that they never been taught how to pronounce that sounds, that is why many of them felt difficult when pronouncing that sounds. it was explained before there are three types of errors, substitution, omission, and insertion. based on the findings, there were a lot of the students omitted the english diphthong sounds by the pure vowel sounds. the total number of the students’ transcripts in utterance was 1.750, and there were only 549 words pronounced by the students following the transcript. there were 1007 of the total transcripts were the students made omission errors. while there were 194 of the total transcripts of the students made substitution errors. it means that the kind of errors that are mostly found in this research is omission errors. several aspects are supposed to influence the errors of pronouncing english diphthong sounds. according to ramelan (1999:4-5), that habit of someone to pronounce a word that involves diphthong is among the factors that affected error pronunciation. from the students’ responses in interviews, almost all of the students’ native language is javanese. it showed that their language habits are not english. in addition, donal (2016) also confirmed that their native language had a great influence on the way of the students spoke english sound. the students stated that they feel difficult to pronouncing english diphthong sounds because the differences between english and javanese were significant. so, it caused the students to omit the english diphthong sounds with the pure vowel sounds which exist in their native language. conclusion depending on the results of the previous chapter, certain conclusions can be reached. the first objective conducted was investigating how well english diphthong sounds are pronounced by the eleventh-grade students of tei b smk n 2 salatiga. it can be seen in the previous chapter that the students are considered “fair” in the pronunciation of english diphthong sounds. the total average in incorrect numbers of english diphthong sounds pronunciation made by students was 69% of the total pronunciation 1750. some students made errors in pronunciation. the students’ errors in pronouncing english sound [ʊə] got the highest percentage that was 81%. it was categorized as poor. then, the percentage of errors in pronouncing diphthong sound of english that were categorized as the fair was the sound [ɪə], [eə], and [əʊ] with each percentage was 68%, 73%, and 79%. besides, the lowest percentage of the error of the students when they pronounce english diphthong sounds were categorized as good with the error percentage was 40%, which is in the sound [eɪ]. then, the next objective conducted was investigating what kind of errors are mostly found in the pronunciation of english diphthong sounds of the students. based on the findings above, there were a lot of the students omitted the english diphthong sounds by the pure vowel sounds. the total number of the students’ transcripts in utterance was 1.750, and there were only 549 words pronounced by the students following the transcript. there were 1007 of the total transcripts were the students made omission errors. while there were 194 of the total transcripts of the students made substitution errors. it means that the kind of errors that are mostly found in this research was omission errors. references ahmed, z. a. d. (2017). difficulties encountered by efl students in learning pronunciation: a case study of sudanese higher secondary schools. international journal of english linguistics, 7 (4), 75-82. al zayed, n. n. (2017). non-native pronunciation of english: problems and solutions. american international journal of contemporary research, 7(3), 86-90. arikunto, s. (2010). prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktik. pt asdi mahasatya. brown, h. d. (2000). principles of language learning and teaching, fourth edition. longman.inc crystal, d. (2003). english as a global language 2nd ed. cambridge university press. donal, a. (2016). indonesian students’ difficulties in pronouncing english diphthongs. international journal of english education, 2(2), 55-62. ellis, r. (1997). second language acquisition. oxford university press. gilakjani, a. p. (2011). why is pronunciation so difficult to learn? international journal of english language teaching, 4(3), 74-83. jing, h., xiaodong, h., & yu, l. (2016). error correction in oral classroom english teaching. english language teaching. 9(12), 98-103. jones, d. (1956). the pronunciation of english. cambridge university press. khan, a., shehzad, w., & ullah, i. (2017). articulation of english consonants, vowels, and diphthongs by pashto speakers in khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan. international journal of english linguistics, 7(5), 19-33. kosasih, m.m. (2017). native language interference in learning english pronunciation: a case study at a private university in west java, inlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 17-25 25 donesia. international journal of education and research, 5(2), 135-150. moedjito. (2016). the teaching of english pronunciation: perceptions of indonesian school teachers and university students. english language teaching, 9(6), 30-41. nafsik, a. k. (2018). an error identifying in perception and production english diphthongs pronounced by non-english department students. final project of english department students fbs unnes. nassaji, h. (2015). qualitative and descriptive research: data type versus data analysis. language teaching research. 19(2), 129-132. puspitasari, r. i. (2016). students’ error in perception or production of pronouncing short and long english vowels (a case study of the eighth grade students of smp n 2 demak in the academic year 2015/2016). the research report, english department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri semarang. ramelan. 1977. english phonetics. ikip semarang press. roach, p. (2000). english phonetic and phonology: a practical course (3rd ed.). university press, p. 2 sari, k. m., & fatmasari, y. (2019). errors analysis on english diphthongs pronounced by indonesian students in english debate competition posted on youtube. dialektika journal pbi, 7(1), 38-55. syafei, a. (1988). english pronunciation: theory and practice. ministry of education and culture. sugiyono. (2013). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. alfabeta. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfea9dec601183 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x bribe and bribery labeling in kenyan anti-corruption discourse: a conceptual metaphor perspective aunga solomon onchoke*, okwako eric kaimosi friends university college, kenya *email: aungasolo@yahoo.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.25063 submitted 22 june 2020. revised 8 august 2020. accepted 19 september 2020 abstract corruption in kenya has been a particularly large problem since its independence from british rule in 1963. this paper explores the motivation behind a cultural specific metaphor of bribe and bribery labeling in kenya as seen from the conceptual metaphor viewpoint. the study identifies and explains the different terms relating to a bribe and bribery, describes social-cultural values in kenya, and accounts for the cognitive processes involved in their interpretation. the data includes a list of terms collected from traffic police officers, public transport workers and commuters from different parts of kenya. these metaphors were identified by the metaphor identification procedure (mip) created by pragglejaz group (2007) and analyzed using the cognitive metaphor theory from lakoff and johnson (1987). the results reveal that language spoken by a society is an essential part of its culture, and the lexical distinctions drawn by each language reflect culturally important features of objects, foods, institutions, games, air we breathe and other activities in the society in which the language operates. we argue that conceptual metaphors are conduits of communication, and it is prudent to apply the cognitive linguistic approach for their better contextual appreciation. this paper concludes by suggesting further avenues for research into socio-cultural metaphors, and by calling for the government to innovate new ways of fighting corruption because the players have invented ingenious ways of communicating about it metaphorically beyond comprehension for a lay person. keywords: metaphor; culture; corruption; bribery; bribe; kenya  another person or entity, in order the official to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her official duties”. corrupt practices are numerous, and ordinarily they range from minor corruption cases (whereby bribes are required before normal administrative procedures are accomplished) to mega corruption (involving considerable sums of money paid in return for special treatment or access) (kempe, 2014). many scholars have tried to distinguish between the terms ‘bribery’ and ‘a bribe’. among them are gbenga (2007) & transparency international (2018) who view ‘bribery’ as the payment or acceptance (in money or kind) that is given or taken in a corrupt relationship, and define ‘a bribe’ as an inducement or a fixed sum, a certain percentage of a contract, or any other favor in money or kind, usually paid to a state official or any other person at an advantageous position who can make contracts on behalf of the state or otherwise distribute benefits to companies or individuals, businessmen and clients. according to odhiambo (2015), the culture of corruption has spread through the kenyan nation at large, and has become pervasive. it is argued that establishments like the judiciary sysintroduction this article deals with language use. it examines the conceptualization of terms relating to bribes and bribery in kenya using conceptual metaphor theory (cmt). the giving of bribes is a form of corruption which is a big problem in many countries where the rule of law has failed. gbenga (2007) posits that corruption has affected many developing countries, especially in africa, causing the continent to be the most corrupt in the world. kenya, a country in east africa, has always performed poorly in the corruption perception index (cpi) surveys conducted by transparency international, an international organization set up to check on corruption levels in different countries and try to curb it. in the latest cpi 2017 survey, kenya was listed at 145 out of 176 countries, making it one of the most corrupt countries in the world (transparency international, 2018). according to shehu (2005: 70), “corruption is offering or giving, to a public official or any other person, directly or indirectly, of an undue advantage, for the official himself or herself or language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 27 exists a type of resemblance metaphor where the source and target are social-culturally related (lakoff and johnson, 1980; grady, 1999, 2005; moon, 2006; gibbs, 1994; langacker, 1999; johnson, 1987; lakoff, 1993; kövesces 2005; ritchie, 2013 & takada, et al., 2006). methods qualitative research was used for this study because it does not produce discrete numerical data (mugenda and mugenda, 2003; zielinski, 2008; creswell, 2012), and the researcher relies on the views of participants and analyses words to find themes (patton, 2002). the qualitative aspect was useful because the data in this study of conceptual mappings, vital relations and image schemas was largely not numerical. in order to explain the use of the conceptualization of terms relating to bribe and bribery in kenya, a thorough examination of the various linguistic expressions surrounding corruption was undertaken. the data sample for the study consisted of the kenyan languages’ speakers, drawn from sectors perceived as most corrupt and included linguistic expressions that are used in bribe and bribery discourse. the respondents were sampled from traffic police, public transport workers and commuters who all belong to the ministry of internal security and public transport because the two were labeled the second and third most corrupt ministries in kenya, respectively (transparency international, 2017 & mamdooh, 2016). moreover, transport operators are known to bribe police officers to get away with serious traffic offenses ranging from over speeding, operating overloaded or faulty transport vehicles, driving without valid licenses and driving under the influence of alcohol (gitau, 2010; the kenya constitution, 2010). the respondents were required to give the linguistic expressions drawn from the area of bribe and bribery, but these expressions were not examined in context / were not recorded as part of ‘natural’ speech. the study employed purposive sampling techniques whereby the researcher was assisted by the assistant to pick the respondents with appropriate characteristics like picking security officers working with traffic police, drivers, bus conductors and touts working with the public transport sector and commuters (tongco, 2007). there were 200 respondents in total: 50 public transport drivers (45 males and 5 females), 50 touts (all males), 50 commuters (25 males and 25 females) and 50 traffic police officers (40 males and 10 females). the gender balance was not achieved (there were 160 males and 40 females) tem and the police, which were designed for the regulation of the relationships between citizens and the state, are being used instead for the individual improvement of public service workers (politicians and bureaucrats) and other corrupt private proxies (individuals, groups, and businesses). notwithstanding the feeble efforts being put to fight corruption in kenya, corruption practices still persist because there are people in authority and individuals who gain from these practices and the existing administrative establishments lack both the motivation and capacity to stop them from doing so (akech, 2011). according to mutula, et al. (2013), kivuva (2011), akech (2011), kirui and murkomen (2011), amutabi (2009) and kiai (2008), the problem of corruption in kenya is linked to having very weak constitutional structures, deeply entrenched ethnocentrism, and ineffective laws. this study analyzes terms relating to bribe and bribery in kenya from a cognitive linguistic viewpoint using the conceptual metaphor theory (cmt). conceptual metaphor theory (cmt) was developed by cognitive linguists who argued that metaphors are a property of language, thought and linguistic phenomena, and that they involve perceiving one experience in terms of another (lakoff& johnson, 1980; gibbs, 1994; grady, 1997; langacker, 1999; kövecses, 2002, 2005; evans & green, 2006 and jakel, 2002). thus, metaphors involve two notions or conceptual domains: the y and the x. according to cmt, we use the imagination to map and understand experiences by either using metaphors or metonymies through the use of image schemas through shared attributes (lakoff& johnson, 1980: 35-40; lakoff & turner, 1989: 103-104; gunter radden & zoltan kovecses, 1999). according to ortony (1975, pp. 45), metaphors are necessary and function as a cognitive instruments for observing the world and creating new senses like in this case terms relating to a bribe and bribery. furthermore, moser (2000) argued that metaphor analysis is useful for accessing tacit knowledge and exploring “social and cultural processes of understanding”. since language is fundamentally metaphorical, people’s conceptual system, which governs their everyday talk, thought and even actions, is also fundamentally metaphorical. consequently, a metaphor is regarded as a way of thinking about or conceptualizing the world, and understanding a bribe and bribery in different ways is metaphorical, in this case. in this study, terms relating to bribes and bribery in kenya are analyzed within the socialcultural metaphor model. this argues that there language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 28 because the jobs of driving public transport vehicles, being touts and working as law enforcers are considered largely as masculine jobs in kenya. the study utilized an interview schedule and a tape recorder, where the respondents were subjected to the same open-ended questions which permitted detailed responses, which in turn gave an insight into the feelings, background, hidden motivations, intuitions, interests, and decisions of the respondents (mugenda and mugenda, 2003). the researcher asked the respondents to name words and phrases relating to bribes or bribery, and what the words meant. in addition, the researcher asked them to describe the surface and deeper meanings that some of these processes elicited. subsequently, they were asked, using their intuition and memory, to name the values considered and the contexts in which these alternative terms were used and the reasons for their use. the data obtained were examined critically in order to get detailed information about how the terms relating to bribes and bribery are perceived. the conceptual metaphors were identified by the researcher using the metaphor identification procedure (mip) created by the pragglejaz group (2007). mip is a method used for identifying metaphorically used words in spoken and written discourses. the data were then scrutinized and split into themes with related properties which acted as the source domain. the researcher collected 60 words which were in different kenyan languages. this small sample was chosen in order to allow for in-depth investigation and analysis of the data (trudgill, 1973). consequently, the data were presented in different languages and a gloss translation in english provided. the recorded data were transcribed and translated. field remarks written during the sessions were used to supplement the recorded data, especially in cases where references to particular items were unclear. this was thereafter followed by transcription and translation of the copies of the different languages into english. the analysis of the data was discursive; the researcher identified, delimited and sorted the relevant information. the relevant words and phrases were sorted and classified into different themes by looking at related values. a list of these categories was then compiled into groups. in addition, explanations of how the images, words, and phrases are understood in the kenyan context were provided. the common themes identified based on the social–cultural values were then mapped from the source domain to the target domain using the cognitive metaphor theory, and then the cognitive processes were explained. result and discussion in order to demystify the terms relating to bribes and bribery labeling in kenyan corruption discourse, the data collected from the respondents were identified as metaphors by the use of metaphor identification procedure (pragglejaz group, 2007) and the conceptual metaphor theory (cmt) by taking into account of the socialcultural values. tables and pie charts were used to aid the presentation of the responses obtained. the figure that follows gives a summary of terms relating to bribes and bribery in kenya as collected from the respondents. figure 1. summary of terms relating to bribes and bribery in kenya figure 1 shows that a total of 60 terms relating to bribes and bribery in kenya were collected from the respondents. based on the conceptual metaphor theory of lakoff and johnson (1980) and metaphor identification procedure (pragglejaz group, 2007), the words were classified into food, objects, game and others (miscellaneous group containing different ways of conceptualizing bribes and bribery) by the researcher. these main groups or themes also act as source domains in the mapping process. there were 20 names for food, 15 for objects, 10 for games and 15 others, representing 33%, 25%, 17% and 25% respectively. the research used a social-cultural metaphor model in which socio-cultural interpretations of the source and target concepts play a crucial role in the mapping: the source and target concepts are associated with socially defined properties (grady 1999: takada 2006). this model fits in this study because specific qualities of the source (foods, objects, games and other themes) as understood and perceived by kenyans are mapped onto the target (bribes or bribery). this was also emphasized by mittelberg (2007:34) when he posited that metaphors transport the images, feelings, values, thought patterns and general life experiences entrenched in our cultures. silanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 29 milarly, kövecses (2005) also accepted this view when he said that a metaphor is not only based on similarity; but it is also based on cross-domain correlations in our experience, which gives rise to the perceived similarities between the two domains within the metaphor. not all properties are mapped in the mapping process from the source domain to the target domain. the metaphor can only make sense if we know those culturally accepted features of the source domain because metaphors are selective, highlighting particular aspects of the source and the target while hiding others (lakoff, 1993& jakel, 2002). next, some conceptual metaphors relating to bribes and bribery in kenya are analyzed showing the ontological correspondences in the mapping process and how language reflects the culturally important features of objects, institutions, and activities in the society in which the language (lyons, 1968:432). bribe is an object ontological correspondence: source domain > target domain an object > a bribe people use machines and tools or objects to work, play, fight, and for pleasure; these things and the activities related to them show up as metaphorical expressions (kövesces, 2010). a bribe is conceptualized as an object, thus, a bribe is an object is the basic level conceptual metaphor. this metaphor also has several other lower levels or layers of schematic mapping depending on the particular object. for instance, we have the conceptual metaphor, a bribe is soap (detergent). this metaphor means that a bribe is something good; therefore, it is likened to a soap which cleans or makes one pure. a bribe is also conceptualized as “something small”. the most populous tribe in kenya, the kikuyu, refers to it as kanyamukanini; the abagusii refer to it as gentogeke; the luo refer to it as gimoromatini; and in swahili the form is kitukidogo. all these terms refer to a bribe as “something small”. it means that for whatever one has collected, you offer a small fraction to the victim being bribed in the form of a bribe to buy your way, and you are left with a bigger portion. a bribe is a blanket is another metaphor that the respondents mentioned. a blanket gives a picture of what is given to a traffic officer to make him “sleep’ (not to be vigilant or assume any offences), and not to look at the faults of the driver, conductor, passengers, vehicle and other inadequacies. the bribe is therefore meant to induce artificial sleep in the traffic officer or the receiver of the bribe in the hope that they will turn a blind eye to the infractions. bribes are also conceptualized as envelopes, a bribe is an envelope. an envelope in normal cases carries letters, but, in this case an envelope carries concealed money (a bribe) which is meant for the officers concerned, thus producing the metonymy, container for the contents (lakoff and johnson, 1980). an envelope here is conceptualized as a gift to whoever is receiving it; thus, it is a favor or something good. lastly, another object associated with this metaphor is dust, hence, a bribe is dust. dust appears during the dry period, especially on roads that are not tarmacked, of which there are many in kenya. dust is meant to blind the policeman in order to avoid seeing the traffic offences allegedly being committed by the many vehicles cruising in the kenyan dusty roads. a bribe is also conceptualized as a sweet thing, a bribe is a sweet thing. thus such ethnic groups refer to it as a sweet or chocolate. the abagusii ethnic group calls it, egetamutamu, the swahili call it, peremende and such like related names from other communities. the sweetness of chocolate is mapped to the irresistible nature of bribes. those who have taken bribes argue that it is an addition of what somebody earns, and because of the harsh economic conditions, it is very hard to reject just like something sweet despite the hidden long term hazards of leading to diseases like diabetes. the same way, those taking bribes might face consequences if caught, but the benefits are also far greater than the consequences. this has made the fight against this form of corruption almost impossible to eradicate. bribe is food ontological correspondence: source domain > target domain food > a bribe eating > taking/accepting a bribe drinking > taking/ accepting a bribe tasting food > taking/accepting a bribe for the first time according to lopez (2014), food is a basic need, and its color, texture, smell, state and taste is always pervasively used as a source domain mapping to different things. different delicacies in kenya have been historically associated with different tribes, as the country depends on agriculture. according to the republic of kenyan ministry of water and irrigation (2009), kenya is a leading producer of tea and coffee, as well as the third-leading exporter of fresh produce, such as cabbages, onions and mangoes. small farms language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 30 grow most of the corn, and also produce milk and other animal products (like meat, chicken, mutton and pork) as well as potatoes, bananas, beans and peas. conceptualizing a bribe as food is common, as witnessed from the many responses. there is also plenty of fish because of the indian ocean, lakes like victoria, nakuru, turkana and naivasha, and the presence of many rivers and fish-ponds used by small-scale farmers. three conceptual metaphors relating to food were apparent in the data: a bribe is food, taking a bribe is eating food (like meat, chicken, pork, mutton, 1ugali etc.) and taking a bribe is drinking a liquid (like water, beer, porridge, tea and coffee). according to transparency international (2017), the kenyan police force especially traffic police are the most corrupt compared to other departments and notorious in taking bribes. the respondents, especially the commuters, explained that when approaching a road block manned by traffic police officers, the touts or drivers could be seen alighting quickly, run to the officers and talk to them behind the vehicle or bus. after the officers take the bribe, they could pretend to be inspecting the vehicles, and then they flag it to proceed with the journey as the bribe givers board the vehicle. the touts and the drivers then could be heard asking each other after bribing the traffic officers with passengers listening using linguistic expressions such as, “has the soldier eaten ugali or chicken or meat or fish? or just, has he eaten? or has he drunk tea, or any other drink? or just, has he drunk? all these expressions mean that the traffic officer has been compromised by being given a bribe. bribery is a game ontological correspondence: source domain > target domain a game > bribery playing > the process of bribing a game > a bribe a ball > a bribe referee > another person/senior officer being scored > accepting/taking a bribe being caught > being caught bribing being unable to score/ball blocked > a bribe rejected scoring > being bribed many scholars have conceptualized games such as football in terms of something else. 1ugali is an african dish made of cornmeal porridge. it is the most common staple starch featured in the local cuisines of most africans and it has different names depending with the tribe and region(kimnyet, sima, sembe, obokima, kaunga, dona, obusuma, ngima,”kwon”, arega or posho) lakoff (1991) observed that soccer, like war, is a competitive sport where there is normally a clear winner and loser, strategic thinking, team work, preparedness, spectator behavior, the glory of winning and the shame of defeat. consequently, gunnar bergh (2011) investigated war-inspired terminology in live football commentary using the football is war conceptual metaphor. many similarities exist between the source domain (a game) and the target domain (bribery). just as the purpose of a game is to beat an opponent, the aim of bribery is for one person to bribe another; the person who bribes the other gains an advantage or victory so that they go around doing their work uninterrupted. on the basis of the knowledge above, bribery can be conceptualized as a game among rivals. most activities that take place during a game of football can be mapped to a bribery event or process. therefore, the following conceptual metaphors exist: bribery is a game, a bribe is a ball, playing a game is a process of bribing somebody, successfully bribing somebody is scoring a goal, accepting a bribe is being scored, being caught by another third person superior in the process of receiving/ giving a bribe is being caught offside, and not getting a chance to bribe the officer or the person rejecting a bribe is being unable to score. here bribery is visualized as playing a game. soccer is a game that is a popular sport throughout the world; by likening bribery to a game of football, the sweetness of bribery is highlighted, despite its illegality. respondents interviewed narrated how the drivers, conductors and touts could be heard asking one another after a bribing a traffic police officer, have you played him a game? have you scored? how was the game? were you caught offside by the referees around? thus, asking if any bribery occurred. the use of this language makes the bribe and bribery discourse fascinating and harder for people outside the sector to grasp what is being referred to. other mixed metaphors a bribe is conceptualized as some form of greetings: a bribe is greeting or bribing somebody is greeting the person. greetings normally are meant to show that people are friends because human beings are social animals. in most cases, when a driver or bus conductor sees a traffic officer, he will alight very fast with something in his palm; he greets the officer leaving the money normally folded into https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/african_great_lakes https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/staple_food https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/starch language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 31 something tiny in the officer’s hand. it is very hard for a stranger to detect the action because it happens swiftly, but keen observers know that the officer has taken a bribe. then you will overhear one saying, i have greeted him or he has accepted my greetings, meaning that the person being referred to has taken a bribe. so, according to the respondents, greetings, apart from establishing a relationship, are also used metaphorically. another conceptual metaphor that was common is reference to ‘light’; examples include, bribing somebody is shinning light on the person, a bribe is light and bribing is lighting/ illuminating. a kiswahili word, mulika, was used which means to illuminate. this word has two metaphorical meanings from the analysis. one, it means to bribe; secondly, it also means for a police officer to arrest a person. mulikwa in kiswahili which means to ‘illuminate light metaphorically’, means ‘to be arrested’ or ‘to take a bribe’. the word comes from the word, mulika. the respondents explained that the word originates from the process when a vehicle lights the headlamps. when a particular vehicle had given a bribe on a return trip or when the driver meets the same traffic police officers who had already taken a bribe, they could flash lights as an indicator/sign that they had paid. upon seeing the lights, the officers allow the vehicle to pass without giving a bribe again. bribing somebody is talking with/to the person or bribing a law enforcement officer is having a talk/discussion with him. also, in this case, a bribe is a talk/ discussion: this was also a common metaphor from the respondents. talking to a police officer meant giving him a bribe. you could hear the drivers, conductors and touts (players of the sector) gossiping and asking one another about the action, ‘have you talked/discussed with him? have you had a talk/ discussion with him?’ this clearly means compromising the officer to allow one to carry out illegal activities that are against the law. other conceptual metaphors related to term ‘talk’ are actions of hearing, visiting and seeing. the metaphors generated are: bribing somebody is visiting/seeing/ hearing the person. consequently, a bribe is a visit, being bribed is being visited, and being bribed is being heard/visited/seen. another action associated with bribery is ‘blinding’ (making somebody blind). bribing somebody is blinding the person. according to the respondents, the action of giving out a bribe is conceptualized as making the receiver blind so that they won’t see the illegality being committed. it is like closing the eyes of the receiver of the bribe not to ‘waste time’ asking many questions. so, in kenya, public transport operators make the traffic officers ‘blind’ by giving them bribes to allow them to break traffic rules as they wish because the officers are already compromised. finally, another action associated with bribery is ‘grinding of maize into flour’. it is common knowledge that the majority of the kenyan populace relies on maize as a staple food for their ‘ugali’. the maize seeds have to be ground into flour using a special grinding machine. one tribe (kisii, a bantu farming group from southern part of kenya) call the grinding process ‘gosera’. normally, the owner is paid a few shillings for a tin of maize seeds to be ground. the process is likened to giving of a bribe to somebody, thus, bribing somebody is grinding maize for the person. the whole process is conceptualized metaphorically, because law enforcement officers in kenya are normally viewed negatively as poor, dishonest and always following petty things like the cents meant for grinding maize which is associated with poverty instead of protecting the citizens and enforcing the law. bribes and bribery are also conceptualized as air or oxygen: a bribe is oxygen/air. the respondents explained how the players of the public transport sector were heard talking about table 1. summary of some linguistic expressions and corresponding cognitive metaphors linguistic expressions cognitive metaphors i gave him a goat, a cow, sheep, hen etc meaning i bribed him a bribe is an animal i gave him something a bribe is an object i gave him food, he has eaten, i gave him ugali a bribe is food i greeted the officer well, the officer accepted the greetings a bribe is some form of greetings i gave him oxygen a bribe is a basic necessity/part of life/ something we cannot do without language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 26-33 32 giving oxygen to a traffic officer or the officers asking another if a particular vehicle had given oxygen to them to be allowed to pass despite having an overloaded passenger vehicle. this is bribing them to be allowed to subvert the law. oxygen is crucial for man’s survival. therefore, it goes without saying that a bribe is very important to the traffic officers and equally to the public transport operators because without giving it to the police, they can’t be allowed to operate. in this way, bribery has been taken as a very vital part of life and eliminating it is not easy; people, especially the traffic police officer, might die because it is like oxygen. it is through such reasoning and mentality that the war against corruption has become very hard to be won. conclusion this study has established that bribes and bribery are conceptualized in concrete terms such as food, objects, games, the air we breathe and other things and activities we engage in different social settings, giving rise to following cognitive metaphors and their linguistic metaphors in the kenyan context. the results reveal that the language spoken by society is an essential part of its culture and the lexical distinctions drawn by each language tend to reflect the culturally important features of objects, foods, institutions, and other activities in the society in which the language operates. also, metaphors are pervasive in kenyan languages, and make our thoughts more vivid. thus, conceptual metaphors are conduits of communication, and it is prudent to apply a cognitive linguistics approach for their better contextual appreciation. the research concludes by suggesting further research in 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(2007). purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection.oxford university press. transparency international. (2018). global corruption barometer 2018. ti-kenya: nairobi. www.transparency.org/cpi trudgill, p. (1973). sex, covert prestige and linguistic change in the urban british english of norwich. language in society, 1(2), 179-195. zielinski, b. w. (2008). the listener: no longer the silent partner in intelligibility. system, 36(1), 69 84. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 183 the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education aris masruri harahap universitas indonesia, indonesia email: aris.harahap@gmail.com / aris.masruri@ui.ac.id received: 10 january 2018. revised: 26 february 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract this article discusses disappearance of uncanny in one of the greatest children novel from the first golden age of children literature in britain, winnie-the-pooh. the discussion is meant to uncover why the uncanny does not arise when it is read although it has the elements to arise the uncanny. moreover, the novel is very popular of its canniness. in doing analysis, freud‘s thoughts on the uncanny help me to find the reason. the analysis resulted that the use of fantasy in the novel and how its story is narrated determine the readers to not concentrate on the uncanny. the disappearance of the uncanny and the emergence of canny in the novel has made the novel as a favorite reading material for children. this, in fact, is an approach to teach children some values which is influenced by the development of children literature since the 18 th century. keywords: the uncanny, fantasy, narration, children literature how to cite: harahap, a.m. (2018). the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 183—194. introduction children literature jan susina (2004) stated that children literature is an ideological reflection of a culture in which and when the literary works are made. in children literature, there are also assumptions about behavior that is considered good (and bad) for children (178). thus, children literature can be a means to educate children to behave well based on values prevailing in a society. however, content in the literature and the way it delivers the values experienced changes from time to time. in english literature‘ context, children literature can be traced back to as early as 15 th century (drabble, 1985, p.192). children literature published at this time were in the form of courtesy books 1 and also texts containing religious teachings (susina, 2004, p. 178). one of the notable works written in this period is the babees books (1475) containing instructions to behave well for children based on christian values. the teachings in children literature in this period were explicitly delivered by providing direct instruction. for example, one of the teachings that can be found in the babees book is that it teaches to appreciate other people when they speak to us by looking at their eyes and listen carefully to what they say at the moment of speaking. from 16 th century to 17 th century, children literature in english literature‘s 1 a certain type of books which were used to teach people who live in a palace and contained lessons about moral and how to behave well. mailto:aris.harahap@gmail.com mailto:aris.masruri@ui.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 184 context has not changed much compared to children literature in the 15 th century. children literature in this period still was relatively similar in content and in delivery of its values to the 15 th century‘s. only in about 18 th century, children literature started to experience a significant change compared tothe previous centuries. the significant change that can be noticed is that the inclusion of element of entertainment in the literature. according to susina (2004), this was possible due to a great influence of thoughts by famous philosophers like john locke (p.179). john locke in his famous writing titled some thoughts concerning education (1693), for example, encouraged adults that in the process of teaching children the ―…business is not so much to teach all that is knowable …‖ but to ―… to raise … a love and esteem of knowledge‖ (p.195). therefore, influenced by the thinking, in this period, children literature started to combine ―instruction‖ and ―delight‖ (susina, p.179). this combination made children literature not only educational but also entertaining. one of the works that applied this approach is a new pretty pocket book (1744) by newbery which contains alphabet lessons by using short verses decorated with illustrations. besides giving alphabet lessons, newbery also delivered moral teachings by giving an interpretation of the poems he wrote in the book. from the early 19 th century until the beginning of 20 th century, children literature experienced a great leap in its history. this period is also known as the first golden age of children literature. this golden age is marked by a great number of works published in the uk. the works published were mostly written in genre of fantasy. it was in this era that authors of children literature who used fantasy as core of their works like george mcdonald, lewis carrol, a. a. milne, and j. m. barrie achieved great success and even their works are still read nowadays. fantasy in children literature according to carpenter and pritchard (1984), fantasy fiction is works that are usually as long as novel and they involve supernatural elements or other unreal elements (p.181). sheila egoff (1980) called fantasy in children literature as ―a literature of paradox‖. this is possible because, in fantasy, there is ―... the real within the unreal, the credible within the incredible, (and) the believable within the unbelievable‖ (p.80). this opinion is based on a fact that when people read fantasy, they might find the real things in unreality, the usual things in unfamiliarity, and the things that can be trusted in things that cannot be trusted. as an illustration, in real world, it is impossible, unreal, incredible, and unbelievable for animals to eat using tools that human use too, to drive a car like a human, to speak and to communicate like human normally do in real world. however, if those things happen in the works of fantasy, they are possible, real, credible, and believable. this is what egoff means by ―paradox‖. the impossibilities in real world can be possible in fantasy world and they become ―the real within the unreal‖. the number of fantasy works published in the 19 th century to the early 20 th century marked a major shift in the history of children‘s literature. this change was actually influenced by children literature of the 18 th century that combined education and entertainment. in the golden age, works intended for children were no longer instructive but entertaining. however, the fantasy literature still incorporated elements of education in it although it is harder to recognize because it uses fantasies that are harahap, a.m. (2018). the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 183—194. 185 unreal and unbelievable. for example, in the real world, the friendship between a man and a beast is something extraordinary but if it happens in a fantasy world it could just be something casual and just possible to happen. winnie-the-pooh novel winnie-the-pooh (1926) written by alexander milne is one of the greatest works in children literature of fantasy genre. fantasy elements can be easily recognized in winnie-the-pooh. the elements can be seen in the novel through its characters such as pooh, piglet, owl, rabbit, and eeyore who are animal characters but can speak and interact like humans. the friendship woven between the animal characters and a human character, christopher robin, and their stories in hundred acre wood further thicken the fantasy element in the novel. through the characters and the events, milne could deliver some values to his audiences, especially children. a story when pooh wants to save piglet who was trapped by flood could be one example that can deliver good value to children. unable to swim, pooh dares to cross the flood to save piglet by simply using an umbrella that is turned over to keep it floating in the water. although the way that pooh does is unusual and seemingly unreal, the story could teach children who read or listen to the story to have a willingness to sacrifice for friends and to help a friend in distress. in addition to lesson on friendship, milne could also deliver other values like teaching kids to love animals. it can be seen in christopher robin, as the only human character in the novel, portrayed as a child who loves his animal companions who one of them is a bear character. however, in the real world, bears are wild animal and because of their ferocity, some people hunt them down and think they can get pride if they can kill them. by making a human character that can make friend with a wild animal character, even care and love each other, milne could teach some values here. theoretical frameworkand focus of research in the freudian framework of thinking, a condition where animals can speak and can behave like humans, like those in winnie-thepooh, are called the uncanny. freud (1919) explained that ―... the uncanny is that class of the frightening which leads back to what is known of old and long familiar‖ (p.220). in other words, the uncanny is a condition that could scare us and it is related to situation in the past. the uncanny feelings may arise when there are things that were once familiar or things from the past but have undergone a process of repression and have been forgotten. however, due to some situation those that have been repressed and forgotten are able to reappear in one‘s consciousness. bears who can speak and behave like humans are unfamiliar, unusual, and even frightening if they really exist in the real world. however, in the realm of fantasy it may not have an uncanny effect. this is because the world of fantasy and the real world are different; the fantasy world relies its effect on the fact that the content in fantasy should not be compared to reality in the real world (freud, p.249). we can see a situation like this happening in winnie-the-pooh. animal characters that can speak and behave like in winnie-the-pooh will surely be extraordinary and even frightening if they happen in the real world. from the above explanation, we can see that there is something strange with winniethe-pooh‘s narration. the existence of the uncanny in the novel should not make it a funny and lovable work for children. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 186 however, in reality, winnie-the-pooh is now known as a funny work and is a favorite for children, even disney made it into movies. this is what caught my attention and will be discussed in this paper. although winnie-thepooh has uncanny things in it but the uncanny impression could fail to arise. in freud‘s view, a fiction writer has a direct influence on us, his readers, and we are responsive to his influence. through the circumstances in which a fiction writer laid us, our hope that s/he generated, s/he can divert our feelings from one effect to another (p.251). from this statement, it can be seen that in the realm of literature, the way in which a fiction writer narrated his/her story has an important place in the emergence of certain effects. in this case, a fiction writer may not give the impression of uncanny even though there are aspects that can create an uncanny impression in his/her story. thus, in this essay, i would like to discuss winnie-the-pooh‘s narrative style which is able to recreate the uncanny into canny. besides that, as winnie-the-pooh is one of the greatest works which appeared in the golden age of children literature, it would not be so much critical to not relate the discussion with the context. therefore, the discussion will be focused on winnie-thepooh‘s narrative style which is able to recreate the uncanny into canny and its relation to children literature in english literature‘s context. methodology in this research, i analyze the uncanny in winnie-the-pooh by using freud‘s views on the uncanny. in doing the analysis, i do some steps. first, i look for things in winnie-thepooh that can evoke the uncanny. secondly, i analyze how the uncanny is narrated in the novel. the last, i relate the results of the analysis to children literature‘s context. results and discussion the uncanny in winnie-the-pooh the word heimliche in german (or canny in english) is the opposite of unheimliche (or uncanny in english). in the word heimliche, there are notions of ―known‖ and ―familiar‖. therefore, we tend to understand the uncanny as unknown and unfamiliar to us. animals that can speak like humans is unfamiliar in the real world, therefore, uncanny feelings can arise when we find animals that can speak. the uncanny itself deals with things that can create a frightening and terrifying impression (freud, p. 219).in his discussion of the uncanny, freud reveals that the terrifying or horrific feelings we get are related to something we once knew and were familiar with (p.195). in other words, the uncanny is related to one‘s memory in the past. however, the known and familiar memories are then repressed or forgotten because their presence is undesirable in one‘s memory. the uncanny feelings can arise when there is an impression that brings back memories that are repressed. this repressed memory is related to experiences that to a person is frightening or that s/he rejects the existence in the memory. besides being caused by the emergence of repressed memories, uncanny feelings can also arise when primitive beliefs, such as animism, that is no longer believed yet to be confirmed that the beliefs are true. beliefs like the dead who can return to the real world or lifeless objects that then live are examples of primitive beliefs that can create an uncanny impression for people in the real world. uncanny feelings not only can be found in the real world but also in the realm of literature or text. the works of edgar allan poe, for example, are filled with things that harahap, a.m. (2018). the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 183—194. 187 can cause uncanny feelings when people read it. in one of his works, the black cat (1843), it is presented a story of a writer whose life seems to be condemned after a black cat who once tortured and killed by him is able to be alive again. black cats themselves in various cultures become a symbol of a catastrophe that people want to avoid. poe here managed to build a horror story in the black cat by using a symbol of catastrophe in his work. nevertheless, the uncanny does not only exist in horror texts like the black cat. in fairy tales and children‘s fantasy stories, there are things that can evoke an impression or feelings of uncanny. rising from the dead is a theme that can evoke feelings of uncanny in either the real world or in text like the one in the black cat. a theme like this also appears in a popular story in children literature, snow white. nevertheless, the uncanny impression may not arise when people read snow white‘s story 2 . moreover, it is much loved by children from various cultural backgrounds for years. in addition, freud also gave example of other works such as ―canterville ghost‖ by oscar wilde in which there is a ―real‖ ghost but the uncanny impression may not show up when people read it. the same is true with winnie-the-pooh, there are things that can evoke feelings of uncanny in the novel. the uncanny feelings stem from the animal characters in the talking winnie-the-pooh, a bear character, and who can mimic real world human‘s habits such as eating at the dining table and using tools, writing songs, and even singing. when i imagine all these things could happen in the real world, the uncanny feeling comes to my 2 freud gave the example of snow white which is in the form of fairy tales in comparison with works from another genre that also contains the uncanny in it. mind. all of these things are things that animals cannot do in the real world. regarding the above, john locke and j.j. rousseau once warned the frightening aspects of fairy tales and fantasy stories (in susina, p.181). in winnie-the-pooh, these frightening aspects lie in the animal characters that can speak and behave like humans. in the freudian‘sviews, these two things can create an uncanny impression. animals that speak and behave like humans are reminiscent of the animistic beliefs about the universe, reminding us back to ―the idea that the world was peopled with the spirits of human beings‖ (freud, p.239). an animistic belief that has been repressed and ―defeated by modern thought makes us not believe that animals can speak and behave like humans. however, if the belief is not really ―defeated‖, the reappearance of such animistic beliefs can create an uncanny impression for us. although there are things that can create impression of the uncanny in winnie-thepooh, the impression that should come up just does not show up when people read the novel. in my point of view, there are two things that can cause things like the above condition, the first is the use of a fantasy world as the setting of the world in winniethe-pooh, and the second is how events in the novel are narrated. these two things affect the disappearance of the uncanny in winnie-thepooh. the uncanny things in the real world may have no uncanny effect if it is in the realm of fantasy. regarding this, freud argues that the lack of an uncanny impression is due to the fact that the world of fantasy and the real world are two different worlds. this is because the fantasy world relies its effect on the fact that the content in fantasy is and should not be compared to reality in the real world (freud, p.249). moreover, this happens language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 188 in winnie-the-poohwhich is a work of fantasy fiction. the existence of supernatural elements and unreal elements in fantasy is the reason why it is different from the real world. in a fantasy world, that animals can talk and behave like humans is not strange. however, if all these things happen in the real world, they can be something strange and even scary. nevertheless, as mentioned above, the world of fantasy and the real world are two different worlds. the strange, magical, and wonderful things that exist in the world of fantasy cannot be understood as strange, magical, and great if we do not compare them to those in the real world. different effects will be obtained when we compare them with reality in the real world. in this case, a writer has a great power and is also the reason for the emergence or disappearance of uncanny feeling in a literary work. an uncanny feeling that appears in the real world creates an unpleasant and frightening feeling and this also applies to the realm of literature. however, in the realm of literature, the uncanny effects obtained from the reading process depend on narration style. from the above explanation, it can be concluded that the emergence of an uncanny impression or feeling from reading a text is not based on whether there is anything related to the uncanny in the text or not. that state is just one of the reasons for the emergence of uncanny. how the uncanny is narrated is another important thing to make the impression or feeling of uncanny appear in the reading of a text. in the first chapter of winnie-the-pooh, for example, featured a conversation between pooh the honey bear and his human friend, christopher robin. ―good morning, christopher robin,‖ he said. ―good morning, winnie-the-pooh,‖ said you. ―i wonder if you‘ve got such a thing as a balloon about you?‖ ―a balloon?‖ ―yes, i just said to myself coming along: ‗i wonder if christopher robin has such a thing as a balloon about him?‘ i just said it to myself, thinking of balloons, and wondering.‖ ―what do you want a balloon for?‖ you said. winnie-the-pooh looked round to see that nobody was listening, put his paw to mouth, and said in deep whisper: ―honey!‖ ―but you don‘t get honey with balloons!‖ ―i do,‖ said pooh (milne, pp. 8-9). the conversation between pooh and christopher robin above tells about pooh who wants to take honey from a bee hive up in a tree using a balloon that is about the size of christopher robin‘s body. christopher robin finally gave the balloon he had to pooh. the balloon will be used by pooh to help him float in the air. this is because he needs something that can take him float in order to approach the honeycomb that is on a tall tree. with the help of a balloon, he did not have to bother climbing a tree. also, as long as he floats he will pretend to be a small black cloud that is in the sky so that the bees are not aware of its existence and do not sting it. therefore, he went to a muddy place and rolled over there so that he was black. from the above conversation, we may find it unusual and unfamiliar if it happens in the real world and even scary if it really does happen. the scary thing is a honey bear that speaks like a human. however, the uncanny impression does not appear in the harahap, a.m. (2018). the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 183—194. 189 conversation despite the unusual and strange conversation between a bear and a child. this can happen because the reader does not see the unusual conversation between a honey bear and a child as a scary or uncanny thing. in the freud‘s view, we as readers are able to regulate our sensibilities to the world of fiction (p.227). we may see the conversation as a matter of course. this can happen because we may be aware that it is happening in the realm of fantasy, a place where things that are impossible to happen in the world become possible there. the world of fantasy is not a real world. however, in fantasy, we can find ‗reality‘ even though the reality is different from the reality that is in the real world. the reality in the fantasy world has its own laws or rules that are different from those in the real world. the law that accepts animals can speak and communicate with humans using human language and we do not need to question its validity. besides we, as the reader, can manage our sensibility to the fictional world that we read, our main concern when reading the above conversation, instead, is not on the uncanny that is a talking bear. our attention is focused on the other things in the conversation. the thing that is unusual thing done by the bear is its effort to get honey. pooh who is a honey bear requires a balloon the size of christopher robin to get the honey. it is one unusual way to do by a bear. it was explained earlier in the novel that pooh needs a balloon big enough to make it float in the air for the sake of approaching a beehive in a tall tree. the idea comes to him after he falls from the tree where the beehive is. in other words, we pay more attention to pooh‘s efforts in getting honey when we read the above event than to question whether the bear can really speak or not. from the above explanation, it can be concluded that the uncanny that is in the conversation is not the center of event in the story. here, the power of the winnie-thepooh‘s writer is noticeably influential in directing readers‘ attention. he is able to direct our attention to certain things until we do not notice that the uncanny is there. in this case, he managed to direct our attention not to sense the uncanny in the conversation. we, as readers, are responsive to milne‘s direction not to notice the uncanny in the story. furthermore, freud argues that an uncanny impression can be derived from a text if the text has characters who feel the uncanny 3 . therefore, we, as the reader, have the same perspective as that character possessed as we follow events in a story using the character‘s perspective. the opposite condition applies when there is no a single character who feels the uncanny. from the conversation between pooh and christopher robin above, we know that christopher robin who is a human character does not feel the impression of uncanny when he finds a bear that can talk and communicate with him. it seems that the event is a usual thing for him. when we as readers have the same point of view as the character involved in the story in seeing the world, we cannot feel any impression of the uncanny although it has the uncanny in it. in other words, since christopher robin does not 3 i deduce this from the examples given by freud. one of them is the story of the rhampsinitus‘ treasure in which there is an event when the hunter‘s brother cut his arm. according to freud, the cutting of the hand is actually associated with a castration complex that can lead to impression of the uncanny. however, the uncanny does not appear in the story which, in freud‘s point of view, is because the reader concentrates more on the main character than on the princess who witnesses the cutting of the hand nor on the brother whose hand is cut off (freud, p. 246 and p. 251) language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 190 see a talking bear as uncanny, we do not think of it as uncanny too. moreover, since none of the characters has an uncanny impression as depicted in the conversation, it is impossible for us as readers to get a scary or an uncanny impression. this is because, according to freud, a fictional story can only create an uncanny impression if the author pretends to tell a true story. if we believe that the story is real, then we believe the real condition is being narrated (p.249). the disappearance of uncanny impression does not only occur in the conversation between animal characters and human characters like quoted above but also in conversations among the animal characters. for example, in chapter three, there is an event that shows pooh the bear and piglet the pig having a conversation. one fine winter‘s day when piglet was brushing away the snow in front of his house, he happened to look up, and there was winnie-the-pooh. pooh walking round and round in circle, thinking of something else, and when piglet called to him, he just went on walking. ―hallo!‖ said piglet, ―what are you doing?‖ ―hunting,‖ said pooh. ―hunting what?‖ ―tracking something,‖ said winniethe-pooh very mysteriously. ―tracking what?‖ said piglet, coming closer. ―that‘s just what i ask myself. i ask myself what?‖ ―what do you think you‘ll answer?‖ ―i shall have to wait until i catch up with it,‖ said winnie-the-pooh. ―now, look there.‖ he pointed to the grounds in front of him. ―what do you see there?‖ ―tracks,‖ said piglet. ―paw-marks.‖ he gave a little squeak of excitement. ―oh, pooh! do you think it‘s a – a – a woozle?‖ it may be,‖ said pooh. ―sometimes it is, and sometimes it isn‘t. you never can tell with paw-marks‖(milne, pp. 31-32). when we read the above conversation, our attention is not on the uncanny contained in the conversation that comes from the strange and unusual conversations made by two different animals and, in fact, using english. we are aware that the conversation takes place in a fantasy world, a world that can realize things that are unlikely to happen in the real world to be real. therefore, we do not feel the uncanny feeling when reading the above conversation. in other words, we are able to set our sensibility to not question whether the conversation actually takes place in the real world or not. our attention is directed to pay more attention to the serious and mysterious attitude shown by pooh when he notices the footprints on the ground until he ignores the calls of his best friend, piglet. moral values stories in winnie-the-pooh are like what happen in real life but the life has been represented in the form of fantasy fiction featuring animals as characters in the story. burke and copenhaver (2004) said that most children have curiosity on animals and love animals. the appearance of animals that can talk, make plans, and learn to read in the literary realm is a replica of reality and has a particular purpose for distorting reality (p.206). from this opinion, it can be concluded that the use of animal characters in harahap, a.m. (2018). the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 183—194. 191 the realm of literature can be considered as a replica of reality. in the replica, the animals are shown to have qualities like that of humans‘. in the realm of literature, animals that can speak and behave like humans is a form of distortion of reality that exists in the real world. through this distortion, a writer can convey a message to his/her readers. the use of the fantasy world as setting of stories in winnie-the-pooh, which is a children‘s novel, is appropriate and suitable because children are attracted to the supernatural elements and unreal elements like magic, imaginary animals, imaginary worlds and the heroic adventures that exist in fantasy (johnson, sickles, & sayers, 1977, p.865). the unreal and unlikely things in winnie-the-pooh are capable of attracting children‘s attention to read the novel or listen to its stories. regarding the children‘s interest in the unreal and impossible, especially animal-related things, taine (1877) said that: if we speak to her (or him) of an object . . . her (or his) first question always is – ‗what does it say?‘–‗what does the rabbit say?‘– ‗what does the bird say?‘– ‗what does the horse say?‘–‗what does the big tree say?‘ animal or tree, she (or he) immediately meets it as a person and wants to know its thoughts and words; that is what she (or he) cares about … (p.258). taine said the above statement is very much related to the era of the golden age. fantasy is undeniably, especially when it involves speaking animals, loved by children. the above illustration thus supported by another researcher, tess cosslett. according to cosslett (2006), [t]o allow one‘s animal characters to talk, then, is … the most effective way to amuse and interest a juvenile audience, and to arouse their sympathy and benevolent instincts. but these purposes conflict with the aim of accuracy and natural historical truth: animals in the real world cannot talk. this is why we have these protestations of the fabular and ‗make-believe‘ nature of the material, which, on another level, is meant to be taken seriously (p.39). providing literary works that children favor is important for their development and more importantly their education. this is because by providing children something that they like, adults can easily tell what children need to know. this process can be done using fantasy stories. through fantasies, in which children love, especially those featuring talking animals, adults can deliver values to children more easily. the use of children‘s favorite, or fantasy to be exact, is considered to be more successful in conveying messages to children than with literature that conveys the message directly (cuthew, 2006, p.35). the delivery of messages such as the moral teachings done directly found in many literary works for children before the 20 th century. moral teachings such as those in the babees books are delivered directly and are instructive, regardless of whether children like to read them or not. this is the concern of thinkers such as john locke who then suggested the merging of ―instruction‖ with ―delight‖ to attract children‘s attention. in addition to the above, winnie-thepooh novel that presents a ―reality‖ different from the real world can also be seen as forming memory to its audiences. memory formation process is influenced by things that exist in the novel. for example, a bear that is language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 192 a wild and dangerous beast in the real world is represented as a friendly animal, harmless, and even funny in the figure of pooh. for adults who already had a memory of bears in the real world, might think that a bear like pooh does not exist in the real world. this is because we are able to manage our sensibility that the ―reality‖ in winnie-the-pooh is a mere fantasy. however, different things can happen to children who do not have a memory of bears in the real world. children who read or listen to stories in winnie-thepooh could have a memory of a bear, in the form of pooh, as a kind, friendly, willing to sacrifice for his best friend, and also funny. this can, then, lead to a canny memory of bears in their memory. a story of president roosevelt in 1902 is probably the most famous story of the bear hunt in the world that even then inspired the production of teddy bear dolls, the bear doll that is often used as a symbol of affection. twenty-four years later, milne published winnie-the-pooh featuring pooh the bear as a friendly, harmless, and funny bear. this is also supported by ernest sheppard‘s illustrations depicting pooh as a harmless bear (like having no sharp teeth and claws) even compared to christopher robin who is still a child. as children grow and then learn another reality that bears are wild animals in the real world, the memory of embedded from the novels can affect their view of bears. in this case,we can see that the presence of pooh as a friendly, harmless, and funny bear can be used to make the children to have affection for bears and not to have heart to hunt and kill bears. on one hand, the distortion of reality in the real world into fantasy fiction seems to have things that can create an uncanny feeling. the characters of animals that can speak and behave like humans in winnie-thepooh can be a creepy thing if it really happens in the real world. on another hand, however, the presence of animals (even though they can speak) in children literature can be used to educate children some values. for this purpose, the use of the fantasy world as a setting becomes very important because it allows things that are not real to be real, things that are impossible to be possible. the shrewdness of the author in composing stories is very important here. a. a. milne in this case managed to make the uncanny not to appear in winnie-the-pooh. conclusion the existence of the uncanny in winnie-thepooh does not necessarily make ita horror novel. this is possible because although there is the uncanny in it, the uncanny impression does not appear when we read the novel. based on the discussion above, the emergence of uncanny feeling from reading a text is not based on whether there are things related to the uncanny in the text or not. having uncanny qualities is just one of the reasons for it to emerge. how the uncanny being narrated is the most important aspect in its emergence. in other words, the emergence of uncanny in fiction does not lie in the presence of things in the story that can arouse uncanny feeling but lies in how the uncanny is narrated in the story. from the analysis above, the presence of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh is not the central of all stories in it. as the uncanny does not become the main focus in winnie-thepooh narration, it is able to make the audiences unaware of the uncanny. this affects the uncanny impression not to appear when people read it. in other words, the reader‘s attention goes to something else in the story. harahap, a.m. (2018). the disappearance of uncanny in winnie-the-pooh and its use for education. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 183—194. 193 winnie-the-pooh is a result of distortion of real-world reality made by milne. this distortion apparently can attract children to read the work. on one hand, the distortion of reality seems to have things that can bring an impression or an uncanny feeling. animal characters that can speak and behave like humans in winnie-the-pooh are uncanny. however, the distortion of reality also involves the elements that children are fond of like animals and fantasy. children who also regard animals as human beings they want to know what animals are thinking and say make the effort to educate become easier. this is in line with the spirit of from 18 th century children‘s literature and thereafter with the aim of ―to instruct‖ and ―to delight‖ the children. references burke, c.l., & copenhaver, j.g. (2004). animals as people in children‘s literature. languange arts, 81(3). the national council of teachers of english. carpenter, h., & pritchard, m. (1984). the oxford companion to children‟s literature. new york: oxford university press. cosslett, t. (2006). talking animals in british children‟s fiction, 1786-1914. aldershot, uk: ashgate. cuthew, l.m. (2006). fantasy, morality and ideology: a comparative study of c. s. lewis' the chronicles of narnia and philip pullman's his dark materials. mphil thesis. birmingham: university of birmingham. drabble, m. (1985). the oxford companion to english literature. oxford: oxford university press. egoff, s. (1980). thursday's child: trends and patterns in contemporary children's literature. chicago: american library association. freud, s. (1919). the ‗uncanny‘‖ in the standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud, volume xvii (1917-1919): an infantile neurosis and other works, p. 217-256. johnson, s., & sayers. 1977. ―fantasy‖ in the anthology of children literature 5th edition. boston: houghton mifflin company. milne, a. a. (1926). winnie-the-pooh. london: methuen & co ltd. susina, j. (2004). ―children‘s literature‖ in encyclopedia of children and childhood: in history and society. ed. paula. s. fass. new york: macmillan reference. taine, h.(1877). the acquisition of language by children. mind, 2(6), 252-9. language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 209 pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid to improve speaking skills in junior high school students deswandito dwi saptanto1 dittoissublime@gmail.com tri arie bowo2 arie622@gmail.com ratih laily nurjanah3 ratih.laily@gmail.com 1,2,3department of english literature, ngudi waluyo university abstract this study focuses on improving students’ abilities in learning english with the support of pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid. the use of this metaplan aims to improve speaking skills in formal and non-formal contexts. this pictorial metaplan is a realia in the form of an illustrated carpet with a theme getting direction. pictorial metaplan focuses on the topic getting direction and applied directly to 15 students in the 8th grade of junior high school. the implementation of the use of the pictorial metaplan begins with distributing questionnaires and implementing pretest and post-test, then direct implementation of using pictorial metaplan combined with total physical response (tpr) method. the treatment for students was carried out by dividing two class groups, the control group, and the experimental group. the control group used conventional methods, without using learning aids, while the second group used the pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid. based on the results of pre-test and post-test show an increase in the results of the values before and after implementing the pictorial metaplan. thus it can be concluded that learning in the experimental group using pictorial metaplan is more effective than learning using conventional methods. keywords: pictorial metaplan, teaching aid, total physical response (tpr) introduction learning english as a second language for young learners certainly provides many advantages namely the ability to speak english properly and correctly. uysal and yavuz, (2015) states that learning english from an early age will certainly get optimal results in increasing a person’s ability to learn english. the learning process should use various methods and materials according to their needs. anggani and bharati (2010) states that recently learning and teaching process using english as the medium of communication becomes a trend in indonesia. a school that conducts this method must have professional teachers that are not only good at teaching but also good at preparing the administration stuff (lesson plan, material, media, and documents). hapsari (2020) also states that teachers hold the key role of the success in teaching and learning in the class. the teacher must be able to develop and create interesting materials, teaching aid, and also good class management. these will affect the student's motivation, so they can enjoy studying the material with their teacher. the use of a teaching aid can act as a medium of assistance in teaching english to become a more interactive and fun subject. this interactive learning provides opportunities for students to take part and interact directly with the help of learning aids. this pictorial metaplan application can facilitate the interactive english learning process. the problems that appear in learning english are the lack of appropriate materials and teaching aid that able to facilitate students in https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:dittoissublime@gmail.com mailto:arie622@gmail.com mailto:ratih.laily@gmail.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 210 learning english interactively. lack of time and the lack of direct interaction with one another using english in the classroom is what causes students’ abilities to not develop optimally. the students’ lack of ability will cause new problems, namely fears and worries in using english in non-formal and formal contexts. this problem must be resolved immediately, by directly applying the use of the pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid combined with the roleplay method. clapper (2010) argues that the use of the role-play method provides many benefits for students who are learning material. the role-play method can spur a student to think critically in solving problems. this study aims to see the improvement of students in learning english, especially in speaking competence. pictorial metaplan will be used as a teaching aid to improve speaking skills. the novelty or state of the art from this research is to create a pictorial metaplan product in the form of a carpet with pictures integrated into english subjects in 8th grade of junior high school students. the pictorial metaplan has the theme getting direction which has the aim of creating an interactive and thematic learning atmosphere in the class. this pictorial metaplan will be applied to the students which are carried out with the total physical response (tpr) method to obtain a valid result of an increase in the value of skills obtained before and after the application of this pictorial metaplan. this pictorial metaplan consists of a pictorial carpet, a list of street names in three major cities in the world (semarang, new york, london), a package of building names, and a carpet containing questions that will be used to ask directions. the direct learning process to communicate using english will be created very effectively, interactive and communicative because the use of pictorial metaplan must be done by two people in one team. the final result that is expected from the direct application of the use of pictorial metaplan can improve students’ skills in learning english, especially speaking skills. speaking ability the ability to speak english well is something everyone needs, this is because english plays an important role in the success of communicating with foreign parties as well as a major success factor in the sphere of education, employment, business, international relations, and technological developments. english skills, especially in speaking and vocabulary is the main thing because these two things are the basis for a person to master and communicate well in english. as we know, english is an international language that must be mastered. by referring to the explanation above, it can be seen that speaking has a major role in various aspects, a person’s success in communicating means that the message is conveyed well and effectively. however, the basic ability to speak fluently in english is certainly supported by the large number of vocabulary we have, the more vocabulary we master, the smoother and more interesting the sentences we create. speaking skills is the key to success to gain profit and success in the communication process. khan and ali (2010) find a phenomenon that has been experienced by students, namely the limited time and opportunities for them to make presentations and speak in english in class. refer to this point then derakhshan et al. (2016) state that speaking learning should focus on direct practical activities using interesting materials so that oral activities are created such as imitation, responsiveness, intensive extensive performance, transactional dialogue, and interpersonal dialogue to improve their speaking abilities. people who learn english as a foreign language can improve their speaking skills with the help of media such as role-plays, videos, flashcards, and graphs. interactive learning media is very suitable to be used as a learning aid in the scope of speaking competence. role-play https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 211 increasing the ability to speak in english certainly requires an appropriate method for students, so they have enough time and opportunity to interact directly with the material provided by the teacher. the role-play method is a suitable method for implementing interactive english learning. liu & ding (2009) stated that the role-play method is a very effective technique to be able to create an atmosphere of teaching and learning in the classroom, increase enthusiasm for learning, try to interact verbally with the existing material, and create great new words. the use of the role-play method must be supported by interesting and new material, the teacher as a facilitator and students as a participant, the teacher must synergize with the material and immediately correct mistakes when students do the direct practice. total physical response total physical response (tpr) is a method suitable for the interactive learning process. putri (2016) expressed the opinion that tpr is a decent method for young learners. it can help young learners to memorize some commands or some vocabularies easily through the use of their physical movement. the students will not only learnable but also interesting and enjoyable. in the application of this tpr, a teacher must be prepared with several things, namely: as a teacher, as a role model who functions as an action supervisor until students are ready to imitate what the teacher says and does. this method is great for improving students’ listening and speaking skills. sano (1986) stated that the tpr method is very effective to be applied in learning english for beginners. because by using the tpr method, the learning process becomes more active, interactive, and effective. the application of this tpr can make students more creative and communicative in learning the material. pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid the use of pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid media can increase students’ interest in learning english more dynamically and creatively. asemota (2015) states that teaching aids help the learning process on both sides, namely helping the teaching process carried out by the teacher and also helping students in learning material using interactive methods. the use of media can be a medium in the scope of learning and offer more interesting learning concepts. the use of this learning media can be right on target, and practical. learning media can facilitate students to interact with the object directly by seeing, hearing, and feeling the material provided by the teacher. the learning media stimulates the users’ thinking and creativity to be applied in direct practice in the classroom. pictorial metaplan can develop creative ideas and make them easy to convey. the use of metaplan can facilitate users in finding and determining their ideas from those that are still in a general context to those that are more focused and specific. maisiska (2014) through the results of her research explains that learning using metaplan can help students to be more creative, communicative, and interactive. the use of metaplan in learning can also make users’ ideas more structured and directed. ramshaw (1989) also states that the use of metaplan is very effective when it is used as a medium in problem-solving discussions, planning a project target, and also for reviewing the results of achievements that have been made by an organization or company in a project. croasdell et al. (2003) suggest that the concept map is generally shaped like a spider web (as the main concept) and is divided and connected to various topic points. the use of pictorial metaplan is a modified form of an existing concept map of ideas/thoughts. this pictorial metaplan is a form of thematic concept, namely in the form of a city map complete with buildings and street names. the position of the building and the name of the street can be moved according to the needs and desires of the user. ovchinnikova et al. (2015) have succeeded in using metaplan as a medium of teaching and learning to improve vocabulary and speaking skills in english for students. based on some of the researches above, it can be concluded that the teaching and learning media in the form of a pictorial metaplan can be integrated and used to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 212 improve speaking competence with interactive teaching methods. methodology this research uses a quantitative method with a quasi group design. participants/samples/research subjects the subjects of this study were students of 8th grade at sekolah menengah pertama negeri 3 ungaran as total sampling which was divided into two types of treatment, namely treatment using conventional method and treatment with role-play method using pictorial metaplan as teaching aid. the results of this study were to measure whether the pictorial metaplan media could improve the speaking competence of the 8th grade of junior high school students. research steps this study uses a quantitative method with a quasigroup design, according to wu & little (2011), quantitative research methods encompass three broad categories: design, measurement, and analysis issues. maciejewski (2020) states that quasiexperiments are similar to randomized controlled trials in many respects, but there are many challenges in designing and conducting a quasiexperiment when internal validity threats are introduced from the absence of randomization.this research created a product of pictorial metaplan with a city map theme. the quantitative method using paired sample test and independent-sample test were used to calculate this efficiency of the product when it is applied to the users. the following are the steps carried out in the study: the pre-test was carried out to all research subjects using image media with the theme ‘show me the direction’, the following image is the representation of the material. figure 1 the picture of a map to be given in the pre-test and post-test the next step was the treatment stage for the research subject, by dividing all students of 8th grade of junior high school at sekolah menengah pertama negeri 3 ungaran into two groups, namely: the control group and the experimental group. the implementation of english learning with the theme getting direction was applied to the research subject. learning ‘direction’ was applied with the conventional learning method in the control group and on the other hand, learning ‘direction’ was applied in the experimental group class using the pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid. after being treated three times, the next step was to carry out a post-test to the two groups using the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 213 same question material as the pre-test question material. the final step of this research activity was to calculate the results obtained using statistics. the results of this score will show whether the pictorial metaplan media is effective in improving the speaking skills of the 8th grade of junior high school students. result and discussion the research entitled ‘pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid to improve speaking skills in junior high school students’ includes several stages, while these stages are as follows: implementation of the pre-test this research begins with the implementation of the pre-test given to 30 junior high school students at sekolah menengah pertama negeri 3 ungaran. pre-test stage the research subjects were 30 students who followed the pre-test stage by applying pictorial questions with the theme getting direction. during the pre-test, 8th-grade students made group presentations. each group consists of two people, one person will be so meone who asks about the direction and name of the road to the place you want to go to, while the other person will show you the direction and street names according to the picture problem. stage of assessment and collection of pretest results in the pre-test, the author made an assessment based on the speaking competency rubric. the rubric aspects consist of fluency, pronunciation, accuracy, clarity, and performance skill. treatment stage the treatment stage is the application of learning by carrying out two different learning designs and running simultaneously. treatment was carried out three times in these two groups (control group and experimental group). figure 2 pictorial metaplan image in the form of a pictorial carpet which is used by placing it on the floor and then putting the names of the streets and buildings in the first class, 15 students were included in the control group and followed the learning process using the conventional face-to-face method without the help of teaching aid media, only by using handbook material with the theme getting direction which was applied using https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 214 conversation gambit in the verbal communication process. in the second class, 15 students entered the experimental group and followed the learning process using teaching aid media in the form of a pictorial metaplan with the theme getting direction. pictorial metaplan is divided into 3 different city packages, namely: semarang, london, and new york. the implementation in each of these different cities emphasizes the context of fluency in speaking, vocabulary, and also the process of interaction with two-way verbal communication. the following is a pictorial metaplan used to improve students’ speaking skills in the experimental group class. figure 3 pictures of street names and building names that can be attached to the pictorial metaplan and changed its position according to the user’sneeds. figure 4 the implementation of using pictorial metaplan in 8th grade junior high school students to improve the speaking skill https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 215 post-test stage this stage is the test stage to find out whether there is a significant value from the implementation of the pre-test, namely before being given treatment and after being given treatment. the research subjects carried out the post-test with the question material, namely the pictorial map as given during the pre-test. stage of assessment and collection of posttest results this stage is the final stage of conducting the research, namely by collecting the results of the pre-test and post-test to be processed using statistical calculations. the results of the experimental group learning outcomes the mean result of the pre-test group i was 59.40 while the post-test result of that group was 79.47. the results of group 1 pre-test and posttest can be seen in the following table. table 1 paired sample statistics group i based on paired sample statistics group i, it can be seen that the results of learning outcomes in group i increased from 59.40 to 79.47, which is an increase of 20.07 points. the results of the control group learning outcomes the pre-test mean result of group ii was 59.40, while the post-test of that group reached a mean value of 71.87. this can be seen from the table below. table 2 paired sample statistics group ii the table shows that there is an increase in the learning outcomes of group ii by 12.47 points from the pre-test which amounted to 59.40 to the posttest results of 71.87. the difference in the learning outcomes of the experimental group and the control group the learning outcomes in group i experienced an increase in learning outcomes by 20.07 points, while the learning outcomes in group 2 increased by 12.47 points. the significance of these differences can be seen through the following independent sample test https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 216 table 3 independent samples test result based on the results of data analysis in table 4, it can be seen that the sig. (2-tailed) value is 0.001 which means less than 0.05. this shows that h 0 is rejected and h a is accepted. thus it can be concluded that learning in the experimental group using pictorial metaplan is more effective than learning using conventional methods. conclusion this research fulfills the needs of students to get greater opportunities to do direct practice in learning english. the use of the pictorial metaplan media with the theme getting direction combined with the total physical response (tpr) method has been able to facilitate students to be more active and creative. based on the results, it can be concluded that interactive learning using the pictorial metaplan as a teaching aid is more effective in improving students’ speaking skills, especially on the theme of getting direction. acknowledgement this research is fully funded by the direktorat riset dan pengabdian masyarakat direktorat jenderal riset dan pengembangan kementerian riset, teknologi, dan pendidikan tinggi (indonesian ministry of research, technology, and higher education), therefore we solemnly express our gratitude to the aforementioned institution. we also wanted to express our gratitude to media experts, teachers, and students, who have helped us by giving valuable information to develop our final product. references anggani, d., & bharati, l. 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(1989). a metaplan model for problem-solving discourse. https://doi.org/10.3115/976815.976820 sano, m. (1986). how to incorporate total physical response into the english programme. elt journal. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/40.4.270 uysal, n. d., & yavuz, f. (2015). teaching english to very young learners. procedia social and behavioral sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07. 042 wu, w., & little, t. d. (2011). quantitative research methods. in encyclopedia of adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012373951-3.00034-x https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://doi.org/10.3115/976815.976820 http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 218 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ methodology this research uses a quantitative method with a qu research steps result and discussion implementation of the pre-test treatment stage the results of the control group learning outcomes the difference in the learning outcomes of the exp conclusion acknowledgement references language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x errors made by vocational school students in translating analytical exposition text ayu permatasari universitas negeri semarang, indonesia email: ayu8permatasari@gmail.com issy yuliasri universitas negeri semarang, indonesia email: issy.yuliasri@gmail.com abstract the research aims to describe the kinds of translation errors made by vocational school students in translating analytical exposition text from english into indonesian. the method used in the research was descriptive qualitative. the subject of the research was the eleventh graders of fashion program of smk al asror semarang. an analytical exposition text consisting of 5 paragraphs (source texts) and all of its’ translations in indonesian (the target texts) were used in the research to find out the translation errors. then the researchers classified them into 5 kinds of translation errors according to vilar et al. (2006, p. 698). the results of the research revealed that there were 232 translation errors found in students’ translation. there were translation errors in the form of incorrect word (60.3%), punctuation (26.3%), missing word (6.0 %), word order (5.2%), and unknown words (2.2%). in conclusion, the three most prominent error categories made by the students were incorrect word, punctuation, and missing word errors. keywords: translation errors, students’ translation, exposition text, engish-indonesian translation. information has been covered in indonesian yet. vocational school students need to get more information from books written in english. that is why translation is needed. catford (1965, p.20) defines translation as “the replacement of a textual maerial in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language)”. translation is very crucial in the process of exchannging information. “without translation, prospective scientists will be left behind in the following the development of science, moreover if they lack the ability to read the foreign language text” (widyamartaya, 1989). error that is made by learners are sometimes systematic (ellis, 1997). linguists revealed that learners’ errors are systematic and that they reflect the stage of development that a learner has reached. so, one learner and another might have different error in certain condition but the source of error might be the same. as the error is part of learning, lightown and spada (2000) have argued that when an error has occured frequently, it has been useful for teachers to bring the problem to the students’ attention. “identified types and causes of errors might help the students and the teachers to overcome students’ common errors” (parvin, 2019). there are some previous studies concerintroduction language is a tool to communicate or interact with people. the development of language walk together with the development of people’s lives, it means language and people have a close relationship. language is used by people in a society to express and receive thoughts, feelings, ideas, attitudes, and experiences. people must learn not only their mother tongue, which they have learned in their family or area where they live, but they also need to learn international languages used in international world such as english. indonesian students have already studied english since they are in junior high schools (obligatory) or primary schools (optional, depending on the school policy) and they are expected to be able to communicate both spoken and written english upon completion of their senior high school. in order to be able to use english, students should learn and understand four language skills and language elements. language skills consist of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. language elements consist of vocabulary, pronunciation, sound, meaning, and grammar. in the case of vocational school, not all language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 192 previous studies above, the study which discusses students’ translation errors from english-indonesian according to vilar et al. (2006:698) has not been done before. the errors is clasified into five big classes: missing words, word order, incorrect words, unknown words, and punctuation errors. the classification can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. classification of translation errors for some people, translation is not an easy task to do. also for vocational school students. arono and nadrah (2019) conducted a research about students’ difficulties in translating english text and to find out the teacher’s efforts to solve the problem. the result of the study shows that almost all the students still follow the form of the source language but they have tried to translate it into target language by modifying it. some errors made were elliptical errors, idioms, and textual meaning. to solve the problem, the researcher recommended the teacher to conduct more varied methods, practices, and materials to motivate the students in translation class. therefore, the research problem of this study is (1) what kinds of translation errors are made by the 11th graders fashion program of smk al asror semarang in translating exposition text. based on the research problem above, this study would like to identify and describe the kinds of translation errors that made by the students in translating exposition text. methodology this research employs descriptive qualitative method. this study is specific to text analysis which uses context analysis approach. the subject of this research was the 11th graders fashion program of smk al asror semarang. the object of this research was translation errors found in analytical exposition text made by them. the analysis was conducted in the following steps. first, reading the text carefully both in english and indoning translation errors analysis. krisetyawati (2010), narulita (2016), halimah (2018), connducted the researches about english-indonesian translation errors in different contexts, krisetyawati studied the students’ errors in translating english noun phrases into indonesian among fifth-semester students of the english departement of teacher training and education faculty, sebelas maret university. there are four types errors occured; omission, misinformation, misordering, and addition errors. the highest number of errors is in omission errors (49.30%). the other studies used genre texts as the object of study. for example narulita (2018) conducted translation errors in narrative text. the most errors found were missing of substitute words, ommition, and wrong lexical choice. other researchers, silalahi, rafli, and rasyid (2018) also conducted a research on a scientific text as the object of study. napitupulu (2017) conducted a research on abstracts translated with google translate using five types of error classification namely lexicosemantic, tense, preposition, word order, distribution and use of verb group, and active and passive voice errors. while, setiawan (2014) conducted a research on abstracts of educational administration students of post graduate school of state university of medan. setiawan classified the type of errors into two types, namely grammatical errors and content errors. in grammatical error type, the use of the verb group took 58% and in the content error type, the presentation of different sense took 38%. the dominant type of grammatical errors was caused by the confusion of verb groups in dealing with the english grammar systems. while, the dominant type of content errors was caused by the failure in choosing appropriate words. that is because of the lack of vocabulary mastery. hartono and priyatmojo (2016) in their research used four samples of soft drink product labels as the texts to be translated. from the data analysis, they found many errors. the dominant errors found in translating those labels were mistranslation, addition, word choice, too free translated, too literal, word-for-word, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.yastiawijaya (2018) conducted research about translation errors in english-indonesian president’s speech text produced by students of the sixth semester of english education program at stkip kie raha ternate. the research aimed to find what kinds of errors they made. the result showed that the students committed errors in omission (97.3%), misinformation (1.8%), and addition (0.9%). in conclusion, from the discussion of the language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 193 nesian. after the errors have been identified, they were classified into 5 categories of translation errors by vilar et.al.(2006:698) as follows: errors in the form of missing word, word order, incorrect word, unknown word, and punctuation. results and discussion the data analyzed in this study were translation errors according to vilar et.al. (2006: 698). there were 232 errors found in the students’ translation in eleventh graders fashion program of smk al asror semarang academic year 2019/2020. after analyzing the data, the researchers found out that the students made all kinds of errors in their translations. there were 232 errors covering missing words (content and filler word), word order, incorrect words (wrong lexical choice, incorrect disambiguation, incorrect form, and extra words), unknown words, and punctuation. the data can be seen in table 1. the three most prominent error categories made by the students are errors in the form of incorrect word, punctuation, and missing word. incorrect word becomes the highest category of tanslation errors which occured (60.3%) of the errors found in the analysis. it was followed by punctuation (26.3%) and missing word (6.0%). there are examples of the data analysis based on the findings on the students’ translation errors. missing word there were two kinds of missing words found i.e. content word and filler word. content word concerns with missing words which are important to express the meaning of the sentence. filler word concerns with missing words which are merely needed to form a grammatically correct sentence. content word from the data, there were 9 errors found in students’ translation. example: sl: in australia there are three levels of governments, the federal government, state governments and local governments. tl: di australia masih banyak 3 pemerintahan, pemerintahan pusat, kb pemerintah dan lokal pemerintah. bt: in australia there are still 3 governments, federal government, government kb and government local. based on the example above, the student made errors called punctuation, missing word, unknown word, and words order. errors in the form of missing word occured because the student did not translate the important word that is supposed to be written to show the meaning “tingkatan”(levels) to make the sentence equivalent with the sl. from the explanation above, that sample can be categorized as missing word errors especially error in content word. filler word from the data, there were 5 errors found in students’ translation. example: sl: they look after things like collecting rubbish, otherwise everyone would have diseases. tl: mereka setelah melihat berbagai hal mengumpulkan sampah, jika tidak tiap orang akan mempunyai penyakit. bt: they after seeing many things collecting rubbish, otherwise everyone would have disease. based on the example above, there found table 1. frequency of errors no. kinds of error errors’ frequency % total % 1. missing word content word 9 3.9 % 14 6.0 % filler word 5 2.2 % 2. word order 12 5.2 % 12 5.2 % 3. incorrect word wrong lexical choice 75 32.3 % 140 60.3 % incorrect disambiguation 17 7.3 % incorrect form 35 15.1 % extra word 13 5.6 % style 0 0 % idiom 0 0 % 4. unknown word 5 2.2 % 5 2.2 % 5. punctuation 61 26.3 % 61 26.3 % total 232 100% language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 194 errors in the form of punctuation, wrong lexical choice, missing word, and incorrect form. to make the sentence above grammatically correct, there should be a conjunction “seperti” (like) which is supposed to be placed in the target language. conjunction is used to give connection between sentences. the student should add a conjunction “seperti”(like) between”things” and “collecting” for a better translation. from the explanation above, that sample can be categorized as missing word error especially errors in filler word. word order word order errors showed that the error directs to the wrong structure of the sentence. twelve errors were found in students’ translation. example: sl: in australia there are three levels of governments, the federal government, state governments and local governments. tl: di australia masih banyak 3 tingkat pemerintahan, pemerintahan pusat, kb pemerintah dan lokal pemerintah. bt: in australia still many 3 levels of governments, federal government, kb government and local government. based on the example above, lokal pemerintah should be replaced by pemerintah lokal because indonesian noun phrase follows head-modifier pattern. there is different structure in head and modifier between source text and target text. in english, the structure of noun phrase has a dominant position of modifier-head, whereas in indonesian, it has position of head-modifier. because local is a modifier and government is a head, so the structure should be “pemerintah lokal”. the error in writing the structure of noun phrase above indicates a word order error. incorrect word according to vilar et al. (2006:698) classification of errors, there are 6 kinds of incorrect words in students’ translation. there were for wrong lexical choice, incorrect disambiguation, incorrect form, extra words, style, and idiom errors. this research only occured four errors; wrong lexical choice, incorrect disambiguation, incorrect form, and extra words. wrong lexical choice wrong lexical choice is the most cause of errors that happened in the students’ translation. there were 75 errors (32.3 %) found in the students’ translation. example: sl: similarly, the state government looks after the middle sized things. tl: dengan cara yang sama, setelah melihat pemerintah negara yang kedua. bt: similarly, after seeing the second state government. based on the example above, there was error in the form of incorrect word specially in the form of wrong lexical choice. “look after” and “middle sized things”. “look after” is a phrasal verb which means mengurus (taking care of) but the student translate the phrase word for word into setelah melihat (after seeing). totally, there were 39 errors found in students’ translation for translating a phrasal verb “look after” in the text. then “middle sized things” translated into “yang kedua” (the second of). from the explanation above, that sample can be categorized as incorrect words errors especially errors in wrong lexical choice. incorrect disambiguation the sum of incorrect disambiguation errors were 28 (12.0%) that are found in the students’ translation worksheet. example: sl: they keep the economy in order and look after things like defense. tl: mereka menyimpan ekonomi di dalam pesanan dan melihat tentang berbagai hal sama seperti pembelaan. bt: they save the economy in order and see about things same as defense. based on the example above, there was error in the form of incorrect disambiguation found in the target language. the translation here causes incorrect disambiguation and give confusion for the reader. keep was translated into menyimpan (save), in order was translated into di dalam pesanan (in errand), look after was translated into melihat tentang (look about), and defense was translated into pembelaan (plea). the disambiguation was caused by some wrong lexical choices that happened in the text. incorrect form this kind of error refers to the wrong grammatical form for example the use of tenses, subject verb agreement, and the wrong word form. for example, it is supposed to use noun but the adjective form is used. incorrect forms occure 35 times (15.1%) in the students’ translation. example: sl: for examples they look after law and order, preventing things like vandalism in schools. tl: untuk contoh mereka selanjutnya melihat perlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 195 aturan dan perintah, mencegah berbagai hal suka merusak di sekolah. bt: for example they next seeing law and command, preventing things like vandalism in school. based on the example above, there found errors in the form of incorrect form. the word “like” is not appropriate in the word form. like in tl was translated into a verb suka (love). suka means to find something pleasant or satisfactory. here, like is as a conjunction that means seperti (as). the errors in writing the form of part of speech of the word above indicates error in the form of incorrect form. extra word extra words refer to words that are not important to be present in the translation. there are 13 times (5.6 %) extra words errors found in the students’ work. example: sl: all of these levels of government are necessary. tl: semua 3 tingkat pemerintah sangat penting. bt: all of these 3 levels of government are very important. the meaning of the underlined word on the target language “sangat” is not mentioned in the source language. the student wrote additional word which is not written on the source language. therefore, the meaning in the target language is different from the source language. to be “are” on the source language does not necessarily translate as “sangat”(very). in conclusion, the word “sangat” (very) belongs to error in the form of extra word. unknown word unknown word refers to the word that was detected and considered unknown because it does not exist in the dictionary. such words are found 5 times (2.2%) errors in students’ translation. example: sl: they look after things like collecting rubbish, otherwise everyone would have diseases. tl: mereka suka melihat kolek sampah, kebalikannya semua orang akan mempunyai penyakit. bt: they like seeing collect rubbish, otherwise everyone would have disease. the word “collecting” was translated into “kolek”. there is no such word as “kolek” in indonesian. so, it is classified into unknown word because the readers do not know the meanings. punctuation punctuation errors occure 61 times (26.3%) in students’ translation. in this study, the errors found were capital letter, full stop, comma, and quotation mark. example: sl: in australia there are three levels of governments, the federal government, state governments and local governments. tl: di australia disana ada tiga tingkat pemerintahan. pemerintahan pusat itu, keadaan pemerintah dan lokal pemerintah. bt: in australia there are three levels of government, that federal government, situation governments and local governments. the example above, shows error in the form of wrong lexical choice, word order, and punctuation. wrong lexical choice occures in word “state” translated into “keadaan” (situation), words order occure in “lokal pemerintah” should be replaced by “pemerintah lokal” because indonesian noun phrase follows head-modifier pattern, and errors in the form of pnctuation occures in capitalization; name of a nation (australia) should be written in a capital letter. conclusion the results of the study show that incorrect word errors are the most prominent. wrong lexical choice, incorrect form, and incorrect disambiguation are the three most common incorrect word errors. this implies that the students have grammatical and vocabulary problems in understanding english as their foreign language. each student made around 26 until 43 translation errors from the analytical exposition text consisting of 5 paragraphs and 10 sentences. it means that the errors made are quite significant. so, for the teachers, it is recommended to highlight grammar and vocabulary in the teaching-learning process and to give chance the students to do more translation practice. references arono & nadrah. (2019). students’ difficulties in translating english text. journal of applied linguistics and literature. 4(1). catford, j. (1978). a linguistic theory of translation. oxford : oxford university press. ellis, rod. (1997). second lanuage acquisition. oxford: oxford university press. halimah. (2018). error analysis in english-indonesian machine translate. international seminar on education and development of asia. 29-36. hartono, r., & priyatmojo, a. (2016). tanslation errors of soft drink product labels from indonesian into engish. the international seminar prasasti iii (pp. 659-664). surakarta: linguistics language circle: journal of language and literature 14(2) april 2020 196 doctoral program of sebelas maret university. krisetyawati, b. (2019, march 13). an error analysis on the translation of english noun phrases into indonesian of the fifth semester students of the english department of teacher training and education faculty, sebelas maret university in the academic year 2009/2010. lightbown, p.m. and spada, n. (2000). how languages are learned. oxford: oxford university press. napitulu, s. (2017). analyzing indonesian-english abstracts translation in view of translation errors b google translate. international journal of english language and linguistics research,5 (2), 15-23. narulita, s. (2016). error analysis on student’s narrative text in translation class of english department of kutai kartanegara university. jurnal intelegensia, 1(1). parvin, s. (2019). error analysis of the written production of te undergraduates of english literature. the 7th eltlt international conference (pp. 213224). semarang: faculty of languages and arts, state university of semarang. setiawan, y. (2013). english translation errors in abstract of educational administration students. unpublished master’s thesis, unimed. silalahi, m., rafli, z., & rasyid, y. (2018). the analysis of errors in translation of scientific text from english to indonesian language. journal of education teaching and learning. 3(1). vilar et al. (2007). error analysis and statistical machine translation output. universidad politecnica de madrid. widyamartaya, a. (1987), kreatif mengarang. yogyakarta: kanisus. wnag, x. (2009). exploring the negative transfer on english learning. asian social science, 138143. yastiawijaya, r. (2018). translation errors in englishindonesian president’s speech text produced by students of the sixth semester of english education program at stkip kie raha ternate. journal of linguistics, literature, and language education, 1(1). language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 53 the use of snowballing strategy in teaching reading literary texts (short stories) sri wahyuni semarang state university email: siriwahyunifbsunnes@yahoo.co.id abstract reading texts for literary experience is different from reading them for information. actually, there are two general stances (efferent and aesthetic stances) readers may choose when constructing meaning and responding to literature. in the efferent stance the reader‟s purpose is primarily to gain information and analyze the author technique. the emphasis is on recalling, paraphrasing, and analyzing details. in the aesthetic stance the reader‟s purpose is primarily to “live through” the experience presented in the text and to associate the text with personal experience and feelings. the emphasis is on personally connecting with the text as one reads, developing deeper insights into the human experience and responding thoughtfully to the ideas and insights presented. thus, it is necessary to apply a strategy in teaching reading literary texts. one of useful strategies for comprehending and discussing literary selections is a snowballing strategy. to apply the strategy in teaching reading literary texts, action research is used as a research methodology. this research is carried out in one of the 4th semester classes, literature study program, semarang state university. key words: snowballing strategy, literary texts introduction reading english literary text for indonesian students is not an easy task. the students have to read english literary text as a foreign language text and understand different cultural background that is taken by the author of literary text. based on the recent research results, there are ten principles in teaching reading; requiring purposeful and explicit teaching, classroom interaction that support the understanding of specific texts, starting before learners read conventionally, teaching learners the skills and strategies used by expert readers, requiring careful analysis of text to determine its appropriateness for particular students and strategies, building on and resulting in knowledge, vocabulary, and advanced language development, pervading all genres, actively engaging learners in text and motivating them to use strategies and skills, requiring assessment that inform instruction and monitor learner progress, requiring continuous instructor learning about the processes and techniques in previous nine principles. reading is a transaction between the text and the reader. as students read, they search for and construct meaning based on what they bring to the text and what the text brings to them. mailto:siriwahyunifbsunnes@yahoo.co.id 54 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 besides, literary texts typically involve the use of language and the imagination to represent, recreate, and explore human experiences. literary texts celebrate the richness and power language; stimulate the imagination and esthetic awareness and shape thought and understanding. according to shulman (2000) in journey through american literature, reading literature is a joyful and enriching experience, full of excitement and pleasure. for most readers, literature offers a chance to enter a new worlda world of elegant or unusual language, beautiful imagery, and meaningful thought. reading literature is different from reading other forms of writing such as articles in journals or newspapers. first of all, it involves reading for pure pleasure as well as reading for knowledge. second, works of literature are open to interpretation; there is more than one way to understand a poem, essay, or short story. finally, reading literature demands a special sensitivity to language since it is the beauty of an author‟s language that gives his or her emotional force and lasting meaning. in teaching reading literary texts, the teacher should convince the students with some strategies in reading literary texts. strategic readers understand that different texts require different approaches and strategies. students need to develop effective strategies in order to read different texts in both the aesthetic and efferent stances. there some strategies that can be used in reading and comprehending literary texts. one of strategies that can sufficiently be used is a snowballing. rationale snowballing is a way of collecting information from a brainstorm, thought, experiment or round, ensuring full participation and more student discussion. it can be used in many situations including the presentation of new ideas, checking current understanding and the teaching of learning and thinking skills. hattie et al. (1996) which suggest that the most effective teaching methods are those which set challenging goals and provide students with feedback relating to their progress towards those goals. this study was intended to describe the use of snowballing strategy in teaching reading literary texts. the strategy is carried out in one of prose classes of the 4th semester of the english department of unnes. methods to know the use of snowballing strategy in teaching reading literary texts in the english language arts classroom could be tried out with action research. it is a method that formalizes reflection by engaging the practitioners in a critical and reflective attitude (nunan, 1990). this methodology refers to classroom investigation initiated by researchers, perhaps teachers, who look critically at their own practice with the purpose of understanding and improving their teaching, and the quality of education. according to arikunto (2000), the cycle of action research includes the following language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 55 stages: initial reflection to identify an issue or problem, planning an action (to solve the problem), implementation of the actions, observation of the action, and reflection on the observation. the cycle is shown below. figure 1. cycles of action research by arikunto to observe the project work, i designed rating scale. a rating scale is a device that can be used by an observer to summarize judgment of the activity or behavior that has been observed. in this project, i developed a special rating scale by adapting from the different sources and adjusting them with the implementation of snowballl strategy in reading literary text. because self-observation is limited, i also wanted to include perception from a colleague and from the students. therefore, i asked another lecturer to complete two checklists as she was observing a lesson. one list was to record the frequency of certain behaviors by students; the other was to record characteristics of my behavior. given that the presence of an observer might alter my students‟ behaviors, i also planned to employ a group interview to find out my students‟ feeling and opinions about their project work and our respective roles in the project. besides, i recorded my students‟ achievement that is obtained based on the students‟ answer toward questions for comprehension in each cycles. initial reflection: a problem and a possible solution action research is the name given to an increasingly popular movement in educational research. it encourages a teacher to be reflective of his own practice in order to enhance the quality of educational for himself or his pupils (niff, 1988). when i reflected on my actions in prose classroom, i responded to a problem in one of my prose classes. the problem that i faced is related to strategy in teaching reading literary text. previous strategy that was carried out in the prose class looked monotonous and ineffective. to solve the problem, i tried to find out about some strategies to teach reading literary text. one of strategies that could be applied is snowballing strategy. in the project, one of my goals was to increase planning observation reflection action 56 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 my own awareness of the way i teach as well as how my students learn with applying snowballing strategy in reading literary text. i applied the strategy in one of three prose classes that was taken randomly. a description of what occurred during the project follows. action classroom planning students need to develop thoughtful interpretations of what they read. they need to approach the task as active makers of meaning. i as the lecturer could encourage students to become active participants in the classroom community by tailoring their instructional strategies and methods to needs of their classes and individuals in those classes. providing the necessary direction, support, and guidance for students before, during, and after reading helps them become strategic readers of literature. instructional activities such as the following might be considered: (1) help students prepare to read; (2) help students employ effective reading strategies during reading; (3) help students understand and respond after reading. carrying out the project in pre-reading, i helped students to active what they knew about a topic and anticipate what they would read or hear. a pre-reading activity with the focus on arousing interest in a text and getting students started reading will be different from one with the focus on establishing a common understanding about the main idea or technique employed in a text. i needed to consider how to initiate the reading of any text. during the pre-reading phase, i assistance the students to activate what they already knew regarding the ideas they are about to encounter. i had to do more than inform students of the topic of the literary selection. for example, in a selection dealing with the theme of “failure”, i and students brainstorm the images associated with the word “failure”. then, i tried to build the students‟ background knowledge by using the picture and map. for example, in a selection dealing with the setting of “ohio (america)”, i showed to the students the map of america, exactly ohio. i also encouraged the students to use predictions to set a purpose for reading. for example, titles help a reader predict what a particular work is about. based on the title of the short story, the students jot down a brief prediction of what they think the selection will be about. before the students read a selection, i provide them with literary forms, techniques, and vocabulary in short minilessons. these mini-lessons should provide knowledge to help students experience, think about, and respond to what they are reading. they should not become disconnected terminology or treatises on literature. prose fiction is language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 57 literature about imagined people, places, and events. the purpose of prose fiction is to stimulate the readers‟ imagination and communicate the author‟s perception or view of the world. short stories, legends, myths, and novels are usually made up of the same basic elements—events (plot), people (characters), places (setting), point of view, conflict, theme, and sometimes symbol. when reading stories, students must note whether the person telling the story is a character within the story or someone watching the action from the outside. as the story unfolds, they must note the central conflict or focus and decide why the characters behave as they do. finally they must decide how they feel about the story‟s events, their reactions to the main characters, and the comments or questions about life that the story conveys. when reading any particular text, i engaged students in the reading task and model appropriate strategies. these include:  connecting (making connections with people, places, situations, and ideas they know)  finding meaning (determining what the author is saying about people, places, situations, and ideas)  questioning (paying attention to those words, ideas, and actions that are unclear, keeping in mind that they may become clear later)  making and confirming predictions (trying to figure out what will happen and verifying it in the text)  making inferences (determining the author‟s intent by reading between the lines and inferring what the author does not actually say)  reflecting and evaluating (responding to what they have read and passing judgement). during reading, i used the following activities to model and develop the strategies needed for effective reading: encouraging the students to become involved with the text and guided reading procedure. after a purpose for reading has been set, students read as assigned selection to remember as much as possible. next, they brainstorm everything they can remember, individually or with a partner. they check the text for additional information and correct any inaccuracies. finally, they organize their recollections into an outline or semantic map. after reading, i asked the students to respond in ways that bridge reader and text. giving the students opportunities to respond the text is an important way to encourage them to clarify and extend their thinking about what they read. generally, after students have read a selection, it is important to: (1) prompt an initial response; (2) help students develop and extend their initial understanding and interpretations; (3) ask students to make 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 connections to the broader issues and world around them; (4) ask students to extend their understanding and appreciating of the writer‟s craft. in responding the text, i applied snowballing strategy. snowballing is a cooperative learning method which enables this to happen. students are given appropriate resources or stimulus and relevant questions which they are seeking to answer. the steps of snowballing strategies are described following. stage 1: at first they worked on their own, made three questions based on the reading selection. stage 2: next they work in pairs, sharing their answers. they discussed and agreed a common answer (which may be different from or based on the answers they have already). then, the both students got to together to make two questions. stage 3: students then joined with another pair to form groups of four, for the same purpose, again agreeing on a common answer which was likely to include points from both of the previous „best‟ answers. and so on if appropriate. each group made one question and asked the question to another group. if each group had one question, they discussed it with the member of the group. they provided „best answer‟ with a semantic map. in a group of four, i asked each member to have a role in their group. to assist students, the roles are assigned to define student responsibilities, and to help students focus their reading and prepare for their discussions. a group of four included the following: a collector, a facilitator, a scanner, and a presenter. after each group presented the „best answer‟, i and the class analyzed and concluded the element of the reading selection. we tried to find the moral value that was found in it. moreover, i and the students got to together to make „the complete semantic map‟ of the reading selection. to know the students‟ comprehension toward the literary text, i gave them some comprehension questions. they answered them in the sheets individually. furthermore, the answering sheets were collected to calculate the right answer of the student. these activities were applied in two meetings. each meeting was regarded as one cycle. in the project, applying snowballing strategy was conducted in three cycles. results and discussion observation: analysis of ratings the aim of applying the student and teacher rating scales during observation was to collect data on what went in the class-room. the focus of the observations was on behavior: my students‟ behavior in pre-reading, during reading, and after reading by using snowballing strategy including evidence of independence and cooperation, and my behavior, specially language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 59 the role i played in classroom by applying snowballing strategy in pre-reading, during reading, and after reading. to fulfill the need for a neutral observer, i asked a colleague to observe my interactions with the students in applying snowballing strategy in teaching reading literary text. after explaining what i was trying to accomplish, i discussed with her how applying snowballing strategy that i and students had done in the project. besides, i discussed with her how our collaboration would be structured and how she would use the rating scale during her observation. students’ behaviour graphic 1 the improvement of my students‟ behavior in implementation of snowballing strategy in each cycles based on rating scale is shown in graphic 1. the first cycle shows 46 %. it means satisfactory. it showed the students were still confused about the action of snowballing strategy in reading literary text. some students remained silent and did not take part a lot in their group. most students were still passive in responding my questions. however, most of them enjoyed working in a group. the graphic 1 shows that my students‟ behavior became progressive in following cycles. result of the second cycle is 71 %. the students‟ behavior indicated that they could carry out the strategy in reading literary text. however, few of students were still confused about the action. they asked his/her partner about the strategy. and, a few students did not involve in discussion. students' behaviours 46% 71% 85% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 s t a n d a r d o f p e r f o m a n c e 60 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 based on graphic 1, result of the third cycle shown 85 %. it indicated that the students‟ behavior had carried out the strategy well. most students had responded with my question about the elements of the selected reading. most of them worked cooperatively and could managed dividing the work in the group effectively. however, few of them were still passive in their group; i tried to encourage them and asked if they have some difficulties about material or strategy. generally, the students seemed to enjoy working in their group. they could give good response about the literary text. lecturer’s behaviour graphic 2 graphic 2 shows the improvement the lecturer‟s behavior based on lecturer‟s ratings. according to my colleague, in the first cycle, i was still doubt in implementation of snowballing strategy. result of first cycle shows 50 %. in the first cycle, i wasted the time too much in prereading. i was still hard to arrange the time allotment and the steps of the strategy. besides, i explained the strategy to my students unclearly. she suggested me to write the strategy in whiteboard or showed it in ohp. she also suggested me to arrange again the time allotment. in the second cycle, the graphic 2 shows 75 %. i as a lecturer had improved lecturer's behaviour 50% 75% 90% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 standardof performance language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 61 the implementation the strategy in the project than previous. i had modeled the strategies that effective readers use as they read. i had guided the reading process with questions and activities that help my students build their own understanding of what they are reading. however, i encourage less the students to participate working in their group. in the third cycle, i had prepared the strategy well. result of the cycle shows 90% i prepared the sheets that i had designed in order to the students would be easy in applying the strategy. i had made time allotment that i had discussed with my colleague. before making group, i had got the roles of member group discussion. so, the project could be done well. even though, it was found some weakness of the project, it could be solved. to solve the problem, i discussed with my colleague about my and my students‟ behaviors in each cycles. it was reflections from the actions that were done the project. analysis of students’ achievements graphic 3 the students‟ achievements were important to know their comprehension about the selected reading. the questions for comprehension were always given in each cycle. graphic 3 describes the average of students‟ achivement from first cycle to third cycle. it showes the improvement in each cycle; the first cycle is 68.9, the second cycles is 71.3, and the third cycle is 77.6. it indicated that the students were easier to understand the text by using the strata. students' achievements 68.9 71.3 77.6 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 m e a n 62 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 analysis of the group interview i used interview sheets to know the students feelings about the implementation the strategy. i asked them to do not write their names in the sheet in order to them didn‟t feel guilty. result of the interview sheets shown most of them were pleased to do it. they said that the strategy made them to be easier to understand the selected reading. they learned something new by using snowballing strategy. conclusion this case study prompted me to adopt reflective strategies and attitude toward my own beliefs about teaching and my behavior in the classroom. i learned that if we explore what occurs in our classroom, if we reflect critically on the theories and beliefs that underlie our practice, then fundamental changes in classroom practices can be accomplished. without reflection, our teaching will be only be guided by impulse, routine, or intuition. the project gets a lot of people talking to one another, while retaining much of the value of small group. it also contributes a festive quality to the class. people mill about excitedly and greet each other warmly as they meet in new configuration. on the other hand, snowballing can sometimes have a frenetic, disjointed feel. references alvermann, d. & s. phelps,.1994. content reading and literacy. boston, ma: allyn and bacon. arikunto, s. 2002. prosedur penelitian. edisi v. jakarta: rineka cipta. applebee, a. 1992. the background for reform, literature instruction: a focus on student response. urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. aronowitz, b., et al. 1991. english literature with world masterpieces (signature edition). mission hills, ca: glencoe/mcgraw-hill. applebee, a.., j. langer, m. hynes-berry, & b. miller. 1992. literature and language: english and world literature. evanston, il: mcdougal, littell and company. daniels, h. 1994. literature circles: voice and choice in the student-centered classroom. markham, on: pembroke publishers. goheen, r.c. 1992. literature and language: english and world literature. evanston, il: mcdougal, littell and co. goodman, k., e. smith, r. meredith, & y. goodman. 1987. language and thinking in school,third ed. new york: richard c. owen publishers, inc. graham, n. & j. george. 1992. marking success: a guide to evaluation for teachers of english. markham, on: pembroke publishers. langer, j. & a. applebee. 1994. a readerbased approach to literature, literature and language: english and world literature, annotated teacher‟s ed. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 63 evanston, il: mcdougal, littell and company. paul, r. 1993. how to teach students to listen and read well, teacher’s guide. sonoma, ca: sonoma state university. shulman, m. 2003. journey through american literature. usa: university of michigan press shaparro, j. & m. trost. 1985. speaking evaluation form, reading literature, red level, teacher‟s ed. evanston, il: mcdougal, littell and company. stauffer, r. 1980. the languageexperience approach to the teaching of reading, revised ed. new york: harper and row. vacca, r. & j. vacca. 1996. content area reading. new york: harpercollins college publishers. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 237 translation as a part of school curriculum in learning english language aditya kumar panda academic consultant national translation mission central institute of indian languages mysore, karnataka, india email: pandaaditya14@gmail.com received: 20 december 2017. revised: 18 january 2018. accepted: 10 april 2018 abstract in india, the students, who are from mother-tongue medium schools, are well-acquainted with translation which has been a part in the language subjects. it has been an integral element of subject english and also for other language subjects like hindi, sanskrit at school. it has been used as an effective tool in learning english, though it has been in debate for the last decades for its use in some countries. this paper will discuss translation as a part of school curriculum in learning english, its limitation, challenges and current research on the same. keywords: translation, english language teaching and learning how to cite: panda, a.k. (2018). translation as a part of school curriculum in learning english language. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 137—142. introduction i can think about a topic named, ―translation‖ under a school subject, called english. those were the school days when i first encountered this phenomenon. many of us who have schooling in mother-tongue medium could recall the experience of translation from our mother-tongue to english. it has been a part of the curriculum of english language education in primary, middle and high school level. translation as ―anubaada‖ is also found in learning hindi and sanskrit at high school level. interestingly, when i visited some high schools to get data on the topic on which i am writing, i found the disappearance of translation as a part of school curriculum in the subject english; but it is highly exercised in the subjects, hindi and sanskrit. this paper will deal with translation as a tool in teaching the school subject, english. discussion the approach towards this translation has been a structural one. at primary level, bilingual competency gets strengthened when the child is asked to memorize the meaning of english words and their mother-tongue equivalents, rules of grammar and various forms of english verbs. in vernacular medium schools, we learn english by memorizing the meaning and various forms of words and the rules of grammar. this way, we learn english which has an everlasting structural impact on our brains. children have been taught in this approach that one structure can have one and only one equivalent structure in the target language. this can also be seen in relation to define the structure of the source. x is a word in a language and its equivalent x1 in another language means x1 is the only possible equivalent has been the strategy of translation language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 238 so far. this is the limitation of a strategy which limits the chomskian infinite ability of producing sentences. another important factor is the pressure on the children who are compelled to memorize the structure. they are never allowed to think that they can produce infinite number of sentences. they are never encouraged to think that they are creative being. in mother-tongue medium, these are the socio-psycho-cultural constraints from which they are not free. translation as an effective tool in teaching a foreign language has been a thing of past in many countries, whereas it is still in use in some other countries. translation has been associated with the grammar translation method. it has been considered as a mechanistic approach to foreign language learning. by many scholars, translation is considered as irrelevant in the context of foreign language learning. it was given up in esl situation, though it has been there in many countries and in state education system. even if, in france, it was banned from the language curriculum in secondary schools and in specialist language schools and in 1987, the ban was condemned (harvey, 1996, p. 46).duff emphasizes that translation is textbound and confined only to two skills: reading and writing. so it does not have any role in speaking and listening, the most communicative skills of learning a language. but, thanks to the recent researches which are reviving translation as a beneficial tool in foreign language learning. according to scaffner the translation will benefit to the students for 1) improving verbal ability. 2) expanding students‘ vocabulary in l2. 3) developing their style. 4) improving their understanding of how languages work. 5) consolidating l2 structures for active use. 6) monitoring and improving the comprehension of l2. n.j ross also has the view that the translation is a fifth skill in addition to other four skills and it promotes communication and understanding. translation is no more an isolated activity. it has become a part of daytoday life in a multilingual country like india. translation is a legitimate pedagogical tool especially in an efl environment and claim that it deserves to be rehabilitated (widdowson, 1978, p.18; harmer 1991, p. 62; ellis 1992, p.46, bowen, 1994, p.93; ur 1996, p.40) translation, in english language learning in classroom context, means to develop the english language skills of the learners. the learners are taught translation not for translation but for developing english language skills. to be skilled in translation is a by-product of learning english language skill. here, in the classroom, the students are not taught the translation skills which are required for a professional translator. but this learning gives a foundation to the translation skills which can help one to be a professional translator in future. students cannot relate a structure with all its possible structures. language is so infinite; it is difficult to teach the creative ways of language use. the most difficult part is the metaphorical sentences and their translations. in school curriculum, translation task is assigned to the students in the following ways: a. isolated sentences, b. text or a passage, c. conversation panda, a.k. (2018). translation as a part of school curriculum in learning english language. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 137—142. 239 1) isolated sentences: individual sentence is given to the student. a number of individual sentences but not related like a paragraph is given for translation. here the student is not known to what is there before the sentence and after the sentence. 2) text or a passage: a passage is given and the students are asked to translate it to english. there is a context here. all the sentences are in a coherent paragraph. there is a meaning coming out of the passage. it may be part of an essay or prose or from a story. 3) conversation: conversation between two people in a particular situation with punctuation marks is given to the student for translation. the student has to understand the context and time in which the conversation is on. it may be a part of real conversation. it may be day today conversation between two. translation in all these forms is varied. it differs from the translation of a passage to the translation of a conversation or to the translation of an isolated sentence. these varied forms of giving the task of translation test the different levels of competency in the students. structural approach to translation as a part of the english language education curriculum has been there in all vernacular medium schools for the last so many years (more than 40yrs) in many indian states. technically, it is known as grammartranslation method. form of the sentences gets emphasized, not the content of the sentences. this method does not involve any speaking or listening skills. mostly, it involves writing and reading. what does the english teacher do? first, he/she will give the rules of tense to the students with sentence examples and the students have to memorize those rules. later, the teacher will ask them to frame sentences based on those rules. as for example: if the action is not complete and going on, you have to use present continuous tense. here after the subject, is/am/are should be used and verb should have an-ing form. ram is eating a mango. they are running on the road. mr. joseph is teaching english in the classroom. now, whenever the action is not complete and going on, the student has to use this tense pattern in translation. it has been emphasized that an english sentence structure has only one target language structure (here indian language structure).these are some sentence structures in english in this tense pattern. but these are not only the structures to mean about an action in continuity. the meaning of this structure can also take a structure which is traditionally meant for simple present action. the following sentence can have more than one structure: i will not take up the source english structure much, as i will be discussing about the translation. look at the following example. source language english: i am here. as per the structural approach, it should have one equivalent structure in a language to which i am translating it. let‘s take hindi and odia: language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 240 source language english target language hindi target language odia i am here. मैं ह ूँ. ମ ୁଁ ଅଛ ି(mu achhi) i am here. मैं यह ूँ ह ूँ. ମ ୁଁ ଏଠ ିଅଛ.ି (mu ethi achhi) i am here. मैं यह ूँ. ह ूँ ମ ୁଁ ଏଠ.ି (mu ethi) i am here. मैं आपकेलऱए खड ह ूँ ମ ୁଁ ଆପଣଙ୍କ ପାଇ ଛଡିା ହ ାଇଛ.ି (mu aapananka paain chhidaa hoichhi) i am here. मैं आपकी प्रतीक्ष कर रह ह ूँ ମ ୁଁ ଆପଣଙ୍କୁଁ ଅହପକ୍ଷା କରୁଁ ଛ/ି ମ ୁଁ ଅହପକ୍ଷା କରୁଁ ଛ ି(mu aapananku apekhyaa karuchhi / mu apekhyaa karuchhi) this is not only true in hindi and odia, but also in many indian languages. the practice has been to consider one structure as the proxy structure in translation. as far as our experience of speaking our mother tongue goes, we have more than one equivalent structure for an equivalent source language structure. the structural approach could not fulfill the creative possible need of human beings. chomsky says, we can produce infinite number of sentences by following a finite set of rules. in traditional school education system, the strategy of giving attention to the creative potential of each student has not been adopted so far. in vernacular medium schools, students‘ minds are habitually structured to do the translation work. it is also a matter of great sorrow when we see our students mugging up the structures of both sl and tl. this also happens at the level of learning english words in vernacular medium schools. there has been a practice that each english word has an equivalent in tl. here there is another far-reaching impact of our so called traditional bilingual dictionaries which say one english word has only one equivalent. student‘s minds cannot think about more than one structure and more than one equivalent as the principle of structural approach to translation limits it. as far as the observation of the speaking and understanding of mother-tongue goes, we know that a child can produce and understand more than one structure of a structure. as a child is exposed to its mothertongue in many creative ways, it can produce and understand more than one structure of a structure. but this is not the case with second language learner or speaker. the structural approach has limited the creative ways of its expression. we can call this approach a formal restriction on the part of the students. conclusion translation as an effective tool for learning english has not been given due importance. and the traditional structural approach to translation in school curriculum has limitation. if it at all exists as a tool, it should treat language as an open-ended system and panda, a.k. (2018). translation as a part of school curriculum in learning english language. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 137—142. 241 should take the creative potential of students into account. gradually, it seems to disappear from school curriculum in india. interestingly, it is used in the subject like hindi and sanskrit. not giving due importance to translation as a tool for learning english is not because the students are not interested but it is the misconceived notion of the policy makers who could go by assumption only. references duff, a. (1994). translation: resource books for teachers. oxford: oxford university press. dagilienė, i. (2012). translation as a learning method in english language teaching, studies about languages. duff, a. (1989). translation. oxford: oxford university press. ellis, r. (1992). second language acquisition & language pedagogy. clevedon: multilingual matters ltd. harmer, j. (1991). the practice of english language teaching. london. harvey, m. (1996). a translation course for french-speaking students, in p. sewell, & i. higgins (eds.), teaching translation in universities. present and future perspectives. london: association for french language studies & centre for information on language teaching and research. nadstroga, z. (1988). a communicative use of translation in the classroom. elt. popovic, r. (2001). the place of translation in language teaching. english teaching. ross, n. j. (2000). interference and intervention: using translation in the efl classroom. modern english teacher. scaffner, c., (1998). qualification for professional translators. translation in language teaching versus teaching translation. manchester st.: jerome publication widdowson, h.g. (1978). teaching language as communication. vol.4. oxford: oxford university press. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa93cf91064 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 1 an evaluation of reading comprehension textbooks taught at the english education department of islamic higher education in west sumetera sirajul munir stain batusangkar west sumatera email: sirajulmunir1974@gmail.com joko nurkamto surakarta state university abstract the purpose of present study is to critically assess the reading comprehension textbooks which have been prescribed for use at the english education department of public islamic higher education in west sumatera. the writer used a criteria taken from cunningswoth’ s (1995) and miekley’s (2005). these include (1) aims and approaches; (2) design and organization; (3) content; (4) skills; (5) vocabulary and grammar; (6) exercises and activities; (7) methodology; (8) attractiveness of the text and physical make-up; (9) teacher’s manual; and (10) practical consideration. to interpret the checklist, the four rating scale was used, namely excellent, good, fair, and poor. the research showed that every textbook has strong and weak points. the result of this analysis could be used as the basis to gain more effective reading textbooks for the lecturer of reading comprehension. key words: evaluation; textbook; islamic higher education introduction it is widely accepted that textbook plays a pivotal role in teaching reading comprehension. richard (2001: 251) points out that textbooks area key component of language teaching serving as the basis for much of the language input learners receive when learning a language. parallel with this, karamouzian (2010: 25) also states that textbooks are seen as central to teaching and learning, as their quality is a determining factor in enhancing or diminishing the quality of a language program. this present study tried to evaluate five reading comprehension textbooks used at the english education department (eed) of islamic higher education (ihe) in west sumatera. the ihe was chosen for several reasons. first, the institution has ‘double core curriculum’. students are not only prepared to achieve academic excellence, but also to build islamic values. second, the writer is one of the lecturers of reading comprehension who has taught for more than one decade. considering the fact, the textbook should ideally be designed to achieve the expected goal. mailto:sirajulmunir1974@gmail.com 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 in evaluating textbooks, several researchers, educators, and reading specialists provide checklists as a tool to judge (cunningsworth, 1995; griffiths, 1995; peacock, 1997; harmer, 1998; 1997; sheldon, 1998; garinger,2001; litz, 2005; miekley, 2005; and jaganhard, 2007). cunningsworth (1995; 2-4) suggests a checklist as follows: (1) aims and approach, (2) design and organization, (3) language content, (4) skills,; (5) topic, (6) methodology, (7) teacher’s books, and (8) practical consideration. harmer (1998) proposes nine main areas to evaluate the textbooks; (1) price, (2) availability, (3) layout and design, (4) methodology, (5) skills, (6) syllabus, (7) topic, (8) stereotyping, and (9) teacher’s guide. litz provides seven areas: (1) practical consideration, (2) layout and design, (3) activities, (4) skills, (5) language type, (6) subject and content, and (7) conclusion and overall concencuss. finally, miekley (2005:4-5) presents a set of criteria for reading comprehension textbooks. he divides the checklist into three major areas: textbook, teacher’s manual, and context. cunningswoth’s (1995) and miekley’s (2005) checklist seems to be organized, more specifically in the field of reading comprehension, easy to follow and more objective evaluation. methods this study used a qualitative approach to present the data. to evaluate the quality of the reading comprehension textbooks, the researcher used a checklist as developed by cunningswoth’s (1995) and miekley’s (2005). the checklist contains 10 criteria as follows: (1) aims and approaches; (2) design and organization; (3) content; (4) skills; (5) vocabulary and grammar; (6) exercises and activities; (7) methodology; (8) attractiveness of the text and physical make-up; (9) teacher’s manual; and (10) practical consideration. to interpret the checklist, the four rating scale was used, namely excellent, good, fair, and poor. results and discussion there are five textbooks used in teaching reading comprehension in ihe, especially at iain padang, stain batusangkar, and stain bukittingi in west sumatera. more detail description of textbooks used are shown below. the five textbooks were then evaluated using a criterion developed from cunningswoth’s (1995) and miekley’s (2005). the results of the analysis are presented as follows: aims and approaches almost all of the textbooks – more reading power#1, interaction #2, guide to college reading#3, and reading theories#4 did not meet specific criteria in terms of the aims and approach. for example, the textbooks did not present the islamic issues in the reading selection as mandated in the vision and mission of the ihe. in addition, the textbooks did not explicitly integrate islamic content and language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 3 reading selections. however, the textbooks can accommodate teaching and learning styles. considering the fact these textbooks were deemed fair. table 1 the present textbooks used in teaching reading comprehension no title of the textbook author(s) publisher, year 1 more reading power beatrice s. mikulecky and linda jeffries longman, new york, 1996 2 interaction elaine kirn and pamela hatmann random house, new york, 1985 3 guide to college reading kathleen t. mcwhorter little brown and company, boston, 1986 4 reading theories zainil universitas negeri padang, 2000 5 improving reading skill in english for university students team of five (murni djamal et al.) kencana, jakarta. 2006 the only textbook corresponded closely with the aim of the teaching program and with the need of the learner of ihe was improving reading skill in english for university students#5. this textbook clearly specified islamic reading in every part. moreover, it explicitly integrated reading comprehension and islamic content. however, this textbook fails to accommodate teaching and learning style. therefore, this textbook was considered fair. design and organization the design and organization of a textbook refer to its organization, design, and layout. more reading power#1 was supplemented by a teacher’s guide and student’s book. this textbook was organized as follows: part one: reading for pleasure. in this part, students are assigned to read more books on an individual basis. in addition to this, they will choose books to read and learn how to keep a record. part two: reading comprehension skill. this part enables learners to use some essential reading skills. part three: thinking in english. in this part, students are led to understand that reading is not translating, reading is thinking. part four: reading faster. this part deals with the skill development of reading faster with good comprehension. the particular emphasis of this textbook was placed on reading skills with the goal of establishing learners’ awareness of the reading process so that they will be able to read in ways that are expected in college. 4 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 this textbook contained plenty of opportunities for practicing reading skills. therefore, the content was sequenced according to the reading skills, starting from simple to more difficult in order to build up the students’ mastery of the skill. for example, this textbook starts from scanning, skimming, inference, and author’s pattern. then, it moves to the more complex ones, thinking in english and reading faster. the grading and progression of the materials was suitable for the learners. in terms of layout, this textbook was designed more sophisticated. considering the fact, it could be categorized excellent. likewise, interaction#2 was also equipped with students’ book, teacher’s book, and workbook. the organization of the textbook was outlined as follows: (1) getting started: a pre-reading exercise consisting of a picture and question about it; sets the tone for the chapter, (2) preparing to read: pre-reading questions for the students to keep in mind as they read the selection, (3) reading selection: a controlled reading on the theme of the chapter, usually nonfiction, giving practical information, (4) getting the main ideas: a post-reading exercise to help students check their general understanding of the reading selection, (5) guessing meaning from context: specific suggestions followed by exercises on words from the reading selection, (6) understanding reading structure: exercises focusing on organization of ideas or relationships between ideas, (7) understanding details: exercises focusing specific details of the reading selection, and (8) discussing the reading: questions that relate the reading selection to the students’ lives and allow for conversation. this textbook was clearly organized on the basis of complexity— from the very simple one to demanding one. furthermore, the grading and progression of the materials was fully controlled to be at the students’ level of comprehension. with regard to layout, this textbook presented very clear layout. therefore, this textbook was deemed excellent. guide to college reading#3 was also supplemented by student’s book, teacher’s book, and workbook. this textbook was organized into five major sections as follows: part one presented basic approaches to vocabulary development including contextual aids, analysis of word parts, pronunciation, and the use of dictionary and other reference sources. part two concerned with the development of literal comprehension skills. the topic includes such reading efficiency techniques as pre-reading and questioning, as well as extensive instruction and practice with sentence and paragraph comprehension. part three deals with skills for reading lengthy units of material such as article, essays, and chapters. part four concerned with the interpretative and analytical skills students need in order to interact with and evaluate written material. part five: reading selections contain language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 5 twenty articles, essays, and textbook excerpts chosen on the basis of interest and applicability to the skills taught in the texts. furthermore, the grading and progression is designed well. with respect to layout, this textbook is considered good lay out. in conclusion, this textbook was considered excellent. readingtheories#4 was not supplemented with teacher’s guide, and a student’s guide. this textbook basically adapted materials from various references such as interaction, guide to college reading, efficient and flexible reading, scanning and skimming, and academic writing. therefore, the design and organization vary from one unit to others. reading skills were a central focus of this textbook. there are many opportunities for the learners to practice reading skills. for example, the skills of context clues, scanning, skimming, reference, and author’s thought pattern. the textbook was organized as follows: unit 1, for instance, discussed punctuation. unit 2 deals with context clues. unit 3 concerned reference. unit 4 presented core parts. unit 5 discussed understanding paragraph, unit 6 deals with understanding essay. unit 7 presented author’s pattern, unit8 was skimming and scanning. furthermore, the content was organized based on reading skill. in addition, the sequence of content needs to improve as it was not sequenced based on the complexity. for example, the reading skill of skimming and scanning put as the last chapter of this textbook. finally, since this textbook was compiled from various books, the clarity of layout was one of the book’s major weak points. perhaps, this is caused by having copying several times. considering the fact, this textbook was categorized fair. improving reading skill in english for university students#5 was clearly equipped with a student’s book, teacher’s book, and workbook. it was organized into three books. book 1 starts with reading which is mostly based on the grammar learned, so that grammar in practice will be encountered more frequently. book ii will complete the study of the basic structure needed and will be followed by the increase of vocabulary study in a gradual process so that knowledge of the basic language material is sufficient to enable the students to understand almost automatically. book iii will help students to further master the reading skill through intellectual guessing, scanning, skimming, and finding the main idea of short or long essays that at the end becomes skill, which is acquired in reading. the organization of the textbook reflects a topic based structural functional syllabus that was designed with the goal of facilitating communicative competence. although the ultimate goal of this book is establishing reading skills, a big issue of the lesson is devoted to grammar drills and various grammatical exercises. furthermore, this textbook covers a wide range of materials from simple text like a simple story to more complex reading materials, such as 6 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 newspaper, magazine and novel. in addition to this, the grading and progression was designed to meet the learners’ level of comprehension. finally, the layout of this textbook needs some improvement. in conclusion, this textbook was considered good. content with regard to content, more reading power#1 meets specific criteria. reading selections here not only offer authentic pieces of language, but also use representative of real-life language use. the lexical and syntactical contents of the materials have been kept to a minimum level. furthermore, the reading selections contain the variety of literary genres as well as multiple sentence structures. moreover, it enables learners to expand their awareness and enrich their experience. there were several topics discussed such as fiction, non-fiction, and popular culture. finally, this textbook was able to promote learners to relate the social and cultural contexts. therefore, this textbook was categorized excellent. likewise, interaction#2 presented authentic materials for all reading selections. as a result, it possibly can increase learner motivation. in general, the textbook contains the variety of literary genres and multiple sentence structures. furthermore, this textbook presented a variety of topics such as instance, education, culture, food, social relationship, and health. however, since this textbook was published in 1986, the content and topic selection is not updated anymore. it would be better if the topics are in line with the taste of the new generation which might be different from that of the authors who designed the book at least 26 years ago. the topic can expand students’ awareness and enrich their experience. finally, it encompasses a social and cultural understanding of things such as society’s values and norms, discourse manner, and life style. considering the fact, this textbook was considered fair. guide to college reading#3 also presented authentic materials as well as variety of literary genres. however, as the case of interaction #2,this textbook also seems need to be updated. it was published in 1986. as a result topics presented are not suitable for the new generations anymore. it can be suggested to include reading texts about internet, satellite program, and other burning issues on young generations. furthermore, reading topics and materials were chosen carefully to relate to students’ interests and background, while exhibiting potential for broadening their range of experience. in sum, this textbook was deemed fair. reading theories#4 presented authentic materials. the reading selection remains representative of the variety of literary genres. in terms of the appropriateness of content, this textbook needs to provide updated content in accordance to the newest issues. besides, language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 7 the topics are various and help students expand their awareness and enrich their experience. finally, students are able to relate to the social and cultural contexts. as a result, this textbook was categorized fair. improving reading skill in english for university students#5 presented both authentic and semi-authentic materials. semi-authentic material refers to originally authentic but simplified and or modified. this textbook contains various topics such as story, politics, environment, and religion. it is interesting to note that religious issue seems to be the central topic of this textbook. however, it seems to fail to enrich students’ experience as well as relate to social and cultural context. many of reading selections were built based on local culture. therefore, this textbook was deemed good. skills the aspect of skills in this context means (1) to what extent the reading book reflect the development and reading skills and strategy, (2) the reading material linked to other skills, (3) there is an emphasis on reading for pleasure and for intellectual satisfaction, (4) to what extent the textbook encourage intensive and extensive reading. more reading power#1 was considered good. the reading selection consistently enables learners to apply reading skill and reading strategy. for example, in order to improve students’ ability to apply scanning, the authors provided various ways such as providing a detailed understanding and giving lots of exercises dealing with scanning. as a result, students can achieve the expected goal. furthermore, the textbook encouraged learners to work in pair or small group. in addition, students need to formulate and articulate their ideas more precise and so they also acquire new ways of talking and thinking about a text. students are also asked to write and then read each other’s work so they can experience the connection between reading and writing. therefore, the integrated skills were presented in this textbook. likewise, this textbook offered reading for pleasure as well as for intellectual satisfaction. moreover, in terms of the text lengths, it is appropriately presented. however, the textbook did not explicitly promote extensive reading activities. the authors seem to believe that improvement in general reading comes with reading a lot. interaction#2 could be classified excellent. the reading text used for introducing new language items. likewise, the reading selection enables learners to promote reading skills and reading strategies. for example, students can apply skimming for main ideas, scanning for the specific information, guessing the meaning from context, and inferring the writer’s idea in the texts. furthermore, this textbook managed to integrate the four language skills. students possibly to 8 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 carefully listen and orally share their ideas, and appropriately write reading summary as well as reading exercises. besides, this textbook also puts emphasize on both reading for pleasure and reading intellectual satisfaction. in addition, the author seems designed reading selection on the basis of students’ level of comprehension. as a result, the text length was appropriate for the learner. finally, it is interesting to note that this textbook encouraged extensive reading. guide to college reading#3 could be classified as good. the reading selection and a variety of extensive exercises were provided to encourage students to apply reading skills and strategies presented. similarly, the integration of reading and writing skill is one major emphasis of this textbook. for instance, answers to most questions for each reading selection require composition. on whether or not there was emphasize of reading for pleasure and for intellectual satisfaction, the reading selection clearly presented them. however, the text length does not correspond to students’ level of comprehension. fact shows that some of reading selection was difficult for the learners to comprehend. finally, extensive reading activity was not explicitly showed in this textbook. reading theories#4 was deemed good. it specified focus on the development of reading skill and strategy. some selected reading selection was enable learner to apply the skill of scanning, skimming, predicting, guessing meaning from context, and determining author’s patterns. likewise, the reading materials integrated to listening, speaking, and writing. several materials force students discuss with others and to write individually. in addition to this, both reading for pleasure and reading for intellectual satisfaction were presented in this textbook. with regard to text length, it was suitable to the learners. however, this textbook did not encourage learners to apply extensive reading activities. improving reading skill in english for university students#5 was categorized fair. it failed to put the focus on the development of reading skills. even though there were several specific topics discussed such as scanning and skimming, it was far from expecting that learners were able to apply the reading skill and strategy. the researcher has noticed that about 70 percent of the content of each unit was occupied with grammar drills. this textbook also puts emphasize on reading both for pleasure and for intellectual satisfaction, it was presented. however, it needs some improvement. the text designed too simple and easy for students to comprehend it. as a result, students possibly de-motivated to read. one more thing, extensive reading activities could not be found here. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 9 vocabulary and grammar more reading power#1 seems to ignore the grammar rules in a logical manner. however, in terms of vocabulary, the textbook presented it in various ways. for instance, the use of synonym, antonym, definition, words in context and so on. on whether or not the new vocabulary words presented at an appropriate rate so that the text is understandable, the result showed that they are not appropriately presented. similarly, regarding to the issue of the new vocabulary words repeated in a subsequent lesson to reinforce their meaning and use, they are not apparent. moreover, this book presented top-down and bottom-up techniques for learning new vocabulary. therefore, this textbook was categorized fair. interaction#2 meets specific criterion in terms of vocabulary and grammar. the grammar points have been carefully sequenced and controlled to be at the students’ level of comprehension. furthermore, the new vocabulary words are presented in a variety of ways. for example, the use of definition, contrast, words in context, punctuation, and part of speech. similarly, vocabulary items presented in one chapter are recycled in subsequent chapters to prevent students from forgetting them. as mentioned by the author, the constant recycling enables learners to make rapid progress; their vocabulary will increase dramatically as they use the book, and yet this process won’t be perceived as difficult. finally, topdown and bottom-up techniques for learning new vocabulary were presented. considering the fact, this textbook was deemed excellent. guide to college reading#3 presented the grammar rules, but not in a gradual manner. it also follows the logical progression of skill development from words to sentences and then to paragraphs, articles, essays, and chapters. it also proceeds logically from literal comprehension to critical interpretation and reaction. in addition, new vocabulary was presented in a variety of ways. finally, top down techniques were discussed several times here. therefore, this textbook was considered good. reading theory#4 presented grammar rules in order. besides, this textbook also discussed new vocabulary variously. for example, it used using synonym, and antonym, context clues. in addition, students were easy to retain new vocabulary since it was presented at an appropriate rate. on whether new vocabulary word repeated in subsequent lessons, it clearly could not be found here. however, although top down techniques were presented, it was not sufficient enough. in sum, this textbook was deemed fair. improving reading skill in english for university students#5 meets the specific criterion. since this textbook puts emphasis on grammatical accuracy, grammar rules were presented in a logical manner. the authors seem to believe that 10 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 a correct knowledge of grammar and functions are the basic foundation of good reading comprehension. as a result, almost all of the textbook sections presented grammatical use. in terms of presenting new vocabulary, this textbook used a variety of ways such as glosses and multi-glosses, and appositives. in addition to this, new vocabulary words were presented at an appropriate rate so that the text is understandable. unfortunately, the authors did not put topdown strategy for learning new vocabulary words. considering the fact, this textbook was deemed good. exercises and activities with respect to exercises and activities, more reading power#1 can be categorized good. this textbook was designed task-based activities. every part of this textbook contains various and challenging exercises and activities. in addition, top-down and bottom-up strategies are presented and practiced in this book. for example, using pictures, illustration, and tables could be found very often. moreover, the exercises here enable learners to apply critical thinking. nevertheless, activities facilitate students’ use of grammar as well as extensive reading activities are not presented. likewise interaction#2 was good. this textbook requires students to do a more challenging task. furthermore, exercises and activities could guide students toward acquiring the skills of good readers. in the case of applying grammar rules, this book presents more. for instance, the application of prefix, suffix, noun, verb, adjective, adverb is occurring very often. in addition, the exercises were designed to make reading both easy and fun. similarly, exercises enable learners to apply critical thinking. despite its strength, this textbook still had shortcomings. many of activities and tasks, for example, were repetitive, failed to present various activities, nor lead to updated issue. the exercises in the textbook also enable learners to apply critical reading. finally, and it is interesting to note, that this textbook promotes extensive reading activities at every unit. guide to college reading#3 was fair. although this textbook presents taskbased activities, the author seems did not pay more attention to the level of text difficulties. as a result, students got some difficulties in doing it. there are many unknown words found in several reading selections. there might be several possible factors render a text difficult to understand: the background knowledge, the content of the passage, and the length and complexity of the sentence. in addition, this textbook requires students to undertake more difficult tasks such as inferring to context. it must be noted that the level of difficulty has not been fulfilled yet. as a result, some reading selections found difficult for the learners to comprehend. finally, this textbook did not promote extensive reading activities. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 11 reading theories#4 offers task-based activities to require students to use new vocabulary to communicate. this textbook encourages students to read for comprehension. in other words, literal and critical thinking was focused on every part. furthermore, this textbook also gave sufficient examples of top-down techniques. however, this textbook seems lack of challenging and various exercises and tends to be simplistic. in regard with extensive reading activities, it was presented in very limited. considering the fact this textbook could be categorized fair. then, improving reading skill in english for university students#5 was considered fair. the authors of the textbook tend to focus the exercises according to the structural complexity, starting from less complex structures to more demanding ones. almost all exercises contain grammar drills and reviews on basic patterns in english. even the reading passages were manipulated according to particular grammar points. furthermore, reading instruction in this textbook did not require students to read for comprehension. in terms of reading strategies used, this textbook just presented bottom up reading strategies. the exercises did not promote critical thinking of the text. in other words, students can easily answer the questions without seriously reading the text, nor using critical thinking. with respect to extensive reading activities, it is safe to say that no particular activity found. methodology methodology in this context refers to (1) approaches used in this book, (2) level of active learner involvement can be expected, (3) techniques used for presenting/practicing new language items, (4) how the different skills taught, (5) how communicative ability developed, and (6) how teachers activate students’ background knowledge before reading. more reading power#1 meets suggested specific criterion. this textbook offers a clear approach in presenting reading materials. furthermore, this textbook provides learners to get involved in the teaching process. for example, this textbook encourages students to work in pairs or small groups. in discussion with others, students need to formulate and articulate their ideas more precisely, and so they also acquire new ways of talking and thinking about a text. besides, communicative ability was developed in this book. finally, the activation of students’ knowledge before reading the text was carefully presented in this book. for instance, in every unit, the authors explain the definition of certain skill and followed by examples prior to practicing the skill. in sum, this textbook was deemed excellent. interaction#2 also meets specific criterion in terms of methodology. this textbook tends to focus on the communicative approach. it promotes integrated language skills practice, the inclusion of topical themes, grammatical 12 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 structures and functions, as well as lexical development. as a result, students possibly read actively, work with just in one partner, and do in small groups. in addition, this textbook also develops students’ schemata in reading. for example, in pre-reading activities, the learners are encouraged to predict the content and the context of the text based on pictures and simple questions at every unit. even new vocabulary items were presented before providing reading selection. in conclusion, this textbook was considered excellent. guide to college reading#3 based its methodology on developing students’ reading skill. however, this textbook did not clearly show active learner involvement. for example, it did not encourage learners to work in peer or small groups. furthermore, this textbook used the technique for presenting new language items such as the use of drawings, diagrams, and visual aids throughout the text. with respect to teaching the different skills, it was presented here. activation of students’ knowledge in pre-reading activities was presented. for example, each reading selection was prefaced by an interestcatching introduction, a vocabulary review, and pre-reading questions. therefore, this textbook was deemed good. however, reading theories#4 did not fulfill the criteria. the author of this textbook did not clearly specify the ultimate goal of this reading textbook. as a result, both teacher and students did not know what they are expected to have learned at the end of the program. it should be understood that this is a textbook compilation. so that it is difficult to find the blueprint of its teaching methodology. finally, this textbook cannot activate students’ background knowledge. considering the fact, this textbook was deemed poor. improving reading skill in english for university students#5 used grammatical approach in presenting the materials. besides, this textbook did not offer an innovative approach in language teaching. in addition, this textbook cannot achieve active learner involvement. fortunately, it presented various techniques for new language items. with respect to implementing reading strategies and skills, it seems that this textbook failed to lead students to practice several reading strategies and skills. likewise, the communicative abilities cannot be achieved here. finally, activating students’ background knowledge could not be found in this textbook. in sum, this textbook was deemed fair. attractiveness of the text and physical make-up in terms of attractiveness of the text and physical make-up, at first glance, it would seem that more reading power#1 meets many of these requirements. the cover of this textbook was not attractive enough. however, this textbook was supplemented language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 13 by visual imagery of high aesthetic quality. it contains pictures, authentic photographs, illustration, and table to contextualize so that reader possibly enjoys reading it. even for the exercises, there were authentic tables, picture, and photographs available to help readers clarify the meaning. therefore, this textbook was deemed good. likewise, interaction#2 could be categorized into good. as the case of the previous textbook, the cover of this textbook is not appealing. this textbook however, presents visual materials. it puts various diagrams, chart, table, hand-drawn pictures, and illustration. this can provide opportunities for the learners to clarify the meaning. considering these aids, students could enjoy reading the text. guide to college reading#3 did not fulfill the specific criteria. the textbook cover was not attractive enough. with regard to the visual imagery of the aesthetic quality, this textbook presented visual approach to learning, including drawings, diagrams, a visual aid to illustrate concepts, was used through the text. considering the fact, it could be categorized fair. reading theories#4 also did not fulfill the specific criteria as expected. for example, the cover of the textbook was not qualified yet. since this textbook was compiled from many references, the original form has been distorted. in addition, many often, the textbook was of low quality in the case of visual materials. only very few visual could be found here. as a result, students might not be interested in reading the textbooks. therefore, it was considered poor. reading skill in english for university students#5 had an attractive cover. however, it did not present materials accompanied by good visual ones. even though a bit pictures and illustrations were provided, it cannot present more attractively. it should be noted that it is not interesting to enjoy the reading text. considering the fact, it was deemed fair. teacher’s manual it is interesting to note that almost all the textbooks, with the exception of reading theories#4 are supplemented by teacher’s manual including guidance for the teachers and correct suggested answers. one more positive note is all of the textbooks, except reading theories#4 informed more detail to use the textbooks in teaching reading comprehension including teaching techniques. more reading power#1, for example, provided a clear guidance for the teachers who will be using the textbook. reading materials are also supported in this textbook. furthermore, it provides the answer key for the whole exercises. it is interesting to note that specific suggestions for using more reading power in every unit were included. therefore, this textbook was categorized excellent likewise, interaction#2 provided instructions and guidelines for use of the 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 textbook separately. a variety of reading materials and answer key were also included in this textbook. furthermore, it also presented a separate section with teaching tips and other suggestions. this textbook even provided sample tests. considering the fact, this textbook was considered excellent. guide to college reading#3 also informed more detailed guidance for the teachers to use the textbook. a large variety of reading materials were also provided. with respect to an answer key, this textbook clearly presented it specifically. in addition to this, it describes in detail the basic features of the text and offers suggestions for structuring the course, for teaching developmental students, and for approaching each section of the text. in conclusion, this textbook was deemed excellent. reading theories#4 did not describe guidance for the teachers who will be using the textbook. however, reading materials as well as supported materials were provided. with regard to answer key, this textbook did not present it. finally, this textbook did not describe the teaching techniques. therefore, this textbook was categorized fair. reading skill in english for university students#5 provided adequate guidance for the teachers to use the textbook. in addition to this, reading materials were also included. however, this textbook did not present answer key for the teachers. finally, this textbook described the teaching techniques. therefore, this textbook was deemed fair. practical consideration the final criterion of reading book is a practical consideration. it deals with (1) the whole package cost; (2) whether or not the book is strong and long lasting; and (3) whether it is easy to obtain. more reading power#1 could be purchased online. one could visit the website such as www.amazon.com or www.bukukita.com. however, indonesian students who have limited incomes could not purchase such high cost. for this reason, commonly students were given a copy of a book by the lecturer of reading comprehension and students were expected to purchase their own copy. this indicates the fact that the textbook was not readily available in indonesian bookstores. in addition, the book was made of durable paper and the presentation of information appears to be clear and concise. finally, the textbook was good in terms of attractiveness. considering the fact, it was considered good. likewise, interaction#2 could not be easy to purchase as it was not available in bookstores. therefore, students only could get the book from a copy of the original book by the lecturer. since the numbers of pages were 269, the students could easily copy the original book. the textbook was strongly bound and can be used for a long time. in addition, it offers attractive language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 15 textbook. therefore, this textbook was deemed good. guide to college reading#3 has the same characteristics with the previous textbooks. students could not easily obtain the book as it was not readily available in bookstores. for this reason, commonly students were given a copy of a book by the lecturer and students were expected to purchase their own copy. since the volume of the textbook was much, including 372 pages, the students possibly to spend highly cost to copy the original textbook. the textbook was made of strong and long lasting paper. considering the fact, this could be categorized fair. reading theories#4 was not available in the bookstore and library. commonly the lecturer asked students to make a copy of the book and the students were expected to purchase their own copy. unfortunately, this textbook seems to not be designed in attractive as it was recopied several times. with regard to the numbers of pages, it offers 126 pages so that students could easily copy the original book. therefore, this textbook was deemed fair. it is interesting to note that reading skill in english for university students#5 offers affordable cost. some indonesian well-established bookstores such as gramedia and gunung agung bookstores as well as local bookstores provide the series of books. even all of public libraries collect these books. in addition to this, the publisher of this book, kencana, was accessible for crucial information and order request. furthermore, the textbook was designed attractive appearance and long lasting. considering the fact this textbook was considered excellent. conclusion the results of this report conclude that every textbook has strong and weak points. jahangard (2007: 148) states that one of the ways to improve curriculum is to improve the textbook and the materials employed in the program. therefore, the results of this analysis can be used as the basis to gain more effective reading textbooks. references cunningsworth, a. 1995. choosing your coursebook. oxford: heinemann publishers ltd. djamal, m., ichsan, s., arifin, z., jamil, a., & fauzia, a. 2006. improving reading skill in english for university students. jakarta: kencana. griffiths, c. 1995. evaluating materials for teaching english to adult speakers of other languages. forum.vol.33, no.3. retrieved from: http://exchanges. state.gov/ forum/vols/vol33/no3/p50.htm harmer, j. 1998. how to teach english: an introduction to the practice of englishlanguage teaching. harlow, uk: longman. jahangard, a. 2007. evaluation of efl materials taught at iranian public high 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 schools. the asian efl journal. volume 9, number 2. karamouzian, f.m. 2001. a post-use evaluation of current reading comprehension textbooks used in tefl programs. the iranian efl journal. december 2010 volume 6 issue 4,p.p 24-62 kirn, e., & pamela, h. 1985. interaction. new york: random house. litz, d. r. a. 2005. textbook evaluation and elt management: a south korean case study. asian efl journal. retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/litz_ thesis.pdf mcwhorter, kathleen. t. 1986. guide to college reading. boston: little brown and company. mickulecky, b.s., & linda j. 1996. more reading power. new york: longman. peacock, m. 1997. choosing the right book for your class. retrieved from:http://www.sx.ac.uk/linguistics/pgr /egspll/volume1/pdfs/peacock1.pdf richard, j. c. 2001. curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. sheldon, l. 1988. evaluating elt textbooks and materials. elt journal, 42 (4), 237-246. zainil. 2000. reading theories. padang: universitas negeri padang. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x puritan’s hegemony in the nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter zakaria zakaria1*, akin duli2, fathu rahman2 1universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka, indonesia 2universitas hasanuddin, indonesia *email: zakaria.usn@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.25766 submitted 20 august 2020. revised 23 september 2020. accepted 19 october 2020 abstract misperception and inhuman behave presented by puritan in conducting state administration, consequently character of hester prynne in the novel of nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter under the implementation of religious values, law assembling, and political system. the implementation of puritan’s inhuman religious, law and political values to prynne’s personal character is something criminal behave, and assembling of the law in the case of sin of prynne’s adultery presented by custom house was irresponsible decision or immoral severance in front of court. puritan’s values over the social living is regulated not only for social norms, culture, and law affairs, but even political matters, means that everything must be obeyed and be bent over the god’s rule, and so to whom (married woman) has committed adultery, must be committed as a sinner and impose a sentence in front of general public. it is a library research and used descriptive qualitative analysis. in challenging and lift it up the universal value in against suppressive, hegemonic in the case prynn the writer used two approachings as solution to solve the problem and they are feminism perspective and deconstruction model as a solution over the prynne’s problem. keywords: hegemony; patriarchy; human-right; feminism; deconstruction community had to sentence hester to death” (dodzi woameno, 2018, p. 127). it was unjustly behave for puritan’s law orders to pronounce judgment to hester prynne without judgment procedure, so in the following questions is formulated into threre main problem statements. firstly, how and why is puritan’s values interpretes hester prynne’s lawlessness based on god’s rule? secondly, how and why is puritans’ political attitude against the principle of human right in the case of hester prynne? and thirdly, how and why is moral attitude of puritans’ values to place women presented in hester prynne as a second level society? one reason of hegemony may be happened in the puritan’s society where there state and church in all together become an integral part in living society as wulansari (2017, pp. 17-18): [...] to a big sin [...] puritans prohibited based on the ten commondments [...] use the bible as thei guidence of law to determine the punishment [...] puritan use religion and morality law in dealing withester prynne’s adultery [...] hester prynne ‘s attitude will get puhishment from god. there was church hegemony influenced puritan’s societies mostly dominated by men folk, “the puritans had varying degrees of beliefs where sointroduction the story of hawthorn’s the scarlet letter is a story of human life that present how puritan’s law, religious, and political values misinterpret principle of justice and human right in the case of hester prynne. the scarlet letter illustrates the process by which past pain and secret suffering into moral truth, this is a most powerful but painful story, and there was a criminal behave. hester prynne’ adultery in puritans’ values was defined as an uncivilized behave consequently, she must be punish under the god’s law and she has been rejected to defense herself by any means and put her into the jail as chalise thomson (2011, p.3) mention: puritans viewed sin as wrong in all instances. for them, there was never an acceptable reason for sinning. there was no situation that the puritans felt warranted secrecy. if a mistake was made, then the proper action to pursue was confession. a voluntary declaration of the sins or wrongs committed was preferred. interpretation of puritan’s rule for hester prynne’s lawlessness being in an uncompromising thing make her being in wrong and has to be have social punishment, “clearly, the godly authorities and the whole language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 44 it up the universal value in against suppressive, hegemonic, and dominating values in human respective. in other words this writing aims to confront the conflict between hester prynne’s character and puritan’s mental suppression and physical oppression, and come into the struggle for gaining the human right by using feminism issue and deconstruction concept against the hegemony of puritan’s traditional belief. there are some previous studies related in this study such as seymor gross, sculley bradley, et.al. in editing version, an authoritative text essays in criticism and scholarship, 3rd edition nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter, pramono’s thesis entitled hegemony and silent resistence in hawthorn’s the scarlet letter and tohari’s bekisar merah and belantik, kardansy‘s article, the scarlet letter karya nathaniel hawthorn: homologi antara struktur karya dan struktur masyarakat amerika pada abad ke-19, anitasari’s journal article, arthur dimmesdale’s hypocrisy as a puritan clergyman in nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter (a sociological approach), and riana’s article, simbolism dalam the scarlet letter karya nathaniel hawthorn. there two significance study that the writer intend to explore on his writing. firstly, to extend the bad values and unjustly procedure puritan’s law and political system by using religious values as a legal prosecuting over the woman (hester prynne) who falls in sin of adultery, and the second one is to strengthen hester prynne’s minor character in criticizing the hegemonic puritan’s behave by using humanism and feminism values, and using binary opposition model in against moral attitude of puritan’s values by using jacques derrida’s deconstruction concept. methods in conducting the research it took descriptive qualitative and used two kinds source of the data they are primary and secondary data. the primary data was taken from the object of the research it was the novels it-self, meanwhile the secondary one was taken from some literatures, books, articles, etc. in presenting the analysis the writer used three kinds of approaching as basis of analysis, they are humanism and feminism values, and derrida’s deconstruction theory. there are two perspectives in challengging the puritan’s law in the case character of hester prynne’s under the presure of puritan’s hegemony, they are feminism and derrida’s deconstruction theory perspective. ciety, religion and the family structure is concerned. they believed men were head of the household and made all important decisions, while women were just there to take care of housework” (richardson, 2014). furthermore rinan sumekto (2014:164) in moral value of massachussetts society in the puritan era: a study on nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter stated that: [...] and it was the duty of man to search the old and new testaments for a more exact knowledge of the will of god toward man. daily life was to be lived in strict conformity to the rules and regulations to be found in the bible, and all that man does, was to be done with the utmost intensity and zeal to the greater glory of god. hegemonic attitudes can be defined as domination ideology, belief, culture, ethnic system, and gender in social life, and it requires subordination of the other group to the one having the power or ruling the society, according to nye jr. in kasiyarno, that: “[...] the ability is called soft power or the ability to entice and attract which tends to be associated with intangible power resources such as attractive culture, ideology, and institutions.” furthermore, juan jr. in kasiyarno (2014, p. 13,14,15) also stated, that: “[...] hegemony refers to the central system of practices, meanings, and values that are experienced as practices and appea reciprocally confirming.” generally, hegemonic behavior is sometimes happened in multi-culture, multi-ethnic, multi-religion, and multi-racial in the society. in american society there was white anglo-saxon protestant (wasp) as a dominant class legitimated their beliefs and culture as german (2002): “the percieved racial inferiority of non-wasps-particularly non-europeans – was accepted as aconcrete fact [...] throughout the 19th century and much of the 20th century, being an american implied belonging to the wasp mainstream.” in the same words, guebert and claywell (2016:2) stated that: “an extreme branch of protestant christianity, puritanism advocated the complete “purification” of catholic practices from the church of england, which included the abolition of gambling, drama, and the celebration of christmas.” they strengthen their powerful authorities or hegemonic and transformed into political laws regulating people to behave in their daily social life, so white supremacy in american society legally assumed as dominant power and the others group (black and indians) oppressed to behave accordingly. in the hawthorn’s the scarlet letter there were some universal values related to women’s problem in the context of religious hegemony in new england’s puritan society, so the purpose of this study is to find out and lift language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 45 feminism perspective the word of feminism was taken from word of femme means women, and the term of feminism is means a range of political movement, ideologies, and social movement that share a common goal, to definite, establish, and achieve politic, economic, personal, and social equality of sexes, includes equality for establishing the educational and professional for women. besides that women’s movement struggle the principles of human right such liberation and civil right especially women’s rights. the reason of feminists’ movement was motivated from inequality situation between men and women in social system where women treated such as second level society as swisky & angelone (2014:1) stated that “patriarchy describes the lack of social power that leads to the subordination and oppression of women.....generally speaking the feminist movement works to end the social dominance of women and supports gender equality in social, political, and economic arenas.” feminists believed that inequality must be eliminated, feminists not only try to do better as an individual in the social world, but they must work together to change the social structure of the social world, as maynard in eyayu enyewu & getaneh mihreta (2018:60), [...] “focusing on individual rights and on the concepts of equality, justice and equal opportunities, where legal and social policy changes are seen as tools for engineering women‟s equality with men.” women have to change their thought, find alternative solution and then revitalized their movement to challenge patriarchal domination proposed by lacanian and derridean’s post-structuralism theory such as selden in a reader’s guide to contemporary literary theory (1985:128), stated that: much feminist criticism wishes to escape the’ fixities and ‘definites’ of theory and to develop a female discourse which cannot be tied down conceptually as belonging to recognized (and therefore probably male-produced) theoretical tradition. “however, feminist have been attracted to the lacanian and derridean types of post-structuralist theory, perhaps because they actually refuse to assert a ‘masculine’ authority or truth. the physical and psychological oppression toward women caused by patriarchal authority, by reason dominant power, they systematically oppressed women over social, political and culture norms, according to sultana in syiva (2019, p. 1) “the feminists use the term ‘patriarchy’ to describe the power relationship between men and women as well as to find out the cause root of women’s subordination.” patriarchy is a social system in which society is organized around male authority figures. in this system fathers have authority over women, children, and property. it implies the institution of male rule and privilege, and is dependent on female subordination. most form of feminism characterized patriarchy as an unjust social system that is oppressive to women. based on the condition above, the feminists by supporting freudian’statement in selden (1985, p. 129) stated that, “[...] female sexuality is shaped by ‘penis-envy.” deconstruction theory deconstruction was a new critical thought in post-structuralism it was inspired by jacques derrida a french philosopher in the twentieth century (1930). deconstruction theory was a critical way not only both literary and philosophical text but also political institutions. derrida’s theory refused saussure’s structuralism assumption that claimed meaning being general and absolutely, it was final and there is no others interpretation beyond the text. in the geginning derrida’s deconstruction focused to the relationship between text and meaning, he argued that in conducting reading of the text with an ear to what runs counter to the structural unity or intended sense of a particular text, and the essential of the meaning that supposedly exist prior to language and therefore beyond the text as being central or fundamental meaning and knowledge, and by translator in his introduction as kelley (2019), “deconstruction makes the claim that language and literature are inconsistent and that the true meaning of the work is not rooted in what the author wrote, but instead is rooted in the reader’s own ideologies.” in reading the text is deconstruction as manibol (2016) proposed that: [...] in contrast to see works in terms of their undecidability. they reject the formalist view that a work of literature is demonstrably unified from beginning to end, in one certain way, or that it is organized around a single centre that ultimately can be identified. as a result, deconstructionists see texts as more radically heterogeneous than do formalists. the purpose of deconstruction is to refuse western science and philosophy forms are structured around a centre as singhal (2015): [...] deconstruction is primarily concerned with something tantamount to a critique of the western philosophical tradition. logocentrism, phallogocentrism and perhaps most famous the metaphysics of presence are some of the terms derrida exploited to illustrate the deep-seated ways of thinking of the traditional western philosophy. derrida’s deconstruction can be also applanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 46 lied to a variation field such as social, politic, culture fields. deconstruction in partly proposed matters in contradictive perception or sometimes called binary opposition structure such as female and male or woman and man, equality and inequality, good and bad, right and wrong, superior and inferior, strong and weak, god and evil, etc. and these words to oppose one another to pursue essential of truthfulness was being the contexts. for example in the case of men and women in human perception in the context of patriarchal rule, blacks and indians in the context of wasp in the united states, old statement bible and new statement bible in the case of sin of adultery, etc. and deconstruction theory by using binary opposition is partly proposed or recommended the truth or rightness that standing out in the system may social, politic, norms, law, religious, etc., and those things contextually give the influence. results and discussion the discussion will criticize inhuman puritan’s.religious and spriritual values preservation, inequality law and political demand of puritan’s church, and how to challenge the puritan’s law and political system. inhuman perception of puritan’s religious and spiritual values in the case of hester prynne’s adultery puritan society was a migrant, a christian sect from england at the times of .james i (1603). because they were forbidden in england by calvinists, they moved to new england for aimed to find the liberation in preserving their religious values and belief, according to el-naggar (2017, p. 70), “religious uniformity was enforced, and dissenters were informed that they had the right to stay away or to cross the river and to takeup land of their own beyond the boundary of massachusetts.” new england as a dream land or freedom land as a final destination for their trip and some of them settled in massachusetts bay, and lived and tied under the church authority from the very beginning. some people said that puritan religion taken from the spirit of biblical times and the implementation of puritan’s values over the social living is regulated not only for social norms, culture, and law affairs, but even political matters, means that everything must be obeyed and be bent over the god’s rule, according to california department of education (cde), that: the puritans gathered in different groups and made a covenant (formal agreement) with god to obey his will as revealed in the bible, they focused on bible reading, preaching, and following god’s biblical lawsble. in these “covenant communities,” they focused on bible reading, preaching, and following god’s biblical laws. in the case of hester prynne’s adultery in hawthorn’s the scarlet letter is one example to puritan’s religion and spiritual interprets inhumane values. for puritans sin is sin and must be confessed. in puritan’s religion and spiritual values was legally to who (married woman) has committed adultery, she was committed as a sinner and impose a sentence in front of general public. apparently the puritan society to exaggerate the interpretation of god’s law taken from bible of moses and finally punished the sinner inhuman. although hester prynne’s adultery was being a violation in god’s law, but hester prynne humanly is still has right to be protected as human being and god’s creation. inequality law and political demand of puritan’s church that presented by puritan’s cutom house the living of social norms and political matters puritan’s law was tied on the bible of moses, there were only right or wrong words been there and there were no other values would be compromised both social and political rights, consequently, in order every living society must be referred to the rule of the moses’ bible. there was no segregation between human law and law of god but all the human beings must be obeyed to the god’s orders, as cotton in wolosky (2009, p. 3) stated, that: moses his judicials” presents an outline of political, legal and social norms that were evolving in contemporary puritan culture......puritan theology and polity themselves were deeply influenced by elements in the hebrew scriptures, notably attitudes towards history and community articulated there. in the case of sin of hester prynne’s adultery in hawthorn’s the scarlet letter as puritan’s law hester prynne was being in the wrong side because she had to violate the rule of god as a result she had to be sentenced to hang. hester prynne did not have any opportunity before the law legally to challenge her political right of custom house, but she readily accepted the decision and punishment under the pressure of the power of hegemonic in membership of church, in other words that puritan’s law did not recognize words of equality before the law, and morgan in christine leigh heyrman (2020) argued that: [...] the early new england families embodied the broader puritan emphasis on hierarchy and order, but they also reflected the values that the puritans placed on consent and reciprocity language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 47 [...] great authority over dependents vested in husbands, fathers, and masters was the understanding that each member of the household had certain rights as well as duties. it was clearly that not only hester prynne as minor character to be simple evident from puritan prototype in seventeenth-century, but it was just one from another drawn directly. furthermore, in against puritan’s mental suppression and physical oppression is hester prynne as representative of womankind could be strengthen the feminism ideology and movement to protect personal right in the term of equality before the law. it was recommended because hester prynne was a victim by indictment of puritan’s church authority and the inequality treatment by puritan’s society. for hester prynne, she has to demand personal equal right before puritan’s custom house to be protected although she was being wrong in the perspective of puritan’s law. reconstruct the hegemony of puritan’s religious values, law and political system the term of word of hegemony is to force people to obey whatever political, social and law system, and religious values were being in the living society. apparently that puritan’s religious and traditional values were still tied on moses’ bible and it was become standardized in conception of puritan society as a new israel, quoted in albanese’s american religions and religion (1992, p. 115): puritan rhetoric had become standardized in conception of puritan society as a new israel, a light to the nations, and the like […] here we need to notice that the growing sense of assurance in all of the new england colonies that they were the new israel brought with it clear transformations of the puritanism of old england […] new england puritanism expressed its sense of chosenness by increased attention to the doctrine of the covenant between god and his people was modeled on the biblical covenant god and israel. to reconstruct the minor character of hester prynne in the situation of hegemonic and autocracy of puritan’s religious and spiritual values that presented by custom house this study using binary opposition strategy. the purpose of this strategy is to opposite between inhuman puritan’ religious and spiritual values and the dimension of human being and human right as god’s given individually such as in the hester prynne’s powerless character then may ask any reasons on the basis of death sentence of hang by puritan’s custom house over the sin of adultery in hester prynne. if the puritan’s religious court believed that sin of adultery for married woman in the case of hester prynne has to be punished with the death sentence was based on faith of god in exodus: 20:20 (bible of moses), hester prynne’s character may asking any cosiderations by opposite them within john’s bible (chapter 8, pp. 3-11) as follows: 3the teachers of the law and the pharisees brought in a woman caught in adultery. they made her stand before the group 4and said to jesus, “teacher, this woman was caught in the act of adultery. 5in the law moses commanded us to stone such women. now what do you say?” 6they were using this question as a trap, in order to have a basis for accusing him. but jesus bent down and started to write on the ground with his finger. 7when they kept on questioning him, he straightened up and said to them, “let any one of you who is without sin be the first to throw a stone at her.” 8again he stooped down and wrote on the ground. 9at this, those who heard began to go away one at a time, the older ones first, until only jesus was left, with the woman still standing there. 10jesus straightened up and asked her, “woman, where are they? has no one condemned you?” 11“no one, sir,” she said. “then neither do i condemn you,” jesus declared. “go now and leave your life of sin.” sin of adultery as jesus christ in the bible of john (chapter 8, p. 7,10,11) means that no one has authority to put someone on to be death sentence but it was being in god’s authority: “7[...] let any one of you who is without sin be the first to throw a stone at her [...] “10jesus straightened up and asked her, “woman, where are they? has no one condemned you? “11no one, sir,” she said. “then neither do i condemn you,” jesus declared. “go now and leave your life of sin.” these also means that in the case of hester prynne’s adultery was being in private and ethic matter. in the case of adultery, someone can not be punished with the death sentence, but according to terri stovall (2016), dean of women’s programs at southwestern seminary in fort worth, tx, in the christian index: adultery, divorce and the believer stated that: [...]“to forgive in the same way god has forgiven us [...] to love unconditionally in the same way god loves us without condition [...] to remain faithful in the midst of unfaithfulness in the same way god remains faithful to us when we are faithless.” we are called to remain bound to the covenant we made in the same way our covenants with god cannot be broken. in establishing the law and political system for people who living language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 48 in the society was hoping that people can live in harmony, and the spirit of law must be supporting the social justice system and rule of law as well as needed by people, but in application sometimes the social justice system and rule of law did not run as well as needed by most of people because the authority in most implement the system as well as their own interest. in some regions, religious values are transformed into law and political system and regulating the people to behave in their social life, so the hegemonic religious values become obvious and real. this situation also happened in puritan’s society settled in massachusetts bay where resulted ones being victim over the system such as case of hester prynne in the story of hawthorn’s the scarlet letter. the reasons of puritan’s law and political system being unrepresentative is caused by the hegemonic of traditional values that presented law and political system based on religious values consequently, in implementing the law and political matter in severance the decision, puritan’s custom house did not concern to the consideration of hester prynne’s human right that also given from god. in discussion of deconstruction theory related to hester prynne’s problem in human right perspective being same way where there is recommend binary opposition strategy with two approaches as a way of solution for hester prynne to struggle her right over the hegemony of puritan’s law and political system. firstly we propose liberal feminism and the second one is radical feminism ideology, and so, by the two approachings believed will be able to strengthen her right in challenging puritans’ political and law system. liberal feminism ideology and action liberal feminism closely track the political learning of the larger society focused on women liberation and seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political and legal reform without altering the structure of society. liberal feminism emphasized to changing people’s values and beliefs with respect to gender. liberal feminism has led to that form feminism being individualized rather than collectivized and becoming detached from social inequality. liberal feminism cannot offer any sustained analysis of the structures of male dominance, power, or privilege, but it was tend to talk about personal right politically among political system that was implemented in the living society, tong in eyayu & getaneh (2018:60) “[...] liberal political philosophy in the enlightenment period, and centers on the core ideas of autonomy, universal rights, equal citizenship, and democracy.” in the case of hester prynne in hawthorn’s the scarlet letter advised to use liberal feminism ideology for hester prynne individually in against puritan’s law and political values as command law among puritan’s society even law and political right at that time, we recommended her to use liberal feminism ideology as a strategy to pursue. by this strategy she can struggle to strengthen her personal right politically even individual rights and also justice based on human right perspective before the puritan’s law and political system, furthermore, maynard in eyayu & getaneh (2018:60) stated that: “it is depicted as focusing on individual rights and on the concepts of equality, justice and equal opportunities, where legal and social policy changes are seen as tools for engineering women‟s equality with men.” radical feminism ideology in the case of hester prynne in hawthorn’s the scarlet letter is may be proposed and recommended because in puritan societies were dominated by the power of patriarchy and it took over for all system in puritan’s society. and in the same way hester prynne has to be free from puritan’s patriarchy hegemonic. hester prynne must be redefined herself as a rebel and take over the rebellion against the power of puritans’ patriarchal hegemony, in other words as vocoičić (2013, p. 43): the “revolution of ideas” in which there will be a replacement of one model of thinking with other, is the only way to break down the patriarchy and to establish a social system based on humane relations among people, which will not be characterized by subordination and repression. and according to sapiro (1986, p. 445), the argument of radical feminism is advocate to counter-attack and advocate separation country, “[...] unity among women against men’s authority. the task of women is to look among themselves to discover their own feelings and interests and their own culture and to refuse to participate in the male’s order.” radical feminism considered that because men’s societies have any power over women, history, social structure, and women oppressed by men in much and same way, and also in men’s societies mentioned women as a colonized people it was better being separation. it means that hester prynne as representation of womankind has to fight out the power of hegemonic whatever means or founded her own societies and reforming ways of social culture, belief system, and rule of law in her own societies, to rediscover the lost and devalued aspects of women’s culture and to create their own alternative organizations and language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 43-49 49 communities. conclusion hester prynne’s minor character which is presented in hawthorn’s the scarlet letter is representing women oppressed by puritan’s hegemony even in religious matters, rule of law, and politic system, because puritan’s moral values was being representation of white anglo-saxon protestant community model based of country of origin and legitimated their beliefs and culture as superiority one while the others. puritan’s moral attitude in implementing religious, law, and political values that represented by puritan’s custom house, moreover to challenge puritan’s demoralization and hegemonic behave in facing woman’s adultery case like hester prynne in nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter. they sometimes use hegemonic power in conducting social instrument without law and justice consideration. and in against puritan’s hegemonic power for hester prynne’s minor character is recommended to strengthen human and feminism perspectiv and also by reconstruct hester prynne’s minor character to be main character by means of derrida’s binary opposition. referenses albanese, c. l. 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(2019). women’s struggle against patriarchy: an analysis of radical feminism through nadia hashimi’s a house without windows. anaphora: journal of language, literary and cultural studies, 2(1), 1-9. german, g. d. (2002). one nation under god?: ethnicity and identity in modern america. amnis. revue de civilisation contemporaine europes/ amériques, (2). guebert & claywell. (2016). a critique of puritan values and social restrictions. repository for scholarship, research and creaive thought, murray state’s digital commons, murray state university. kasiyarno. (2014). amrican dream: the american hegemony culture and its implications to the world. journal of humaniora. (26)1, 13-21. kelley, j. (2019). dismantling deconstruction & poststructuralist theories of literature through the application of superstructure. philosophy. medium. leigh, h. c. (2020). religion, women, and the family in early america, divining america: religion in american history. national humanities center, department of history, university of delaware. mambrol, n. (2016). deconstruction. scholary article: literary theory and criticism. new statement. christ teaching in jerusalem. john’s bible ricardson, j. (2014). the scarlet letter; a criticism of puritan beliefs. book reviews. rinan sumekto, d. (2014). moral value of massachussetts society in the puritan era: a study on nathaniel hawthorn’s the scarlet letter. journal of culture, english language teaching and literature (celt), (14)2, 159-175. sapiro, v. (1986). women in american society: an introduction to women’s studies. us. mayfield publishing company. seldan, r. (1985). a reader’s guide to contemporary literary theory. uk. the harvester press limited. singhal, a. (2015). deconstructive reading: what, why, how. spring megazine on english literature. sleeper, j. (2015). our puritan heritage. democracy: a journal of ideas. summer (37), 56. stovall, t. (2016). adultery, divorce and the believer. the christian index. swirsky, j. m., & angelone, d. j. (2016). equality, empowerment, and choice: what does feminism mean to contemporary women?. journal of gender studies, 25(4), 445-460. vukoičić, j. (2013). radical feminism as a discourse in the theory of conflict. sociološki diskurs, 3(5), 33-49. wolosky, s. (2009). biblical republicanism: john cotton’s ‘moses his judicials’ and american hebraism. hebraic political studies, 4(2), 104-127. wulansari, a. (2017). the puritan law and adultery and its impacts on society: a sociological approach of literature in the scarlet letter. journal of metathesis: journal of english language, literature, and teaching, (1)1, 14-29. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 literary traces of the qur‟an in its english translation taufiqurrohman islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jepara email. ufiq@unisnu.ac.id abstract based on many researches have been done, the qur‘an uses literary methods in conveying the messages. this research uses different perspective in proving such conclusion by using english translations of the qur‘an written by four authorized qur‘an translators. the researcher uses hermeneutics and aesthetics to find the literary substantiations of english translations of the qur‘an. of course there will be random verses of the qur‘an that would be choosen to be analyzed. both analysis devices say that english translations of the qur‘an have literary traces that signify the qur‘an as a literary masterpiece, such as not only in owning different dictions and layers of meaning but also in owning aesthetic process and poetic texts. keywords: english translation of the qur‘an, hermeneutics, aesthetics, literary substantiations introduction there is a lack of comprehensive studies in literary perspective of the qur‘an. it is noted that there are well-research on it, but other researchers use partial part of literature. there are, at least, which are found by this study, results of literary researches on it that were published in journals and thesis actually, such as the finding on the qur‘an as literature (mir, 2000) and researching the using of god‘s names in afsar‘s and azmat‘s from the word of allah to the words of men: the qur‘ān and the poetics of translation in 2012. there was also research on qur‘an as literature in iqbal‘s thesis entitled the quran as a literary masterpiece within its historical and religious milieus in 2013. besides, a research in the same year on translation‘s ideology of the qur‘an also existed in mohaghegh‘s and pirnajmuddin‘s the trace of translator‘s ideology: a case study of english translations of the qur‘an. then in 2014 the writer of this article also had got conclusion that god uses literary method in conveying messages through the qur‘an. poem is in every part of its surahs. prose also exists in many part of it (taufiqurrohman, 2014). those researches actually had similarities with others in couple journals. but there has been no research on literary studies that are based on the translations of the qur‘an that next it can be related with the qur‘an itself as the real source. in view of the importance of translating the qur‘an, many eminent scholars of islam say that it is obligatory. among these scholars are imam al-bukhary, ibn hajar, ibn taimiyya, abdul azeez ibn baz and muhammad ibn salih al-uthaymeen (saudi, 2010). of course the duty for many translators, in relation to translations of religion documents, is to write a functional and accurate english rendition (mohammed, 2005). thus, this study tries to reveal the literary traces of the qur‘an based on its english translations. although the previous research can be used as the references for this study, still this study can be a new perspective that is offered by the researcher. methodology this study is categorized as qualitative descriptive study because the objects of analysis are in textual forms, namely literary text. the distinguished object here is that it states approach to the qur‘an as a literary text. mailto:ufiq@unisnu.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 so in this case, the approaches of analysis to answer the aims are two methods that are related to literary theories. the writer here chose hermeneutics and aesthetics. both theories function as the devices to answer the literary indications. hermeneutics would analyze the socio-cultural and symbolic reading of the verses of the qur‘an in this study later (riffaterre, 1978). meanwhile, based on eaton (1999), analyzing aesthetics of something is a matter of being smart in explaining its keywords so that someone else can see where the beauty is. aesthetics here is used by conveying the logics why the verses of the qur‘an are inferred beautiful. since the writer would use the english translations to analyze the qur‘an‘s literary substantiations, of course there will be sample of words, phrases and sentences of the verses of the qur‘an that would be used in analysis. in this case, the writer used random sampling. beside for having legal analysis, this random sampling is also aimed at checking the previous references on the conclusion that the qur‘an uses literary ways in conveying messages. then for having comprehensive results of analysis, the verses are compared between four authorized translations. the decision on choosing four translations here is based on an authorized research result by muhammad (2005). the authorized four of more are muhammad marmaduke pickthall‘s the meaning of the glorious koran, abdullah yusuf ‗ali‘s the holy qur‘an: translation and commentary –which here is referred to alqur‘an terjemah indonesia inggris (2008), muhammad taqi al-din al-hilali‘s and muhammad muhsin khan‘s the noble qur‘an in the english language, and muhammad asad‘s the message of the qur‘an. then the sample verses in the four translations would be compared as well by using both theories above so that the conclusion would be got after that. discussion below is some samples of verses of english translations of the qur‘an that are quoted by the writer randomly. those are directly followed by the analysis on using hermeneutics then aesthetics respectively. the first sample is surah al-baqarah verse 152 in which in: 1. pikhtal‘s translation is: ―therefore remember me, i will remember you. give thanks to me, and reject not me‖; 2. asad‘s is: ―so remember me, and i shall remember you; and be grateful unto me, and deny me not‖; 3. ali‘s is: ―then do ye remember me; i will remember you. be grateful to me, and reject not faith‖; and 4. al-hilali and khan‘s is ―therefore remember me (by praying, glorifying), i will remember you, and be grateful to me (for my countless favours on you) and never be ungrateful to me‖. pickthall‘s translation means that human as god‘s humble must remember their creator, feel thank to him and not to rebuff. this verse has different situation of words and meanings with other translations. for instance asad‘s translation uses ―shall‖ instead of ―will‖. the social meaning has stronger impression in ―shall‖ rather than ―will‖. word ―reject‖ also is different from ―deny‖ although it can be called synonym. then ali‘s translation has very different one in the last verse, namely ―.. reject not faith‖, by focusing not in god himself but faith one. the religious meaning is that what focuses on god is deeper because the destination is god directly, not faith. the fourth translation, al-hilali and khan‘s, gave limitation by explaining ―remember‖ only with praying and glorifying and ―be grateful to me‖ with countless favor. actually if there is no such limitations of meaning, the reader and the translators have possibility to get layers of meaning and to interpret more. those differences of translation results infer that the qur‘an is a literary text. they remind us on diamond; it has many angles in portraying the side and light. this is the theory language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 of literary works; once they come to readers, interpretants would be so multi-dimensional that many interpretations and layers of meaning happen (riffaterre, 1978). such diamond illustration on translating the qur‘an in english above indicates aesthetical thing too. one verse in sentence can make various meaning in which all meanings can be true and advantageous may be called artistic. it can be proved again in an example of the verse below. take surah hud verse 6: 1. in ali‘s translation: ―there is no moving creature on earth but its sustenance dependeth on allah: he knoweth the time and place of its definite abode (home) and its temporary deposit (safekeeping): all is in a clear record‖; 2. in al-hilali and khan‘s: ―and no moving (living) creature is there on earth but its provision is due from allah. and he knows its dwelling place and its deposit (in the uterus, grave). all is in clear book (allauh-al-mahfuz-the book of decrees with allah)‖; 3. in pickthall‘s: ―and there is not a beast in the earth but the sustenance thereof dependeth on allah. he knoweth its habitation and its repository. all is in a clear record‖; 4. in asad‘s: ―and there is no living creature on earth but depends for its sustenance on god; and he knows its time-limit [on earth] and its restingplace [after death]: all [this] is laid down in [his] clear decree.‖ ali‘s translation above has different diction that makes different hermeneutical reading. it is like ―beast‖ in pikhtal‘s translation. ―moving creature‖ is larger than ―beast‖ actually so that here ali‘s diction has more consequences of interpretation than pikhtal‘s. there is difference again in asad‘s translation which uses ―time limit‖ and ―resting place‖. both indicates convergence in interpretation. being different from those anymore, al-hilali and khan‘s translation uses special information on ―uterus and grave‖ in understanding the last word. all different and true interpretations can make artistic fact like diamond. it is literary work. such conclusion can be seen too from the translations of sura ar-rahman verse 4 as follows: 1. pickthall‘s is: ―he hath taught him utterance‖; 2. asad‘s is: ―he has imparted unto him articulate thought and speech‖; 3. ali‘s is: ―he has taught him speech [intelligence]‖; 4. al-hilali & khan is: ―he taught him eloquent speech‖. each translation has different word in signifying word ―al-bayan‖. based on webster‘s new world dictionary, third college edition (1986), ―utterance‖ (in pickthall‘s translation) means the power of speaking, in asad‘s is widened with two words (thought and speech) which means ideas and the act of speaking, in ali‘s is only ―speech‖ but being informed by ―intelligence‖ in bracket which means the ability to understand. while al-hilali and khan‘s is ―speech‖ too but added by ―eloquent‖ before it in which it means persuasive and expressive. in conclusion, although the translations seem similar in domain of context, still the distribution and application of meaning is different. meanwhile, being seen from the characteristics of words used, some translations uses such literary words. in those verses, they are like ―knoweth‖ and ―dependeth‖ in surah hud verse 6, and ―hath‖ in surah ar-rahman verse 4. there are also ―thou‖, ―thee‖ and ―thine‖ in the following two paragraph, namely in sura al-fatihah. the words can be categorized as elizabethan english. it used to be used in literary works, especially by shakespeare (https://patricianowacky.weebly.com/uploads/5/ 7/4/8/57483233 /mine_thine_and_-eth.pdf). they are like ―knoweth‖ was instead of ―know‖ in contemporary language, and ―thou‖ for ―you‖ subject as ―thee‖ for ―you‖ object and ―thy‖ for ―you‖ possessive in contemporary https://patricianowacky.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/4/8/57483233%20/mine_thine_and_-eth.pdf https://patricianowacky.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/4/8/57483233%20/mine_thine_and_-eth.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 language (www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson _images/lesson1031/terms.pdf). such words signify that the qur‘an is considered by the translators and by the readers as having so beautiful language that they used such archaic literary language. in conclusion, this one characteristic emphasizes the qur‘an as a literary masterpiece too. furthermore, the qur‘an‘s status, in religious position, as god‘s literary work also can be seen from many verses around stories had been conveyed. it is like in surah al kahfi verse 60 to 82 that are translated into english by four qur‘anic translators above. it tells around the unique life learning process between khidr as the source of learning to musa as the target of learning. there are many lessons of life that can be taken. there are also many characters got involved in the story. the settings were clear too. the plot is forward and flashback. those are the proofs that the verse has what a text can be called a literary work, namely prose or narrative text. there are more on that in the qur‘an‘s text. that conclusion of the qur‘an as a literary work in this paragraph also indicates aesthetic too. it is because in one whole text, there enclosed many stories inside among other types of literary characteristics. the next hermeneutic and aesthetic perspective also can be inferred from poems in all verses starts from the first surah to the last. take for example a surah that is recited repetitiously daily for moslems. it is alfatihah. below is the translation of surah alfatihah by pickthall. in the name of allah, the beneficent, the merciful praise be to allah, lord of the worlds, the beneficent, the merciful. owner of the day of judgement, thee (alone) we worship; thee alone we ask for help. show us the straight path, the path of those whom thou hast favoured; not (the path) of those who earn thine anger nor of those who astray. the verse has concise and poetic way in conveying comprehensive meaning as a verse. the first makes the readers get involved in believing they are before allah in everything they do, feel and think. this is also followed by illustrating allah as the beneficent to everyone and everything in all worlds and the merciful to all believers. that‘s why praise be to him as lord of all worlds. the characters then are emphasized again. it is important to emphasize things just like sujud in salats. then the day of judgement is also enclosed which refers to allah as the owner. in relation to the men, they are taught to focus to allah either in worshipping or in asking for help. then they are taught to pray to allah to be showed and guided for being on the true life. there are also layers in meanings in interpreting this surah as what has been showed by many exegesis experts in interpreting other verses too. in case such findings above reflect the multi-interpretations and layers of meaning, the impossibility of qur‘anic translations into perfect ones seems happen (afsar and azmat, 2012). instead, this phenomenon can have big lesson. it is that god has revealed the qur‘an in the literary type. beside being based on the multi-interpretation and layers of meaning, it is also based on poetic types of all verses and the existence of proses. then the results of analysis above show that there are many traces of literary characteristics of the qur‘an. this conclusion is also based on the literary indications that has been got from the analysis. the table below can show such conclusion above. table 1. literary traces of the qur‘an based on literary indications no literary indications fact of literary traces (yes/no) 1 the using of different dictions in yes http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1031/terms.pdf http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1031/terms.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 different translation 2 the facts of layers of meaning yes 3 the facts of multi-interpretations yes 4 the using of literary words yes 5 the existence of aesthetic prose yes 6 the using of concise words yes 7 the existence of poetic texts yes table 1 above has parsed the findings of this research. there are seven literary indications that have been found by using hermeneutics and aesthetics. those seven indications are stated positive. in other words, those seven can signify literary traces of the qur‘an through its english translations. so this finding can substantiate the previous findings that stated the qur‘an as a literary masterpiece. conclusion the researcher finds that english translations of qur‘an are indeed able to prove that the qur‘an is a literary masterpiece. the substantiations of this can be seen from the inside-out analysis by using hermeneutics and aesthetics. furthermore, both analysis say that english translations of qur‘an meet the requirements (literary indications) as a kind of literary work such as in owning different dictions in different translations, layers of meaning, multiinterpretations for the readers or translators, literary words, aesthetic proses, concise words and poetic texts. since the translations are literary works, the qur‘an itself must be a literary work too. it can be concluded finally that the qur‘an has left traces of its using literary types on its english translations. references afsar, a., & azmat, m. (2012). from the word of allah to the words of men: the qur‘an and the poetics of translation. islamic studies. 51(2), 193-211. al-hilali, m. t., & khan, m.m. the noble qur‘an english translation of the meanings and commentary. madinah: king fahd complex for the printing of the holy qur‘an. online http://islamtomorrow.com/downloads/quran_khan.pdf [accessed 17/04/2017]. al-qur‘an indonesian-english translation. (2008). solo: qomari. asad, muhammad. the message of the quran. online http://muhammad-asad.com/message-ofquran.pdf [accessed 17/04/2017]. eaton, m. (1999). basic issues in aesthetics. usa: waveland press. elizabethan language terms contemporary → elizabethan. online www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1031/terms.pdf [accessed 16/09/2017]. iqbal, m.o. (2013). the qur‘an as literary masterpiece within its historical and religious milieus. thesis: university of washington. online https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks /bitstream/handle/1773/22766/iqbal_washington_0250o_11526.pdf?sequence=1 [accessed 15/09/2017]. mir, m. (2000). the qur‘an as literature. renaissance, 10(5), 1-13. mohammed, k. (2005). assessing english translations of the qur‘an. middle east quarterly, spring, 1-13. pickthall, m. meanings of the holy qur‘an. online http://islamtomorrow.com/downloads/ quranpikhtal.pdf [accessed 17/04/2017] riffaterre, m. (1978). semiotics of poetry. bloomington and london: indiana university press. http://islamtomorrow.com/downloads/quran_khan.pdf http://muhammad-asad.com/message-of-quran.pdf http://muhammad-asad.com/message-of-quran.pdf http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1031/terms.pdf https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks%20/bitstream/handle/1773/22766/iqbal_washington_0250o_11526.pdf?sequence=1 https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks%20/bitstream/handle/1773/22766/iqbal_washington_0250o_11526.pdf?sequence=1 http://islamtomorrow.com/downloads/%20quranpikhtal.pdf http://islamtomorrow.com/downloads/%20quranpikhtal.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 sadiq, s. (2010). a comparative study of four english translations of sûrat ad-dukhân on the semantic level. united kingdom: cambridge scholars publishing. shakespeare‘s language. online https://patricianowacky.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/4/8/ 57483233/mine_thine_and_-eth.pdf [accessed 16/09/2017]. taufiqurrohman. (2014). transcendental urgency of literature. tarbawi, 11(2), 111-121. webster‘s new world dictionary, third college edition. (1986). new york: simon & schuster, inc. https://patricianowacky.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/4/8/%2057483233/mine_thine_and_-eth.pdf https://patricianowacky.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/4/8/%2057483233/mine_thine_and_-eth.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 27 the effectiveness of communicative language teaching method to enhance the students’ motivation in increasing their toefl score eko martono stiepari, semarang abstract stiepari students‟ achievement was found to have declined during 2008 2010. almost all language skills were affected. one attempt to rectify the problem was the creation of a program called stiepari language course (slc). the natures of the data in this research were quantitative and qualitative. the quantitative data were taken from the post-test toefl scores of 30 stiepari students. the 30 students were divided into 2 groups, experimental class and control class. experimental class was taught using communicative language teaching (clt) method in the teaching learning process; on the other hand, control class was taught without using clt. the qualitative data were taken from student comments on the stiepari language course (slc). from the t-test analysis, the result shows that there is a significant difference between the mean score of post-test of the experimental class and the mean score of post-test of the control class. this result shows that, statistically, the communicative language teaching (clt) method is an effective method to enhance students‟ motivation in increasing toefl score. it should be mentioned, however, that toefl scores should be interpreted with care. to summarize students‟ feedback on the stiepari language course (slc), in general, both the experimental class and the control class learned a lot from the slc. this comment is supported by the increase in toefl score. key words: communicative language teaching, motivation, toefl score introduction the teaching of english does not always result in the level of proficiency expected by teachers or prescribed by the curriculum. such an inconsistency between the purpose and the product was found in stiepari. following the development of a quality program, stiepari students‟ achievement was found to have declined during the 2008 2010. the declining of stiepari students‟ achievement could be seen from the declining mean of toefl score. in 2009, the mean of toefl score was 413.67, meanwhile the mean of toefl score in 2008 was 415.56. it means, the decline was 1.89 point in 2009. it happened again in 2010. the mean score toefl in 2010 was 411.89. if we compare it with the mean score in 2009, it means, the decline was 1.78 point. an attempt to rectify the problem was the creation of a program called stiepari language course (slc). slc can be said 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 to be “intensive” for three reasons. first, language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing and language elements (vocabulary, grammar) are taught in an integrated manner. in traditional programs, third semester students learn language skill and language elements separately. second, slc materials are graded systematically so that the students move progressively into each learning experience. third, more learning time is allocated. the toefl instrument is selected for a number of reasons. first, the main objective of the test is to evaluate the english proficiency of non-native speakers (nns) of english (sadtono,1987). second, toefl has been improved over the years. finally, material for the toefl test is written by esl/efl specialists who undergo a rigorous training program. demand to reach 450 toefl score for stiepari students is not an easy thing by seeing their input. most teachers agree that motivation plays a vital role in the learner‟s achievement; it is often attributed with the capacity to override other factors, such as language aptitude, to affect achievement in both negative and positive ways. although its importance is widely recognized, its meaning is elusive. the trend towards motivational theories related to classroom learning has generated more interest in the topic among language teachers and researchers of language learning. to improve student‟s motivation in toefl score, stiepari language course (slc) applies the communicative language teaching (clt) method in the teaching and learning process, especially to do toefl test. in order to determine its effectiveness, a study should be conducted. the formulations of the problem in this research are (1) is the application of the communicative language teaching (clt) method as an alternative technique effective to enhance student‟s motivation for better toefl score at stiepari language course (slc)? (2) what are some responses of stiepari‟s students about stiepari language course (slc)? the objectives of the research are to show (1) whether the application of the communicative language teaching (clt) method as an alternative technique is effective to enhance student‟s motivation for better toefl score at stiepari language course (slc) and (2) some responses of stiepari‟s students about stiepari language course (slc). communicative language teaching (clt) is an approach to foreign or second language which asserts that the goal of language learning is communicative competence (richards, 1985). the clt is the name which was given to a set of beliefs which included not only a reexamination of what aspects of language to teach, but also a shift in emphasis in how to teach (harmer, 2001:84). the „what to teach‟ aspect of the clt stressing the language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 29 significance of language functions rather than focusing solely on grammar and vocabulary. a guiding principle was to train students to use these language forms appropriately in a variety of contexts and in a variety of purposes. the „how to teach‟ aspect of the clt is closely related to the idea that „language learning will take care of itself‟, and that plentiful exposure to language in use and plenty of opportunities to use it are vitally important for a student‟s development of knowledge and skill. the communicative language teaching (clt) method has some of the purposes that communicative activities can make to language learning. according to littlewood (1981:17-18), the following purposes. (1) the clt method provides „whole-task practice‟. in foreign language learning, this means for providing learners with whole-task practice in the classroom is through various kinds of communicative activity, structured in order to suit the learner‟s level of ability. (2) the clt improves motivation the learners‟ ultimate objective is to take part in communication with others. their motivation to learn is more likely to be sustained if they can see how their classroom learning is related to this objective and helps them to achieve it with increasing success. (3) the clt allows natural learning language learning takes place inside the learner and, as teachers knows to their frequent frustration; many aspects of it are beyond their pedagogical control. it is likely, in fact, that many aspects of language leaning can take place only through natural processes, which operate when a person is involved in using the language for communication. if it is so, communication activity is an important part of the total learning process. (4) the clt can create a context which supports learning communicative activity provides opportunities for positive personal relationships to develop among learners and between learner and teacher. these relationships can help to „humanize‟ the classroom and to create an environment that supports the individual in his efforts to learn. littlewood (1981:20) distinguishes three main activity types in the communicative language teaching (clt) method, functional communication activities, social interaction activities and listening activities. the main purpose of the functional communication activities is that learners should use the language they know in order to get meanings across as effectively as possible. success is measured primarily according to whether they cope with the communicative demands of the immediate situation. 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 functional communication activities include such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures and nothing similarities and differences, working out a likely sequence of events in a set of pictures, discovering missing features in a map or picture, and solving problem from shared clues. social interaction activities add a further dimension to the functional activities. in social interaction activities, the important aspect of communicative skill is the ability to take account of the social meaning as well as the functional meaning of different language. the learner chooses language, which is not only functional effective, but also appropriate to the social situation he is in it. success is now measured not only in terms of the functional effectiveness of language, but also in terms of the acceptability of the forms that are used. in the early stages of learning, acceptability may mean little more than a reasonable degree of accuracy in pronunciation and grammar. later, it will increasingly come to include producing language which is appropriate to specific kinds of social situation. social interaction activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role-plays, simulations, kits, improvisations, and debates. the nature of listening comprehension means that the hearer should be encouraged to engage in an active process of listening for meaning. he should also be made aware that not every clue is equally important to the message. the active nature of listening means that, no less than in speaking, the learner must be motivated by a communicative purpose. this purpose determines to a large extent what meaning he must listen to and which parts of the spoken text are most important to him. listening activities include identification, selection and sequencing a set of pictures, locating a plan of a house or town, draw the scene and construct a model using blocks or pieces and performing other actions. motivation is some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something (harmer, 2004:51). according to gardner (1985), the definition of motivation as the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity. as brown points out, a cognitive view of motivation includes factors such as the need for exploration, activity, stimulation, new knowledge and ego enhancement (brown, 2000:160). william and burden (1997:120) suggest that motivation is a state of cognitive arousal which provokes a decision to act as a result of which there is sustained intellectual and/or physical effort so that the person can achieve some previously set goal. they go on to point out that the strength of the motivation will depend on how much value the individual language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 31 places on the outcome he or she wishes to achieve. in discussion of motivation, an accepted distinction is made between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (harmer, 2001:51). extrinsic motivation is caused by any number of outside factors, for example, the need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the possibility of future travel. intrinsic motivation, by contrast, comes from within individual. thus a person might be motivated by the enjoyment of the learning process itself or by a desire to make themselves feel better. gardner (1993) classified the motivation at two levels, goal or oriented motivation and core motivation. the motivation at the goal or oriented level includes the learner‟s core motivation, the learner‟s orientation to language learning and the learner‟s attitudes towards the learning situations. the core motivation as a construct composed three characteristics: the attitudes towards learning a language (affect), the desire to learn language (want) and motivational intensity (effort). ellis (1997:75) identified two distinct orientations for learning a language, integrative and instrumental. integrative orientation refers to a learner‟s desire to learn more about the cultural community of the target language or to assimilate to some degree in the target community. integrative orientation refers to a desire to increase the affiliation with the target community. according to harmer (2001:52), the motivation that brings students to the task of learning english can be affected and influenced by the attitudes of a number of people. they are: (1) the society we live in: all these of language learning will affect the student„s attitudes to the language being studied, and the nature and strength of this attitude will, in its turn, have a profound effect on the degree of motivation the student brings to class and whether or not that motivation continues. (2) significant others: the attitudes of parents and older siblings will be crucial. the attitudes of the student‟s peer are also crucial. if they are critical of the subject or activity, the student‟s own motivation may suffer. if they are enthusiastic learners, however, they may take the student along with them. (3) the teacher: a major factor in the continuance of a student‟s motivation is the teacher. his or her attitudes to the language and the task of learning will be vital. (4) the method: the method is vital that both teacher and students have some confidence in the way teaching and learning take place. when either loses this confidence, motivation can be disastrously affected, but when both are comfortable with the method being used, success is much more likely. the toefl is an internationally accepted standard of english that 32 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 measures the academic english proficiency of a non-native speaker of english (septiana, 2011:1). the toefl measures the ability of non-native speakers of english to use and understand english as it is spoken, written and heard in college and university settings. the toefl is designed to help institution of higher learning make valid decision concerning english language proficiency in terms of own requirement. the purpose of the toefl is to evaluate the english proficiency of people whose native language is not english. benefits of the toefl are widely available and easily accessible, regarded as the international standard and industry leader and the test is administered under secure conditions and is highly reliable; hence, scores can be used confidently to make high-stakes decisions (kim,2010). there are three types of the toefl, internet-based test (ibt), computer-based test (cbt) and paper-based test (pbt) (septiana, 2011). the ibt is tested by using a computer. the toefl ibt lasts approximately 4,5 hours. it examines your reading, listening, speaking and writing skills. wishing can take this test on computer at test centre. they are taken about 30-40 times a year in special centers throughout the world. the test contains reading, speaking, listening and writing section. in the listening section students are to answer questions. the main task of them is to measure the understanding of attitude, degree of certainty, and purpose of spoken texts. in the reading section students are to answer questions to categorize information and fill in a chart or complete a summary. in the writing section students are to type on computer. it also involves an integrated task in addition to independent tasks. the ibt is definitely different. for the first time, the toefl test will assess the ability to deliver comprehensive english skills and to communicate about what you read and hear. the cbt is conducted on a computer. while ibt is also done with on-line internet. both acquire the participants to strike the keyboard on the computer. in indonesia, the cities that conduct the cbt are jakarta, surabaya, and medan. in pbt, the participants choose the answer by blackening the oval on the answer sheet using 2b pencil. this test contains exercises in listening, structure (grammar), reading and writing. fulfilling a test takes approximately 3,5 hours. the test mostly consists of multiple-choice questions and a 30 minutes essay. according to sharpe (1992:8), toefl consists of three main sections as follows: listening comprehension, structure and word expression, and reading comprehension. listening comprehension measures the level of understanding (ability to understand) to the conversations and discussions in english. listening comprehension tests the comprehension language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 33 level towards conversations and talks in english. structure and written expression measures the knowledge of grammar, from „content words, as verbs, adjective and adverbs; structure words‟ like the auxiliary, prepositions, articles to „function words‟ as subject, predicate, object. this section is designed to measure the test takers‟ ability to recognize language that is appropriate for standard written english. reading comprehension is designed to measure the ability to read and understand short passages similar in topic and in style. the topic includes academic matters and informational or explanatory cases. the final paper-based test (pbt) score ranges between 216 and 677 and is based on three sub-scores: listening (240 680), structure (200 680), and reading (210 670). unlike the internet-based test (ibt) and the computer-based test (cbt), the score of the writing section (referred to as the test of written english, twe) is not part of the final score; instead, it is reported separately on a scale of 0–6. the score test takers receive on the listening, structure and reading parts of the toefl test is not the percentage of correct answers. the score is converted to take into account the fact that some tests are more difficult than others. the converted scores correct these differences. therefore, the converted score is a more accurate reflection of the ability than the correct answer score. metods in this design, there are two groups, experimental class and control class. experimental class was taught using special treatment, communicative language teaching (clt) method. control class was taught without using special treatment. the students are randomly placed in classes. both experimental class and control class receive pre-test and post-test toefl. however, the experimental class receives the treatment before the post-test toefl. the natures of the data in this research were quantitative and qualitative. the quantitative data were taken from the post-test toefl scores of stiepari students. post-test toefl scores are obtained from the test given to the students after they were given the treatment. the qualitative data were taken from the students‟ comments on the stiepari language course (slc). at the completion of slc, a questionnaire was distributed to the students. and the answer sheet was provided. the population in this research is the students of stiepari semarang who are following slc program period 2010/2011. the number of students is 65. the samples used in this research are 30 respondents. the 30 students are divided into 2 groups, experimental class and control class. experimental class 34 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 includes 15 students, whereas control class consists of 15 students. in quantitative analysis, first, we will find the mean score from the data of the post-test toefl score of the experimental class and post-test toefl score of the control class for comparison. second, we use paired t-test technique to analyze the data. from the result of this analysis, we will find t-obs (t-observation). then, we compare t-obs with t-table with the significant level of 0.01 (99%). this comparison will show the difference of toefl scores of stiepari student‟s in experimental class and control class. qualitative analysis is the analysis of the response of stiepari students about stiepari language course (slc). the analysis which included all of the questionnaire answer and then we make percentage of it. in this research, the group administrated questionnaire and the closed responses will be used to collect data. the reseacher recapitulated all of the questionnaire answers from the students of stiepari and then we make percentage of it. ho: there is no significant difference between teaching toefl using the communicative language teaching (clt) method and teaching toefl without it; that the communicative language teaching (clt) method as an alternative technique is not effective to enhance students‟ motivation in increasing toefl score. ha: there is significant difference between teaching toefl using the communicative language teaching (clt) method and teaching toefl without it; that the communicative language teaching (clt) method as an alternative technique is effective to enhance students‟ motivation in increasing toefl score. results and discussion the result of the mean computation of pretest and post-test toefl scores of experimental class and the control class are shown in table 1. table 1 mean computation of pre-test and post-test toefl scores class pre-test toefl score post-test toefl score the increasing of score experimental class 416.13 422.93 6.80 control class 416.07 418.87 2.82 the result of the mean computation above (table 1) shows that the increasing of the mean score of post-test toefl of the experimental class is higher than the language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 35 mean score of post-test toefl of the control class. this result shows that mathematically, the communicative language teaching (clt) method is effective to improve students‟ motivation in toefl score. table 2 t-test result comparison t-obs sig result pair : post-test toefl score of experimental class and post-test toefl score of control class 3.420 0.004 different-significant table 2 shows the result of analysis using t-test. t-obs (t-observation) is 3.420 with the significance 0.004 and degree of freedom 28 (15 + 15 – 2). this means that t-obs is higher than t-table 2.763 at the significance level of 0.01 and degree of freedom 28 (t-obs 3.420 > t-table 2.763). the result of t-test also shows that the significance level observation is 0.004 or smaller than significance level chosen that is 0.01 (α-obs 0.004 < α-tab 0.01). the result of t-test indicates that there is significant difference between the mean score of post-test toefl of the experimental class and the mean score of post-test toefl of the control class. it means that communicative language teaching (clt) method is effective for improving students‟ motivation in toefl score. therefore, h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted. the result of these questionnaire answers from students in the experimental class and the control class is shown in table 3. table 3 students‟ responses of the experimental class and the control class 1. do you learn a lot from slc? experimental class control class amount % amount % a lot not much did not respond 10 4 1 66,.67 26,66 6,67 7 6 2 46,67 40,00 13,00 2. what do you think of the materials? very good 8 53,33 2 13,33 36 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 good bad 7 0 46,67 0 10 3 66,67 20,00 3. how do you like the learning activities? exciting not too bad boring 9 6 0 60,00 40,00 0 2 8 5 13,33 53,33 33,33 4. what about the teacher‟s performance? wonderful not too bad boring 5 8 2 33,33 53,33 13,33 2 10 3 13,33 66,67 20,00 total 15 100,00 5. what do you think of the tests (formative test and summative test)? very difficult difficult easy 1 5 9 6,67 33,33 60,00 4 5 6 26,67 33,33 40,00 6. do the materials give more motivation in learning english? much average not much 9 5 1 60,00 33,33 6,67 0 13 2 0 86,67 13,33 7. do the learning activities give more motivation in learning english? much average not much 11 4 0 73,33 26,67 0 2 11 2 13,33 73,33 13,33 8. what do you think of the toefl test? much average not much 3 11 1 20,00 73,33 6,67 3 11 1 20,00 73,33 6,67 9. do the materials support taking in toefl test? much average not much 4 10 1 26,67 66,67 6,67 4 10 1 26,67 66,67 6,67 10. do the learning activities support taking in toefl test? much average not much 4 10 1 26,67 66,67 6,67 4 10 1 26,67 66,67 6,67 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 37 the purpose of the first question in questionnaire ‟do you learn a lot from slc?‟ was to find out if slc was useful in learning english. student‟s responses showed that majority students in the experimental class and control class gave some responses that they had learned a lot from slc. it means that slc can help students to improve their english. the aim of second question was to measure the students‟ satisfaction with the materials which were given in slc. student‟s responses showed that students in the experimental class felt more satisfied with their materials than students in the control class. the aim of question „how do you like the learning actvities?‟ was to measure the students‟ satisfaction with the learning activities in slc. student‟s responses showed that students in the experimental class felt more satisfied with the learning activities in their class than students in the control class. the aim of the question „what about the teacher‟s performance?‟ was to measure the students‟ satisfaction with the teacher‟s performance in the class. student‟s responses showed that teacher‟s performance who taught in stiepari language course (slc) was good enough. the aim of fifth question was to measure students‟ ability in learning english. student‟s responses showed that majority students in the experimental class gave their comments that the tests were easy, meanwhile, majority students in the control class‟s comments were vice versa or it means the tests were difficult. the aim of the question „do the materials give more motivation in learning english?‟ was to measure the students‟ motivation in improving learning english related to the materials. student‟s responses showed that most of students in the experimental class answered that the materials which were given could improve their motivation in learning english. meanwhile, most of students in the control class answered that the materials which were given in their class could not enough enhance their motivation in learning english. the aim of the question „do the learning activities give more motivation in learning english?‟ was to measure students‟ motivation in improving their learning activities. table 3 shows that majority students in the experimental class answered that the learning activities in their class could improve their motivation in learning english. meanwhile, majority students in the control class answered that the learning activities in their class couldn‟t enough improving their motivation in learning english. the aim of the question „what do you think of the toefl test?‟ was to measure students‟ ability in doing the toefl test. based on table 3, most of students in the experimental class and control class gave their comments that the toefl test was still difficult for them. 38 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 the aim of the question „do the materials support taking in toefl test‟ was to find out if the materials which were given in the class can help the students to do toelf test. table 3 shows most of the students in the experimental class and the control class gave their comments that the materials could help them enough to do the toefl test. the aim of the last question „do the learning activities support taking in toefl test?‟ was to find out if the learning activities could help students to do the toefl test. based on table 3, like in the materials, most of students in both classes, in experimental class and control class answered that the learning activities could help them enough to do the toefl test. conclusion from the computation of the mean score, the result shows that the increasing of the mean score of post-test toefl of the experimental class is higher than the mean score of post-test toefl of the control class. this result shows that, mathematically, the communicative language teaching (clt) method as an alternative technique is effective to enhance students‟ motivation in increasing toefl score. from the t-test analysis, the result shows that there is significant difference between the mean score of post-test toefl of the experimental class and the mean score of post-test toefl of the control class. this result shows that, statistically, the communicative language teaching (clt) method as an alternative technique is effective to enhance students‟ motivation in increasing toefl score. it should be mentioned, however, that toefl scores should be interpreted with care. to summarize students‟ feedback on the stiepari language course (slc), in general, both the experimental class and the control class, students learned a lot from the slc. responses on the slc material indicated that most of the students felt that the materials were good. responses on the learning activities indicated that students in the experimental class felt that the learning activities were exciting, while students in the control class felt that the learning activities were adequate (not too bad). responses on the teachers‟ performance indicated that students in the experimental class and the control class felt that, in general, the teachers‟ performance was good enough. and responses on the formative and summative tests indicated that the majority of the students in the experimental class comment that the tests were easy, meanwhile, the majority of the students in the control class comment that the tests were difficult. student‟s feedback indicated that most of students in the experimental class responded that the materials and learning activities which were given can enhance their motivation in learning english. meanwhile, most of students in the control language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 39 class responded that the materials and learning activities which were given in their class could not enhance their motivation in learning english. based on the students‟ responses, most of students in the experimental class and control class comment that toefl test still was difficult. it means that the toefl test given at stiepari language course (slc) is still difficult for the students of stiepari. most of the students in the experimental class and the control class recommended that the materials and learning activities can help them do toefl test. in short, it is possible to use the communicative language teaching (clt) method to enhance students‟ motivation in toefl score. as the goal of the clt method is to give the students chances to discover what they need and ask for the need in english, teaching toefl class with the communicative approach could encourage students to acquire test knowledge in a meaningful way. the communicative toefl class would be promoted by conducting various learner-centered activities relevant to the test content. it is important for language teachers to keep in mind that the activities should be meaningful and can draw students‟ interest. the effectiveness of the students‟ toefl score will increase when the students are excited and involved in the class activities. references brown, h. douglas. 2000. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: pearson education, inc. ellis, rod. 1997. second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press. gardner, r.c. 1985. social psychology and second language learning: the role of attitudes and motivation. london: edward arnold. gardner, r.c.; maclatyre, p.d. 1993. motivation in second and foreign language learning. language teaching 31. harmer, j. 2001. the practice of english language teaching. london: longman. harmer, j. 2004. how to teach?. london : longman. kim, j. 2010. effective communicative language teaching in a testpreparation class: is it possible? tesol working paper series 8. hawaii pacific university littlewood, w. 1981. communicative language teaching. an introduction. cambridge: cambridge university press. richards, j., j. platt, h. weber. 1985. longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. london: longman sadtono. 1987. an introduction to toefl, paper presented at teflin seminar 40 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 xxxi, february 11-13. semarang: diponegoro university. septiana, n. 2011. what is the toefl test? http://www.ea.toefl.ev/toeflsites/toefl-europe/about-the-toefl/. sharpe. pamela. j. 1992. how to prepare for the toefl. jakarta: binarupa aksara. william, m.; r. burden. 1997. psychology for language teachers. cambrdge: cambridge. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x perception of speech acts categories in donald trump’s tweets by native and nonnative speakers of english davood souri1*, ali merç2 1biritish time, şişli, istanbul, turkey 2anadolu university, eskişehir, turkey *email: dsouri53@gmail.com doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.26029 submitted 3 september 2020. revised 30 september 2020. accepted 22 october 2020 abstract twitter plays an important role in today’s world. its role among politicians and those who are interested in politics is more obvious. due to its importance and special characteristics such as character limits, it has drawn the attention of many researchers including linguists and elt researchers. this study aimed to compare the perceptions of native and nonnative speakers in identifying speech acts in donald trump’s tweets. the subjects of this study were nine english native speakers and twenty nonnative english teachers who were turkish citizens. thirtyseven tweets of donald trump over the course of a week were selected and the participants were asked to identify the speech acts of the tweets based on the speech acts taxonomy by searle (1976). the analysis of the data revealed that both native and nonnative speakers of english identified the speech acts of the large majority of the tweets very differently. these differences were partly due to lack of enough political as well as background knowledge and partly due to lack of contextual variables. keywords: speech acts; twitter; pragmatic competence; native speakers; efl teachers festo is; no matter how superior political thoughts and ideologies of a political party may be, these can only be expressed and further translated into social actions for social change and social continuity through the facilities provided by language” (p. 9). twitter, an ocean of information, has provided opportunities for researchers, in particular elt researchers, to investigate different aspects of the english language manifested in tweets. numerous research studies have been conducted on the production of speech acts in different situations and contexts; however, not much work has been done on how native and non-native speakers of a particular language perceive and identify different kinds of speech acts in political tweets. therefore, the aim of this study is to find out the possible differences between the perceptions of native and nonnative english teachers in terms of identifying speech acts of political tweets. this paper focuses on the speech acts of donald trumps’ tweets, the president of the united states, over the course of a week. austin (1962) was the first person who highlighted that communication was more than just a series of utterances providing information. according to him, speakers are often attempting to accomplish something with their speech, introduction computer-mediated communication is becoming increasingly popular these days. it is common practice not only with ordinary people but also with politicians. grossman (1995) proposed that the internet could allow citizens to engage directly in political decision-making processes. according to bertot, jaeger, and grimes (2010): “social media technologies allow users to immediately publish information in near real time” (p. 266). it seems that politicians have also joined people in this regard. it is hard to find a politician who does not have a twitter account nowadays. in the last few years, twitter has become an important channel through which politicians discuss and argue issues with each other. millions of people all around the word follow and retweet their tweets. there is no doubt that politicians struggle for power. once they have got the power, they can put their plans into practice much easier. in this regard, language plays a crucial role. it seems that language and politics are intertwined in a way that one cannot draw a line between them. opeibi (as cited in abuya, 2012) noted “ “no matter how good a candidate’s manilanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 74 of directive utterances namely commands, requests, and suggestions. commands are utterances produced by speakers who have some degree of control over their addresses. for example, a judge in a court of law may say: “don’t discuss the case”. requests are utterances produced by speakers when they wish their subjects to perform or not perform an act. for example, could you possibly send it before friday? suggestions are utterances produced by speakers when they wish to give their opinions to get subjects to do or not do something. for example, i suggest you see a doctor. commissive utterances are produced when speakers commit themselves to perform or refrain from some future actions. verbs such as promise, offer, refuse, agree, and vow are often used in commissive utterances. for example, i promise to do my homework. expressive utterances are about speakers’ present feelings or their feelings about something they did and experienced in the past. words such as apologize, admit, congratulations, and sorry are often used in expressive utterances. this tweet: “our hearts are with all affected by the wildfire in california (17/10/207).” by donald trump is an example of an expressive utterance. declarations are the utterances, which once produced, they bring about a change in the world and reality. when a priest says to the bride and groom: “i now pronounce you husband and wife”, the world or reality changes for them upon hearing this sentence i.e. a second before hearing this sentence they were not married but after hearing the sentence they were married. communication is not as easy as it seems, and sometimes fails due to several factors such as lack of adequate context. to communicate effectively, speakers and subjects should be able to understand such as trying to get someone to do something or describing a state of affairs to someone. he called them speech acts. according to austin, speech acts consist of three parts: locutions, illocutions, and prelocutions. locutions are related to the construction of speech such as using certain words in conformity with grammatical rules. in other words, locutions are physical utterances or the literal meaning of the words used by speakers. in contrast, illocutions are about the intended meaning or the purpose of utterances produced by speakers. while locutions are about what is said by speakers, illocutions are about what is meant by speakers. prelocutions are said to be the by-product of speaking, that is to say they are the actions which result from locutions. in other words, prelocutions are about the effects of utterances produced on subjects and their reactions to the speakers’ utterances. with regard to illocutionary acts, searle (1976) distinguished five categories namely, representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations (table 1). as table 1 shows, assertive utterances are about propositions which are believed to be true by speakers. in other words, assertive utterances are about facts, as a result, verbs such as claim, assert, to be, believe, report, and conclude are often used in assertive utterances. the aim of producing assertive utterances is to give information about something or somebody. this tweet “health insurance stocks, which have gone through the roof during the obamacare years, plunged yesterday after i ended their dems windfall! (14/10/2017)” by donald trump, is considered to be an example of an assertive speech act. directive utterances are produced by speakers to get their subjects to do or not do something. there are three kinds table 1. speech acts taxonomy (searle, 1976) speech act definition example assertives the speaker commits to the truth of what is asserted, i.e. what is said is believed to be true by the speaker. e.g. statements & claims we watched a movie yesterday. directives the speaker makes an attempt to get the subject to do something by expressing his/her wish. e.g. requests & order bring me some hot water. commissive the speaker commits to take an action in future. e.g. promises & offers i promise, i will complete the work by tomorrow. expressives the speaker expresses a variety of psychological states. e.g. apologies i am sorry for my disrespectful behavior. declarations the speaker brings about a change in the world via words. e.g. baptizing, declaring war, abdicating i now pronounce you husband and wife. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 75 and discern contextual meanings as well as the purposes of the utterances produced by speakers. they should also be able to perform the language functions well in given contexts. this ability is referred to as pragmatic competence. murray (2010) defines pragmatic competence as “an understanding of the relationship between form and context that enables us, accurately and appropriately, to express and interpret intended meaning” (p. 239). it should be noted that having pragmatic competence is a key to discern and perceive speech acts. as mentioned above, we are sometimes unable to understand this relationship which in turn may result in pragmatic failure. some speech acts may be perceived differently by non-native or even native speakers of english given the fact that speech acts do not depend solely on semantics. for instance, cultural differences between native and non-native speakers or even among native speakers of english who live in different countries or regions may lead to perceiving some speech acts differently. egner (2006) studied the conditions of use for the act of promising between africans and westerners. he found out that in african culture, the act of promising is for showing politeness and the speakers do not intend to carry out the promised act which is completely different from how westerners make a promise indicating that cultural differences affect the speech act of promising. insufficient knowledge of pragmatics for a particular speech act among nonnative learners of english may result in failure to perform that specific speech act in the target language appropriately. therefore, studying speech acts is necessary to better understand how underlying messages of international communication, particularly political communication, are conveyed. donald trump, the 45th president of the united states, with millions of followers uses twitter actively and tweets almost every day to convey his messages to the whole world. his tweets might be perceived differently by different people all around the world due to several factors such as contextual variables. the role that speech acts play in conveying political tweets is really important because the semantic features of tweets can only help us understand the purposes of tweets to some extent. hemphill and roback (2014) believe lobbying strategies can be categorized by the use of speech acts because speech acts can differentiate different approaches the speakers adopt to get their hearers to take some future actions. based on the above-mentioned points with regard to speech acts, identifying speech acts in tweets requires a high level of pragmatic competence. even english learners with a high proficiency in english grammar show differences when it comes to pragmatic norms in english. bearing this fact in mind that pragmatic competence facilitates the way we use speech acts brings us to our research question. this paper aims to address the following research question: do native speakers of english and nonnative speakers of english identify the speech acts in donald trump’s tweets differently? twitter as a micro blogging platform has gained popularity over the last decade especially among politicians. since it is a micro blogging platform, it does not permit its users to send more than 280-character messages called tweets (even as few as 140 characters before november 2017); therefore, its users do not have the freedom of tweeting detailed complex structures and that is why simplicity is one of its distinctive features. short phrases, brief comments, images, or links to relevant websites and resources are the most important features of tweets (stieglitz & dangi 2013). the main reason why twitter users often post links to websites, videos, and resources according to ott (2017) is that the content of these websites and videos are too complex to be tweeted. moreover, tweeting can be considered an impulsive activity since one does not necessarily have to think hard or take several important things into account to tweet something. it is also very easy to tweet due to widespread wireless technology and availability of mobile phones nowadays. that explains why everyday millions of messages are tweeted. retweeting or resending the original tweet to other users is another sign of this impulsivity which is a reaction to an original tweet by many users who are interested in its message. retweeting is a quick way through which people share information and that is why it has gained popularity among people and in particular among politicians. by retweeting, not only do people share information, but they can also express their own opinions about the original tweet. twitter users can also follow other twitter users. however, this is not reciprocal. one may have thousands or even millions of followers while following less than a hundred users at the same time. for instance, donald trump had more that 19 million twitter followers the day before the election (bickart, fournier, & nisenholtz, 2017). as mentioned above, twitter users can make small changes and modifications to the original tweet such as expressing their opinions. people often put # sign, called hashtag, before language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 76 some certain keywords or phrases in their tweets as a means of categorizing the keywords in order to make them easier for other twitter users to either find or follow. upon clicking or touching a keyword with a hashtag, the word is immediately linked to the tweets including it. hashtag is considered an important feature of twitter which facilitates sharing information among twitter users. the sign, @, is another feature which twitter users often use to call out usernames in their tweets. people can use your @ username if they want to mention you in their tweets so that other users can view your profile by clicking on your @ username. people complain that the language used in twitter is often uncivil and impolite. ott (2017) believes that twitter “fosters incivility”. what he means by incivility is the use of offensive and insulting language in tweets. one of the main reasons why people use impolite phrases or words in their tweets is that this platform is informal in nature from a linguistic point of view. since there is a limit of characters per tweet, twitter users tend not to include grammatical words in their messages which in turn makes the language informal and broken at times. according to ott (2017): “its lack of concern with proper grammar and style undermines norms that tend to enforce civility” (p. 62). twitter as a social media platform owes its success as well as popularity to the simplicity of its use and the conciseness of tweets. although many research studies have been conducted on speech acts in different contexts in the last few decades, not much work has been done on speech acts on twitter, for it is obviously a new forum. hemphill and roback (2014) conducted a study on how citizens communicate with members of congress (mocs) in terms of common strategies of lobbying on twitter using different speech acts. the results of their study revealed that twitter is different in a significant way from other platforms since there is a character limit to tweets, which does not permit its users to provide many examples or great deal of context. the results also revealed that identifying speech acts in tweets requires sociocultural as well as language knowledge. this limitation also makes twitter users write their tweets more precisely compared to other forms of writing. twitter is often used by governments as a platform for interactions with their citizens. feroz khan, yoon, kim, and park (2014) conducted a study to explore the use of twitter by korea’s central government. the twitterbased networking strategies used by the central government were divided into two categories: government-to-citizen and government-to-government strategies. 32 twitter accounts of the government organizations were used as the data which included the information about the numbers of followers, followings, tweets, listed, and favorites. the findings revealed that the networking strategies used by the korean government did not necessarily get its citizens to participate in the government’s social activities indicating that the government had difficulty interacting with its people through twitter, however, the networking strategies proved to be effective it came to connection between the government institutions. there is no doubt that technological advances have had a great impact on how people communicate especially in the world of politics. postman (1985), is his book, amusing ourselves to death: public discourse in the age of show business, claims that american public discourse has been undermined to a great extent in terms of quality by tv. in his book, he notes: “the best things on television are its junk, and no one and nothing is seriously threatened by it” (p. 16)”. what concerns him most is that television is used as a channel through which political, religious, and educational discourse are filtered. we have been witnessing in the last few years a smooth and gradual transition from the era of television to a new era known as social media. based on a study done by naaman, boase, and lai (2010), about 80% of the activity on twitter is harmless and insignificant and its consequence is so little. however, issues arise when cultural, social and political discourse are filtered through twitter. in recent years, twitter’s role in politics has been significant in the election campaigns and the percentage of people using twitter is increasing day by day. online data has provided researchers an opportunity to investigate whether these data can help them predict the results of some political events such as elections or not. after reviewing some studies and focusing on the most commonly used analysis methods on social media, gayo-avello, metaxas, and mustafaraj (2011) applied those methods on the tweets collected from the us 2008 presidential elections on every individual user based on his/her geographical location rather than predicting the overall vote in the country. the results showed that predictions made by the means of the data collected from tweets are not completely reliable. the methods would have overestimated obama’s victory. they had also predicted a victory for obama even in texas. tumasjan, sprenger, sandner, and welpe (2010) carried out a research on twitter messalanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 77 ges about the 2009 german federal election and found out that the number of messages reflected the election result. the results also indicated that twitter could be considered a reliable sign of political opinion. on the contrary, gayo-avello et al. (2011) in a study, investigated whether predictions about elections which took place in the us during 2010 were correct. the data was collected from two different data sets: twitter chatter volume and sentiment analysis of tweets. the results showed that predictions for six senatorial races were only half correct i.e. three out of six, and the mean average error for the predictions obtained from twitter volume was 17.1%, however, the mean average error for the predictions obtained from twitter volume was only 7.6%. with regard to celebrities’ speech act patterns on twitter, nemer (2016) conducted a study on four celebrities namely; oprah winfrey, britney spears, shaquille o’neal, and chris colfer concerning their speech patterns on twitter. after accessing the celebrities’ timelines, 1200 tweets were collected and then were broken into 2283 utterances for analysis. the results revealed that the four celebrities used different speech acts to communicate with different audiences. when it came to communicating with their fans, they mainly used twitter to inform them, while they mostly made claims when it came to communicating with their friends. in another study, pain and masullo chen (2019) analyzed 303,086 of donald trump’s tweets, retweets, and responses to his tweets from 2009 to 2017 to explore the themes in his discourse. three major themes were found in the data. these themes included the “the outsider who will make america great, racism, misogyny, and hate speech, and fake news” (pp. 6-8). twitter has been a powerful means through which politicians try to convey their messages to their followers in particular and twitter users in general. twitter users may perceive the purposes of tweets differently due to several factors one of which is the language. what nonnative speakers of english perceive as one type of speech act in a sentence may differ from what native speakers of english do which could be due to their levels of competency. however, the results of a study conducted by carrell and konneker (1981) on comparing judgments of native speakers of american english and nonnative esl learners on politeness revealed that there was a high correlation between the 72 esl learners who participated in the study and 42 undergraduates who were native speakers of american english in terms of their politeness judgments. in another study on the speech act of apology, linnell (1992) compared native speaker’s and nonnative speakers’ apologies in identical situations. 20 non-native speakers of english and 20 native speakers of english took eight verbal discourse completion tests. the two groups demonstrated no significant differences in six out of eight situations. it should be mentioned that taking only the linguistic features of tweets into account and disregarding their purposes and the meanings underlying them which can be related to sociocultural, political, and other contextual factors seems to be insufficient. methods the subjects of this study were 29 efl teachers in two groups. the first group included 9 nine native speakers of english (nses) including 2 two males and 7 seven females aged 27-38 (4 british, 3 american, 1 irish, and 1 australian) one of whom was teaching for an english language school and the rest were working for a university in istanbul teaching english preparatory courses. the second group included non-native speakers of english (nnses). the participants were 20 efl teachers including 7 males and 13 females all of whom were turkish citizens with their ages ranging from 24 to 33. they were all teaching general english for an english language school in istanbul, turkey during the data collection period which took two weeks. a list of 37 tweets by donald trump, the president of the united states, from 13/10/2017 to 18/10/2017 was collected and written in chronological order (see appendix). the participants were then given the list with the speech act taxonomy (table 1) attached to it. the participants were asked to read the tweets and put a number (from 1 to 5) or just the first letter of speech act category in front of each tweet i.e., 1 or a for assertives, 2 or d for directives, 3 or c for commissives, 4 or e for expressives, and 5 or d for declarations. prior to handing out the papers, a clear instruction on the five mentioned speech acts categories was given to the participants. the aim of the instruction was first to raise the participants’ awareness of speech acts and then to introduce the five different categories mentioned in table 1. to raise the participants’ awareness, a situation was given and then a question was posed: “imagine you were students and sitting in a classroom and your teacher came into the classroom and said: “it’s hot in here”. would you interpret this utterance as assertive due to its semantic features, or would you interpret it as a directive utlanguage circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 78 terance requesting a student to open a window?” after raising the participants’ awareness about speech acts, a handout defining and exemplifying the speech acts (table 1) was given to each participant. each speech act with its example was read out and then the participants were asked if they could give others examples for that specific speech act category for concept checking. finally, they were asked to read the tweets individually and put a number (from 1 to 5) in a box in front of each tweet which took them between 20 to 35 minutes to do it. four categories emerged from the data set. first, the percentage and the number of the tweets which were labeled with only one category by nse and nnse participants were calculated and then compared within and between the two groups. this was named “all agreed”. in the second part of the analysis, the percentage and the number of the tweets which were labeled with the same category by all but one participant were calculated and analyzed. this was named “all but one”. in the third part, the tweets which were labeled either by one category or another by more than one participant were quantified within and between the groups. this was named “only two categories. the rest of the tweets which received wider range of identification, more than two categories, by the participants were named “more than two categories”. the following section presents the findings in a detailed fashion. results and discussion english native speaker participants the data gathered from 9 nse participants are presented and discussed in terms of their identification and perceptions of speech acts in 37 tweets of donald trump. the results based on the data obtained from the nse participants revealed big differences within this group. the participants only agreed on 5 out of 37 tweets in terms of their speech acts unanimously which accounted for 13.51 percent of total identifications (figure 1). assertive was chosen for tweets 10, 12, and 19 and expressive was chosen for tweets 27 and 28 by all of the nse participants, (table 2). all but one participant chose assertive for tweets 5, 13, 25, and 31, and declaration for tweet 6 which accounted for 13.51 percent of the total identification of speech acts, (table 3). for tweet number 5: “in america, we don’t worship government-we worship god. #valuesvoterssummit” all of the participants chose assertive but only one participant, the american one, chose directive. declaration was chosen for tweet number 6: “i have no greater privilege than to serve as your commander-in-chief. happy birthday table 2. speech acts agreed unanimously by the nse participants. tweet speech act 10. many people talking, with much agreement, on my iran speech today. participants in the deal are making lots of money on trade with iran! assertive 12. health insurance stocks, which have gone through the roof during the obama care years, plunged yesterday after i ended their dems windfall! assertive 19. since election day on november 8, the stock market is up more than 25%, unemployment is at a 17 year low & companies are coming back to u.s. assertive 27. always great to see the wonderful people of south carolina. thank you for the beautiful welcome at greenville-spartanburg int’l airport! expressive 28. our hearts are with all affected by the wildfire in california. god bless our brave first responders and @fema team, we support you! expressive table 3. speech acts agreed by all of the nse participants but one. tweet speech act 5. in america, we don’t worship governmentwe worship god. #valuesvoterssummit assertive 6. i have no greater privilege than to serve as your commander-in-chief. happy birthday to the incredible men and women.@usnavy declaration 13. “consumer confidence soars to highest level since 2004” assertive 25.“dow passes 23,000 for the first time, fueled by strong earnings” assertive 31. democrat congressman totally fabricated what i said to the wife of a soldier who died in action (and i have proof) sad! assertive language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 79 to the incredible men and women.@usnavy” by eight participants as, and only the irish participant chose assertive for that. eight nse participants chose assertive for tweet number 13: “consumer confidence soars to highest level since 2004”. however, one participant, british citizen, labeled it a declaration. for tweet number 25: “dow passes 23,000 for the first time, fueled by strong earnings” all participants chose assertive while the australian participant chose expressive. finally, for tweet number 31: “democrat congressman totally fabricated what i said to the wife of a soldier who died in action (and i have proof) sad!” all of the participants chose assertive while one participant, the australian one, chose declaration. figure 1. nse participants’ perceptions non-native speaker participants the results based on the data obtained from the nnse participants of this study revealed noticeable differences within the group regarding their perceptions of speech acts in donald trump’s tweets. the nnse participants only agreed unanimously on 2 categories for 2 different tweets (19 and 23) which only accounted for 5.4 percent of the total identifications of the speech acts (figure 2). assertive and declaration were chosen for tweets 19 and 23 respectively by the nnse participants, (table 4). for tweets 3, 4, 13, 14, 25, 27 and 28, the nnse participants chose only two categories which accounted for 18.91 percent of the total identifications of speech acts. for tweet number 3: “today, i announced our strategy to confront the iranian regime’s hostile actions and to ensure that they never acquire a nuclear weapon.” six participants chose directive and the rest chose declaration. for the rest of the tweets, 75.67 percent, the nnse participants’ identifications of speech acts varied widely and for each item more than two categories were chosen. figure 2. nnse participants’ perceptions results and discussion the data given in tables 3 and 4, named “all agreed “ are congruent with the findings of carrell and konneker’s (1981) study which revealed the correlation between that native and nonnative speakers of english in terms of their politeness judgments was high. the data are also consistent with the findings of linnell’s (1992) study which indicated that no significant differences were found in performance of apology speech act between the native speakers and nonnative speakers of english. however, by comparing the percentages of the speech acts that the nse and the nnse participants agreed on unanimously with the percentages of the speech acts that they chose differently, it became apparent that both groups had a wide range of judgments and perceptions of the speech acts lied in the tweets. less than one fifth for nse participants and only a small minority of the nnse participants agreed unanimously on speech acts of a few tweets, and for the rest of the tweets, the differences were wide and noticeable. for example, within nse participants, some chose one category for tweets 1, 15, and 32 and the others chose another category. three participants (the australian, one american, one british) chose directive for tweet numtable 4. speech acts categories agreed unanimously by the nnse participants. tweet speech act 19. since election day on november 8, the stock market is up more than 25%, unemployment is at a 17 year low & companies are coming back to u.s. assertive 23. it was my great honor to welcome prime minister alexis tsipras of greece to the wh today! declaration language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 80 ber 1: “you sit in bill o’reilly’s chair in roger ailes’s house and advocate each night for donald trump” and the rest labeled it as assertive. for almost 65 percent of the total tweets (figure 1), the nse participants’ identifications of speech acts were completely different. for example, commissive was chosen for tweet number 2: “people are just now starting to find out how dishonest and disgusting (fakenews) @nbcnews is. viewers beware. may be worse than even @cnn” by the irish and the british participants while one american and one british chose directive for the same tweet. moreover, two american and british participants chose assertive, and the australian participant’s judgment was expressive for the same tweet. the differences within nse participants’ identification of speech acts might be due to the fact that the nse participants were away from their countries at the time of the data collection process, and this being away from the political contexts as well as lack of sufficient context in the tweets might have affected their judgments in identifying speech acts of the tweets. speech acts are dependent on contexts, so one cannot easily identify speech acts of tweets without considering the time and situation in which tweets are written. according to kaplan (1989, p. 591) context should include “what is needed” for doing what we want to use it for. when one is away from his/her country and not following the current political events, some common information defining those events, which would be taken for granted if the person lived in his/her country, might not be well understood by him/her which in turn might affect his /her judgment about perception of the speech act of a tweet. to illustrate better, the australian participant chose declaration for tweet number 14: “the democrats in the southwest part of virginia have been abandoned by their party. republican ed gillespie will never let you down.” while one british participant chose directive. also, commissive was chosen by one american, three british, and the irish participants, and two other americans chose assertive. with regard to the nnse participants, the differences were even bigger. the nnse participants agreed unanimously on only 5.4 percent of the total speech acts of the tweets and more than three thirds of the speech acts which were chosen by the nnse participants were different from one another. this may partly be due to the fact that the people who live in a country are more interested in the local political events taking place in their own country and may be unaware of the international political events to a great extent. the nnse participants on this study might have relied more on semantics of the tweets to understand their intended meanings due to the lack of the context in the tweets which explains partly why their differences compared to the nse participants were bigger at 75.67 percent (figure 2). this large variation indicates that there is more to be involved rather than just semantics. this is congruent with the findings of the study conducted by hemphill and roback (2014). the results of their study revealed that sociocultural as well as language knowledge play an important role in identifying speech acts in tweets. shams and afghari (2011) conducted a study on 60 iranian participants (30 males & 30 females) about the effects of gender and culture on the comprehension of indirect request speech act. a questionnaire with twenty different situations was used for collecting the data. the results revealed that culture had a significant effect on the interpretation of the participants regarding indirect request of speech act, however, no significant effect was found for gender. not only within groups but the differences between groups were big too. for example, all of the nnse participants chose declaration for tweet number 23: “it was my great honor to welcome prime minister alexis tsipras of greece to the wh today!”, however, the nse participants chose assertive, declaration, and expressive for the same tweets. contrary to the findings of the studies conducted by carrell and konneker (1981) and linnell (1992), the results of this study revealed that there were noticeable differences between the judgements and perceptions of speech acts by nse and nnse participants. to illustrate better, six nnse participants chose directive for tweet number 3: “today, i announced our strategy to confront the iranian regime’s hostile actions and to ensure that they never acquire a nuclear weapon.” and the rest labeled it as declaration while for the same tweet, four out of 9 nse participants chose assertive, three labeled it as commissive, and two chose directive. moreover, all of the nse participants chose assertive for tweet number 10: “many people talking, with much agreement, on my iran speech today. participants in the deal are making lots of money on trade with iran!”. however, assertive was chosen by only half of the nnse participants, and the other half labeled it with different speech acts such as declaration and expressive. conclusion the aim of this study was to compare the language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 81 perceptions of speech acts in donald trump’s tweets based on speech acts taxonomy by searle (1976). the findings of the study revealed that the perceptions of the participants in terms of speech acts varied widely. one of the possible explanations for the wide variations within and between the participants of this study could be due to the lack of enough context in tweets. since twitter users are limited to a certain number of characters in each tweet, tweets do not provide much context. therefore, taking only linguistic features of a language into account in order to understand the purpose of a tweet does not seem to be enough and other variables such as sociocultural and political knowledge of twitter users who follow politicians may play important roles in understanding the purpose and underlying meanings of their tweets. that explains partly why the nse participants of this study categorized the speech acts in more than half of the tweets differently, and a slightly more than three quarters (75.67%) of the nnse participants had different perceptions as well. thus, lack of context and political knowledge may play a role in affecting ones’ judgment about identifying speech acts of tweets. the findings of this study have relevant implications for efl teachers and should therefore lead to recommendations for further training or studies. efl teachers should bear in mind that only semantics do not necessarily assist english learners in understanding the purpose of the messages embedded in english phrases and sentences but other variables such as context play roles as well. therefore, efl teachers need to provide enough context for their learners so that they can understand the purposes of english utterances. to illustrate, teaching words individually and out of the context is one of the examples of teaching english language out of context. teaching reading without activating a learners schemata about the topic through different techniques such as a brief discussion on the topic or getting students to watch a short video of the topic is another example of teaching english out of context. efl teachers need to think about the ways through which they can contextualize their lessons so that their lessons are more focused on meaning rather than just the form. references abuya, e. j. (2012). a pragma-stylistic analysis of president goodluck ebele jonathan inaugural speech. english language teaching, 5(11), 8-15. austin, j. l. (1962). how to do things with words. oxford. bertot, j., jaeger, p., & grimes, j. (2010). using icts to create a culture of transparency: e-government and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies. government information quarterly, 27(3), 264-271. bickart, b., fournier, s., & nisenholtz, m. (2017). what trump understands about using social media to drive attention. harvard business review, 1-7. carrell, p., & konneker, b. (1981). politeness: comparing native and nonnative judgements. language learning, 31(1), 17-30. egner, i. (2006). intercultural aspects of the speech act of promising: western and african practices. intercultural pragmatics, 3(4), 443-464. gayo-avello, d., metaxas, p., & mustafaraj, e. (2011). limits of electoral predictions using social media data. in proceedings of the international aaai conference on weblogs and social media, barcelona, spain. grossman, l. k. (1995). the electronic republic. media studies journal, 9(3), 163-168. hemphill, l., & roback, a. j. (2014). tweet acts: how constituents lobby congress via twitter. in proceedings of the 17th acm conference on computer supported cooperative work & social computing, 1200-1210. feroz khan, g., young yoon, h., kim, j., & woo park, h. (2014). from e-government to social government: twitter use by korea’s central government. online information review, 38(1), 95-113. linnell, j. (1992). can you apologize me? an investigation of speech act performance among nonnative speakers of english. working papers in educational linguistics, 8(2), 33-53. murray, n. (2010). pragmatics, awareness raising, and the cooperative principle. elt journal, 64(3), 293-301. naaman, m., boase, j., & lai, c. h. (2010, february). is it really about me? message content in social awareness streams. in proceedings of the 2010 acm conference on computer supported cooperative work (pp. 189-192). nemer, d. (2016). celebrities acting up: a speech act analysis in tweets of famous people. social networking, 5(1), 1. ott, b. l. (2017). the age of twitter: donald j. trump and the politics of debasement. critical studies in media communication, 34(1), 59-68. pain, p., & masullo chen, g. (2019). the president is in: public opinion and the presidential use of twitter. social media+ society, 5(2), 2056305119855143. postman, n. (2006). amusing ourselves to death: public discourse in the age of show business. penguin. searle, j. r. (1976). a classification of illocutionary acts. language in society, 5(1), 1-23. shams, r., & afghari, a. (2011). effects of culture and gender in comprehension of speech acts of indirect request. english language teaching, 4(4), 279-287. language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 73-82 82 stieglitz, s., & dang-xuan, l. (2013). emotions and information diffusion in social media—sentiment of microblogs and sharing behavior. journal of management information systems, 29(4), 217-248. tumasjan, a., sprenger, t. o., sandner, p. g., & welpe, i. m. (2010). predicting elections with twitter: what 140 characters reveal about political sentiment. in fourth international aaai conference on weblogs and social media. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 the portrayal of a black woman‟s perseverance in zora neale hurston‟s short story entitled sweat ratna asmarani faculty of humanities diponegoro university email: ratna_asmarani@yahoo.com abstract this paper aims to analyze the perseverance of the black female protagonist portrayed in the short story entitled sweat written by zora neale hurston. the perseverance is used by the black female protagonist to face the domestic violence done by her abusive husband. the concept of perseverance and domestic violence are used to analyze the life of the black female protagonist. the combination of library method with its close reading, qualitative analysis, and contextual literary method focusing on intrinsic and extrinsic elements are used. the result shows that the perseverance applied by the black female protagonist enables her to survive the domestic violence leading to her freedom from her abusive husband who dies because of his own evil plan actually directed to his wife. keywords: perseverance, domestic violence, contextual literary method. introduction sweat (1926) written by zora neale hurston (1901-1960), a harlem renaissance female writer, talks about a black couple, delia jones and sykes jones. delia washed the whites‘ clothes at home to support their living because sykes had no job. sykes objected to delia‘s job although he knew that he also depended on the money delia earned. delia was unmoved by sykes‘s strong objection. sykes is a coarse man who also had another woman. he often used delia‘s fear on snakes to frighten her, such as using a big whip looking like a snake to scare her and deliberately keeping a rattle-snake at home to terrify her. the frightened delia bore all this patiently. one day, after a big quarrel, sykes tried to harm delia by putting the rattlesnake into the washing tub. the alert delia was safe and the snake hid on the bed. the drunken sykes, coming home in the dark night, was bitten by the rattlesnake. even though he begged delia to help him, she left him dying alone in the house since there was not enough time to call the doctor in the nearby city considering that the rattlesnake‘s bites are so poisonous. this short story shows about the perseverance of delia jones in facing her miserable condition. to analyze delia‘s perseverance, the concept of perseverance including its characteristics is needed. another concept to support the analysis on delia‘s perseverance is the concept of domestic violence which is closely related to delia‘s perseverance. according to wheatley, ―the word ―perseverance‖ in latin means, ―one who sees through to the end,‖ ―one who doesn‘t yield.‖ in english, it describes how we maintain our activity in spite of difficulties. tenacity, steadfastness, persistence, doggedness—these are all common synonyms‖ (2010: 3). in other words, perseverance is a pliable endurance to face difficulties, miseries, or hardships. wheatley also gives the characteristics of perseverance. some of its supporting characteristics that are relevant in analyzing delia‘s perseverance are as follows. the first is ―fearlessness‖. according to wheatley, someone must be friends with fear because ―by acknowledging and moving closer, fear dissipates and fearlessness arises‖ (2010: 33). language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 fearlessness will strengthen perseverance. another characteristic of perseverance, still according to wheatley, is ―choice‖ because perseverance is a repetitive, everlasting choice (2010: 59). wheatley also says that ―discipline‖ will support ―the capacity to persevere‖ (2010: 81). another characteristic of perseverance is ―clarity‖. wheatley suggests studying the obstructing problems well to be able to see the complicated problem clearly so that ―every situation is workable … to keep our heads above water‖ (2010: 114). wheatley‘s another characteristic of perseverance is what she terms ―life is life‖. she states that a relax way of facing difficulties in life while waiting for the opportunities will support perseverance (2010: 117). another of wheatley‘s term is ―just like me‖. wheatley stresses that the realization that everybody faces sufferings will result in ―more accepting of difficulty, less battered by bad moments‖ (2010: 119). wheatley also emphasizes that ―patience‖ is needed in perseverance. because ―perseverance is a journey seemingly without end‖ (2010: 141), patience is an essential support. meanwhile, piper briefly affirms that ―perseverance is a gift‖ (2002: 22). another concept reviewed due to its close relation to the topic of perseverance is the concept of domestic violence. jackson states that ―domestic violence‖ is a broad term that includes threats or violent acts against an existing or former intimate partner (2007: 255). meanwhile, summers and hoffman assert that in the united states ―domestic violence, more specifically, refers to the abuse by one person of another in an intimate relationship‖ (2002: 169). their definition is not too different from jackson‘s. focusing on intimate relationship, summers and hoffman add that the violence manifests in various forms such as ―physical violence, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and even stalking. the intent of the abuse is controlled by one intimate over another‖ (2002: 170). lockton proposes four types of domestics violence; namely, physical assault, sexual violence, threats of violence, and psychological abuse (1997: 7-18), while mullender offers three types of domestic violence; namely, ―physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse‖ (1996: 19-26). considering the relevance with the analysis, only some of the forms of violence will be briefly reviewed. according to mullender, physical abuse is ―the most familiar form of abuse men inflict on their female partners‖ (1996: 19). emotional abuse may take the form of ―threats, gestures and glares‖ (mullender, 1996: 23) and both ―emotional and psychological abuse is devastating‖ (mullender, 1996: 24). lockton states that threat of violence ―can inject just as much terror as the actual act (1997: 15), while psychological abuse may be in the form of ―insults and humiliation‖ (1997: 16). concerning the causes of domestic violence, lockton mentions that one of them is ―stress inducing factors such as unemployment‖ (1997: 26). thus, domestic violence may take physical and non-physical forms triggered by many causes, one of them is the male‘s insecurity feeling due to his unemployed state. methodology a combination of methods is used to analyze the topic of the black female protagonist‘s perseverance in hurston‘s sweat. data from the short story and from the supporting concepts are compiled using library research method with its close-reading technique. the analysis in general is using qualitative method. meanwhile, the literary analysis is done using contextual method which is a combination of analyzing intrinsic elements and extrinsic elements. the analysis on intrinsic elements mainly focuses on the characters and conflicts, especially on the black female and male protagonists. the extrinsic analysis borrows the concept of perseverance and domestic violence. discussion the short story entitled sweat written by zora neale hurston indicates that the wife‘s perseverance in facing domestic violence will language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 finally free her from the sufferings while the abusive husband gets absolute punishment from the tool of terror actually directed to his wife. based on this finding, the analysis concerning the female and male protagonists will center on the topic of perseverance and domestic violence. delia jones, or delia, is the wife of sykes jones. she is a small woman who was pretty before becoming sykes‘s wife as can be seen from the words of walter thomas who likes her before: ―she wuz a right pretty litle trick when he got huh. ah‘d uh mah‘ied huh mahseff if he hadnter beat me to it‖ (hurston, 1985: 1642). in her fifteen years of marriage she has experienced many unpleasant treatments from her coarse husband. not long after the marriage, she gets ―the first brutal beating‖ (hurston, 1985: 1642) followed by his spending his money in the city without giving her anything (hurston, 1985: 1642). facing the physical abuse while depending on something economically drives delia to find a job to support her own life. she becomes a washwoman for the white people. on saturday, she routinely delivers the clean clothes while picking up the dirty clothes which she sorts and washes on sunday (hurston, 1985: 1640). this event implies delia‘s ―life is life‖, ―patience‖ and ―discipline‖ to earn money leading to her perseverance in facing her husband‘s ill treatment to her. her jobless husband dislikes her washing the clothes of the white people, as can be seen in his words: ―ah done tole you time and again to keep them white folks‘ clothes outa dis house‖ (hurston, 1985: 1640). this is an unreasonable objection considering that he does not give any money to delia. delia always ignores his objection because it is the only way she can get money to eat for both of them. seeing that delia disobeys his objection, sykes uses delia‘s fear on snakes to frighten her. he uses the big whip which looks like a snake to scare delia who keeps sorting the dirty clothes before soaking them: ―something long, round, limp and black fell upon her shoulder and slithered to the floor beside her. a great terror took hold of her. it softened her knees and dried her mouth so that it was a full minute before she could cry out or move‖ (hurston, 1985: 1640). delia is so angry when sykes laughs at her dread, but she keeps doing her business of sorting the clothes. delia‘s reaction makes sykes manifest his anger by trampling the dirty clothes hoping that delia will get angrier. however, delia tends to be indifferent to sykes‘s provocation. this event shows delia‘s perseverance. she applies ―clarity‖ by evaluating the event in a clear mind preventing her being provoked by sykes upsetting actions. seeing that his provoking action of trampling the clothes several times gets no expected response from delia, sykes verbally threatens delia: ―next time, ah‘m gointer kick‘em outdoords‖ (hurston, 1985: 1640). delia‘s calmness in facing sykes‘s annoying action is supported by her having visiting the church for sacrament (hurston, 1985: 1641). however, when sykes keeps verbally threatening to hurt her, delia faces the intimidating sykes fearlessly: ―delia‘s habitual meekness seemed to slip from her shoulders like a blown scarf. she was on her feet; her poor little body, her bare knuckly hands bravely defying the strapping hulk before her‖ (hurston, 1985: 1641). her fearlessness in facing the frightening sykes supports her perseverance in living her miserable life. she tries to tell sykes that her life is full of hard work since the marriage: ―looka heah, sykes, you done gone too fur. ah been married to you fur fifteen years, and ah been takin‘ in washin‘ fur fifteen years, sweat, sweat, sweat! work and sweat. cry and sweat, pray and sweat!‖ (hurston, 1985: 1641). however the exasperating sykes still does not feel that it is his responsibility as a husband to earn money for them. to show that she can stand on her own feet and does not afraid of sykes: ―she seized the iron skillet from the stove and struck a defensive pose, which act surprised him greatly, coming from her. it cowed him and he did not strike her as he language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 usually did‖ (hurston, 1985: 1641). delia‘s courage makes sykes pusillanimous. this shows that actually sykes is a coward, all this time he is tyrannical to his wife because she is meek. once she shows courage he does not dare to strike her as usual. delia herself, gaining ―fearlessness‖ and ―clarity‖, is able to show her steadfastness in the miserable marriage. she shows her position, refusing sykes‘s brutal action. delia also knows that sykes, apart from his abusive attitudes, has another woman. her perseverance in confronting this marriage problem can be seen here: ―too late now to hope for love, even if it were not bertha it would be someone else. this case differed from the others only in that she was bolder than the others. it is too late for everything except her little home. she had built if for her old days, and planted one by one her trees and flowers there. it was lovely to her, lovely‖ (hurston, 1985: 1642). although she realizes that other women are ―just like me‖, she is different from them because she can decide with ―clarity‖ what can be saved from her wrecked marriage. to point her standing place in the house, delia pointedly refuses any intention on the side of sykes and his mistress to drive her out of the house: ―that ole snaggle-toothed black woman you runnin‘ with aint comin‘ heah to pile up on mah sweat and blood. you aint paid for nothin‘ on this place, and ah‘m gointer stay right heah till ah toted out foot foremost‖ (hurston, 1985: 1641). sykes, outwardly intimidating but inwardly coward, is not only surprised of the courage now possessed by delia, but he also feels helpless now. the only left harassment that he has is a psychological abuse in the form of insulting delia‘s appearance: ―well, you better quit gittin‘ me riled up, else they‘ll be totin‘ you out sooner than you expect. ah‘m so tired of you ah don‘t know what to do. gawd! how ah hates skinny wimmen!‖ (hurston, 1985: 1641). by insulting his wife as skinny woman he impliedly shows that her mistress who is fat is much better that his wife, delia. helpless but not satisfied yet to abuse delia that now has attained ―fearlessness‖, sykes displaces his anger to the inanimate object: ―he sidled out of the door and slammed the back gate after him‖ (hurston, 1985: 1641). the new delia is a strong woman, physically from hard work for years, emotionally, psychologically, and spiritually from her perseverance facing the abusive treatment for years. this can be seen in delia‘s present state: ―a triumphant indifference to all that he was or did‖ (hurston, 1985: 1642). behind delia‘s back, sykes promises to his mistress, bertha, that they will move to delia‘s house: ―sho‘ you kin have dat lil‘ ole house soon‘s ah kin git dat ‗oman outa dere‖ (hurston, 1985: 1644). it shows how scheming sykes is. he, who has no share in the house at all, plans to drive delia, who sweats for the house, out of her house. to realize his evil plan, but he has no more courage to do it by himself, the cunning sykes brings a rattlesnake, a very poisonous snake, home to scare delia out of the house or better to put delia to death. he puts the snake in a soap box and braggingly he says: ―he‘s gointer stay right heah tell he die. he wouldn‘t bite me cause ah knows how tuh handle ‗im. nohow he would‘t risk breakin‘ out his fangs ‗gin yo‘ skinny laigs‖ (hurston, 1985: 1645). delia, scares to death with snakes, changes her fear into anger, to the snake and to sykes who enjoys delia‘s fear and the meal provided by delia: ―ah hates you, sykes.‖ she said calmly. ―ah hates you tuh de same degree dat ah useter love yuh. ah done took an‘ took till mah belly is full up tuh mah neck‖ (hurston, 1985: 1646). delia‘s ―fearlessness‖ to express her wounded feeling stuns sykes who keeps trying to intimidate delia for his own benefits. sykes, still wants to terrorize delia, leaves the house while threatening her, however his efforts have no more effect on delia. weekend passes peacefully for delia. she goes to church to attain spiritual calmness and returns home in a happy spirit. she realizes that sykes has entered the house and taken almost all of her stock of matches. using the only one language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 left, she lights the oil lamp and starts her weekend‘s ritual, sorting the dirty clothes to be washed. always alert to her surrounding, the result of being treated badly all the years, she quickly perceives that the poisonous rattlesnake is inside the washing basket that she always uses: ―she threw back the lid of the basket almost gaily. then, moved by both horror and terror, she sprang back toward the door. there lay the snake in the basket!‖ (hurston, 1985: 1647). this must be sykes‘s evil plan when he returns home while delia is still in the church. he cruelly hopes that delia will be bitten to death by the rattlesnake when she is doing her sorting the dirty clothes. delia, tries to overcome her panic, watches the snake‘s movement. when she sees that it slithers to the bed, she runs out of the room and spends the whole night in the hay barn. in the darkness delia contemplates the recent scary event: ――with this, stalked through her a cold, bloody rage. hours of this. a period of introspection, a space of retrospection, then a mixture of both. out of this an awful calm. ―well, ah done de bes‘ ah could. if things aint right, gowd knows taint mah fault‖‖ (hurston, 1985: 1648). she is in the peak of her emotional turmoil. she gives in, she lets what will happen next to god. she is too tired to do anything else at the moment. delia, in her hiding place, quietly listens to the whirring voice of the poisonous rattle snake on the bed. she hears sykes coming home and damaging the snake‘s box. maybe to give the reason if the snake bites delia because that is what she cruelly hopes for. he does not know that delia is safely hiding in the hay barn. in the darkness, because there is no more matches to light the oil lamp, the drunken sykes finally hears the whirring sound of the snake. incorrectly guessing the snake‘s position, he jumps into what he thinks is the safest spot, the bed. it is a fatal decision, because the snake is in the ready-to-bite position on the bed: ―primitive instinct and he leaped—onto the bed. outside delia heard a cry that might have come from a maddened chimpanzee, a stricken gorilla. all the terror, all the horror, all the rage that man possibly could express, without a recognizable human sound‖ (hurston, 1985: 1649). sykes is bitten by his own poisonous rattlesnake wickedly prepared for delia. after being able to recover herself from her scare of sykes‘s deathly screams, delia hears sykes desperately calls her name. approaching sykes, delia sees that he is: ―on his hands and knees as soon as she reaches the door. he crept an inch or two toward her—all that he was able, and she saw his horribly swollen neck and his one open eye shining with hope‖ (hurston, 1985: 1649). sykes gets the bitter fruit of his evil plan. even though at first delia feels sorry for him, but the nearest doctor is still too far to fetch. she leaves sykes to die alone. finally delia is free from the brutal sykes. delia‘s perseverance helps her to survive through the abusive marriage life of fifteen years. conclusion hurston‘s short story entitled sweat indicates that perseverance helps to go through the miserable years as represented by delia jones‘s experience of facing her abusive husband, sykes jones. sykes‘s insecurity as a jobless husband is covered in rudeness, cruelty, and mocks besides having another woman. for fifteen years delia applies elements of perseverance, such as ―fearlessness‖, ―choice‖, ―discipline‖, ―clarity‖, ―life is life‖, ―just like me‖, and ―patience‖. she can survive against sykes‘s domestic violence in the forms of physical abuse, psychological abuse, and threats of violence. even sykes‘s terror of rattlesnake, through at first has the potential to paralyze delia due to her fright of snakes, can be overcome by delia‘s growing ―fearlessness‖ and ―clarity‖ to observe the scary moment. finally, sykes‘s arrogance, self-confidence, and evil plan make him bitten by his poisonous rattlesnake previously set up to put delia‘s to death. delia‘s is free from her abusive husband at last. her perseverance leads her to a free life language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 in the house she ―sweats‖ so far to own and keep it. references lockton, d. (1997). domestic violence. london: cavendish publishing limited. jackson, n.a. (ed.). (2007). encyclopedia of domestic violence. new york: routledge. mullender, audrey. (1996). rethinking domestic violence. new york: routledge. hurston, z.n. (1985). ―sweat‖ in sandra g., & gubar, s. the norton anthology of literature by women. the tradition in english. new york: ww norton & company, inc. pp.1639-1649. piper, j. (2002). the roots of endurance. wheaton, illinois: crossway books summers, r.w., & hoffman, a.m. (eds.). (2002). domestic violence: a global view. westport, connecticut: greenwood press wheatley, m.j. (2010). perseverance. san francisco, california: berrett-koehler publishers, inc. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaab1e3c10ed • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle october 2011.pdf language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 83 (collaborative writing in teaching sakubun) dyah prasetiani semarang state university abstract this study was intended to find out how collaborative writing gives better effects to the student’s japanese ability in writing. there were three aspects that investigated: (1) teaching learning process, (2) learner and teacher finding problems in collaborative writing, (3) student’s suggestion of collaborative writing. this study employed descriptive qualitative design by using classroom observations and interview method to collect the data. the major findings of this study are: (1) collaborative writing enable student to practice and develop writing skills, however, the lack of grammar ability cause peer correction not appropriate, (2) teaching learning sakubun becomes more various by using this technique. key words: collaborative writing, sakubun 1994, p. 302 (alwasilah 2004 . 95) alwasilah (2004 . 96) 84 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 sudjianto ( ) . 2 . 1034 (1982) p. 607 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 85 1994, p. 75 (1993, p. 639) 300 500 300 500 (1994) … … 86 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 (p. 303) (hammond 1985 p. 5) (1983 p. 607-608) (alwasilah 1998, p. 1) conferencing peer teaching multiple drafting collaboration collaboration pre-writing focusing ideas evaluating structuring and language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 87 editing a. tinzmann (2004, p. 3) b. 88 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 murray 1 2 (gunawan 2002, p. 365) c. (tinzmann 2004, p. 6) thinking aloud demonstrating thinking aloud demonstrating collaborator active participant d. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 89 2009 1 90 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 a. b. c. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 91 1 18 27 3 4 → 3 3 4 → 7 10 11 → 7 10 11 ok 11 16 → 11 16 ok 12 17 → 12 17 ok 14 23 → … … 18 27 … → 92 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 26 41 → 1 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/1 october 2011 93 1990 1982 p 607 609 1994 13 302 323 alwasilah, a. chaedar. 1998. “intellectuals lack writing skills” in language, culture, and education: a portrait of contemporary indonesia. 2001. bandung: cv andira _______. 2004. “improving writing skills through collaborative writing”, in the tapestry of english language teaching and learning in indonesia. malang: state university of malang press hammond, eugene. r. 1985. informative writing. usa: mcgraw-hill inc. sudjianto. (tanpa tahun). “metode pengajaran menulis”. makalah tinzmann, m. b. et all. 1990. what is the collaborative classroom. [online]. tersedia: http://www.ncerl.org/sdrs/areas/rpl_esys/collab-htm-88k-9 januari 2004 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa3fe811074 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 265 viewing female depiction in frozen 2 tia aprilianti putri1 tiaputri43@gmail.com 1university of airlangga abstract disney is one of the biggest animation companies in the world. they have released many animations since then until now. one of the most popular animations is the princess series. until 20202, disney has released fourteen princesses from snow white and the seven dwarfs to frozen 2. gender role depictions of the female character(s) were examined with a focus on their behavioral characteristics in the films. the english subtitle of frozen 2 was used to find out the attitudinal expressions about the female characters. in order to make the research easier and more accurate, a concordance tool named antconc was used to collect the data and create a corpus. results found that the most recent princess series entitled frozen 2 showed the female characters depicted as a precious person who was willing to sacrifice herself for others, kind, heroic, fearless, and full-of-spirit. however, disney also depicted the female characters as liar and trouble maker. in this case, disney keeps showing that females cannot be seen using the traditional gender’s perspective anymore. a female is not only feminine, but she also can be masculine as a man. keywords: attitude, disney, female, gender, princess. introduction the film is one of the mass media which has developed fast. until this moment, there are many kinds of a film shown to people around the world. according to its genre, at least there are 24 kinds of the genre. from those 24 genres, the genre which has the greatest amount among others is animation (imdb, 2019). talking about animation film, we have known if walt disney company is one of the biggest animation companies. it has produced many animation films. the first animation made by disney was streambolt willie in 1928 (the walt disney company, 2019). among those animation films that have been made by disney, the princess series becomes one of the most popular among children and the young generation (guo, 2016). the phenomenon of disney and its princess films have been acknowledged as an influential factor on young generation’s media and product consumerism, which is contributing to a new girlhood that is principally described by gender and the consumption of correlated products and messages (england, descartes, & collier-meek, 2011). in spite of the fact that disney princess films are made in the united states and the phenomenon is american, disney has a powerful international existence and marketing efforts (disney international, 2010). because of that, disney princess films and their gender role representation also have important effects on international’s young generation’s media (hubka, hovdestad, & tonmyr, 2009). the first disney princess has released in 1937 entitled snow white and the seven dwarves. however disney represents female characters in the film as “passive, soft-spoken sweethearts with tiny waists and dreams of marrying a prince.” (seybold, 2020). besides those depictions, disney also started the trend of a domestic girl who turned out to be a “damsel-in-distress” depending on a prince to come to save her (mckenzie, 2015). the domestic work appeared in snow white such as doing dishes, cleaning, cooking, and being a figure of a mother for the dwarfs. this depiction that was represented by snow white was only to emphasize the expectations of women as homemaker. snow white originally is a story about a young girl who tried to discover about herself, however instead showed a depiction about what a https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:tiaputri43@gmail.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 266 young girl is, in this snow white film showed the idea of domesticity (garabedian, 2014). the next series cinderella (1950) also follows the same principle as snow white and the seven dwarfs, where cinderella has a romantic theme with playful music, and cute little helping animals. the story of cinderella was not a kind of media reinforcement of gender roles like others that appeared during the 1950s. in cinderella can be seen showed a woman who desired to be in the home doing domestic works such as home cleaning and cooking in order to make other people happy. in spite of the fact cinderella was often depicted enjoying her house-working, she still dreamed about being happily ever after. also, in this film, only a prince can save cinderella. in another word, cinderella was a picture of the typical damsel-in-distress (mckenzie, 2015). furthermore, disney keeps depicting the female character as passive and damsel-in-distress in the next princess series entitled sleeping beauty, which was released in 1959. the story is about a princess who was cursed by a cruel fairy and only “true love’s kiss” can save her life. this third princess series created by disney is the same as the previous princess stories, where the female characters cannot solve their own problems and at the end of the story will always be saved by the princes. thus, it can be concluded from those three princess series that disney tried to reinforce the idea that the ideal woman is fragile and incapable to save her own life. also, the woman was depicted instead of taking care of herself, woman relied on a hard-working man to take care of her. on the other hand, there was a change in the way disney depicted female characters in their next princess series. thirty years later after sleeping beauty was released, disney released their fourth princess film entitled little mermaid (1989). intentionally around the 1980s, the second wave of the feminist movement got a good result. according to mckenzie (2015), most of the major demands of the women’s rights movement had been won. it can be seen women being accepted in college and also women can go to the workplace. since this cultural change happened disney also started to change the depiction of the female character in their princess series. the first change can be seen in the little mermaid film. the pattern that changes in little mermaid was the main female character tried to break her societal bonds and expectations (garabedian, 2014). the female character in little mermaid is depicted as ambitious, brave, had a sense of adventure, and rebellious. however, even though the female character was depicted as a rebel and attempted for what she wanted, her story at the end fell back on her need for a prince (garabedian, 2014). moreover, her story also was focused on finding true love. two years later after little mermaid was released, disney released their fifth princess series under the title beauty and the beast (1991). this story told about a girl who ended up falling in love with a prince cursed into a beast by a witch. similar to the depictions of the female character in little mermaid, in this story, the female was depicted as strong, brave, and had a sense of adventure. furthermore, this disney princess series “was the first to show very high rates of intellectual activity as she read books frequently” (mckenzie, 2015, p. 564). however, due to her hobby as a bookworm, the people labeled her as a strange person and she served to be separated from other villagers. in this story, the female character did not only rely on the prince to save her life anymore, but the female character depicted her as a savior for her prince from the curse. however, even though the depictions of female character has been developed than before, the center of this story was finding true love, definitely similar with little mermaid story. from little mermaid and beauty and the beast can be concluded that a woman cannot live happily without a man. the next year disney released another princess series with the title aladdin (1992). in aladdin, the main focus was on finding true love, similar to the two previous princess series, little mermaid (1989) and beauty and the beast (1991). it told about a man who fell in love with a princess and he asked for a favor from a genie. however, the depiction of a female character in this movie went back to the depictions of females in the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 267 earlier princess series (snow white, cinderella, and sleeping beauty). the princess in this film was shown as “physically weak, highly affectionate, and troublesome” (england, descartes, & collier-meek, 2011, p. 564). additionally, england et al. (2011) described the female character represented as the princess who used blatantly sexuality and embroidered femininity in order to seek aladdin’s help to save her life. however, after disney released aladdin, disney also brought another princess story entitled pocahontas (1995). this movie told about the life of an indian princess who also the daughter of the tribe chief. the female main character in this movie was forced by her father to marry the man that has been chosen by him because the father wanted to find a new chief to replace him. unfortunately, the female character declined to follow her father’s command. she did not want anybody to choose her life path. furthermore, she is depicted as an independent girl, responsible, brave, and wise. she was also shown fighting with the guy from her tribe because he wanted to kill the female’s lover. from this film was revealed that the female showed an act of masculinity and denied social stereotype about a woman. she showed her power when she protected her tribe and her lover. however, in spite of the fact that she was depicted as an independent and strong figure, disney kept showing that the female still needed a man’s love to create her happily ever after life (aryangga & nurmaily, 2017). after releasing pocahontas with its brave and strong female depictions, there was another princess series whom also as strong and as brave as the female character in pocahontas. the eighth princess series made by disney was mulan (1998). in mulan, the female character is depicted differently from the female depictions in the early princess series. the female character in mulan was brave, independent, and did not focus on finding love. the story of mulan was totally different from the early princess series created by disney. the female character broke out the society's stigma about gender role to follow her own life choice because she thought that she was much more than what society told her. in this story, the female main character did not fight for love a man’s love, but for her family. by doing so, she won over a man’s heart and creating her happily ever after life. from this case, disney finally can depict a female character as strong, independent, and not need a man to save and to solve her problem. eleven years later, disney released again their new princess series entitled the princess and the frog (2009). this story became the first animated feature with an african american princess. this story told about a working-class african american young girl who struggled to open her restaurant in new orleans (gehlawat, 2010). the female figure in this story is depicted as a hard-worker, independent, and strong. the female character of this film obviously stated that a combination of hard work and dreaming can make us reach our life’s goals. however, in this story, the female character still needs a man’s favor to reach her goal. both of the female and the male characters here often overcoming problems together and also fostering friendship. thus, this film contained mixed gender messages because the female character sometimes can overcome her own struggle which was determined as a nontraditional gender portrayal, on the other hand, she also needed a man’s help to overcome it which was determined as traditional gender portrayal. in conclusion, the female figure was still depicted needed a man to help her overcome the trouble even though she was portrayed as strong and independent. a year later, another princess series released. it is called tangled (2010). until this era, the depictions of the female character in the disney princess series have developed from the passive character into the active character. in this film, the female character was also depicted as the character who wanted so much more than the life she was living. she had a natural adventure sense and thought. she always wanted to get her freedom and explored the world on the outside. however, this movie tends to fall back with the classic princess series before this film was released. because the female character was helped by a man to escape from the tower. in spite of the fact https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 268 that tangled had aspects of disney’s damsel-indistress thing, the female character of this film did a sacrifice to save the man’s life using her magical hair. from the very first beginning of the princess series, snow white and the seven dwarfs until tangled which was released in 2010, there were some transitions of female depictions. in the earlier princess series, the female main characters were depicted as passive and damsel-indistress, then disney changed the depictions of the female main characters in the next films became more active and independent. however, a heterosexual romance was unavoidable and often became the central focus of the films. in another hand, two years later disney released a new film that would completely break the stereotypes of all the female depictions in the previous disney princess series. the film’s title is brave (2012). with the release of brave, disney would show the audiences that a female did not need a man or marriage to get her happiness. a female can be independent, unique, and realizing that she is worth much more than just marry a man and have babies (mckenzie, 2015). brave was a story about a viking princess who was clever, independent, and strong-willed that refused to be anything else but herself. she declined to be restricted by the bond of marriage (garabedian, 2014). the female main character of this film went after and sought her own destiny, instead of just sit and wait for it to happen. moreover, the female in this film was different from the female depictions in the previous princess series because she personified the 21st-century young girl (masri, 2013). not long after releasing brave, disney released another princess film that also broke the gender traditional expectations and labels. in 2013 disney their 12th princess film entitled frozen. after releasing brave with its female character which depicted the most independent female figure, frozen disney included two strong female main characters, both of them are sister. unlike previous disney princess films, the main focus of this film was about the growth and development of the relationship between those two female main characters, which were sisters. even though one of the female characters was surrounded by men, she did not depend on them to solve the problems. also, albeit this story has a romance story within it, but it did not become the focus. thus, from this movie, disney emphasized that family is more important than anything else. then three years later disney continued their tradition of disney princess films that maintain showing gender stereotypes. the 13th film is entitled moana (2016). it told about a girl from an island seeking to prove to her overprotective father that she was independent. the female main character in this film was not a white, but a polynesian (streiff & dundes, 2017). moreover, this film differed from the previous non-white princesses’ figure such as in moana and the princess and the frog “subject to orientalization” (lacroic, 2004). this film got many critics praised the female main character as a brave heroine with a commitment to save the world without romantic interferences and also a sense of humor within the film (dunsmore, 2017). from that explanation above, we can conclude if disney has successfully developed the female depictions from the traditional perspective, to be a more modern one. besides those thirteen princess series, in 2020 disney released their most recent princess film entitled frozen 2. this film was the second series from frozen in 2013. thus, the author of this research tried to examine the female depictions in this recent princess film, whether the female depictions same as the previous series or fell back to the earlier female depictions, or be more modern. disney princess series tends to bring gender stereotype issue. gender stereotype limits women basically to act feminine, not masculine. where in fact, being feminine is not always identic with a woman and masculine is not always identic with a man. halberstam (1998:7) stated regarding gender that “it is crucial that masculinity does not belong to men, has not produced by only men, and does not properly expressed male heterosexuality. what we call ‘masculinity’ has also been produced by https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 269 masculine women.” this point of view is also applied in recent disney princess series where the female main character or the princesses depicted as rebel and strong. furthermore, to explore more about the female depiction in the most recent princess film released by disney, this study uses a theory of attitude which is the part of appraisal theory proposed by martin and white. martin and white (2005) explained attitude as a system of interpersonal meanings that offers an analytical outline to systematically classify and identify attitudinal expressions. attitudinal expressions can be divided into 3 types, the first is affected. it concerns with expressions of emotions, by registering positive and negative feelings: “do we feel happy or sad, confident or anxious, interested or bored?” (martin & white, the language of evaluation, 2005, p. 42). affect is also divided into 4 sub-category, they are dis/inclination, un/happiness, in/security, and dis/satisfaction. in the following examples below, the word or words in italic are included as representing positive and negative expressions of effect. (1) the princess is sad [-unhappiness]. she is a cheerful [+happiness] girl. then, the second attitudinal expression is judgment. it refers to the attitudinal evaluation of human behavior and is divided into “personal judgments of admiration or criticism and moral judgments of praise or condemnation” (martin & rose, 2007, pp. 67-68). in personal judgments of admiration or criticism is divided again into three parts, normality (how special someone is), capacity (how capable someone is), and tenacity (how dependable someone is). then, moral judgments of praise and condemnation are also divided into two parts, they are veracity (how truthful someone is) and propriety (how ethical someone is). the sentences below are examples of judgment. (2) the princess is smart [+capacity] and strong [+capacity]. cinderella’s stepmother is cruel [-propriety] and evil [-propriety]. after that, the third attitudinal expression is appreciation. it usually evaluates the appearance or physical traits. it is also divided into three parts, the first is a reaction (do they catch our attention or do they please us?), composition (balance and complexity), and value (how innovative, authentic, etc.). the following below are the examples of sentences that contain appreciation. (3) as we know that snow white is a beautiful [+reaction] princess. the princess is very precious [+reaction] for her family and people. the implication of this research is highlighting the effects of media exposure may possibly have on gender acquisition. by watching gendered content, such as the princess series in disney, possibly influence a child’s and/or a young generation’s gender development. because viewing gender roles’ depictions contributes to their understanding of gender and also the media exposure can favor to develop a child’s and/or a young generation’s perception of social behavior and norms toward gender (graves, 1999; martin et al., 2002). talking about children’s media contained gender role portrayal, there were some useful researches that investigate that issue. the first research was done by thompson and zerbinos (1995). they examined 175 episodes from 41 different cartoons in an american television station and found that the programs had genderstereotyped issues. the study found that even though female and male characters were depicted stereotypically, cartoons released after the 1980s showed less stereotypical gender behavior than cartoons released before the 1980s. thus, the authors conclude that the portrayal of gender in media changed over time. the second research was conducted by leaper et al. (2002). they did a content analysis of gender-stereotyped character depicted across four genres of television cartoon programs, those channels were traditional adventure, nontraditional adventure, educational/family, and comedy. the result of this research found that television programs had much stereotyped issues https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 270 but the level of the gendered issue was differed by the genre. adventure cartoons showed the most gendered-stereotypical characters, while educational/family cartoons showed the less. methodology this research includes corpus linguistics as a tool to collect the data using a concordance tool named antconc. this tool can help to create our own corpus. then the data used for this research is the subtitle from frozen 2. then the writer put the english subtitle of frozen 2 into antconc. after that the writer input any female noun such as “she, her, mother, princess, sister” in the search term column then chose the concordance panel. the next steps were choosing number 5 left and 5 right to find out the window collocate, and the last was choosing the suitable sentence based on the female noun. after the data was collected, then the writer analyzed it using attitudinal expressions and the final step was interpreting the result. result and discussion table 1 data of female depiction in frozen 2 no pronoun & noun for female sentence attitudinal expression sub-category 1 she she promised me we'd do this together! judgement tenacity she's saving him. + judgement capacity she saved her enemy. + judgement capacity 2 her her good deed was rewarded with you. + judgement capacity i was just so desperate to protect her. judgement capacity i won't let anything happen to her. + appreciation valuation i swore that i wouldn't leave her side. + appreciation valuation anna, i am worried for her. judgement capacity 3 princess princess anna of arendelle my feisty, fearless, ginger-sweet love. + judgment capacity 4 mother because our mother saved our father. + judgement capacity mother saved father's life that day. + judgement capacity 5 sister my sister gave her life for the truth. + judgement capacity from table 1, the highest number of attitudinal expressions’ sub-category was judgment. there are ten sentences that contained judgment within them; seven sentences contain positive judgment and three sentences contain a negative judgment. also, there are two sentences that contained appreciation and all of the sentences contain positive appreciation. in conclusion, the female character(s) in this film is mostly evaluated based on their behavior. further explanation will be discussed below. female depictions in frozen 2 (positive judgment) sacrificing the depiction of the female characters who did sacrifice is not a new thing. since little https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 271 mermaid, disney depicted the female main character sacrificed her life for her lover. on the other hand, in this film, the sacrificing is not for a man, not for a romantic reason. an example of the depiction of females in frozen 2 is provided below. (4) my sister gave her life for the truth from the example above, there is an explicit clause “gave her life” which means sacrifice. however, in this film, the female character did not sacrifice herself for a man or for a romantic reason. thus, the depiction of a female character in this film becomes a positive evaluation. kind basically, the protagonist character of a film always depicts as a kind person. it is also shown in this movie. the example is given below. from the example above, there is a phrase “good deed” that obviously contains positive judgment within it. that phrase explicitly shows if the female character in this film is a kind person. heroic heroic is not always correlated with man, however, a woman also can do something heroic. the examples are given below. (5) mother saved father's life that day the sentence above shows that there is a woman who can save a man’s life. if we talk about princess life, the female figure in the earlier princess series will always be the one who was saved by a man or prince. however, since the development of feminism, disney began to show the stronger female figure. apparently, the female depiction in frozen 2 also shows that woman also can save other people’s lives, not only be saved by other. from this film, disney tries to show that woman is strong and can be as heroic as a man. (6) she saved her enemy the sentence above is an example of another heroic action done by a woman. similar to the previous sentence, the female character of this movie saved someone’s life. however, in this case, the one who was saved was her enemy. commonly “enemy” is always depicted as an evil person who does a bad thing to other people. instead of punishing her enemy, the female character in this film chose to rescue or save her enemy. besides being kind, this action also can be categorized as heroic. fearless and full-of-spirit from the sentence above we can see directly the depiction of the female character in the movie. the speaker explicitly mentioned that the female character was a feisty and fearless person. according to the previous explanation if the depiction of a female character in disney’s princess series is not as traditional as before, thus, in this section we can see if disney depicts the female character as a strong creature. from those examples above, we can conclude that female in frozen 2 based on positive judgment is depicted as someone who willing to sacrifice herself, whom also kind, heroic, fearless, and full-of-spirit. female depictions in frozen 2 (negative judgment) liar besides depicted in a positive way, in this film the female character also depicted in a negative way. the example is shown below. (7) she promised me we'd do this together! from this sentence, we can see if the female character broke her own promise. because the sentence is in a past form which means the event has been done. also, there is an exclamation mark in the final sentence that also emphasizes that the speaker was angry. the female character promised to do something together with the speaker in the past, however she did not fulfill it. that is why the speaker looks angry. moreover, this sentence contains negative judgment with tenacity as its sub-category, because it talks about “how truthful someone is”. thus, according to the sentence above, the female character in frozen 2 depicts as an untruthful person or a liar. trouble maker the second negative judgment about the female depiction in frozen 2 will be shown below. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 272 (8) i was just so desperate to protect her the sentence above explains the desperation of someone caused by the female character. the speaker of this sentence was also a female, in more detail, she is one of the female main characters. from the sentence above, we can see if another female main character causes problems until her sister “desperate” to protect her. thus, according to the sentence above, we can say if disney tried to depict one of the female main characters as a trouble maker. also, from these examples, based on negative judgment the female character in frozen 2 is depicted as a liar and trouble maker. female depiction in frozen 2 (positive appreciation) after depicted from the behavioral side, this section talks about the depiction based on appearance. based on table 1, all sentences contain positive appreciation within them. precious there are two sentences that contained a positive appreciation of the female character. the first example will be showed below. (9) i won't let anything happen to her that sentence contains positive appreciation with valuation as its sub-category. the sentence above evaluates the female character based on her value. if we see the sentence, we can assume if the value of the female character is precious for the speaker, since the speaker did not want anything to happen to her. another example showed about how precious the female character in this film is shown below. (10) i swore that i wouldn't leave her side in that sentence, the speaker even used “swore” as emphasizing that the speaker would not leave the female character’s side since she is precious. if someone is precious enough, other people usually willing to protect and stay beside her. that is why those two sentences above showed that the female character in frozen 2 is a precious person. conclusion until this year, disney has launched many animation series, one of them is the princess series. in releasing their princess series, disney always put gender issues within them. in the earlier princess series, the female characters were depicted as passive and damsel-in-distress. then they change the depiction a little bit, the female characters in the following princess series were not as passive as before. the female characters became more active and tend to be rebellion to get their freedom. however, at the end of the story, disney always puts a romantic sense between the heterosexual couple which depicted that women will only be happy if they finally can marry their man. time goes by, disney keeps releasing their new princess series. in the next following princess series, the depiction of female character developed more. the female is depicted to be more strong and more independent. the romance was not the focus of the story anymore. furthermore, the most recent princess series, frozen 2 (2020), which is also the second series of frozen (2016), depicts the female character(s) to be stronger than before. according to their behavior, the female characters are depicted as someone who is willing to sacrifice her life for others, kind, heroic, fearless, and also full-of-spirit. on the other hand, they also portray as liar and trouble maker. from the appearance evaluation, disney depicts the female characters in frozen 2 as someone who is precious to others. references aryangga, a., & nurmaily, e. 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"it's called a hustle, sweetheart": zootopia, moana, and disney's (dis) empowered postfeminist heroines. international journal of politics, culture, and society. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s1-767019-09347-2 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 274 streiff, m., & dundes, l. (2017). from shapeshifter to lava monster: gender stereotypes in disney's moana. social science, 6(91), 1-12. the walt disney company. (2019, september 14). retrieved from the walt disney company: https://www.thewaltdisneycompany.com/ab out/ thompson, t. l., & zerbinos, e. (1995). gender roles in animated cartoons: has the picture changed in 20 years? sex roles, 32, 651-673. doi:1.1007/bf01544217. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 229 the relationship between the students’ english speaking skills and their closeness to english hawa asma ul husna1 hawaasma@polimedia.ac.id 1politeknik negeri media kreatif, indonesia abstract speaking english skills is a frightening thing for some english for foreign language learners (efl), including students at one of the universities in jakarta. even though they live and stay in jakarta and its surroundings, which is the capital city of indonesia with high job competition, there are still many students who have a low level of english speaking skills. this study aims to determine the relationship between english speaking skills and their closeness to english as seen from the 5 levels of students' proficiency in speaking english. this research uses the descriptive qualitative method. the subjects of this study were 2 classes with a total of 60 students at a university in jakarta in the 2019-2020 school year. researchers used tests, questionnaires, interviews, and literature studies as data collection techniques. while the data analysis technique used by researchers is using data triangulation. the results of this study indicate that the closer they are to english in their daily lives, both by frequently reading english articles, frequently watching english films, often listening to english music, the better the students' level of english speaking skills. keywords: speaking, efl, closeness to english, speaking proficiency, english speaking skills introduction jakarta, as the capital city of indonesia, demands a global life or can synergize with real-time world communication. many companies really need people who can communicate in international languages ​ ​ for ease of daily interaction with other countries. many families in indonesia, especially in jakarta, teach their children as early as possible to learn english in order to have skills that can make it easier for their children to compete in the world of school, campus, and career. as quoted by kompas.com (2012), wall street workers say "english language skills are important for a person's competitiveness, with good english skills and good competitiveness, it will benefit to the country." meanwhile, speaking english is considered as a scary thing for some learners of english as a second language (esl) or english as a foreign language (efl). speaking itself according to to kosar and bedir (2014), is an interactive process in the activity of constructing meaning which consists of produce and receive information. unlike listening, reading, and writing which can be done individually, speaking english is generally done by two or more people in communicating. this is what makes an efl student afraid to speak english. they feel afraid to make mistakes and moreover that mistakes are seen by others, because they will feel ashamed of the other person they are talking to. this fear affects their level of fluency in speaking, besides they have to overcome this fear, they also have to think about what words to say. this also makes them often forget what to say. crystal (2003) said that speaking english is considered the most important skill to master because english is in a strong position as an international language in communication. this was added by several researchers who said that speaking english was the most stressful skill among the 4 other skills, namely listening, reading, and writing (young, 1992; hauck & hurd, 2005; liu, 2009). zhengdong (2013), states compared to reading, writing, and listening, there is a lack of data that can document students' experiences of speaking english as a second language (esl) or english as a foreign language (efl) in various learning contexts despite the fact that the ability to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:hawaasma@polimedia.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 230 speaking a second language or a foreign language is widely considered to be something that is daunting to most language learners. meantime, jakarta, with its various demands to be able to master the english language, still does not make students at one of the universities in jakarta able to master english speaking skills. based on observations made at one of university in jakarta in 2 classess of english for specific purposes (esp, the students' level of proficiency in speaking english varied, some were good, some were bad. this can be seen when researchers make observations at the university, the esp lecturer there invites students to speak english for 2-3 minutes and the results of their speaking skills seem varied. the researcher saw the diversity phenomenon at the time of the observation, therefore the researcher wanted to know whether the various results had something to do with their closeness to english. this closeness could be in terms of their liking for english books or articles, their hobby in listening to english songs, or their fondness for esp lessons which could be interesting or even other things such as their joy for the esp lecturers who taught them at that time. according to bashir, azeem, and dogar (2011) in their journals published in the british journal of arts and social science, speaking stages are divided into 5 stages, those are pre-production, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency. in the preproduction stage, students listen much more than they speak. the second stage is initial production. at this stage the student has said a few words and several phrases that have been memorized even though with a few mistakes. the third stage is called the appearance of speech. at this stage students already have a good vocabulary, they can also ask with simple question sentences. the fourth stage is the intermediate smoothness stage. at this stage students are able to say more complex sentences. apart from that in speaking a foreign language, there are several factors that affect the fluency in its implementation. these factors are summarized by muamar (2019), namely internal factors which include motivation, interest, and self-confidence. there are also external factors, namely first language and environment. methodology the research method used in this study is a descriptive qualitative research method. the stages of the research carried out by the researcher were: preliminary observation of the research subject and place of research, giving english speaking skills tests, giving questionnaires to research subjects in the form of google form in order to improve environmental friendliness, interviewing research subjects, and the final stage is the analysis of the results of the test, questionnaires, interviews and literature study or data triangulation. the subjects in this study were 60 students from one of university in jakarta in the business administration study program who studied the english for specific purposes (esp) course in the 2019-2020 school year. the age range of these subjects varied between 18-20 years. this research is limited to potential industry players who really need a high level of communication in english. the data collection technique used by the researchers was to use the english speaking test to find out which stage the student's english speaking skills were at, a questionnaire to see how close the student was to english, interviews to minimize misinterpretation and to see how close the student was to english, and the last data collection technique is a literature study to see theoretical studies regarding the acquisition of a second or foreign language. while the data analysis technique which is done by researchers is to use data triangulation from the data that has been collected. result and discussion result this research departs from the high need for english in the industrialized world and as the mandate of the minister of education, culture and higher education on "merdeka learning kampus merdeka" in order to adapt education to the needs https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 231 of the industry to be targeted. as an english lecturer from one of the state polytechnics in jakarta whose graduates will enter the industrial world, and as a lecturer who teaches english for specific purposes, researchers are very concerned about the extent to which students' abilities regarding english, a language that is very much needed for the industrial world. when the researcher was at one of university in jakarta, it turned out that the english speaking skills of students, in this case the subject were in a business study program, were very varied but tended to be lower. however, darmadi (2015) defines speaking as a productive skill that can be observed directly and empirically. these observations colored by the accuracy and effectiveness of the listening maker's ability, which of course interferes with the reliability and validity of oral production tests. one that should be emphasized that subjects of this research live in the city of jakarta which is actually the center of industry and offices and with better facilities such as internet coverage, the environment, etc. for this reason, researchers want to know, even though they live in the capital, whether they remain close to english or not and what is the condition of their english speaking skills. the value of the test results is known that the range given is 1-100 with the following conditions: 1-20 is pre-production, 21-40 is early production, 41-60 is in the speech emergence category, 61-80 intermediate fluency, and a value 81-100 is in the advanced fluency category. description of the rubric is needed to determine the value in order to be more objective in grading. the description of the rubric is based on the explanation by bashir, azeem, and dogar (2011) in their journals. the description is that in the preproduction stage, students listen much more than they speak, and their speaking level is still very weak or very little. at this stage, students are still very difficult to listen to their interlocutors. when students want to answer or speak in english, students still use their memorized phrases. the second stage is initial production. at this stage the student has said a few words and several phrases that have been memorized even though with a few mistakes. students' speaking skills at this stage are better than the first stage. at this stage students are more comprehensive in listening to their interlocutors. the third stage is called the appearance of speech. at this stage students already have a good vocabulary, they can also ask with simple question sentences. at this stage, students are able to understand some new information but still find it a little difficult with some context meanings. sometimes students at this stage have difficulty understanding meaning because they lack background information about the culture of the foreigner. the fourth stage is the intermediate smoothness stage. at this stage students are able to say more complex sentences. they can also ask clearly what they want to ask in a detailed sentence. at this stage students are able to joke using their foreign language, they have a better understanding of the abstract and hypothetical discussion. the final stage is the advanced fluency stage. at this stage students can speak their vocabulary without preparation. from the rubric, it can be concluded that the student test scores are as shown in the table below. table 1 the position of the student level in speaking english no level students 1 pre-production 8 2 early production 28 3 speech emergence 21 4 intermediete fluency 3 5 advanced fluency from the table above, it can be seen that there are 8 students in the pre-production stage and 28 students in the early production stage. whereas at the speech emergence stage there were https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 232 21 students and finally there were 3 students at the intermediate fluency stage. for the advanced fluency stage, none of the students had reached this stage. from this it can be concluded that the percentage of students' proficiency in english speaking skills, if numbers 1 and 2 are combined and considered the low category, it will be 60% of the total students in the low category. if number 3 is considered to be in the sufficient category, then 35% of students are in the sufficient category. finally, if numbers 4 and 5 are combined and considered in the high category, then only 5% of students have high english speaking skills. the results of this test can later help determine whether students with high speaking skill categories are close to english or whether students with low categories are far from english. after finding the student category, the researcher distributed a questionnaire, the results of the questionnaire were as follows. figure 1 percentage diagram of students' preferences for english from the diagram above, it is known that 64.5% of students agree that they like english, and 32.3% of students say they strongly agree they like english. meanwhile, 3.2% of students stated that they disagreed if they said they liked english and no student chose to strongly disagree on this questionnaire. from the diagram, it can be concluded that 96.8% of students like english and the rest don't like english. if you match the test results from here, it can be seen that even though they like english, they may not be proficient in english speaking skills. so loving english do not always make students have a high level of proficiency in speaking english. figure 2 percentage of student enjoyment on matters related to english https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 233 in the figure above, 38.7% of students said that they strongly agree that they are happy with things related to english including english films, english games, english songs, english news articles, speaking in english, and listening. something in english. there are 48.4% of students stated that they agree with this statement. the rest chose to disagree with the statement as much as 12.9% and no one strongly disagreed with the statement. from this it can be concluded that there is a total of 87.1% of students like things related to english. al-eiadeh (2016) had interviews and find the results on it that listening to english native speakers in a different ways such as in film or song is very essential for persons to strengthen correct pronunciation of words. he states 10 out of 20 participants (27.77%) mentioned that they have solutions through listening to english, songs, news, films and, conversations. however, although the enthusiasm for matters related to english is very high, this does not make the student have very good english speaking skills. so if someone only has fun in english, it is not necessarily able to improve one's speaking skills in english. figure 3 student agreement regarding vocabulary increase through english songs, films, games, and articles in the figure above, it can be seen that 64.5% of students strongly agree that their vocabulary increases when they listen to english songs, watch english films, play english games and read english articles. of all, 25.8% of students considered that they agreed to this. the remaining 9.7% answered that they did not agree that their vocabulary was increased by listening to songs, watching movies, playing games, and reading articles in english. however, no one chose to strongly disagree on this questionnaire statement. from the diagram, it can be concluded that the things related to english are more than sufficient in increasing the vocabulary of students because there are 90.3% of students who stated that things related to english helped them in improving english vocabulary. in addition, apriliya (2013) states that the media song can improve students' english speaking skills. this was added by rejeki's (2019) research results, in his thesis, he found that there was a positive correlation between listening to english songs and pronunciation mastery in english speaking skills. he also added that, increasing the habit of listening to english songs will also improve students' english speaking skills. however, the results of the questionnaire in the statement from the results of figure 3 cannot be used as a basis for decision making in the research hypothesis, because this statement does not indicate that they often watch movies, play games, and read articles in english. that is why although the number of people who agree on this statement is very high, they have many low test results. figure 4 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 234 the diagram of how long students like english it can be seen in the diagram above that 29% of students have liked english since elementary school, 32.3% of students have liked english since junior high school, 22.6% of students have liked new english since high school, and 9.7% of students have just liked english. currently. the remaining 6.5% of students have never liked english. the questionnaire this time is still related to the first and second statements. regarding the fun and the length of time they enjoy english. the result can be seen that 61% of students like english since junior high school even longer than that. however, in the interview, it was found that all students who had high test scores liked english since high school, junior high school or longer than that. figure 5 history diagram of students who have taken english lessons outside of school in the diagram, it can be seen that 70.9% of students have never studied english outside of school, and the rest never took english lessons outside of school. from this it can be concluded that learning additional english outside of school does not help them much in improving students' english speaking skills. however, this questionnaire statement has a weakness, namely the absence of how long and how often they learn additional english outside of school. in addition, the material on additional learning also greatly determines someone in improving their english speaking skills. for example, maybe someone has studied english but is more towards academic english or just learning extra about grammar. meanwhile, in speaking skills, grammar is not the main thing. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 235 figure 6 diagram of how often students read articles in english in the diagram, it can be seen that the biggest choice is that 64.5% of students do not like to read articles in english. in second place, 19.4% of students stated that they read an article in english once a day on average. the third position is the statement that 9.7% of students read english articles once a day on average. in the fourth position, there were 6.5% of students who stated that they read english articles on average only once a month and there were no students who chose to read statements more than 5 times a day reading english articles. this diagram indicates that the average student does not really like reading english articles in their daily life. so that this statement can be used as a basis that if students are not diligent in reading articles in english, they will also have difficulty speaking english. this is in line with the results of the correlation test between reading interest and english skills conducted by edri (2019), which states that there is a significant effect. figure 7 diagram of how often students play games in english in figure 7, it can be seen that 58.1% of students do not like playing games in english. however 16.1% of students stated that they played games in english once a week on average. furthermore, it reached 12.9% of students like to play games in english more than 2 times a day. the next position stated that 9.7% of students played games in english once a day on average and finally 3.2% of students stated that they played these games only once a month. gozcu and caganaga (2016) stated that using games to teach language to learners at low level of profeciency helped to motivate them because it brings fun and the feeling of satisfaction even could reducing stress and anxiety. meanwhile ibrahim (2017) says games help young learners grasp new words without memorizing it because while they playing game they repeating the word that good to help them increasing the vocabularies. thus, it is good to potential industry players to increase their vocabulary with playing english game regularly. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 236 figure 8 precentage how often students watch english films / videos in figure 8, it can be seen that only 35.5% of students watch english films/videos once a day or more. the remaining 25.8% of students watch once a week, 29% only watch it once a month and the remaining 9.7% never or rarely watch english videos / films. from this it can be seen that the students do not like english films, this is in line with their low test results. hanifah (2019) in her journal obtained results in accordance with her hypothesis, that students' speaking skills improve when they are taught through films. hanifah said that films motivated students to develop a framework for speaking and get new vocabulary from the film. as stated by edri (2019), the more quality of vocabulary mastery is, the students will be smarter and more skilled in speaking english. meanwhile, hendrawaty and lutfiyansyah (2016), who teach their students about speaking skills with film fragments, say that showing a film experience that is in accordance with the theme of the lesson makes lessons more interesting. through film fragments, participants can immediately understand the conversation in a shorter time, so that participants can easily record in their brain the language displayed and they are able to retell the contents of the film fragments with good language speech. figure 9 the percentage of student parents likes english https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 237 from the figure above, it is known that 54.8% of students' parents like english and the rest do not like english. there are more than 50% of student parents who love english. as before, the statement of "liking" is not enough for them or even their children to have good english speaking skills if they are not "close" to english. the researcher put this question because parents also one of students’ circumstance that would influence students’ tendency in english itself. according to iswara (2011) there are some factors that influence students interest in study, those are: motivation, study, parents attention, friends, environment, dreams, talent, hobby, and facility. thus, parents could organize parents attention, environment, hobby, and facility if those parents also love english. figure 10 percentage diagram whether or not students have participated in an english competition from the figure above, it can be seen that a total of 83.9% of students have never participated in an english competition and the rest have participated in an english competition. here it can be concluded that students who have participated in english competitions are still very few compared to those who have never participated in competitions. from this diagram it can be seen that although many students like english, few students are able to channel their preferences through competitions. in other words, being happy with english alone is not enough to improve students' english speaking skills if they do not dare to show skills. in addition, in the interviews it was found that all students who had participated in english competitions had high english speaking skills scores. discussion from the results obtained, it turns out that students love english, like things related to english, and even fond of english since a long time is not enough to raise the level of english speaking skills. it can be seen from the high percentage of students' enjoyment of english and the high percentage of the length of time that students love english, but when viewed from the test results, there are still more than 60% of students who are in the low category. therefore, students need closeness in speaking english in their daily activities. the low level of students' english speaking skills is closely related to their closeness in daily activities. for example, few students were able to read english articles twice a day compared to those who did it less frequently than that. students who often play games in english are also much less than students who rarely play games in english. not only that, the percentage of students who watched english films / videos more than once a day was still below 36% of the total number of students. this is quite unfortunate because according to lestari (2011) in her journal, she says that watching movies can improve students speaking skills in each cycle she carries out. this statement also in line with parmawati (2019) that says english films can improve speaking skills. the improvement of students' speaking skills can be seen in increase in the value of speaking skills. this shows that there is a comparison between students' speaking skills during the intervention and success performance criteria. the increase was https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 238 also observed from several aspects of their composition on manufactures. students show improvement in speaking skills. besides that student's confidence improve when speaking english. they are no longer afraid of making mistakes. in addition, the subjects in this study, namely students also did not like to challenge their abilities in competition, even for students whose test results were in the high category, not all of them had ever participated in an english competition. in addition as previous research, dewi (2016) states that there are several factors that cause the students' speaking skills are low, namely as follows: a) english is not used outside the classroom or inside community as a foreign language, b) lack of exposure to english in the community and environment, c) learning english on campus places more emphasis on grammar than speaking skills, d) students are too embarrassed and afraid to make mistakes during speaking practice, e) english is not the main requirement on campus or in the environment, unless there is one the opportunity to travel to an english speaking country for further education or tourist visits. so if these potential industry players want to increase their speaking skills for work needs in the future they should also use and receive english not only in the classroom but also in the outside of the classroom regularly for example playing english games, watching english film with or without subtitle, watching english video, reading english articles, and even dare themselves to join english competition. in other words, all data collection instruments such as tests, questionnaires, and interviews can be drawn a red line, that someone could have better english speaking skills if they are close to english than those who are not. this closeness is not only from their love of english, or their parents' joy of english, but also their daily actions, for example, they often read english articles, listen to english songs, watch english films, and even play games in english language. not only that, they also have to be able to challenge themselves to various kinds of english competitions so that they can find out their weaknesses against english. conclusion this study suggests that even in big cities, the level of proficiency in english speaking skills of students as potential industrial players is still low. the low level of proficiency of these skills is closely related to their closeness to the english language. from this research, it can be concluded that the closeness of english can be in terms of how often they read articles, watch movies, play games, and listen to english songs. therefore, it is recommended that english lecturers or teachers use teaching methods that can bring students closer to english so that they can always be close to matters related to english, because just being fond of english is not enough to can increase the level of students' english speaking skills. references al-eiadeh, a.r. 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(2019). the correlation study between students’s habit in listening english song and pronunciation mastery towards their speaking skill to english education department of iain surakarta in the academic year of 2017/2018 [thesis, institut islam negeri surakarta]. scarcella, r. (2003). academic english: a conceptual framework. university of california. tuan, n, h., & mai, t, n. (2010). factors of teaching students’ speaking difficulties at le then hien high school. asian journal of educational research, 3(2), 8-23. ur, p. (1996). a course in language teaching: practice and theory. cambridge university press zhengdong, g. (2013). understanding english speaking difficulties: an investigation of two chinese populations. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 34(3), 231248, doi: 10.1080/01434632.2013.768622 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 240 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab1ba9310a1 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 1 modèle d’apprentissage schématique pour améliorer la compétence de la compréhension ecrite (schematic-based learning model to improve students’ competence in reading comprehension) ahmad yulianto semarang state university abstract this article is an abstract of research conducted at french language department of semarang state university. this research itself was intended to discover how far schemata (one’s prior knowledge) influence ability in understanding a passage. reading comprehension requires not only linguistic competence but also non-linguistic competence. it happens that one does not understand a passage notwithstanding his grammatical mastery. in this research, two groups of students were used as control and experiment classes respectively. with the help of t-test, pre-test score average and post-test average were compared and analyzed to find out whether or not schematic-based model gives rise to students’ reading performance. key words: reading comprehension, schemata, schematic model apprentissage de la comprehension ecrite dans l’enseignement du fle, l’objectif de la compréhension écrite est d’amener les apprenants vers le sens d’un écrit ; c’est-àdire de les aider à comprendre de différents types de texte. l’objectif essentiel de cette compétence n’est donc pas la compréhension immédiate d’un texte, mais plutôt l’apprentissage de stratégies de lecture dont la maîtrise pourrait permettre aux apprenants de mieux comprendre un texte. les apprenants vont acquérir petit à petit les méthodes qui leur permettront plus tard de s’adapter et de se progresser dans des situations authentiques de compréhension écrite. (http://www.edufle.net/outils-dedidactique). nos apprenants doivent être capables progressivement de comprendre non seulement de quoi on parle et de tirer des informations exactes mais aussi de retrouver les enchaînements de l’écrit (causalité, conséquence, enchaînement chronologique) et de maîtriser les règles principales du code de l’écrit (les accords, les types de phrase, les formes verbales). en effet l’enseignement de lecture en général ne s’effectue qu’en demandant aux apprenants de lire le texte dans leur cœur et puis de le comprendre. après cela le texte est lu à haute voix par les apprenants un par un. et ensuite l’enseignant pose plusieurs questions pour découvrir la 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 compréhension du texte. conséquence : les apprenants ont du mal à comprendre le texte puisque l’activité de lecture n’a aucun sens pour eux. en plus, les étudiants dépendent de plus en plus de l’enseignant et s’égarent devant le texte. rumelhart (1981 : 20) dit que lire n’est pas une activité passive. il a pour but de comprendre un message qu’envoie l’auteur à travers le texte. en langue maternelle la lecture est une activité ordinaire qui s’effectue pour un plaisir ou le travail. on lit tous les jours les journaux, les magazines, les livres, les revues, etc. c’est une activité quotidienne dont le but est de connaître, de savoir ou d’apprendre quelque chose. lorsqu’on lit, une sorte de dialogue s’engage entre le lecteur et le texte. un rapport se produit entre cet individu-là et le texte. le lecteur a quelque chose dans sa tête concernant ce qui est lu. des questions se posent parfois de ce qui se trouve dans le texte. même, lors de lecture, on prévoit à la fois ce qui arrive plus tard dans le texte. tout cela peut se faire grâce à la connaissance préalable du lecteur. le lecteur, dans ce cas là, se profite de sa connaissance antérieure ou bien de son bagage qu’il apporte avec lui. c’est ce qu’on appelle ‘le schéma’ ou les schèmes. en tant qu’enseignants, nous devons en avoir conscience pour que nous puissions éveiller la connaissance innée de nos étudiants et s’en profiter dans la compréhension écrite. autrement dit, si les étudiants n’ont pas de schéma nécessaire pour comprendre le texte, c’est à nous à le leur fournir. les activités de la compréhension écrite viseront donc à substituer un comportement passif par une attitude active de découverte pour que nos étudiants deviennent de bons lecteurs autonomes. theorie su schema dans la littérature, la définition du schéma proposée par rumelhart (1981), et celle proposée par anderson & pearson (1984) sont très souvent mentionnées. ces deux définitions pourraient donc être résumées en ces phrases : les schémas sont des structures abstraites de connaissance qui servent à représenter les concepts génériques stockés en mémoire et qui peuvent représenter des objets, des événements, des séquences d’événements, des actions, des séquences d’actions et des situations. caractéristiques des schémas selon la plupart des auteurs, les caractéristiques les plus importantes des schémas sont les suivantes : (1) les schémas stockés en mémoire peuvent s’emboîter les uns dans les autres. ils sont organisés comme des réseaux de nœuds conceptuels qui sont génériques et qui sont plus ou moins fortement inters-reliés en fonction des domaines et des niveaux d’expertise des individus. cela implique que les schémas peuvent être hiérarchisés. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 3 (2) les schémas représentent les connaissances plutôt que les définitions qu’on trouve dans un dictionnaire (rumelhart & ortony, 1977; rumelhart, 1981). ainsi, ces connaissances impliquées par les schémas ne sont pas les entités linguistiques. mais il s’agit des représentations abstraites symboliques de connaissances. (3) il est important de noter que les schémas sont non seulement abstraits, mais aussi stéréotypés. ils sont abstraits en ce sens qu’ils contiennent une case ou une niche pour chaque élément constituant dans une structure de connaissance. ils sont stéréotypés en ce sens qu’ils indiquent les relations typiques entre les éléments. (4) dans le cadre de la compréhension de textes, les schémas peuvent représenter à la fois des connaissances sur le contenu et celles sur la forme. (5) le schéma est essentiellement une structure évolutive (tardif, 1992 : 83). les schémas se modifient donc au fur et à mesure que l’individu vit de nouvelles expériences et acquiert de nouvelles connaissances. fonctions des schémas cinq fonctions proposées ci-dessous par anderson (1984) peuvent rendre compte des effets des schémas dans le processus de compréhension et de mémorisation des textes écrits. (1) les schémas sont conçus pour fournir un échafaudage conceptuel qui assimilera les informations présentées dans le texte. ainsi, le lecteur comprendra un texte ou un passage, lorsqu’il réussira à activer le schéma approprié. son instanciation permettra de construire l’interprétation la plus cohérente et la plus plausible de ce qui est dit par le texte. (2) les schémas permettent d’élaborer des inférences. ils assurent la cohérence du texte en permettant la génération des inférences nécessaires au rétablissement de l’information implicite. (3) les schémas interviennent au moment du traitement de l’information en dirigeant l’attribution de l’attention du lecteur vers les valeurs importantes qui vont remplir les cases vides du schéma, soit vers les informations importantes apportées par le texte. (4) les schémas favorisent la sélection des informations et la suppression de celles moins importantes. (5) les schémas permettent de faciliter la reconstruction par inférence des informations. processus schématique d’apprentissage les théoriciens du schéma postulent en général qu’il existe trois modes schématiques d’apprentissage : (1) accrétion (accretion): 4 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 cette mode de compréhension représente la sorte ordinaire d’apprendre le fait comme l’accumulation quotidienne d’information. l’apprentissage de listes, dates, noms de présidents, numéros de téléphone constituent l’apprentissage d’information à travers l’accrétion. ce type d’apprentissage se passe grâce à exposition du concept à acquérir. l’information reçue est mis dans la base de données de connaissance. dans ce mode il n’y a pas de changement du schéma préalable. ce serait comme ajouter un autre élément de données à une base de données. (2) action d’accorder (tuning) : ceci constitue un processus de compréhension plus compliqué. dans ce cas-là des modifications mineures se font au schéma préalable au lieu de l’entrée de nouvelle information en la base de données. les variables du schéma deviennent plus précis avec de nouvelles informations reçues. après qu’une série d’interprétation se développe, elle ne s’établira pas. en revanche, elle se modifie sans cesse. par exemple quand on apprend à taper pour la première fois, on développe une série d’habitude pour effectuer cette tache. lorsque l’on commence à s’habituer à ce travail, on s’accorde et devient plus capable à le faire. (3) restructuration (restructuration) : il s’agit d’une création du nouveau schéma par une modélisation ou d'induction. un nouveau schéma créé par la modélisation peut être décrite comme l'apprentissage par analogie. une personne sans aucun schéma préalable pour le concept de ville, mais muni d’un schéma pour le concept d’agriculture, pourrait apprendre la notion de ville par la modélisation de nouveau schéma avec les mêmes variables (des gens, des immeubles, des animaux, matériel, etc.). et ensuite le tuning aiderait à mieux définir le schéma (par exemple les vaches ne serait pas acceptable pour la variable des animaux en ville tandis que les chiens le seront (rumelhart et brandford, 1980 : 17). types de schéma par rapport à la compréhension de texte il existe trois grands types de schémas : le schéma linguistique, le schéma formel et le schéma de contenu qui sont tous étroitement liés à la compréhension écrite. (1) schéma linguistique le schéma linguistique se réfère aux compétences linguistiques que possèdent les lecteurs. il comporte connaissances lexicales, syntaxiques, sémantiques et pragmatiques. il est le fondement d'autres schémas. comme on le sait, les connaissances linguistiques jouent un rôle essentiel dans la compréhension écrite. sans les schémas linguistiques, il est language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 5 impossible pour le lecteur à décoder et comprendre un texte. (2) schéma formel le schéma formel se rapporte à la forme d'organisation ou bien à la structure de texte écrit. selon leur fonction, leur destination, leur support, le texte en général a une organisation différente. on parle de schémas formels du texte pour désigner l’organisation des éléments qui le constituent. il inclut la connaissance des différents types de textes, de genres, et de structure typique. les différents types de textes utilisent l’organisation de texte, les structures de la langue, le vocabulaire, la grammaire et le niveau de formalité de façon différente. des études montrent que la connaissance du type et du genre de texte peut favoriser la compréhension. néanmoins, par rapport au schéma linguistiques et au celui du contenu, la puissance qu’offre le schéma formel est moins forte dans le processus de lecture (carrell, 1984). (3) schéma du contenu le schéma du contenu se réfère à la connaissance du contenu, du sujet ou du thème d'un texte. un texte au contenu référentiel connu est plus facile à comprendre qu’un texte dont le thème nous est totalement inconnu car nous avons en mémoire des schémas de contenu concernant par exemple l’organisation des informations dans un journal ou le déroulement d’une histoire fictionnelle. donc connaître le code d’une langue est parfois insuffisant à bien comprendre un texte. il est nécessaire dans ce cas-là que le lecteur ait des compétences à saisir la connaissance du contenu référentiel. le schéma du contenu peut être sous forme des connaissances culturelles, de l'expérience précédente de lecteur ou des connaissances pertinentes sur le sujet. dans certaine mesure, le schéma du contenu peut compenser le manque de schéma linguistique, et donc aider les apprenants à comprendre des textes en prédisant, en choisissant les informations et en supprimant des ambiguïtés. une langue n'est pas seulement la simple combinaison de vocabulaire, de syntaxe et de grammaire, mais elle est aussi le porteur de différents niveaux de la culture de la langue. exemple de la liste schématique (schematic checklist) pour le 1er texte lisez bien ces questions et répondez aux questions brièvement en indonésien. à répondre avant de lire le texte (dijawab sebelum anda membaca teks) 6 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 1. quel est le mot clé dans le titre ? (apa kata kunci dari judul ?) 2. cela vous fait penser à quoi ? (apa yang terbersit di benak anda?) 3. et alors qu’est ce que ca veut dire « le jean – symbole d’égalité et de liberté » ? (jadi, apa yang dimaksud dengan judul le jean – symbole d’égalité et de liberté ?) 4. avant de lire le texte, qu’est-ce que vous comprenez sur ce thème ? (sebelum anda membaca teks lebih lanjut, apa yang anda pahami tentang topik ini ?) 5. selon le titre, pouvez-vous dire ce que vous trouverez dans le texte ? (dari judulnya, dapatkah anda memperkirakan informasi apa yang akan temui dalam teks ?) apprentissage schématique de la compréhension écrite modèle de lecture basé sur le schéma en général avant-lecture pendant-lecture après-lecture modèle schématique proposé  découverte  instanciation  sélection  intégration  reconstruction  emmagasinage  renforcement  vérification  renforcement découvrir si une l’information est stockée dans la base de données récupérer l’information pertinente et de l’activer sélectionner l’information ; la faire intégrer au schéma existant ; reconstruire un schéma à l’absence de telle information retenir l’information déjà sélectionnée, intégrée ou bien reconstruite rendre plus fort la construction d’un nouvel schéma dans la mémoire confronter la compréhension temporaire aux questions proposées language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 7 6. est-ce que l’information que vous avez trouvée dans le texte correspond à ce que vous avez prévu ? (se réfère au numéro 6) (apakah informasi yang anda temukan di dalam teks seperti perkiraan anda tadi ? – pertanyaan ini mengacu pada pertanyaan no. 6) 7. quelle information correspond-elle à votre connaissance ? (informasi apa yang seperti perkiraan anda ?) 8. quelle information ne correspond-elle pas àvotre connaissance ? (informasi apa yang berbeda ?) 9. quelle nouvelle information avez-vous pris du texte ? (informasi baru apa yang anda dapatkan dari teks ?) 10. y a-t-il des informations exprimées de façon implicite ? lesquelles ? (apakah ada informasi yang diungkapkan secara implisit ? yang manakah itu?) 11. comment vous avez parvenu à les comprendre ? (bagaimana cara anda memahami informasi tersebut ?) 12. selon vous, y a-t-il des parties dans le texte les plus importantes ? lesquelles ? (menurut anda apakah ada bagian dari teks yang isinya lebih penting dari yang lain? yang mana?) 13. pourquoi vous les considérez les plus importantes ? (mengapa anda menganggapnya demikian ?) 14. quel indice donne-t-il l’auteur pour l’indiquer ? (petunjuk apa yang diberikan penulis untuk memperlihatkan hal tersebut?) 15. après avoir lu le texte, quelle connaissance retenez-vous sur le thème ? (sesudah anda membaca teks, pengetahuan apa yang anda simpan di pikiran anda?) 16. faites un simple schéma du texte. (buatlah garis besar sederhana tentang isi teks?) 17. après avoir lu le texte, est-ce que vous comprenez quelque chose que vous ne l’avez pas compris avant ? (sesudah anda membaca teks, apakah anda memahami sesuatu yang tidak anda mengerti sebelumnya tentang topik ini?) procédé de la recherche dans cette recherche on a utilisé la méthode « true experiment design : pretest posttest control group design » pour contrôler les variables qui influent la recherche. le plan peut être décrit comme suivant : o1 x1 x2 x3 x4 o2 o3 o4 à répondre après de lire le texte (dijawab sesudah anda membaca teks) 8 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 explication: o1 représente le pré-test pour la classe expérimentale. o3 représente le pré-test pour la classe contrôle. o1/o3 servent à découvrir la compétence initiale des étudiants avant le traitement. x1, x2, x3, x4 représente le traitement le processus de l’apprentissage basé sur le concept du schéma. le traitement, lui, s’effectue 4 fois pour que le concept puisse s’y intègre. o2 représente le post-test mené à la classe expérimentale. cela sert à savoir l’influence du traitement à la compétence de la compréhension écrite. o4 représente le post-test mené à la classe contrôle. l’effet du traitement est calculé par : (o2 – o1) – (o4 – o3). deux analyses s’effectuent : la première a pour but de connaître la compétence initiale. il faut tout d’abord vérifier qu’au point de vue statistique la note moyenne de o1 et celle de o2 ne sont pas différente de manière significative. pour faire cela on utilise le test t – 2 échantillons indépendantes (2 independent samples t test). la deuxième analyse a pour but d’examiner l’hypothèse avancée : « le modèle d’apprentissage schématique augmente la compétence de compréhension écrite ». on va examiner la différence entre o2 et o4. resultat selon l’analyse de la note post-test interprété verbalement, on a trouvé qu’il y a une augmentation significative de la compétence chez les étudiants. l’enquête en tant que l’instrument non-test dont le but est de découvrir la perception des étudiants sur le modèle d’apprentissage schématique montre également l’effet positif du modèle concerné sur l’augmentation de compétence. du point de vue schématique on s’aperçoit que la connaissance antérieure (le schéma soit le schéma formel soit le schéma du contenu) s’avère utile dans le processus de compréhension d’un texte. cette recherche éclaircit le rôle actif que peut assurer un lecteur pour faire une prédiction d’un texte et pour en construire le sens. elle révèle que l’intimité au thème (le schéma du contenu) et la capacité d’identifier des indices textuels (le schéma formel) soutiennent la compréhension de texte car le lecteur a ce dont on a besoin pour arriver à la compréhension. à propos des questions de recherche avancées dans la problématique, on peut conclure que: (1) le modèle d’apprentissage basé sur le concept du schéma augmente la compétence de la compréhension écrite chez les étudiants rombel (rombongan belajar) lfr 204 / language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 9 235040 / 01 et de rombel lfr 204 / 235040 / 02 de l’unnes. ceci est indiqué par le résultat du post-test dans la classe expérimentale qui est beaucoup plus élevé que celui de la classe contrôle. le test-t montre également qu’il y a une différence significative entre la moyenne du prétest et celle du post-test. cette différence est causée inévitablement par le traitement. autrement dit, le modèle d’apprentissage schématique s’avère efficace pour augmenter la compétence de compréhension écrite dans la classe expérimentale. le résultat de l’enquête le soutient. la plupart des répondants qui égalent 77,60 % avouent que le modèle appliqué les a aidés à comprendre le texte de façon plus efficace et les a préparés en face d’un texte. (2) le schéma formel et le schéma du contenu constituent un fondement pour que la compréhension puisse être achevée. sans ces deux schèmes, le lecteur n’a rien à recourir quand l’information présentée n’a aucun sens pour lui. comme le dit rumelhart le texte n’aucun sens, c’est le lecteur qui y apporte ou bien y former le sens en se profitant de l’information du texte et ses connaissances. pour préciser le rôle qu’assument ces deux types de schéma, en voici le détail : a) schéma formel :  reconnaître les élements du texte(titre, images, mots en gras) nous amène aux microprocessus de lecture qui sont utiles à la compréhension.  connaître l’organisation d’idée s’intéressent au microprocessus orienté vers la compréhension globale du texte. b) schéma de contenu : être au courant du sujet du texte nous permet d’aller au parcours correct pendant le processus de lecture. cela nous permet de formaliser notre connaissance de façon plus systématique. (3) alors que les étapes de lecture telles que la pré-lecture, la pendant lecture et l’après-lecture sont connues à l’enseignant, il faut que ce dernier les met en place de façon plus systématique et s’en profite de façon optimale. c’est la tâche de l’enseignant à guider les apprenants à parcourir les étapes citées au dessus. ce que l’enseignant doit faire attention est la préparation des étudiants avant de lire le texte (le schéma des étudiants) ; l’activation de ce schéma pendant le processus de lecture et la construction de nouveau schéma ; et la lecture métacognitive. les étudiants universitaires viennent de diverses backgrounds. ceci se réfère au groupe hétérogène de gens qui ont de diverses expériences individuelles. en conséquence, il faut 10 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 que l’enseignant se rende compte de ce fait pour pouvoir désigner une méthode d’apprentissage qui convient au besoin de ses étudiants. avec la liste schématique utilisée dans cette recherche, l’enseignant sera capable à faire comprendre aux lecteurs ce qu’ils font lors de lecture et les difficultés. la plupart de ces problèmes sont due au manque d’habileté de lecture chez les étudiants. une fois l’enseignant sait les problèmes spécifiques affrontés par les étudiants, il pourrait utiliser cette information pour changer la stratégie d’apprentissage. bibliographiques anderson, r.c. role of reader’s schema in comprehension, learning and memory. in r.c. anderson, j. osborn, & r. j. tierney (technical eds.) 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(2018). mental processes of the main character in jhumpa lahiri‘s interpreter of maladies. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 213—226. introduction literary work is not only an entertaining text. it is also believed as a reflection of human‘s life. literary expression is an enhancement, or creative liberation of the resources of language which we use from day to day (leech & short, 2007, p. 5). the previous statement proves that literary text is closely attached to human beings‘ life. the creative liberation in literary text has transformed into a delicate source of data analysis in both literary and linguistic criticisms. reading literary text is fascinating since ―we get involved with the characters, sometimes identify ourselves with their thoughts and actions, and wonder what we would do if it happened to us in real life‖ (gallardo, 2006, p. 736). literary text is potential to represent the personal identity and individuality of the characters with all their finest shades and colors (rizwan, 2013, p. 375). scholars provide various approaches or criticisms to analyze literary texts, including linguists. in linguistic study, stylistics offers techniques and concepts of modern linguistics to the study of literature (leech & short, 2007). spritzer proposes the idea that ―by making ourselves explain how a particular effect or meaning is achieved we not only understand better how it is achieved (which in itself is essential to the critical task of explanation) but also gain a greater mailto:arina@usd.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 214 appreciation of what the writer has created‖ (leech & short, 2007, p. 2). the term ‗style‘ refers to ―selection from a total linguistic repertoire that constitutes a style‖ (leech & short, 2007, p. 9). stylistics, is, therefore understood as the study of style. in literary stylistics, the main goal is to explain the relation between language and artistic function (leech & short, 2007). literary works are written by those who are excellent at describing or presenting the events, characters, or conflicts. ―the distinction between what a writer has to say, and how it is presented to the reader, underlies one of the earliest and most persistent concepts of style: that of style as the ‗dress of thought‘‖ (leech & short, 2007, p. 13). in stylistics, halliday‘s systemic functional linguistics (sfl) is used to equip the analysis. it regards language as a source of meaning. to gain meaning, literary work provides enormous angles to search. one of them is the narrator‘s way in portraying the characters. the use of linguistic analysis of literary texts examines ―linguistic options of certain grammatical aspects found in narrative discourse which affect characterization and ideologically influence perspective and interpretation of meaning‖ (megheirbi, 2010). sfl puts language to have three functions, as what so-called as metafunctions of language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. the first function deals with what happens in a text, seen from the choice of verb which determines its participants. halliday adds that language enables human beings to build a mental picture of reality, to make sense of their experience of what goes around them and inside them (nguyen, 2012). to analyze, sfl proposes transitivity analysis by observing clauses. the clause is, then, analyzed in terms of its verb providing the fact that ―the best way to analyze clauses is to begin by identifying the main verb (v): it is the one which can‘t be deleted‖ (wright & hope, 2005, p. 73). transitivity analysis is important when the character is foregrounded in a text (brooks, 2009). transitivity basically presents how the world is perceived in three dimensions: the material world, the world of consciousness, and the world of relations (cunanan, 2011). halliday uses the term material process to realize what the senser and phenomenon are. mental processes express mental reactions and give insight into people‘s consciousness and how they sense the experience of the reality (mehmood, amber, ameer, & faiz, 2014, p. 80). mental processes are divided into four different categories: perceptive, cognitive, affective, and desiderative. the process gives ―an insight into people‘s consciousness and how they sense the experience of the reality‖ (cunanan, 2011, p. 87). the two participants in the mental processes are senser and phenomenon. a senser is the conscious being involved in the process, while a phenomenon is the participant which is felt, thought, or seen by the senser (cunanan, 2011). the first is type of mental process is perceptive process. it refers to the perception like seeing and hearing (song, 2013). perceptive process is marked by verbs such as see and hear. the second type is cognitive process which refers to the process of thinking. thus, verbs like think, recognize, and consider mark the process. the third process is affective process. it signals the process of liking or hating. the verbs like admire, love, hate, or dislike can be found in this type. the last type of mental process is desiderative. this process is also called as volition as it shows the senser‘s expectation. the verbs like want and wish mark this process. isti‘anah, a. (2018). mental processes of the main character in jhumpa lahiri‘s interpreter of maladies. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 213—226. 215 some previous studies have been conducted by scholars. transitivity is employed to find out the different gender role in a literary text (gallardo, 2006). the research finds that male character is the doer of more practical actions than female. it also suggests people to pay attention to ―the power of language in the construction of reality, and to provoke a deeper understanding specifically in gender relations in order to contribute to a greater social awareness‖ (gallardo, 2006, p. 760). the mental representations of the characters in toni morrison‘s paradise were conducted by retnowati. she not only uses transitivity to observe the character development, but also modality and appraisal. in terms of transitivity, particularly in the mental process, she finds the characters experience different character development. mavis is portrayed to develop from insecurity to happiness, while connie develops to negative attitude (retnowati, 2015). the other related study is by nguyen to find out the character‘s personality in hoa pham‘s ―heroic mother‖. the research observes that language use in the short story is able to uncover that ―heroic mother‖ refers to the main character‘s suffering from loneliness, boredom, and inadequate consideration from her family. it also gives suggestions, related to social life, that the youths should pay more attention to the elderly, as they have given their efforts for the country (nguyen, 2012). those previous researches above motivated the present research. the writer intends to observe how the main character in the story, mr. kapasi, is represented by the narrator. the main reason of observing the mental processes in the data is that lahiri uses mental verbs the most when narrating mr. kapasi. the realization of mental verbs is necessarily to observe further as it brings different intentions on why certain type of mental verb is chosen. by doing so, the comprehension and interpretation of the character can be more objective as it relies on the hard data and careful analysis. to sum up, this articles attempts at finding out (1) how mental processes are used by lahiri to describe mr. kapasi and (2) how the chosen mental processes portray the character. methodology the data are taken in a collection of short stories by an indian diasporic writer, jhumpa lahiri. the book was published in 1999 by houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company in new york. the book contains nine short stories, yet this article only took one of them entitled ―interpreter of maladies‖. there are three characters who are mostly talked by the narrator: mr. kapasi, mrs. das, and mr. das. this research focuses on the narrator‘s utterances on mr. kapasi. to collect the data, this research employs a purposive sampling technique as it focuses on particular utterances referring to mr. kapasi. from the observation, there are 93 utterances referring to mr. kapasi. 41 of them are realized in mental processes, which become the focus of this article. the data were analyzed by means of stylistic approach, focusing on the sentential level of analysis. the clause analysis is equipped by transitivity analysis since it ―represents patterns of experience of world and enables human being to build a mental picture of reality, to make sense of their experience of what goes around them and inside them‖ (song, 2013, p. 2291). transitivity analysis is employed to figure out how mental states are presented in the narrator‘s utterance towards the main language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 216 character, mr. kapasi. each clause was, then, classified into its mental process type, whether it is perceptive, cognitive, emotive, or desiderative. from the dominating types and participants, this research reaches a conclusion to reveal how the narrator portrays mr. kapasi as the main character in the story. results and discussion the analysis shows that there are 41 clauses represented in mental processes used by lahiri to describe mr. kapasi. of the 41 clauses, 18 clauses are perceptive, 17 clauses are cognitive, 5 are emotive, and 1 is desiderative. if realized in percentage, the table below summarizes the presence of mental processes in the data. table 1 summary of mental processes in lahiri‘s ―interpreter of maladies‖ process number percentage perceptive 18 41% cognitive 17 39% emotive 5 18% desiderative 1 2% total 41 100% the table above displays that perceptive process appears in 18 clauses, or 41%. the second dominating type of mental process is cognitive process, found in 17 clauses, or 39%. the following types of mental process are emotive process, which appear in 5 clauses, or 18%. the least type of mental process is desiderative, which is found in one clause only, or 2%. to identify the mental process types, the existence of the verb becomes the main tool to categorize the process. the employment of different mental verbs results in different types of mental process. to sum up, the table below displays the mental verbs along with their categories. table 2 mental verbs in lahiri‘s ―interpreter of maladies‖ process verbs perceptive watched, noticed, observed, noted, glanced, felt cognitive thought, knew, feared, wondered, dreaded, believed, considered emotive worried, pleased, admired desiderative wanted to perceptive verbs are found mostly in the story. some verbs like noticed and observed are repeated several times. thus, the table above does not mention the same verbs repeatedly. the other verbs categorized as perceptive process are watched, noted, glanced, and felt. in cognitive verbs, the verbs which are repeated in the story are thought and knew. the other verbs referring to cognitive process are feared, wondered, isti‘anah, a. (2018). mental processes of the main character in jhumpa lahiri‘s interpreter of maladies. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 213—226. 217 dreaded, believed, and considered. in the emotive verb, the word worried is repeated three times. the other verbs belonging to emotive process are pleased and admired. the last type of mental process is desiderative, which is marked by the verb wanted to. to figure out how lahiri portrays the main character‘s conscious process in the short story, the sub-headings below describe the distribution of each mental process found in the story. the discussion begins with the type of mental process which is found the most in the story: perceptive, cognitive, emotive, and desiderative processes. perceptive mental process perceptive process refers to ―the involuntary state which does not depend upon the agency of the perceiver, who in fact receives the visual and auditory sensations nonvolitionally‖ (downing & locke, 2006, p. 142). in the data, there are 41% clauses which are perceptive. there are two participants in the mental process. the first participant, senser, refers to mr. kapasi. the second participant, phenomenon, is realized in different forms. the first form is a thing, realized as a noun phrase (np). the thing here is the phenomenon which shows our experience, including inner experience or imagination of some entity: person, creature, institution, object, substance, or abstraction (halliday & mathiessen, 2004). instead a thing, a phenomenon can also be in the form of act. an act occurs in perceptive, realized by an imperfective non-finite clause acting as if it were a simple noun (eggins, 2004). the non-finite clause can be paraphrased as a nominal group. it cannot be inserted with the conjunction that. the last form of a phenomenon is a fact, which is an embedded clause introduced by that. in the data, clauses (1) to (3) below show the presence of a thing as phenomenon. (1) he observed her. (2) he looked at her, in her red plaid skirt and strawberry t-shirt, a woman not yet thirty, who loved neither her husband nor her children, who had already fallen out of love with life. (3) mr. kapasi observed it too, knowing that this was the picture of the das family he would preserve forever in his mind. the senser in above clauses refers to mr. kapasi, the main character of the story. in his duty as a tour guide, mr. kapasi puts much attention to the wife of the family, mrs. das. in clauses (1) and (2) above, the phenomenon refers to her which is in the form of an np. in clause (3), the phenomenon refers to the family picture, which also is attached to mrs. das. the other participant in the clause is called circumstance. circumstance can be found in clause (2) which is in the form of a prepositional phrase (pp) in her red plaid skirt and strawberry tshirt. that circumstance is categorized as matter, which means as a reference to mrs. das. in clause (2), there is another circumstance referring to mrs. das realized in the form of non-finite adjective clause a woman not yet thirty. the previous circumstance is added by the other finite adjective clause referring to mrs. das, who had already fallen out of love with life. the complexity of clauses in (2) signals that lahiri puts mrs. das as the character who needs to elaborate more when mr. kapasi is portrayed as a senser in the story. in clause (3), there are two circumstances. the first is in the form of adverb, too, which is categorized as a circumstance of language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 218 accompaniment. the second circumstance is in the form of non-finite clause signifying the circumstance of time as it refers to the moment when mr. kapasi observed the phenomenon. other clauses containing perceptive verbs are shown below. (4) he looked at her straw bag, delighted that his address lay nestled among its contents. (5) he glanced at the strawberry between her breasts, and the golden brown hollow in her throat. (6) from time to time he glanced through the mirror at mrs. das. perceptive verbs used above are looked at and glanced at. both have similar meaning signaling the senser‘s visual consciousness. the senser in the above clauses refers to mr. kapasi. the phenomenon in clause (4) is in the form of a thing, represented in an np her straw bag. the phenomenon here refers to mrs. das‘ belongings. lahiri also gives additional information referring the circumstance when mr. kapasi becomes delighted to see that his address note is still in the bag. the perceptive clause above signifies that both phenomenon and circumstance attracts mr. kapasi‘s perception. in clause (5), the verb glanced at also marks the perceptive process. the phenomenon in clause (5) is in the form of an np, the strawberry between her breasts, and the golden brown hollow in her throat. in clause (6), lahiri also uses the verb glanced at which is done by mr. kapasi towards mrs. das, which in the clause is represented by an np, her. there is also circumstance in clause (6), represented in a pp through the mirror. this kind of circumstance is categorized as instrument. from the elaboration of clauses (1) to (6) above, lahiri portrays mr. kapasi as the character who pays much attention to mrs. das in various ways. in clauses (1), (2) and (3), the phenomenon is represented in an np, her referring to mrs. das. lahiri does not only put mrs. das as the phenomenon, but also other nps as seen in clauses (4), (5) and (6). in those clauses, mrs. das‘ physical appearance also attracts mr. kapasi‘s consciousness. the thing phenomenon represented in above clauses signifies the experience and imagination entity which mr. kapasi senses. in addition to a thing, a phenomenon is absent. instead, the use of circumstance appears in the story as displayed below. (7) mr. kapasi watched as mrs. das emerged slowly from his bulky white ambassador, dragging her shaved, largely bare legs across the back seat. (8) the first thing mr. kapasi had noticed when he saw mr. and mrs. das, standing with their children under the portico of the hotel, was that they were very young, perhaps not even thirty (9) mr. kapasi watched as they crossed paths with a japanese man and woman, the only other tourists there. there is not any phenomenon found in the above clauses. in clause (7), the circumstance is realized in the form of and adverbial clause (adv cl) subordinated by as. the circumstance is categorized as time. even though phenomenon is absent in clause (7), the circumstance put there also refers to mrs. das‘ activity. clause (7) above reveals that mr. kapasi is consciously paying attention to mrs. das. what attracts mr. kapasi is not only her physical appearance, but also her activity, mrs. das emerged slowly from his bulky white ambassador, dragging her isti‘anah, a. (2018). mental processes of the main character in jhumpa lahiri‘s interpreter of maladies. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 213—226. 219 shaved, largely bare legs across the back seat. mr. kapasi also puts attention to the husband and family, mr. das and their children. it is realized in facts shown in clauses (8) and (9). in clause (8), mr. kapasi puts his attention to the family‘s activity, mr. and mrs. das standing with their children under the portico of the hotel, was that they were very young perhaps not even thirty. lahiri uses perceptive clause as circumstance. it emphasizes great attention given by mr. kapasi. as a tour guide, mr. kapasi gives extraordinary attention to the family he serves. it signals that lahiri portrays mr. kapasi as an attentive one. clause (9) above is categorized as perceptive marked by the verb watched. the rest clauses which are perceptive do not have phenomenon, but circumstances referring to time shown in an adverbial clause. the clause refers to activity done by mr. and mrs. das, they crossed paths with a japanese man and woman, the only other tourists there. in the story, the use of the other perceptive process is shown by the verbs noticed, felt, and heard. as perceptive process found in the story refers to the senser‘s visual consciousness, lahiri portrays mr. kapasi as an attentive character. as the story is dominated by perceptive clause, mr. kapasi is portrayed as an admirer of mrs. das. his attention to mrs. das is employed by different verbs referring to visual consciousness. lahiri also uses different kinds of phenomenon in order to narrate the thing, activity, and situation which triggers mr. kapasi to ―look at‖ mrs. das. the things attached to mrs. das attract mr. kapasi‘s attention, so does her activities. however, mr. kapasi does not only pay attention to mrs. das, but also the family. mr. and mrs. das‘ relationship also questions mr. kapasi as they have got three children though their age seems under thirty. cognitive mental process cognitive process refers to the process which is able to to set up another clause or set of clauses as the content of thinking — as the ideas created by cognition (halliday & mathiesses, 2004, p. 199). cognitive process is marked by such stative verbs like believe, doubt, guess, know, recognize, think, forget, remember, and understand (downing & locke, 2006, p. 141). cognitive clauses reveal mr. kapasi‘s awareness of his job as an interpreter. below are the proofs. (10) mr. kapasi had never thought of his job in such complimentary terms. (11) mr. kapasi knew it was not a remarkable talent. (12) sometimes he feared that his children knew better english than he did, just from watching television. (13) mr. kapasi knew that his wife had little regard for his career as an interpreter. in clauses above, the senser refers to mr. kapasi, while the phenomenon is realized in different forms. in clause (10), the phenomenon is in the form of a thing, referring to his job as an interpreter. in the clause, his job is the phenomenon, while in such complementary terms is the circumstance of manner showing the way mrs. das complements his job. in the clause, the negation never shows that mr. kapasi has not been recognized to have such a good job by his wife. the clause also reveals that mr. kapasi considers what mrs. das says about his job. he feels recognized and appreciated. clauses (11) to (13) use facts as the phenomenon. in clause (11), the conjunction language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 220 that can be inserted after the verb know. however, the omission of the conjunction does not create any different meaning. the phenomenon in clause (11) is in the form of a noun clause (nc), that it is not a remarkable talent. that phenomenon tells that mr. kapasi does not have any confidence related to his job as an interpreter. clause (12) stresses mr. kapasi‘s being unconfident. the phenomenon in clause (12) is also a fact, that his children knew better english than he did, just watching television. though he worked as an interpreter, mr. kapasi feels that his experience of speaking english is not as good as his children. thus, when mrs. das complements him, mr. kapasi feels praised. in clause (13), the nc as the phenomenon of the clause refers to the fact that mr. kapasi is aware of his wife‘s ignorance of his job. in this mental process type, the narrator employs such verbs to reveal the main character‘s mindfulness of his career as an interpreter. it is also stressed by the existence of the phenomenon which are related to mr. kapasi‘s job. the clauses below display other cognitive mental process found in the story. (14) he wondered if mr. and mrs. das were a bad match, just as he and his wife were. (15) he thought of asking for the slip of paper again, just to make sure he had written his address accurately. (16) still, mr. kapasi believed it was his duty to assist mrs. das. cognitive mental process in clause (14) is marked by the verb wondered. the clause has a fact as its phenomenon. the phenomenon here is realized in the form of a finite noun clause. from the phenomenon, mr. kapasi involves his consciousness to ask whether mr. and mrs. das were a bad match, just as he and his wife were. the employment of that clause reveals mr. kapasi‘s being attentive to the family. though his job is just assisting the family‘s trip, mr. kapasi starts to involve his feeling towards the family. it does not stop paying attention to the family, but also comparing the couple‘s relationship to his own relationship. indirectly, lahiri mentions that mr. kapasi does not find happiness in his marriage. the ignorance of his wife is mentioned previously as one of the causes. the cognitive process is shown in clause (15) by means of the verb thought of. that verb is followed by a phenomenon realized in the form an act. in the clause, lahiri uses a noun phrase as the phenomenon, asking for the slip of paper again. from this phenomenon, it can be inferred that mr. kapasi is afraid of losing the contact to the family. he expects to continue communicating to the family. the presence of the circumstance of purpose just to make sure he had written his address accurately emphasizes that mr. kapasi consciously has intention to send some letters to the family. it is motivated by mr. kapasi‘s curiosity of mr. and mrs. das‘ life. the employment of clause (15) is chosen by lahiri to portray that mr. kapasi is an attentive character. the same characterization as seen in clause (15) is found in clause (16). the cognitive process in clause (16) is shown by the verb believed. the phenomenon in clause (16) is in the form of a fact, it was his duty to assist mrs. das. lahiri uses that phenomenon in order to show that mr. kapasi is an attentive one. while mentioning that mr. kapasi is a responsible one, lahiri indirectly shows that mr. kapasi‘s attention falls to mrs. das. lahiri does not use another character as isti‘anah, a. (2018). mental processes of the main character in jhumpa lahiri‘s interpreter of maladies. language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2), 213—226. 221 the object of the phenomenon. it reveals that lahiri stresses mr. kapasi‘s being attentive. emotive mental process emotive process expresses degrees of affection, which marks the grammatical gradability of emotions (halliday & mathiesses, 2004, p. 199). it also includes the positive and negative reactions expressed by the verbs such as like, love, please, delight, dislike, hate, and detest (downing & locke, 2006, p. 142). affective process is used in the story to show mr. kapasi‘s feelings to mrs. das. below are the examples. (17) mr. kapasi was pleased that they liked the temple, pleased especially that it appealed to mrs. das. (18) he had never admired the backs of his wife‟s legs the way he now admired those of mrs. das, walking as if for his benefit alone. (19) he worried suddenly that she could smell his perspiration, which he knew had collected beneath the synthetic material of his shirt. in clause 12, the verb pleased signifies mr. kapasi happiness of the phenomenon which is represented as a fact. as there are two clauses, the second phenomenon in clause 12 emphasizes that mr. kapasi involves his emotive feeling towards mrs. das. it is supported by clause 13. here, mr. kapasi starts to adore mrs. das‘ physical appearance, compared to his wife. the phenomenon in clause 13 is in the form of a thing, realized in an np the way he now admired those of mrs. das. the other circumstance realized in a non-finite clause is walking as if for his benefit alone which is categorized as circumstance of manner. clause 14 is also categorized as an affective process from the verb worry. the phenomenon in clause 14 is in the form of a fact, introduced by that. the other participant found in clause 14 is the circumstance of manner, suddenly. clause 14 shows mr. kapasi‘s affection to mrs. das as he expresses his fear of mrs. das‘ physical attraction. those three verbs shown in clauses 11 to 14 are the only verbs showing affective process even though some verbs are repeated in the story. this kind of process reveals that mr. kapasi is portrayed as an affectionate person even though he still faces internal problems regarding his position as no one. being with mr. das‘ family for a period of time creates problems to mr. kapasi. in one side, mr. kapasi is confident in his another job as an interpreter. in the other side, mr. kapasi suffers from love and attention as he feels he does not get those two things from his wife. desiderative mental process desiderative process shows expectation, and usually in the imperative mode (proposals) (halliday & mathiesses, 2004, p. 470). there is only one clause in desiderative as follows. (20) he wanted to holler, to alert her in some way. the verb wanted in the above clause shows mr. kapasi‘s expectation to do the actions holler and alert. however, he is aware that he does not have such capacity to do an action to mrs. das, which becomes the phenomenon in the clause. he keeps his volition as he knows that he performs his duty as a tour guide, not the husband. the phenomenon in clause 15 is a thing, realized in an np. the other participant in the clause is circumstance of manner, in some way. the existence of desiderative process in the story stresses the previous finding of mr. kapasi‘s language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 222 feeling to mrs. das. the desiderative process here also emphasizes the internal conflict experienced by mr. kapasi. mental processes in the story are utilized by lahiri to portray the main character, mr. kapasi. the employment of different types of mental processes results in different characterization. as a process related to sensing, the use of perceptive clauses displays mr. kapasi‘s attention to mrs. das, the wife of the family. his attention is supported by the existence of affective clauses which show mr. kapasi‘s love and sexual interest to mrs. das. however, mr. kapasi also experiences personal conflict as he cannot express his wishes, as seen in the desiderative process. in spite of his personal conflict and attention to mr. das, mr. kapasi is also portrayed as an intellectual character. lahiri shows mr. kapasi‘s confidence and pride of his job. being an interpreter is a precious job as it shows his intelligence by being able to speak english. the family is actually an indian immigrant. both mr. das and mrs. das were born in america. by knowing english, mr. kapasi feels that he is different from other tour guides in india. he is able to guide the family in more fluent english than the others. mr. kapasi also raises his confidence when he knows that mrs. das appreciates his work as an interpreter. the paragraphs above prove that transitivity analysis is able to figure out how a narrator portrays the characters of a literary work. the results also reveal that lahiri shapes mr. kapasi as an attentive, intellectual, and affectionate person. perceptive and desiderative clauses which occur in 18 clauses signify mr. kapasi as an attentive person. cognitive clauses appear in 17 clauses revealing mr. kapasi as an intellectual and attentive character. on the other hand, emotive and desiderative clauses, which appear in 6 clauses, signify that mr. kapasi is an affectionate one. conclusion transitivity analysis is proven to be able interpret literary work. the position of linguistic study in literature is not to oppose particular literary criticism, but improve it. in linguistic analysis, evidences of what happen in the clause are presented to comprehend why the writer chooses certain language pattern when narrating the characters. from the analysis, lahiri uses different types of mental processes for certain purposes. first, the employment of different verbs in the story results in different kinds of the participant, phenomenon, in the mental process. when a thing is chosen as the phenomenon, lahiri mentions directly that mr. kapasi is an attentive character. the use of a fact as the phenomenon in the story shows that lahiri indirectly mentions mr. kapasi as an attentive character. the same analysis also falls for the other characters: intellectual and affectionate. the same type of mental process can result in different characterization. it happens as language is a source of meaning rich of purposes. in sum, this paper enriches stylistic study focusing on its grammatical level of analysis by means of halliday‘s functional linguistics. further research on different process of transitivity analysis is suggested to enrich the present study. future researchers can focus on the use of material process in the story, or on the same process and compare it to the present findings. acknowledgment this paper is written as a research product funded by kopertis wilayah v yogyakarta and the institute of research and community, sanata dharma university. language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 223 references brooks, j. (2009). the growing absurdity of the south african apartheid: transtivity in christopher van wyk's "in detention". innervate leading undergraduate work in english studies, 2, 26-34. cunanan, b. t. (2011). using transitivity as a framework in a stylistic analysis of virginia woolf's old mrs. grey. asian efl journal professional teaching articles, 54, 69-79. downing, a., & locke, p. (2006). english grammar: a university course, seccond edition. new york: routledge. eggins, s. (2004). an introduction to systemic functional linguistics, second edition. london: continuum. gallardo, b. c. (2006). analysis of a literary work using systemic functional grammar. 33rd international systemic functional congress (pp. 735-762). universidade federal de santa catarina. halliday, m., & mathiesses, c. (2004). an introduction to functional grammar, third edition. london: arnold. leech, g., & short, m. (2007). style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to english fictional prose. harlow: pearson. megheirbi, a. (2010). transitivity and the construction of characters in the narrative discourse of the english patient. international journal of arabic-english studies, 11, 61-70. mehmood, a., amber, r., ameer, s., & faiz, r. (2014). transitivity analysis: representation of love in wilde's the nightingle and the rose. european journal of research in social science, 2(4), 78-85. nguyen, h. t. (2012). transitivity analysis of "heroic mother" by hoa pham. international journal of english linguistics, 2(4), 85-100. retnowati, i. d. (2015, february). a stylistic study on the mental representations of mavis and connie in toni morrison's paradise. yogyakarta: sanata dharma. rizwan, s. (2013, march). representation of sociocultural identity in urdu short story: a transitivity analysis. savap international journal of social sciences and humanities, 4(2), 375-385. song, z. (2013). transitivity analysis of a rose for emily. theory and practice in language studies, 3(12), 2291-2295. wright, l., & hope, j. (2005). stylistics: a practical coursebook. new york: routledge. appendix no clause process types 1 mr.kapasi watched as mrs. das emerged slowly from his bulky white ambassador, dragging her shaved, largely bare legs across the back seat. mental perception 2 the first thing mr.kapasi had noticed when he saw mr.and mrs. das, standing with their children under the portico of the hotel, was that they were very young, perhaps not even thirty mental perception language circle: journal of language and literature, 12(2) april 2018 224 3 through the windshield he watched as ronny circled around the goat, touched it quickly on its side, then trotted back to the car. mental perception 4 mr.kapasi heard one of the shirtless men sing a phrase from a popular hindi love song as mrs. das walked back to the car, but she did not appear to understand the words of the song, for she did not express irritation, or embarrassment, or react in any other way to the man‘s declarations. mental perception 5 he observed her. mental perception 6 mr. kapasi noted that this boy was slightly paler than the other children. mental perception 7 mr. kapasi thought as they passed a row of date trees mental cognition 8 mr. kapasi had never thought of his job in such complimentary terms mental cognition 9 mr. kapasi knew it was not a remarkable talent. still, it came in handy for the tours. mental cognition 10 sometimes he feared that his children knew better english than he did, just from watching television. mental cognition 11 mr. kapasi knew that his wife had little regard for his career as an interpreter. mental cognition 12 he knew it reminded her of the son she‘d lost, and that she resented the other lives he helped, in his own small way, to save. mental cognition 13 he wondered if mr. and mrs. das were a bad match, just as he and his wife were. mental cognition 14 from time to time he glanced through the mirror at mrs. das. mental perception 15 he glanced at the strawberry between her breasts, and the golden brown hollow in her throat mental perception 16 he worried suddenly that she could smell his perspiration, which he knew had collected beneath the synthetic material of his shirt. mental affection 17 he wondered if mrs. das had noticed. mental cognition 18 mr. kapasi used to believe that all was right with the world, that all struggles were rewarded, that all of life‘s mistakes made sense in the end. mental cognition 19 he worried that he had either misspelled his name, or accidentally reversed the numbers of his postal code. mental affection 20 he dreaded the possibility of a lost letter, the photograph never reaching him, hovering somewhere in orissa, close but ultimately unattainable. mental cognition 21 he thought of asking for the slip of paper again, just to make sure he had written his address accurately mental cognition 22 mr. kapasi was pleased that they liked the temple, pleased especially that it appealed to mrs. das mental affection 23 he had never admired the backs of his wife‘s legs the way he now admired those of mrs. das, walking as if for his benefit alone mental affection 24 he looked at her straw bag, delighted that his address lay nestled among its contents. mental perception language circle: journal lof language and literature 12(2) april 2018 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 225 25 as he stole glances at her in the rear-view mirror, wrapping elastic bands around tina‘s hair, he wondered how he might make the tour last a little longer. mental cognition 26 he did not know what he would do or say to mrs. das once they arrived at the hills. mental cognition 27 he did not have to worry. mental affection 28 mr. kapasi watched as they crossed paths with a japanese man and woman, the only other tourists there, who paused for a final photograph, then stepped into a nearby car and drove away. mental perception 29 mr. kapasi felt a prickle on his skin. mental perception 30 he knew that mrs. das was watching him, but he did not turn to face her. mental cognition 31 instead he watched as the figures of mr. das and the children grew smaller, climbing up the steep path, pausing every now and then for a picture, surrounded by a growing number of monkeys. mental perception 32 he felt suddenly parched, and his forehead was warm and slightly numb from the balm. mental perception 33 he considered asking mrs. das for a sip of water, then decided against it. mental cognition 34 he looked at her, in her red plaid skirt and strawberry t-shirt, a woman not yet thirty, who loved neither her husband nor her children, who had already fallen out of love with life. mental perception 35 still, mr. kapasi believed it was his duty to assist mrs. das. mental cognition 36 he knew at that moment that he was not even important enough to be properly insulted. mental cognition 37 he wanted to holler, to alert her in some way, but he worried that if she knew they were behind her, she would grow nervous. mental volition 38 as he carried him he was tempted to whisper a secret into the boy‘s ear. mental perception 39 he watched as it rose, carried higher and higher by the breeze, into the trees where the monkeys now sat, solemnly observing the scene below. mental perception 40 mr. kapasi observed it too, knowing that this was the picture of the das family he would preserve forever in his mind. mental perception 41 no one but mr. kapasi noticed. mental perception language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７３ developing listening log based-book for the third semester students of english education department at muhammadiyah kotabumi university rini susilowati rini.ariyanto12@gmail.com asep hardiyanto asep.hardiyanto@umko.ac.id muhammadiyah kotabumi university abstract listening considered as difficult skill and some problems often experienced by the students which are understanding difficult and new words used by native speakers and connect the meaning into certain message, following the fast speed of speaking of native speakers, understanding different accents and pronunciation of native speakers. referring to the problems which also experienced by the third semester students of english education department at muhammadiyah kotabumi university, the researchers conducted a research by applying research and development method. the researchers designed listening log-based book as learning source for the students. forty students became the research subject and the researchers used test and interview to collect the data. the book completed with theories related to material in listening comprehension, some effective strategies to be applied in different listening material and some exercises. the book has been validated, revised and tried out to the students. based on the result of book try out it was found that the book was effective to reduce learning barrier during listening comprehension course in the class. keywords: listening, listening log-based book introduction listening is one of receptive skills which requires students to have ability in getting the gist of the message spoken english delivered by native speakers. listening is not an easy skill to be mastered because it needs some language components in english especially vocabulary. a lot of learners think that among four english skills, listening is the skill causes them to feel most insecure (field, 2009 ). various vocabulary will diminish students’ problem in understanding spoken english delivered by native speakers. broad vocabulary mastery really determines how good the students understand the content of spoken english. because understanding the meaning and message behind the words, the students will easily obtain the purpose of spoken english they heard. vandergrift (2002) in (adnan, 2013) state that listening is a complex process in which the students try to interpret between what they hear and what they already know. therefore, vocabulary should be significantly developed to support listening comprehension mastery. listening comprehension is an active process of determining and constructing meaning (rost, 2002) & (hamouda, 2013) in (maulida, 2018). by having varied vocabulary the students are able to understand what the speakers talk, identifying and understanding the topic as well the specific details in spoken english delivered by native speakers. meanwhile, the students can understand the speakers’ statement by identifying some important clauses and phrases so that they can connect some parts of speakers’ utterances and it will be easier to get the speakers’ idea. other language http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:rini.ariyanto12@gmail.com mailto:asep.hardiyanto@umko.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７４ component which also significant in listening comprehension is pronunciation. the students will identify the purpose of the native speakers’ talk easily if they can understand what words pronounced by the native speakers. unfortunately, students often experienced difficulty in differentiating different sounds used in native speakers’ utterances. as a result they often misinterpret the meaning too. based on research finding conducted, two of most difficult barrier for non-native students are rate of speaking delivery and understanding individual sound in utterances spoken (graham, 2006) in (djiwandono, 2015). those language components will contribute to the progress of students’ listening as well as to their listening comprehension. if the students lack in understanding some important language component which are important in listening comprehension, there will be possibility that they will experience barrier in it. since listening comprehension considered difficult because of the material and the topic learnt in it, students should develop their language component significantly. listening skill which focuses to listening longer and complex spoken english such as news report, weather forecast, speech, narrative, toefl-based lecturing and also toefl-based long dialogue can be categorized as listening comprehension. listening comprehension is a skill in which the students are capable to listen and to understand as well as to analyse the content of longer spoken english of listening material. the students’ understanding covers understanding of the topic, specific details, and capability in answering the questions related to spoken english heard. if the students fail to have some important things needed to support them in mastering listening comprehension, some barrier will arise in the process listening comprehension acquisition. first, in the process of listening to news report, the students will have several problems. basquille (2012) in (adnan, 2013) argue that several problems in listening to news are background music during news reading, the fast speed of delivery from the news, identifying sounds and words and the last is understanding connected speech. second, understanding various vocabulary in the spoken english heard. since the listening material heard in listening comprehension course is long spoken material with complex and difficult topics, the vocabulary used in it considered difficult too. for example, if the students listen to toeflbased lecturing they probably find a lot difficult vocabulary related to scientific and academic matter. based on a research finding it was found that common problem appear during listening to toefl test include internal and external factor; and one of external factors is in the use of native speakers’ words and foreign terms (fitria, 2021). if the students are not familiar with various vocabulary from different disciplines, it will be hard for them to understand the content of toefl-based lecturing that they hear. because of that reason, students should enrich their vocabulary related to some common topics discussed in toefl-based lecturing by reading a lot. reading various material related to different disciplines will increase knowledge. this knowledge becomes prior knowledge of students which facilitate them to understand the content of toefl-based lecturing they hear. according to peter (2001) in (khan, 2014) the students can relate their prior knowledge to interpret the meaning of things they never hear before. prior knowledge is really crucial as one of determining factors in the success of comprehending native speakers’ talk especially spoken english which is hard to be heard just like toefl-based lecturing. third, understanding native speakers’ accent and pronunciation. understanding native speakers’ accent and pronunciation can also be barrier in listening comprehension. different native speakers with different nationality sometimes speak english using different accents and pronunciation. their mother tongue will also influence to their pronunciation which result in difficulty for the students. this problem will cause the students to seem listen to strange and new words if they are not familiar with native speakers’ accent and pronunciation. besides, the difference between the pronunciation of the words with its spelling causing barrier too. this becomes the source of anxiety for non-native students when they cannot recognize http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７５ between the words spoken and the way the words written. one of crucial problems in listening comprehension is differentiating between the words said and its spelling (bloomfield et al., 2010) in (rahmah, 2019). fourth, the rate of delivery of native speakers’ talk. fluent native speakers tend to speak fast and it causes the students to have problem in getting the meaning of words used in the spoken english. as a result, the students can loose much information and detail from the spoken english they hear. fifth, identify and understand the topic of spoken english heard. the topics discussed in listening comprehension course is not so easy compared to daily topics in daily conversations. therefore, the students should enrich their prior knowledge by reading a lot of material related to the common topics discussed in listening comprehension such as toefl-based lecturing and toefl-based long dialogue or called as talk. based on research finding it was found that the most difficult part in listening test or listening to toefl test is part c or talk (abbound & hussein, 2012) in (rezkiani, 2019). the proof explained previously strengthen that listening comprehension is difficult especially for non-native students. relating to barrier commonly appear in listening comprehension course, the researchers tried to identify the same problems commonly faced by non-native students which also experienced by the third semester students of english education department at university of muhammadiyah kotabumi north lampung. in the attempt to find solution toward the students’ problem, the researchers designed a book for the students in listening comprehension course so that the students can acquire this skill easier. the book which developed was a listening log-based book. listening log-based book is a book which elaborates theory of listening comprehension completed with effective strategies in listening comprehension. according to heffernan (2006) in (silviyanti, 2020) application of strategy in language learning can develop language skill as well as students’ score. hopefully this book can inspire the students to have awareness of how to anticipate barrier during listening by applicating the effective strategy. by reading this book, the students can be aware of common problem in listening comprehension and knowing how to solve the problem. besides, various exercise and self-practice are supplied in this book so that the students can improve their practice intensively. by having more practice through exercise and self-practice supplied in this book, it is hoped that the students can sharpen and develop their listening comprehension better. furthermore, this book provides some online links to be accessed by the students to browse the listening audio related to the topic discussed in the book. this kind of listening activity giving a distinct way for the students to practice listening. the availability to access the source of online audio with its exercise gives such a motivational stimulation that can arise students’ interest in learning. according to abadooz & singh (2015) in (halim, 2015) technological devices such as laptop, smartphones, and other types of it should be applied during learning at higher education level in order to engage students’ learning interest. this book gives a different version of learning for the third semester students of muhammadiyah kotabumi university. besides, this book gives certain space in each chapter for the students to reflect their learning experience in each chapter and exercise. the function of this part as a reflection for the students whether they make progress or not in their learning through this book. because the focus of the research conducted was developing a book which used in listening comprehension course, the researchers used research and development method. research and development method is a research containing some steps in its procedure which are research and information collecting, planning, developing preliminary form of product, preliminary field testing, main product revision, main field testing, and operational product revision (borg & gall, 1983) in (kusumarasdyati, 2019). meanwhile, research and development is a research method used to produce certain product and to test the effectiveness of the product (sugiyono, 2008). the aim of the research was to develop a book which used as learning source and guidance for third semester students of english http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７６ education department in mastering listening comprehension. because source of material is really crucial for the development of students’ skill in listening comprehension, the researchers decided to design this book. tomlinson (1998) in (nawangsasi, 2015) state that material is something important used by teachers and learners to make learning to be effective. meanwhile, richard (2006) in (trisnawati, 2018) state that material for learning is one of components which is important in language learning. in order to make the book to be qualified and effective to be used, the researchers asked validation from three experts. the book has validated by three experts which were experts in learning material and media. after being validated, the book has been revised then it was tried out for the third semester students at university of muhammadiyah kotabumi. the improvement in students’ learning outcome is the target in developing this book. the other things related to the method of the research, the research finding, discussion as well as the conclusion of the research will be elaborated further in the next part of this article. methodolgy the method used in this research was research and development method. the research subject were forty students from third semester students of english education department at muhammadiyah kotabumi university. this kind of research aimed to produce a kind of product in the form book, module, manual, or other products depend on the scope of the research. the product should be validated and it will be tested for its worthiness and its quality. research and development is a type of research aimed to design and to validate educational product (gall, gall and walter, 2005) in (hakim, 2018). furthermore, latif (2012) in (hakim, 2018) state that research and development having purpose to design and to validate educational products such as curriculum, syllabuses, textbooks, instructional media, modules, assessments instruments and the others. if the product considered to be worthied and qualified to be used for the goodness of learning improvement or for other purpose related to educational goal, so that the product can be used for certain group of people or students or even people in society. in this case, the product which was resulted from this research was a book for listening comprehension course and it belonged to third semester students of english education study program at university of muhammadiyah kotabumi. the product created from this research should be tested for its worthiness and it should be revised if it does not fulfil the worthiness standard. because of that reason, this kind of research needs long period of time to accomplish the final result. the researchers conducted this research through some procedures; finding the problem experienced by the third semester students of muhammadiyah kotabumi university, collecting the data, designing the product, validating the product, revising the product, testing the product. gay (1990) in (qodir, 2016) state that research and development method has some steps which are needs a survey, a material development validated by experts, revision, try out, revision, and producing final product. in analysing the problem experienced by the third semester students, the researcher did interview toward the students. from the interview it was found that all students thought that listening skill is one of the hardest skill to be acquired. unfortunately, listening has been neglected and considered less important to be concerned in a research. according to brown (2001) in (syafi'i, 2016) listening has obtained less attention from educators when it is taught as english as second language. because of that reason there is no doubt that problem often appear during listening skill mastery. the problem contributed to the most significant difficulty was vocabulary and understanding native speakers’ accent and pronunciation. listening material spoken by native speakers challenge them to improve their vocabulary. meanwhile, vocabulary is the most dominant difficulty. because of that reason they needed a kind of book in which they could enrich their vocabulary from various exercises http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７７ on the book. besides, what they needed was not only the book, but how the lecturer packaged the book in such kind of effective learning instruction combined with motivating teaching. referring to problem explained previously, there was an urgency to design a book which can give assistance for the students instead of lecturer’s learning instruction in the class. besides, in teaching listening as a hard skill to be acquired, the lecturer should refer to a book as a textbook in the class. harmer (2007) in (mahardika, 2018) argue that all skills in english which are reading, speaking, writing and listening need a course book and every skill should be supported by qualified book including listening. moreover, according to mcgrath (2001) in (sufianita, 2019) it is obligatory for teachers that they should prepare their own workbook. it strengthens that there was urgency of designing a book of listening comprehension course for the third semester students of muhammadiyah kotabumi university. after the problem analysed, the researchers collecting the data for further authentic evidence by doing piloting study. the researchers prepared a listening test covering all material contained in the book that was planned to be produced in the research. the written test was given to the students for the required time to do the test. after calculating the score it was obtained the data that the majority score of the students was under the researcher expectation. based on the result of the score the researcher concluded that there was a fact that the students’ mastery of listening comprehension was still poor. the problem have been analysed and the result of piloting study showed that students still needed improvement for their listening comprehension skill. the next step was designing the product. the product was a listening log-based book for listening comprehension course. this book designed by combining classical exercise which usually done by the students by reading the book directly with online exercise. the online exercise included in the book accessed online by opening some audio link provided by the researchers. after the students accessed the link they found the audio and the exercise suited to the material discussed in the class. this kind of online exercise was designed to engage the students’ independent learning. designing a course book connected with online learning source as a form of adaptation to technological advancement in education. there should be change and movement of material learnt as a response toward the change of learners’ condition, teachers and learning situation (tomlinson & matsuhara, 2004) in (nor, 2015). in addition, the researchers provided a certain space for students’ reflection at the end of each chapter. students’ reflection became a parameter whether the students had positive response toward the book or not. besides, by analysing the result of the test the researchers had awareness that they needed supplementary learning source in the form of book. by having text book hopefully the students will learn easily because they will obtain lot of knowledge related to listening comprehension. after the book was designed the researchers asked validation from experts to make sure that the book fulfilled all required parameter for a book that would be used for the students at university level. the experts checked the content of the book and book design or the lay out. one expert reviewed the book content to check whether the content of the material discussed was suit to the need of the students and the curriculum applied at the university. meanwhile, one expert reviewed the design of the book cover, book lay out and book performance as a whole. as further step related to the checking result, some revisions were done in some parts of the book. it aimed to make the book to be better. the next step was book testing. the book was tried out toward the third semester students during the learning. they read the theory related to the material discussed, having discussion with the lecturer, doing some practices and discussion toward the exercises especially the listening process. the students also did online practices based on learning direction in the book. after the book tried out by the students during the learning, positive response was obtained from the students. they http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７８ reacted positively toward the book and considered that the book was really helpful for them in having more understanding about listening comprehension. result and discussion problem identification reviewing all procedure conducted during the research, there were some important parts should be elaborated. first, when analysing the most dominant problem experienced by the students, almost 90% students said that the significant problem was lack of vocabulary understanding. unfamiliar vocabulary and the words outside their prior knowledge contributed to the hard effort in understanding listening material. meanwhile, more than 90% students said that they often miss many important words related to listening material because they cannot follow the speakers’ utterances which caused by the high speed of speaking. this thing also triggered lack understanding towards new and difficult word. therefore, lack ability in following native speakers’ rate of delivery and vocabulary understanding closely related to each other. the next problem related to capture some details or specific information related to the people talked in listening material, the information about the place, the time, and some reasons and causes of certain things happened in the dialogues or other listening material heard by the students. meanwhile, less than 50% students said that they lack understanding about the topic discussed in listening material they heard. considering some problem experienced by the students, the researchers did a piloting study to get authentic evidence related to the students’ problem in listening comprehension. a test designed covering some material discussed in the book. it aimed to measure students’ preliminary knowledge about listening comprehension and its material. the result showed that 90% students got the score less than 60. meanwhile, 7.3% students got the score less than 70 and 2.4% students got the score 70. table 1. result of listening comprehension test score category frequency percentage less than 60 37 90% less than 70 2 7.3% less than 80 1 2.4% it can be interpreted that students’ mastery in listening comprehension should be developed. because of that reason the researchers designed listening log-based book to help students reduce their listening difficulty. furthermore, by using this book it was hoped the content of the book will broaden the students’ knowledge about effective strategy during listening process. designing the book referring to the need to provide the students with a book which could be learning source, the researchers designed a listening log-based book which discussed about important material for listening comprehension course. the material were about news report, weather forecast, toefl-based lecturing and toefl-based long dialogue. each chapter completed with exercises and the audio will be played by the lecturer. meanwhile, to develop students’ listening comprehension skill and to engage them to learn independently, the researchers provided some self-practices for the students. the self-practices were completed by some online links to access the audio as well as the exercise. selfpractices were targeted to train the students in having high motivation and self-regulation which then could help them in developing their listening comprehension skill. the cover of the book as well as each page in each chapter were designed using interesting lay out so that it could be attractive to be read and learnt. various types of exercises completed with different types of question were organized to fulfil students’ need. validating the book after designing the book, the researcher asked three experts to check and to validate the book. two experts focusing on validating the book content. the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７９ two experts concerning to educational science and having many years experience in teaching english. they checked whether the content of the material suited to the curriculum or not. besides, the two experts also assessed the theory elaborated on the book has fulfilled the parameter of a good textbook or not. furthermore, the experts also checked if the book provided clear learning instruction and effective direction to do the task or not. from the experts’ review, the researcher did not have to revise the theory elaborated. based on experts’ review the book has discussed all theory needed effectively and sufficiently. things that should be revised related to book content only about some parts in typing format of the exercises on the book. table 2. validation result of book content from expert 1 no. assessment indicator aspects choice alternative very good good less good least good 1. the appropriateness between material and curriculum 1. material completeness √ 2. material scope √ 3. material comprehensiveness √ 2. material accuracy 1. concept and definition accuracy s √ 2. principle accuracy √ 3. fact and data accuracy √ 4. example accuracy √ 5. reference accuracy √ 3. learning material proponent 1. reasoning √ 2. relationship √ 3. communication (write and talk) √ 4. application √ 5. material attractiveness √ 6. engaging to look for further information √ 4. material updates 1. appropriateness between material and science development √ 2. reference updates √ table 3. validation result of book content from expert 2 no. assessment indicator aspects choice alternative very good good less good least good 1. the appropriateness between material and curriculum 1. material completeness 2. material scope 3. material comprehensiveness √ √ √ http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８０ 2. material accuracy 1. concept and definition accuracy 2. principle accuracy 3. fact and data accuracy 4. example accuracy 5. reference accuracy √ √ √ √ √ 3. learning material proponent 1. reasoning 2. relationship 3. communication (write and talk) √ √ √ 4. application √ 5. material attractiveness √ 6. engaging to look for further information √ 4. material updates 1. appropriateness between material and science development 2. reference updates √ √ meanwhile, for the design and layout of the book, the researcher asked the help of one expert who majoring in computer, internet and technology science (ict). based on the expert assessment there should be revision on different setting on layout between theory, exercises, and self-practices provided on the book. the purpose of this suggestion to make a distinct limit between each part in one chapter. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８１ table 4. validation result of book design and lay out from expert 3 aspect criteria very good good less good least good a.performance quality 1. appropriateness of page number on the book √ 2. the level of book lay out attractiveness √ 3. appropriateness between the use of letters and book performance √ 4. appropriateness between the using of colour and book performance √ 5. appropriateness between book proportion used and book performance √ b.technical quality 1. the easiness of book use √ 2. the easiness of book using without cd/flashdisk √ 3. the easiness of content searching (material and information) √ 4. the easiness of book use every time and everywhere by the students √ book revision and try out the next step after the book being validated was doing revision and then the try out of the book was conducted. the book was started to be used in listening comprehension class. as the preliminary activity for the book use, the researchers gave direction for the students of how to use the book. the researchers emphasized that reading the theory on the book was really crucial. by reading and understanding the theory the students got knowledge of what is listening comprehension, some effective strategy used during listening comprehension course in the class, and broadening knowledge of new vocabulary and topic from what they read. based on students’ opinion they thought that the elaboration of theory on the book was clear and understandable. besides reading the theory, students did the exercises provided on the book and the exercises was quite effective because it covered all things should be discussed and it was closely related to the material explained on the theory. the types of the questions are varied such as objective test question, true false, questions with short answer, and also matching test questions. besides doing exercise during learning in the class, the students also did self-practice using this book too. this activity could engage students’ independent learning, and they were motivated to learn because they could access the learning source online. there was positive response obtained from the try out of the book. relating to students’ response toward the use of the book, all students tend to be excited to use this book. the researchers did interview toward third semester students to obtain information about their response toward the book. the first reason was because they did not have other book as guidance book on this course so that this book was really beneficial to make their learning to be easier. 100% students agreed that this book was really significant for their learning. the second reason was the students thought that they could develop their vocabulary. almost 90% students said that they http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８２ enriched their vocabulary by doing many exercises on the book. 10 % students said that they still obtained difficulty in understanding the meaning of new and difficult words on the book. nevertheless, all students thought that the book had more benefit and it gave significant contribution to make learning to be more effective and efficient. to sum up, the book designed through this research became one of solution for the third semester students at muhammadiyah kotabumi university to diminish barrier in learning listening comprehension. conclusion the success of learning will be determined by some aspects and one of which is by the availability of learning source. by designing listening log-based book for listening comprehension course, the researchers hoped that it can diminish students’ learning difficulty. listening comprehension is not an easy skill to be acquired so that a book designed can be source of knowledge for students to understand lot of theory in listening comprehension, effective strategies applied during listening comprehension process and also problems often appear in listening comprehension. by knowing those things and having awareness of what should be anticipated to avoid learning barrier in listening comprehension course through reading the book, the researchers hoped that this book can overcome problems often experienced by the students. the product of this research was a listening logbased book for listening comprehension course and it was designed after analysing students’ need. they needed such a complete book in which they can have the theory for each material discussed, important procedures during listening process of different topics, various strategies applied for different topics learnt, various exercises completed with audio from native speakers. one of important things that also contribute to significant advantage of this book was online learning source link that can be accessed by the students. this learning type can be a distinct learning activity that can engage students to develop their self-regulation in having independent learning process. therefore, it is suggested strongly to lecturer to give assistance in using this book, especially when the students should have independent learning through selfpractice part which is available on this book. therefore, the use of the book appropriately combined with lecturer’s effective learning instruction can facilitate learning to be more fruitful and effective. reference adnan, a. (2013). assigning students to listen to the english news in listening course . seminar on english language teaching , (pp. 1-8). djiwandono, p. (2015). teaching listening comprehension: some important aspects for material development and teaching techniques. indonesian journal of english language, 10(2), 35-51. field, j. . (2009). listening in the language classroom . cambridge : cambridge university press . fitria, t. n. (2021). an analysis of the students' difficulties in toefl prediction test of listening section. academic journal of english language and education, 5(1), 95-110. hakim, r. (2018). a research and development study to efl learners: designing a speaking module for introvert students based on cooperative learning. international journal of english and education , 7(2), 1-13. halim, t. w. (2015). challenges of teaching and learning grammar in online classes at the tertiary level . journal of english langauge teaching , 10(3), 112-221. khan, i. u. (2014). strategies for improving english language listening skill (the case of distract bannu). research on humanities and social sciences , 4(7), 37-48. kusumarasdyati. (2019). development as a research methodology in language teaching. international seminar on langauge, education and culture (pp. 1-5). malang : universitas negeri malang . mahardika, i. (2018). developing english listening material for the seventh year http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８３ students of junior high school . journal of english language education , 1(1), 35-49. maulida, r. (2018). an analysis of students' difficulties in learning listening. ar-raniry state islamic university , english langauge education department . darussalam : arraniry state islamic university . nawangsasi, e. (2015). developing listening materials for the eighth-grade students of smpn 14 yogyakarta based on 2013 curriculum. state university of yogyakarta , english langauge education department . yogyakarta : state university of yogyakarta. nor, h. &. (2015). developing a workbook of basic listening course for the third semester students of english department at iain antasari banjarmasin . jurnal vision , 4(1), 27-52. qodir, a. b. (2016). developing materials of listening comprehension for the english department students. journal on english as a foreign language , 6(1), 1-20. rahmah, s. (2019). the students' problem in listening comprehension of toefl test. universitas islam negeri ar-raniry , fakultas tarbiyah dan keguruan . banda aceh: universitas islam negeri ar-raniry. rezkiani. (2019). the difficulties faced by the efl students in the toefl test. state islamic university of alauddin , humaniora in english literature department . makassar: state islamic university of alauddin. silviyanti, t. m. (2020). efl students' strategies in answering the listening section of the longman toefl . studies in english language and education , 7(1), 237-246. sufianita, d. (2019). developing an english listening workbook for multimedia department of vocational high school . journal of intensive studies on language, literature, art, and culture , 3(2), 146-155. sugiyono. (2008). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. syafi'i, m. l. (2016). developing listening materials for the tenth graders . jeels , 3(1), 63-84. trisnawati, c. &. (2018). developing it-based supplementary listening material for 'bahasa inggris kelas xii'. journal of english langauge and pedagogy, 1(2), 1-16. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 93 realization of apology strategies by english department students of pekalongan university dwi qorina semarang state university abstract this study is meant to find out the apology strategies, to investigate the development strategies from the lowest to the highest semester students, and to explain how the pragmatic transfer interferes the apology strategis used by english department students of pekalongan university. this study used a qualitative descriptive design and written discourse completion tasks were employed to obtain the data. as a subject study, ten students were taken from each semester, so there were forty students overall. in analyzing the data, the students’ apologies were analyzed by using holmes classification. the findings reveal that an explicit expression of apology, in particular, the strategy of expressing regret, is the most frequent apology strategy. alerter and explanation are also used extensively. there is development of the use of apology strategies from the lowest to the highest semester students. with pragmatic transfer, pragma-linguistic transfer is dominated by linguistic features changing from indonesian language to english, whereas the socio-pragmatic transfer is more dominated by a socio-culture changing from indonesian to english, making it unacceptable in english language context. key words: realization, apology strategies, pragmatic transfer. introduction among the speech acts we employ in daily communication, apology is one of the most frequently used. apology is a facethreatening act that requires the speaker to admit their responsibility for some behavior (or failure to carry out some behavior) that has proved costly to the hearer (brown and levinson, 1987). it aims at maintaining the harmony relationship between the speaker and the hearer. to apologize is to act politely, both in vernacular sense and in more technical sense of paying attention to the addressee’s face needs (brown and levinson, 1987). apologies are realized in an assortment of patterns and clutch a specific cultural value and this state of variety lies in the fact that the social organization of human societes are in variation (wouk, 2006). in other word, the speech act of apology in each community is realized in different pattern as it is influenced by culture and social values of the community. apology is one of the speech acts which is frequently used in daily conversation. apologies are expressive illocutionary acts which can be 94 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 differentiated from complaints, which are also expressive acts, by being convivial in nature (trosborg, 1995). according to brown and levinson, apologies are politeness strategies. an apology is a primarily and essentially a social act. it is aimed at maintaining good relation between participants. to apologize is to act politely, both in vernacular sense and in more technical sense of paying attention to the addressee’s face needs. an apology is a fundamental speech act which is part of human communication occurs in every culture to maintain good relations between interlocutors (brown and levinson, 1987: olshtain, & cohen, 1983). in a brief, when discussing apologies, there are four assumptions which must be made. first, the speaker believes an act has already been performed. second, the speaker believes that the act offended to the hearer to some degree. third, the speaker believes that s/he has some responsibility in the act offending the hearer. the last is the speaker regrets for some degree. fraser does go on to point out, however, that any of these four assumptions might be violated, at which point the apology would be considered flawed, but not without value (fraser in todey, 2011:6; alfattah, 2010; bataineh, 2006; xiang, 2008.). this study employed the apology strategies provided by holmes (1990). holmes (1990) categorizes the apology strategies in four super strategies with eight sub-categories: a. explicit expression of apology  a1 an offer of apology / ifid e.g. i apologize; please accept my apologies.  a2 an expression of regret e.g. i am sorry; i am afraid.  a3 a request for forgiveness e.g. excuse me; forgive me. b. explanation or account e.g. i was trapped in the traffic jam. c. acknowledgment of responsibility  c1 accepting the blame e.g. it is my fault; silly me  c2 expressing self deficiency e.g. i was confused; i forgot.  c3 recognizing v as deserving apology e.g. you are right  c4 expressing lack of intent e.g. i didn’t mean to hurt you.  c5 offering repair e.g. i’ll pay it for you. d. promise of forbearance e.g. i promise it won’t happen again. there are a lot of english students who do not study english in broad sense. in communicating using the target language, they only focus on grammatical competence, on how to be able to communicate in english grammatically without considering any other aspects such as situation and context, and social and culture background. in this case, the communication in grammatically correct is language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 95 not enough, but also should be appropriate and natural according to situation, context, and socio culture. by discussing apology speech act realization in interlanguage pragmatics, it is able to facilitate the students to learn cross cultural understanding and cultural norms in english context, such as how english native speakers perform apology in various context and situation, so it can help them to be able to communicate in english appropriately and naturally. this study aims at finding out the apology strategies of english department students of pekalongan university as efl learners, investigating the development strategies from the lowest to the highest semester, and explaining how the pragmatic transfer interferes the apology strategis used by english department students of pekalongan university. rizk (2003) defines pragmatic transfer as “the influence of learners’ pragmatic knowledge of language and culture other than the target language on their comprehension, production, and acquisition of l2 pragmatic information”. pragmatic transfer can be either positive, which considers evidence of sociocultural and pragmatic universality among languages, or negative, which shows inappropriate transfer of l1 linguistic norms into l2. pragmatic error or failure occurs where speech act strategies are inappropriately transferred from the l1 to l2. even the most basic item in a language such as the use of, for example, “good morning” can lead to cross cultural misunderstanding due to pragmatic differences between two languages (thomas, 1983) in (thijittang, 2010). negative pragmatic transfer, as rizk (2003) explains, takes the form of translating some “formulaic expressions / phrases” functioning to express different speech acts in (l1) to express the equivalent speech act in (l2) (p.405). kasper (1992) classified two types of pragmatic transfer: pragma-linguistic and socio-pragmatic. within in pragmalinguistic transfer he deals with illocutionary force and politeness value. the latter includes both discernment politeness, i.e. politeness markers used irrespective of current communicative goal and strategic politeness, i.e. strategies oriented to meet participants’ face needs. on the other hand, as far as socio-pragmatic transfer is concerned, he includes context internal factors, i.e. which refer to participants’ role relationship irrespective of a given linguistic action and context internal factors which are intrinsic to a particular speech event (afgani, 2007; nureddeen, 2008). methods this research employed qualitative descriptive design. qualitative research is a research procedure which produces descriptive data in the form of written or oral words of people and behavior which can be observed. furthermore, descriptive approach means a research which uses technique of searching, collecting, 96 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 classifying, analyzing the data and finally drawing conclusion. the subjects of this study were the students of english department of pekalongan university. the students were taken from all semesters: 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th semesters. as samples, the writer chose ten students from each semester, so the writer got forty students from all semesters. in this case, the writer chose ten students who got good scores in their class. choosing the students from all semesters is done in order to know the development of the apology strategies in each semester, from the lowest to the highest semester. in this study, dct (discourse completion task) was employed as the research instrument for production of data (blum kulka, & olshtain, 1984). below is the table presenting the blue print of dct. table 1 the blue print of dct situation social status social distance severe of offense 1. the secretary forgot to remind the boss of the urgent meeting. + + 2. the speaker didn’t return the book to his friend on time. 0 + 3. the speaker broke a friend’s laptop. 0 + + 4. the teacher made a mistake in scoring the students’ final exam. + 0 + 5. the waiter undeliberately stepped on the customer’s foot. 6. the student was late to submit the assignment to the lecturer. 0 + 7. the lecturer was late in scoring the students’ final exam. + 0 + 8. the speaker was late to see his friend in ten minutes 0 + + 9. tourist guide was late to pick up the tourists. + 10. the head master forgot to inform one of the teacher to join the meeting. + + + social status (+ = high; = low; 0 = equal) social distance (+ = close; = far; 0 = neutral) severe of offense (+ = severe; = not severe) language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 97 in analyzing the data, the students’ apologies were identified first, then they were classified based on holmes classification. after that, they were tabulated based on the classification, and were interpreted. finally, the conclusion was drawn based on the findings. results and discussion realization of apology strategies it is found that the respondents use many strategies in their apology, such as an expression of regret, a request for forgiveness, explanation, offering repair, and other strategies. below is the table displaying apology strategies used by the respondents in all situations. table 2 the distribution of students’ apology strategies apology strategy % a1. an offer of apology /ifid 2 a2. an expression of regret 27.7 a3. a request for forgiveness 4.7 b. explanation or account 12.2 c1. accepting the blame 3.3 c2. expressing self-deficiency 8.2 c3. recognizing h as deserving apology c4. expressing lack of intent 3.9 c5. offering repair / redress 8 d. promise of forbearance 5.7 e. alerter 14.5 f. intensifiers of the apology 9.8 total 100 the table above shows the total percentage of apology strategies in all situations. the results reveals that an explicit expression of apology, in particular, the strategy of expressing regret, is the most frequent apology strategy used (27.7%). alerter and explanation strategies are the other strategies which are used extensively (from 12 to 14%). no other strategies are found for more than ten percent of the data. in order to know further about the apology strategies in each situation, below 98 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 is the table presenting the percentage of apology strategies in each situation. table 3 the distribution of students’ apology strategies in 10 situations apology strategy % s1 % s2 % s3 % s4 % s5 % s6 % s7 % s8 % s9 % s10 a1. an offer of apology /ifid 2.5 2.3 0.8 3.5 2.3 5.6 3.5 3.1 a2. an expression of regret 26.4 26.9 26.3 29.2 26.7 23.1 28.1 31.4 29.8 28.3 a3. a request for forgiveness 3.1 3.1 7.5 5.3 5.3 1.4 1.5 4.8 7 7.1 b. explanation or account 6.3 3.8 13.7 26.6 23 24.8 19.3 3.9 c1. accepting the blame 3.1 0.8 6 15.9 0.8 1.5 0.9 3.1 c2. expressing selfdeficiency 18.2 23.1 1.5 1.8 11.8 2.6 22.8 c3. recognizing h as deserving apology c4. expressing lack of intent 0.6 11.3 3.5 16 2.2 2.8 1.7 c5. offering repair / redress 2.5 24.1 23.9 3.1 1.4 11.8 3.8 2.6 7.1 d.promise of forbearance 6.9 16.2 14.7 6.7 3.8 6.1 2.4 g. alerter 15.7 13.8 8.3 9.7 22.9 19.6 8.9 18.1 15.8 12.6 h. intensifiers of the apology 14.5 10 14.3 7.1 9.2 7.7 4.4 10.5 10.5 9.4 total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 the table above shows the percentages of apology strategies in each situation. the most frequently occuring apology strategy is an expression of regret, such as “i am sorry”. it is around 20 – 30% in each situation. the highest used of such expression is found in situation 8 (being late in an appointment to see a friend), it takes 31.4%. it can be inferred that this kind of strategy is mostly employed when the speaker and the hearer have the same social status and close social distance (the speaker and the hearer are close friends). the examples are as follows. “i am really sorry for being late, guys. i was trapped in the traffic jam for a long time.” “i am sorry. you had to wait for me for a long time. i will not do it again.” as for the offer of apology strategy, in situation 6 (being late to submit the assignment to the lecturer), the language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 99 respondents used the highest proportion of this strategy (5.6%). it can be assumed that such strategy is mostly employed by the speaker who has lower social status than the hearer. in this situation, the speaker is the student and the hearer is the lecturer. the following examples are the use of offer of apology strategy. “i beg your pardon, sir. i am late to submit your assignment. yesterday, i had to accompany my mother in the hospital.” “i apologize because i don’t submit my assignment on time. give me chance again, please.” meanwhile, a request for forgiveness strategy, such as “forgive me” was most used in situation 3 (breaking friend’s laptop) which takes 7.5%. here are the following examples. “please forgive me. it’s my mistake. i really didn’t mean to to. i’ll help you to pay for the fixing.” “forgive me. i promise i will repair your laptop in laptop service.” explanation or account strategy was used most in situation 6 (being late to submit the assignment to the lecturer) (26.6%). it may indicate that the speakers of lower social status (the students) prefer to use explanation strategy as their apology. the followings are the examples. “i am sorry, miss. yesterday i must go to the hospital to accompany my mother, so i can’t submit the assignment. may i submit it now, please?” within acknowledge of responsibility strategy, offering repair sub strategy was most used by the respondents. the most prefer of its use is in situation 3 (24.1%) (breaking friend’s laptop). it might be inferred that the speaker prefer to choose an offering repair sub strategy as their apology when they damage the hearer’s possession. besides, when the speakers made a mistake and other people found it, they also prefer to employ such sub strategy such as in situation 4 (23.9). below are the examples. “i am really sorry for breaking your laptop. i didn’t mean to drop it. i will repair it before i return it.” “oh, i am sorry. please forgive me. let me correct your grade.” with regard to the other sub strategies (accepting the blame, expressing self deficiency, and expressing lack of intent), their use varies. the most frequent use of accepting the blame sub strategies is found in situation 4 (15.9%) when the speaker made a mistake and another found it. the following is the example: “i am so sorry. it was my fault. let me check your final exam and i will correct your final exam.” expressing self deficiency is most preferred with 23.1% in situation 2 (being 100 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 late to return a friend’s book). this sub strategy has a direct link to the speaker’s loss of face which results from presenting the speech act of apology (blum-kulka, house, & kasper, 1989; brown and levinson, 1978) in (thijittang, 2010). the speaker admits his own inadequacy (e.g. mismanagement of time) and failure of sensory perception (e.g. forgetfulness). expressing a lack of intent sub strategy was most used in situation 3 (11.3%) (breaking friend’s laptop). by employing this sub strategy, the speaker stress that the offense is unintentional and it might decreases the severe of the offense. meanwhile, recognizing h as deserving apology sub strategy is not found at all in all strategy. the followings are the examples of the use of expressing lack of intent sub strategy. “i am so sorry. i don’t mean to break your laptop. i promise i will repair your laptop.” “i am sorry, sir. i didn’t mean it because i am in hurry.” as for the use of a promise of forbearance sub strategy, the most frequently occurring strategy is in situation 2 (16.2%) (being late to return a friend’s book) and in situation 6 (14.7%) (being late to submit the assignment to the lecturer). it might be assume that the use of such strategy is most used when the speaker is late in doing his / her obligation / duty. in the case of the use of alerter strategy, the most frequently occurring of such strategy are in situation 5 with 22.9% (the speaker stepped on one of the customer’s foot) and in situation 6 with 19.6% (the speaker was late to submit the assignment to the lecturer). there are many forms of alerter found in the data: honorific, general noun, endearment, first name, and solidarity markers. the honorific form is usually used when the speaker has lower social status and far or neutral social distance, such as the use of “sir”, “boss”, and “miss”. below are the examples. “i am sorry, sir. i can’t submit my assignment today because i have to accompany my mother in the hospital. i promise to submit it tomorrow.” “i am sorry, boss. i forgot to remind you of the urgent meeting yesterday because i have a lot of things to do yesterday. it would never happen again.” “i am sorry, miss. i was late to pick you up. i don’t do it again.” however, general noun form is usually employed when the social distance between the speaker and the hearer is far or neutral, such as “student”, and “class”. the followings are the examples: i am sorry, my students. i had mistakes in scoring your final exam. sorry, class. i am very busy today so i can’t grade your final exam. i can do it tomorrow. meanwhile, endearments, first name, and solidarity markers are often used when the speaker and the hearer have equal language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 101 social status and close social distance. they know each other well and intimately. the function of those markers is to show that they have close relationship and strengthen their relationship. below are the examples of the use endearments. “i am sorry, dear. i was trapped in the traffic jam. i am really sorry for that. lets order the food.” “honey, i am so sorry for being late. i was trapped in the traffic jam. please forgive me.” the followings are the examples of the use of “first name” as alerter strategy: “i am sorry, rin. your laptop was dropped so it was broken.i will repair your laptop and then i will return it.” “sorry, sisca. i was trapped in the traffic jam, so i was late.” “tito, i am sorry about your laptop. it was broken. i am sorry for that.” in addition, below are the examples of the use of solidarity markers as alerter strategy. “i am sorry, friend. your laptop is broken. i promise that i will repair it later.” “friend, i am sorry i come late because i was trapped in the traffic jam.” “i am sorry, friend. i forgot to bring your book. i will return it to you next.” “i am really sorry for being late, guys. i was trapped in the traffic jam for a long time.” “i am so sorry, dude. i left it home. i will take it to your place tonight if you don’t mind waiting, or do you want me to take it now?” with regard to the use of intensifiers of apology, the speakers used the highest proportion of this strategy in situation 1 (14.5%) (the speaker forgot to remind the boss of the urgent meeting) and situation 3 (14.3%) (the speaker broke a friend’s laptop). the intensifiers used are “really”, “so”, and “do”. “i am really sorry, because i am busy so i could not grade your final exam, and may be next week.” “i do apologize, sir. i didn’t see your foot there. i hope it does not bother you longer.” “sir, i beg your apologize. i am so sorry i can’t submit my assignment because i should accompany my mother in the hospital. please give me a chance once more time to finish my assignment.” the development of realization of apology strategies the students in each semester used different strategies in apologizing. in this case, the writer examined whether there are development of apology strategies from the students of 2nd semester until 8th semester. the table below presents the distribution of apology strategies in each situation in each semester: 102 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 table 4 the distribution of apology strategies in each situation in each semester situation 2nd semester 4th semester 6th semester 8th semester 1 a2, a3, b, c1, c2, c5, e, f a1, a2, a3, b, c1, c2, d, e, f a2, b, c1, c2, c4, d, e, f a1, a2, a3, b, c2, c5, d, e, f 2 a2, c2, d,e a2, a3, b, c2, d, e, f a2, b, c2, d, e, f a1, a2, a3, b, c1, c2, d, e, f 3 a2, a3, c1, c5, e, f a2, a3, c1, c4, c5, e, f a1, a2, a3, c1, c4, c5, e, f a2, a3, c1, c2, c4, c5, f 4 a2, c1, c5, e, f a2, a3, c1, c2, c4, c5, e, f a1, a2, c1, c5, e, f a1, a2, a3, c1, c2, c5, e, f 5 a1, a2, c4, e, f a2, b, c5, e, f a1, a2, a3, b, c1, c4, e, f a1, a2, a3, b, c4, e 6 a1, a2, a3, b, c5, d, e, f a2, b, c5, d, e, f a2, a3, b, c2, d, e, f a1, a2, b, d, e, f 7 a2, a3, b, c2, c5, d, e, f a2, b, c1, c2, d, e a2, b, c1, c2, c5, e, f a2, a3, b, c4, c5, e, f 8 a2, b, e a2, a3, b, c5, e, f a2, b, c4, d, e, f a2, a3, b, c4, c5, e, f 9 a2, b, c5, d, e, f a2, a3, b, c1, d, e, f a2, b, c2, c4, d, f a1, a2, a3, b, c5, d, e 10 a2, b, c2, c5, e, f a2, b, c1, c2, c5, d, e, f a2, a3, c1, c2, c5, d, e, f a1, a2, a3, b, c1, c2, c5, f the table above shows that the distribution of apology strategies among the students of 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th semesters is different. there is a development of apology strategies from the lowest to the highest semester students, but the development does not occur in every situation. the higher semester students employed more complex apology strategies than the lower students. pragmatic transfer in apology strategies used by the students as kasper states in pragmatic transfer, she identifies two kinds of pragmatic transfer, pragmalinguistic and socio-pragmatic transfer. pragmalinguistic transfer can happen when the utterances produced by the second language (l2) speakers is systematically different from the ones that produced by the first language (l1) speakers. or, if the strategies of producing the utterances from the l1 speakers are not applied insufficiently to the produced utterances from l2 speakers. while the socio-pragmatic transfer occurred by the effects of social conditions in language using. it contains many variables such as gender, social and relationship distance. the following utterances that produced by the respondents can be some examples on how the pragmatic transfer interferes the strategy in expressing apology. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 103 “fika, if you are angry with me, it’s okay. i have traffic jam in the ponolawen cross road. thanks.” “ya allah. i am so sorry for what i do. i hope your forgiveness to me. it’s so accidentally. i will effort to change your laptop.” the apology expressions above are the examples of pragma-liguistic transfer. in the first example, the utterance is not appropriate as the apology expression. in this case, instead of asking apology to the hearer, the speaker had supposed that the hearer was angry with him first. it might make misunderstanding between them, and cause the hearer angry with the speaker. meanwhile, in the second example, the speaker used inappropriate english apology expression. “i hope your forgiveness to me” is not used by english native speaker when they apologize to another people. it is appropriate if it is produced in bahasa indonesia. below are the examples showing that socio-pragmatic transfer occurred: “ya allah. i am so sorry for what i do. i hope your forgiveness to me. it’s so accidentally. i will effort to change your laptop.” “astaghfirullahal’adzim... i forgot to say to you. i’m so sorry about it. i hope you can forgive my mistake.” those two utterances above expecially the bold one shows the religiusity of the respondents. as we know that indonesian people tend to be religius, and it often appears in their utterances. the above utterances “ya allah” and “astagh firullahal’adzim” are identic with islam and often produced by moslem people in their daily conversation. the utterance “ya allah” is almost the same with “oh my god”, while “astaghfirullahal’adzim” is usually said when some one forget about something. however, the semantic meaning of “astaghfirullahal’adzim” is actually “asking for apology to god”, but many indonesian people have used it in their daily conversation among people. conclusion an explicit expression of apology, in particular, the strategy of expressing regret, is the most frequent apology strategy used. alerter and explanation strategies are the other strategies which are used extensively. no other strategies are found for more than ten percent of the data. there is a development of the use of apology strategies among the students of english department of 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th semesters. the higher semester students use more various explicit expressions and acknowledgement of responsibilities strategies than the lower semester students. socio-pragmatic transfer is more dominant than pragma-linguistic transfer. pragma-linguistic transfer is characterized by linguistic features changing from indonesian language as l2 to english as l1. it is grammatically and semantically accepted but it has different meaning pragmatically, whereas, socio-pragmatic 104 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 transfer is characterized by socio-cultural changing from indonesian to english, so culturally it is not accepted in the target language. it is worth noted that the efl/esl students should be given many opportunities in expressing apology in many various situations, contexts, topics, and degrees of social offenses so that they are able to use apology expressions appropriately and naturally. in this case, the teachers can expose the students’ apology expressions by focusing on oral and written production. ideally, the teachers should be able to employ interesting, and potential activities in the classroom to explore students’ interaction using many various speech act realization patterns including apology. references afgani, a. 2007. a sociopragmatic study of apology speech act realization pattern in persian. journal of speech communication, vol. 49, issue 3, pp.177-85. alfattah, m, h. 2010. apology strategies of yemeni efl university students. university of mysore, mysore, india. retrieved on january 5, 2012 from http://www.mjal.org. bataineh, r. 2006. apology strategies of jordanian efl university students. journal of pragmatics, vol. 38, issue 11, pp. 1901-27. blum kulka, s., & olshtain, e. 1984. request and apologies: a crosscultural study of speech act realization pattern. applied linguistics 5 (3), pp. 196 – 213. brown, p & levinson, 1987. some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press. fraser, b. 1981. on apologizing. in f. coulmas. conversation routine: exploration in standardize communication situations and prepatterned speech. the hague: mouton, pp. 259-71. holmes. 1990. apologies in new zealand english. language in society, 19 (2), pp. 155-99. kasper, g. 1992. pragmatic transfer. second language research 8 (3), pp. 203-31. nureddeen, fatima. 2008. cross cultural pragmatics: apology strategies in sudanese arabic. journal of pragmatic, vol. 40, pp. 279-306. olshtain,e., & cohen,a. 1983. apology: a speech act set. in n. wolfson & e. judd. sociolinguistics and language acquisition. pp 18-35. rowley, ma: newbury house. rizk, s. 2003. why say “no!” when you refuse? tesol arabia 2002. conference proceedings, 7, pp. 40131. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 105 thitjittang, s. 2010. a study of pragmatic strategies of english of thai university students: apology speech acts. ph.d thesis. university of tasmania. retrieved december 28, 2011 from http: //www.aare.edu.au/ 10pap/2435thijittangle.pdf/ trosborg, a. 1995. interlanguage pragmatics: request, complaints, and apologies. berlin: mouton de gruyter. wouk, fay. 2006. the language of apologizing in lombok, indonesia. journal of pragmatics 3, pp. 14571486. xiang, h. 2008. a contrastive study into apology strategies: native british, chinese graduate students, and chinese efl learners. thesis. open university, milton keynes, uk. retrieved 12 march 2012 from http: //www.nord.helsinki.fi/clpg/clpg/hua%20 xiang.pdf/. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 character value in kampong sala legend and its relevancy as teaching materials at school fatma hetami faculty of languages and arts universitas negeri semarang fatmahetami@mail.unnes.ac.id joko sukoyo faculty of languages and arts universitas negeri semarang j_sukoyo@mail.unnes.ac.id widodo faculty of languages and arts universitas negeri semarang widodo@yahoo.com abstract the research is aimed at preserving the story of kota sala legend. it used qualitative approach. the data were derived from caretakers, the elderly, the artists from surakarta palace, and the public figures, as well as from books and articles by using documentation and interview techniques. the data were analyzed by using qualitative descriptive method into several steps as the following: (1) conducting interview and observing the documents, (2) collecting and arranging the data into a complete story, (3) analyzing its character values, and (4) analyzing its relevance as a teaching material. the results indicate that (1) the oral tradition of kampong sala legend can be documented into a pictorial story book in three languages: javanese, indonesian, and english; (2) the story consists of character values such as religious, honest, discipline, hard-working, creative, solicitous, and responsible; (3) the story is very relevantly used as teaching materials at school especially in the subject of bahasa jawa and bahasa indonesia. keywords: legend, kampong, sala, learning introduction folklore is one of literary works that represents human‘s life. it is full of symbols that can be revealed. it embodies moral values that are important for readers to live their life. folklore for children also takes a significant part as it contains moral values to develop their character building. the implementation of character building in early age is substantial especially in the five first year of child growth or known as the golden age. the golden age is the best time to bring the children‘s to bear and develop their potencies. in this phase, children are able to absorb almost 80% of the information from their surroundings; therefore, implementing positive character values is very efficient. there are various genre of literature that can be used as media or source of character building. literature here is not limited into the modern only, but also local literature. one of the local literary works is oral literature namely folklore (youpika & zuchdi, 2016: 49). folklore is a story in a certain society that covers believes, myths, legends, and customs preserved by a certain nation form one generation to generation (rampan, 2014: 1). further bascom in danandjaja (2002: 50) divides folklore into three big groups; myth, legend, and folktale. one disappointing fact is that young generation does not seem to be aware or interested in those folklores. this opinion is supported by the result of a research conducted by firdaus, faizah, & manaf (2013: 39). they say that the existence and function of the oral literature including local literature are replaced as the result of the advancement of technology, cultural, social, and political system. the fact shows that children are crazier of japanese comics or cartoon movies than indonesian local stories. it is aggravated by the digital era that replaces the role of parents in educating their children. there was a habit of telling the children bed-time stories before sleeping, but now children are exposed with television and gadget without a strict control from their parents. whether the television programs are mailto:fatmahetami@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:j_sukoyo@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:widodo@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 good or not for the children is not considered anymore. such condition is suspected as one of factors that influences the moral degradation related to local values. folklore is good for character building as it embodies ancestors‘ advices in the form of moral values passed from one generation to generation. moral values in the folklore are usually presented in figurative language. therefore, to know its moral values requires a deep analysis on it. the inception of a folklore is not merely only based on the author/narrator‘s wish of entertaining the reader/audience, but also to deliver the message in the form of moral lessons to the next generation. research on character building has been carried out by neldawati, ermanto, & juita (2015). they analyzed character values that are represented in poem badondong, kampas regency. the results indicate that poem badondong contains character values such as religious, honest, responsible, discipline, hardworking, confident, independent, curious, polite, loyal, caring, and sportive. besides neldawati et.al., kristanto (2014) also conducted a research entitled ―the use of folklore as ethics instilling to establish nation character building‖. folklores that have been developing in many places in indonesia contain ethic values that are beneficial for the process of creating indonesian gold generation. the ethic instilling is aimed at building someone‘s positive character. a good ethic instilling is supposed to be able to create someone‘s character, attitude, and behavior that can strengthen his/her soft skill. both kristanto‘s research and the writer‘s are resulting in the same product, a pictorial storybook. however, kristanto‘s is more descriptive. according to rampan (2014: 21), there are varieties of folklore available in society. one of them is legend. people believe that the story in the legend really happened in the past. the information of the time is not stated specifically. it only uses adverb of time such as once upon a time and long time ago. its characters are not god or goddess but ordinary people. the legend always shows historical evidences although they are not convincing from the perspective of historical studies, anthropology, sociology and other studies. in line with this, danandjaya (2002: 66) also states that legend is a folklore that is considered by the founder of the story as an event which happens for real and people believe that it also occurs in the past. legend has noble value that is beneficial for its society; therefore, research and study on it is urgently needed especially legend that still exists in society nowadays. kampung sala is one of the legends from surakarta. unfortunately, it is not taken care of and almost disappears. it can be known from the result of the interview between the researcher and people who live there. only old generation knows the legend, meanwhile the youngsters have no idea about it. it comes to the researcher‘s surprise as there is a kingdom named kasunanan surakarta hadiningrat and it still exists up to the present time. legend of kampung sala is not supposed to be vanished. legend is a part of indonesian culture that has to be preserved as it contains lessons of life, philosophy, and character values. in line with this, the researcher is interested in conducting a research on kampung sala legend. the objective of this research is to put kampung sala legend in the form of pictorial storybook. it also reveals character values of the story and describes its relevancy as teaching material at schools. the significances of this research are (1) strengthening local culture asset, (2) documenting folklore that develops in jawa tengah especially surakarta, (3) producing pictorial storybook that can be used by students for broadening their knowledge and learning its character values, (5) contributing book collection to schools especially books of folklore, (6) providing javanese cultural source in central java. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 methodology the research was conducted in surakarta and used qualitative approach. the data were derived from caretakers, the elderly, the artists from surakarta palace, and the public figures, as well as from books, articles and photos by using documentation and interview techniques. the data were analyzed by using qualitative descriptive method into several steps as the following: (1) conducting interview and observing the documents, (2) collecting and arranging the data into a complete story, (3) analyzing its character values, and (4) analyzing its relevance as a teaching material. discussion the results indicate that (1) the oral tradition of kampong sala legend can be documented into a pictorial storybook in three languages: javanese, indonesian, and english; (2) the story consists of character values such as religious, honest, discipline, hard-working, creative, appreciate the achievement, and responsible; (3) the story is very relevantly used as teaching materials at school especially in the subject of bahasa jawa and bahasa indonesia synopsis of kampong sala legend sultan hadiwijoyo who was the king of pajang asked his guard to call one of his servants named ki bau reksa. ki bau reksa was trusted by the king to take care of all his stuffs from bandar nusupan to the kingdom. bandar nusupan was in desa nusupan and it was strategically situated near bengawan beton. therefore, the village was getting more crowded as all merchants came and sell their goods there. the guard soon met ki bau reksa in bandar nusupan. he told ki bau rekso to come to meet the king at the palace. ki bau reksa was then leaving for the palace. ki bau reksa‘s position as a servant who was responsible for taking care of the king‘s stuffs from port to castle was also known as soroh bau. as a soroh bau, he did not only send the stuffs from port to castle, but also collected all laborers to work in the castle. therefore, instead of calling his own name, the king preferred to call him ki soroh. the nick name was appropriate with his job as soroh bau or servant. ki soroh was a diligent, loyal, and responsible servant. every early in the morning ki soroh was always be in the port to take care and bring the stuffs of the king to the castle. he did his job carefully so that nothing was left behind. that was why the king was satisfied with ki soroh‘s job. therefore, the king gave him a gift of a higher position as a chief of the port and the village at the same time. the village given to ki soroh was the river bank of bengawan beton which was full of swamp. however, ki soroh did not give up to make the area well thrived. he believed himself that one day the area would become a developed village as it was situated near bengawan beton, in which all ships from east java, madura, kalimantan, china, and netherlands stopped by. people of the village were directed to develop the village to be the center of transit market of all goods. the village that used to be swamps and nothing slowly turned to be crowded. it was quickly filled with people from various ethnics. the way the people speak was also varied. most of them, especially the dutch were difficult in pronouncing the sound ―r‖ and ―h‖. as the result, they called ki soroh as ki sala. finally ki soroh‘s name was changed into ki sala. as ki sala was powerful, his name became ki gedhe sala. the village was also named the same as his name, sala village. sala was a village with large area. its north was pepe river and its east was bengawan beton which was famous as bengawan sala. its south was nusupan village; meanwhile its west was pepe river until wingka river. sala was a developed and prosperous village. ki gedhe sala lived in sala village until he has kids and grandchildren. there were 3 names of ki gedhe sala. they were ki gedhe sala i, ki gedhe sala ii, and ki gedhe sala iii. language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 ki gedhe sala ii was the son of ki gedhe sala i, meanwhile ki gedhe sala iii was the grandson of ki gedhe sala i, or the son of ki gedhe sala ii. at that time, the one who was taking control and having a power was ki gedhe sala iii. he led the kingdom named kartasura. it was destroyed as there was a rebellion from chinese. therefore, there was no kingdom center anymore. to see his kingdom destroyed, sinuwun paku buwono ii wanted to move the castle into different place. sinuwun talked to ki pringgoloyo and ki hanggawangso. they discussed on finding a new place for the new castle establishment. after a long journey, finally they got a divine inspiration that sala village is destined to be a new kingdom center. then ki pringgaloyo dan ki honggowongso came to see ki gedhe sala as the leader of the village. they told ki sala that sala village would be the perfect place for becoming a new kingdom center. ki gedhe sala was pleased to hear that. finally, there was a new kingdom called kasunanan surakarta hadiningrat in sala village. (hetami&sukoyo, 2018: 73-93) character building values in kampong sala legend character is mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual. it is different from one to another. jalal et.al (2011: 7-8) formulate 18 character building values that refer to religion, pancasila, culture, and national education objective as the following: (1) religious, (2) honest, (3) tolerant, (4) discipline, (5) hard-working, (6) creative, (7) independent, (8) democratic, (9) curious, (10) semangat kebangsaan, (11) nationalist, (12) solicitous, (13) friendly/communicative, (14) conciliatory, (15) love reading, (16) sensitive, (17) caring, (18) responsible. meanwhile, character values represented in kampung sala legend are derived from the characters of the story. they are as the following: (1) religious, (2) honest, (3) discipline, (4) hard-working, (5) creative, (6) solicitous, and (7) responsible. 1. religious religious is an attitude of belonging or relating to a monastic order or other group of people who are united by their practice of religion and tolerant to others. religious character can be seen when ki pringgoloyo and ki honggowongso pray to god for giving them a hint of a good place for establishing a new kingdom as the center of the reign. in religion it is clearly taught that pray can be the important part in all human‘s efforts. a pray can be considered as an attitude of conceding the god in determining everything. it can also mean request and praise in the form of utterance from the servant of god. a person who does not want to pray to god can be regarded as someone who is arrogant as he does not put the god as the almighty. 2. honest honest is free of deceit and untruthfulness. someone who is honest is reliable in his words and deeds. ki bau reksa in kampong sala legend is characterized as an honest man. every morning, he brings the king‘s stuffs to the palace without taking anything from them. in relation to this, nowadays, cheating is the common phenomenon happened in the process of teaching-learning in the class. therefore, honesty must be cultivated among the students from the early age. according to kristanto (2014: 63), if honesty is cultivated, it can erase lie and deceitfulness. indirectly, honesty can help an individual developing his/her soft skill. 3. discipline discipline in kampung sala legend is described when ki bau reksa goes to pajang kingdom. ki bau reksa is represented as man who really disciplines. it can be seen from the way he carries out his duty. instead of postponing the job form the king, he directly leaves and meets sultan hadiwijoyo. discipline is the practice of training people to obey rules or a code of behavior, using punishment to correct disobedience. in education, discipline is a must. every student has to discipline himself language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 as it gives a big positive effect on learning achievement. 4. hard working at present time, teenagers tend to get anything instantly. it makes them lazy and do not want to work hard. parents have an important role to teach them to be hardworkers. hard-working in kampong sala legend is represented ki soroh bau. he gives a good example in being a hard-working one. it is supported by one of the sequence of event when ki soroh does not give up hope easily to make the swamp area developed. it shows that ki soroh is a hard-working man who really tries hard to solve the problem and reach the goal. hard-working is important to be cultivated to the youths. it teaches them that to get something, a hard-working is needed. 5. creative in kampong sala legend, ki gedhe sala is described as a creative man. it can be seen from the way he asks the people to build a village in the riverbank of bengawan beton. he aims the village at the transit center of various goods. the idea of making the village as the transit center is creative. creative is relating to or involving the imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work. creativity exists in one‘s soul in the form of innovative ideas. however, creativity will not be able to be visible if it is not realized into a concrete innovation. 6. solicitous solicitous is showing interest or concern. it can be seen from the way sultan hadiwijoyo appreciates ki soroh‘s achievement. sultan does not only express the appreciation verbally. he also gives ki soroh a reward of land and makes him the chief of bandar nusupan. showing interest or concern therefore is really important to the youths. 7. responsible responsible in kampong sala legend is represented through ki soroh‘s character. he never complains and always performs the duties very well. when he has to bring the king‘s stuffs from bandar nusupan to the palace, he always makes sure that everything is not left behind. in teaching-learning process, students have to be responsible in conducting all their duties. by being so, they will be able to be successful. kampong sala legend and its relevancy as teaching materials at school teaching materials are sets of oral or written resources arranged systematically so that a conducive atmosphere in the teaching-learning process can be created. teaching material is instrument that can give a big influence to the result of learning. based on the field observation, there are several problems related to folklore as the teaching material as the following: (1) folklore as teaching material in the class is still limited as researches on folklore are still restricted in size too; (2) time allotment of students‘ teaching-learning folklore as the material is limited; (3) students show less interest in folklore because teachers tend to use conventional teaching-learning model. further ucu (2012: 5) says that teaching material of folklore is oscillating about old folklore released in the past. in other words, old folklores do not be able to stimulate the students‘ curiosity. therefore, students must be provided with new folklore which is more interesting to discuss. folklore is a cultural product of a certain society. it can be guaranteed that every society has its own folklore. the problem is the action of exploring the folklore is not carried out maximum. apart from the less usage of new folklore as teaching material in the class, teachers tend to give no concerns on local folklore where they live. a teacher should be able to use any resources to teach. kampong sala legend is one of the stories of surakarta cities that can be used as teaching material. by using folklore in teaching-learning process, teacher has already introduced the treasure of indonesian traditional literature. kampong sala legend embodies character values that are suitable for students in javanese language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 and indonesian subjects. those character values are (1) religious, (2) honest, (3) discipline, (4) hard-working, (5) creative, (6) solicitous, and (7) responsible. the values can contribute positive effects on the students. by learning the values the students are expected to be smart, virtuous, and able to make a benefaction for their country. in line with the javanese curriculum, folklore is given in senior high school. in curriculum 2013 javanese folklore is taught in the 1 st semester of 8 th graders with the basic competency as follows: (3.1) understanding text of folklore and (4.1) retelling the story of folklore by using local dialect. it is continued in the 2 nd semester. it can be seen from the basic competency of (3.3) understanding text of folklore along with its origin, and (4.3) summarizing the text by using language level of javanese (karma). meanwhile in curriculum 2013, folklore is also taught in the indonesian subject. it is given in the 7 th graders‘ basic competency of identifying information about the written or oral local folklore. another basic competency is retelling the story of the local folklore. in relation to this, kampong sala legend is very relevant to use as teaching material at school especially javanese and indonesian subjects in senior high school. learning model that can be used in teaching folklore is cooperative type script. susanto & sunarsih (2015, 277-278) develop cooperative type script model by using the following steps: (1) teacher divides the class into two groups, group a and b; (2) each group is provided with the group number; (3) teacher distributes a text of folklore to read and asks the students to summarize it; (4) teacher chooses randomly the group to present their summary. if the teacher gets number 3, it means that student number 3 from group a and b have to come forward and deliver the summary before the class; (5) teacher and students decide who is going to be the listener and speaker; (6) the speaker reads his summary as detail as possible by highlighting the main ideas. meanwhile the listener listens attentively. he has to correct dan complete the missing ideas as well; (7) students in the front are exchanging role and do the activity on the way around; (8) the rest of the students, helped by the teacher, respond on their friends‘ performance. references danandjaya, j. 2002. folkore indonesia: ilmu gosip, dongeng, dan lain-lain (vi). jakarta: pt pustaka utama grafiti. firdaus, m., faizah, h., & manaf, n. a. 2013. cerita rakyat masyarakat rambah kabupaten rokan hulu provinsi riau. jurnal bahasa, sastra dan pembelajaran, volume 1 nomor 2(juni), hal. 37–52. hetami, f & sukoyo, j. 2018. legenda nama-nama kampung di surakarta. semarang: lp2m unnes jalal, f., & dkk. 2011. panduan pelaksanaan pendidikan karakter. (f. jalal & dkk, eds.). jakarta: kementrian pendidikan nasional badan dan penelitian dan pengembangan pusat kurikulum dan perbukuan. kristanto, m. 2014. pemanfaatan cerita rakyat sebagai penanaman etika untuk membentuk pendidikan karakter bangsa. jurnal mimbar dasar sekolah, volume 1(april), 59–64. neldawati, ermanto, & juita, n. 2015. nilai-nilai pendidikan karakter dalam pantun badondong masyarakat desa tanjung bungo kecamatan kampar timur kabupaten kampar. jurnal bahasa, sastra dan pembelajaran, volume 3 nomor 1(februari), hal. 68–83. rampan, k. l. 2014. teknis menulis cerita rakyat. (i. akhmad, ed.) (cetakan pertama). bandung: penerbit yrama widya. susanto, h., & sunarsih, e. 2015. model pembelajaran cooperative tipe script sebagai upaya language circle: journal of language and literature, 13(1) october 2018 meningkatkan keterampilan menyimak dongeng siswa smp. prosiding seminar nasional pendidikan bahasa indonesia (hal. 273–279). surakarta. ucu. 2012. menyoal cerita rakyat sebagai bahan ajar dalam pelaksanaan pembelajaran di sekolah. semantik: jurnal ilmiah program studi pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, hal 1–9. youpika, f., & zuchdi, d. 2016. nilai pendidikan karakter cerita rakyat suku pasemah bengkulu dan relevansinya sebagai materi pembelajaran sastra. jurnal pendidikan karakter, volume vi nomor 1(april), hal 48–58. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 61 women power to end the oppressions of patriarchy in susan glaspell’s play ‘trifles’ dwi anggara asianti semarang state university abstract in patriarchy society, women do not have other choice but obey all rules set by men. as a result, women‟s life marginalized and gap between women‟s role and men‟s occurred.the same condition and situation faced by a woman, as the main character, in susan glaspell‟s entitled „trifles‟. this paper would like to identify the patriarchy oppressions and analyze action as the reflection of women‟s power to end the oppressions of patriarchy. the women power, subtle and indirect, that may the women themselves never realize they have it key words: patriarchy, oppressions, women‟s power introduction patriarchy places women all over the world to the most inconvenient conditions; all of which impede them to grow both physically and psychologically. variety of roles and tasks are attached to women and force them to act accordingly. this condition sets a trap for women‟s existentialism since they cannot really move or even do a trivial movement. as a result, women only have a small room to „breathe‟. as members of society, women have the same achievements with men do. however, women cannot live their lives to the fullest due to the obstacles on their path of life, which strict women‟s steps. the attached roles and duties create the different identity of women and men. at this stage, literature holds the important feature to actively construct and/or change any society‟s construction. just like the construction of women‟s roles which can only be illuminated at the same time by literature. literature is the only media connecting writers and readers as to send any message because there is not any way out from patriarchy, so we can not rely on society. (darma, 1999: 4) understanding their condition, women write various literature dealing with problems caused by patriarchy‟s pressures. at the same time, they also create the possible resolution. those literature, then, offer the answer of that subtle conflicts caused by patriarchy oppressions. literature records all the gap due to patriarchy oppressions. all of which, at the same time, empower and strengthen women‟s power to stand against conflicts. as a matter of fact, susan glaspell‟s play entitled ”trifles” also talked about an oppressed woman, mrs. minnie wright as the main character. she experienced all of 62 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 the worst condition in her marriage. in fact, „trifles‟ is a controversial play ever in america which put the writer, susan glaspell, to the international writer‟s level. however, those problems turned out to be the power for mrs. wright to speak aloud and to be the best she could. this women power underlines the strong personality of women to find the way out of patriarchy oppressions. this paper will analyze the results of patriarchy‟s oppressions. the first is a description about marginalized aspects in women‟s life which is represented by mrs. minnie wright in susan glaspell‟s play „trifles‟. the second result of patriarchy oppression is gap role of women will be compared to men in susan glaspell‟s work as to underline the imbalance „duties‟ between men and women. the last discussion is that the woman main character loses the tightened gender chain in glaspell‟ work. in other words, this paper will give the detail description of women and their marginalized aspects of life which affects the gap of role application between men and women. at last, women‟s attempts is to end the oppression of patriarchy due to women‟s power in glaspell‟s play „trifles‟. review of related literature play, as one of literature genres, has a close relation to fiction, poetry, and essay. play focusses on conversation and detail description on stage with the absence of the playwright (diyanni, 1994: 755). sharing the same opinion, ibnu explore the basic aspects of drama namely the conversation between characters, and the comprehensive description about mood, setting, or actions of each characters as shown on the stage guidance. (budianta, 2003: 95) according to both statements above, susan glaspell‟s work entitled „trifles‟ can be included into play since readers can find utterances between characters as the main „clue‟ to comprehend its meaning and to analyse its detail hidden meaning as well. as a matter of fact, play has several types. some of them are sad, the others are funny stories, and the rests are the combination of both types. the first two types of drama are tragedy and comedy which contrast the idea of suffering and happiness. the detail description runs as follows. tragedy play according to aristotle, tragedy play is the imitation of serious and comprehensive attitudes (diyanni, 1994: 777). it is closely related to human‟s attitudes and all of their consequences. it has the beginning, middle, and end part of story. all events are related to one another because of causal logical relationship in order to create certain story. one part of the play cause the inevitable catharsis which is indicated by the „fall‟ of a main character. as an example, the main character died due to a trivial reason. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 63 comedy play some tragic elements of tragedy play can also be found in comedy play. new findings or a new construction, for example, can be identified in both types of the play, also wrong perception and missed judgement as the reflection of human‟s weaknesses and failure. however, they do not cause the happening of „disaster‟ just like in tragedy play, but the happiness of comedian. characteristics in comedy play can always be easily guessed. on the contrary, their plot are unpredictable because of surprises at the end of the play. tragicomedy play many modern drama is the combination form between comedy and tragedy, the blend of human emotional basic. it is not necessary to classify whether one play is dominated by either tragedy or comedy. even some playwriter said that tragicomedy was the right form of presenting the complex illogical world. it will never be the same if the theme is presented with tragedy or comedy play. melodrama it is originated from opera in which characters have the conversation with music as the background. it can also be about any performance which build the emotion of viewers with music only because they will never listen to any conversation. farce it is one of drama types with cartoon characteristics. it is a comedy play with much laughter as the result of any attitudes and or utterances spoken by characters in the play. nowadays, it is similar to situational comedy that we can watch on television. susan glaspell‟s play „trifles‟ which was written in 1916 is tragedy drama. it offered the emotional sufferings felt by mrs. minnie wright as the result of her husband‟s psychological abuse. those miseries were revealed by the time people knew that mr. wright was murdered in his own house. mrs. wright‟s ignorance of her husband‟s death lead to accussion of her involvement in that murder. some playwrights use a dramatic means of conveying the play‟s theme such as monologue, soliloquy, and aside in order to be more easily understood by the play‟s readers or audience. monologue is either a written or spoken composition of one character‟s discourse. one character usually explains everything that already happened. meanwhile, soliloquy is like monologue since one character speaks up on the stage. he usually conveys his subjective thought to viewers to suggest things which will happen next time in the play. aside is also about an utterance to viewers.the utterance about the thoughts of certain character is eavesdropped by another character. usually the thoughts are about the comments about certain events which are going on. on the stage, the 64 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 character who uttered aside will either look at or look another side of viewers and stand by the side of the stage. tong (1998) asserted eight comprehensive thoughts about feminism which become the framework of thinking. the first is liberal feminism. betty friedan stated that the role of being a wife and mother are not satisfying, so modern women need to have something to do in public sphere which is more meaningful than merely cleaning the house and taking care of children. it is because marriage and motherhood are a part and not the whole life of women. it is as important for men to improve their personal life, and as women to improve their public and social life. if women are allowed to earn a living, it means that men will be free, too because they will not be the only person who is responsible for the economy of family. methodology analysis started at the basic unit of play or so-called scene. „trifles‟ has tighter plot because it consists of one scene only (satoto, 1986: 88). play usually related to dramatic plot or what so-called structure or pattern. the beginning of pattern introduces characters and setting, then followed by the finding of the first trifle thing in „trifles‟. series of complications lead to a climax or a turning point. women characters‟ decision to hide their opinion about the motif of mr. wright‟s murder indicates the falling action. all of which answer problems arisen in the glaspell‟s drama and or conclusion that doing something that seemingly trifles are women‟s strength. (doren, 1968: 488) those stages of structure are drawn by gustave freytag (satoto, 1968: 111-112): climax complication falling action conclusion exposition resolution (denoument) the writer of drama, in this case susan glaspell, does not tell directly the main character‟s characteristics, but describing (1) character‟s name, (2) physical appearance, the way of dressing up, attitudes, reaction between one character towards another, (3) dialogue or monologue conversation (satoto, 1986: 98). in fact, susan glaspell does not really portray her main character physically. in other words, glaspell‟s woman character does not exist, her presence is represented by voices of other characters and her belongings. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 65 thus, variety of interpretation towards her does not happen. analyzing play goes through some steps namely setting and time of happening, attitudes of characters and their conversation. all elements are observed in detail. then, all related things will be connected to one another until they make up a certain pattern which shares the comprehensive meaning. the constructed pattern is the result of detail observation of the researcher. third step is the obvious relation in glaspell‟s play „trifles‟ that will be eventually sharpened by writing down any inferences which are in line with what is going on in the real world, so the conclusion based on the story can be reached. (di yanni, 1994: 762) before doing the analysis, the first thing done was collecting all information about women‟s roles especially found in susan glaspell‟s drama „trifles‟. the needed information is the description in the drama written by susan glaspell which is followed by either implicit or explicit judgement about characters‟attitude, or conclusion without any judgement, characters‟ physical appearances, and their way of dressing up in drama „trifles‟, their attitudes, how they communicate to one another including diction, thought, feeling and intention. all collected data, then, was sorted out based on sex. right after that they were classified into categories of marginalized aspects of life and gap of role as the result of patriarchy oppressions and women‟s action which ended the patriarchy oppressions. findings in susan glaspell’s play’trifles’ patriarchy’s oppressions in glaspell’s play ‘trifles’ patriarchy society sets rules in tradition and culture which must be obeyed by women (darma, 2002: 2). those rules, made by men as the „ruler‟ in patriarchy society, cause oppressions for women as the second member of society. men do this to preserve their power against women. as a result, automatically women have lower position than men. the oppresions felt by women are also reflected in susan glaspell‟s drama entitled „trifles‟ and are represented by mrs. minnie wright. the result of patriarchy oppressions are discussed in the following paragraph. marginalized life of women mrs. minnie wright is the main character in susan glaspell‟s drama entitled „trifles‟. she lived under pressures because of rules made by her husband. when men set any rules, they put women to the lower position at the same time. in other words, men are the first and automatically women are the second citizen in patriarchy society. it means that women have to obey all rules which exclusively design to restrict women‟s life and impede them to grow psychologically. it surely abuses women psychological life and also locks women‟ self-actualization. the same condition occurred to mrs. wright who did not have any other choice but agree to her husband‟s rule. as a 66 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 matter of fact, mr. wright did not have anybody to talk to since they lived in such a remote area. the worst part was that there was not any media of communication in their house as mr. wright refused to have one. obeying her husband was the sign that mrs. minnie wright‟s social life was ignored. her social life of getting along with people was not taken into account by patriarchy. in other words, patriarchy underestimated women‟s social need to communicate with others. mrs. minnie foster‟s loneliness reached its peak when she was forbidden talking to her friends using the telephone. her social life, suddenly, was taken away by patriarchy society with her husband as its agent. “...if john wanted to put in a telephone, ... she started to laugh ....” (glaspell, 481) as a matter of fact, mr. wright did such a serious crime due to breaking human‟s right of getting in touch with other people. the worst part happened since mr. wright did not ask his wife‟s opinion before doing anything such as living in a remote area or not having telephone in their house. it is another way of saying that women‟s ideas were not as important as men‟s. thus, men left women behind. “... it‟s a lonesome place ... a gloomy kitchen ...” (glaspell, 479, 485) the life of mrs. minnie wright was taken away slowly by her own husband. irony occurred here because as a married woman, mrs. minnie dreamt of having better quality of life compared to her single period. in fact, her marriage turned her life into dark and lonely life ever. the source of changing life of mrs. minnie wright was her loving husband. as the representative of patriarchy society, mrs. wright‟s husband set such a lonely condition. thus, it is well understood at the time mr. and mrs. foster live in such a remote area. not only that, each part of her home also indicated such an unhappy situation. “... she used to wear pretty clothes and be lively, when she was minnie foster” (glaspell, 483)” minnie foster was described as a rich woman when she was a single. this empowered her to take an active part in any part of her life. she lived her life to the fullest. all of which, then, turned over to the opposing condition at the time she was married to mr. wright. being a wife, mrs. minnie wright‟s life was like in the cage because she never put on qualified clothes like she used to do. not only that, mrs. minnie wright was simply away from any worldly activities. it happened since her husband, mr. wright, forbade her to actively take part in any social life. all of those restrictions set by mr. wright were successful to bury all mrs. minnie wright‟s capabilities and dreams as well. this situation changed mrs. minnie wright‟s personalities to be sad and gloomy. gap of role preserving the power of ruling, men have been dominating social and cultural aspects and language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 67 various tradition by being different from women (darma, 2000: 1). the difference of women and men‟s tasks are leading to discrimination which restricts women‟s activities. those different tasks are introduced at the very early of children life. at the very beginning of children‟s life, they get their early education at their own house. girls will always be nurtured differently from boys. girls will always have different playing toys and associated to certain color which are totally different from boys‟. baby girls or teens are always bought pink things, while boys are accustomed by blue color. toys like cooking set and other household toys belong to girls while guns or other similar games are associated to boys. not only girls have specific toys, but they are also raised differently from boys. ironically mothers, as the victim of patriarchy, are the ones who preserve patriarchy‟s rules by raising their children based on streotypes. for instance, girls are allowed to cry while boys are forbidden due to absurd reason. it means that patriarchy is successful since women tend to subconsciously absorb the patriarchy‟s rules. as a result, they act accordingly and pass on to their future generation by teaching patriarchy rules at home‟s early education. there is a clear-cut distinction between women and men‟s role which separate one responsibilities from another. women are associated with households works, whereas men actively take part in public sphere. in other words, house and children, including education and raising children and all households works, are the responsibilities of women only. thus, women or working mothers have double responsibilities in earning money and raising their children. as a result, they will be accused if something wrong happened with their children or their house. on the contrary, there is not any detail information that we can find in susan glaspell‟s drama entitled „trifles‟ since western women and men already live in equity. though we can still find the different roles of men compared to women which public sphere was possessed by men still. “...and wright ought to work all day, and no company when he did come in” (glaspell, 485) men will always dominate the public sphere (out of house), and women take care of house, so women can give the best service to their husbands and they can earn more money. (djajanegara, 2000: 31). woman‟s action to end patriarchy‟s oppressions in glaspell‟s play „trifles‟ “...it must have been done awful crafty and still ... funny way to kill a man, rigging it all up like that .... there was a gun in the house ....” (glaspell, 483) mrs. wright, as the round character, did not really exist in susan glaspell‟s drama. readers could not see her physical appearance nor her voice. the only thing readers know is her action and its effect which became the theme of glaspell‟s drama. as the experienced women writer, glaspell did not create the physical appearance of a main woman character in her 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 work. glaspell would like to ask readers to know the fact that women‟s physical appearance is not important to break through the patriarchy chain. in fact, the echo of women‟s action would always last longer and left tremendous effect ever. the same condition can be found in glaspell‟s „trifles” in which mrs. wright existence was represented by her actions. mrs. wright‟s did not say a word at the time her husband asked her to live in a remote area and not to mingle around. bird was the only media left for her to be happy and to communicate. unfortunately, her husband could not take for having a bird in their house, that is why he killed the bird. mrs. wright‟ s desperation feeling prompted her to end her husband‟s life by killing him with a rope instead of a gun when he was asleep. the rope was a perfect choice for mrs. wright to kill her husband simply because it was voiceless. the same action done by her husband when he killed the bird, the only valuable possession of mrs. minnie wright to which she can talk. mrs. wright‟s action put to an end the patriarchy opressions and restrictions towards human‟s need to communicate and to sing. thus, eventhough mrs. minnie wright spent her life in prison, but she was happy still since it was only physical „tortures‟. psychological state is always more meaningful because it determines someone‟s real happiness. conclusion as the first citizen in patriarchy society, men became superior over anything. that is why men tend to force women to do everything they want to. as a result, women life aspects were marginalized and gap of role occurred.women‟s economy and social life were marginalized by men as to cover that men were actually weak. men ignored women‟s economy and social life because they did not feel convenient with women‟s presence. however, women turned out to be strong simply because men‟s fragile was finally widely wide-open. women‟s role seemed to be restricted at domestic sphere only. on the contrary, men were free to actively take a part at public sphere. the gap was accustomed at the early education at home which preserved by mothers, the victim of patriarchy oppression. however, women could be active at public sphere which was shown by mrs. minnie wright when she was still a single woman. at last, women were able to set themselves free from the chain of patriarchy by doing action, not by uttering any necessary sounds. voices were not eye-catching for men. doing a trivial thing echoed longer and broke down the oppressions of patriarchy. that is why glaspell, as the writer of drama entitled „trifles‟, did not show the physical appearance of the woman as the main character. references budianta, m. 2000. “pendekatan feminisme.” workshop in british council surabaya. budianta, m. 2002. “pendekatan feminis terhadap wacana: sebuah pengantar.” analisis wacana: dari lingustik sampai dekonstruksi. yogyakarta: kanal. budianta, m. 1998. “sastra dan ideologi gender.” horison xxxii/4/1998. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vi/2 april 2012 69 budianta, m, ida sundari husein, manneke budiman dan ibnu wahyudi. 2003. membaca sastra : pengantar memahami sastra untuk perguruan tinggi. jakarta: universitas indonesia press. darma, b. 1999. “sastra mutakhir kita” dalam bunga rampai seminar nasional bahasa dan sastra. pp. 1-8. pps unesa surabaya. darma, b. 2000. “feminisme.” handout apresiasi dan kritik sastra. diyanni, robert. 1994. literature: reading fiction, poetry, drama and the essay. new york: mcgraw-hill inc. djajanegara, soenarjati. 2000. kritik sastra feminisme. jakarta: gramedia. dzuhayatin, siti ruhaini. 1996. “gender dalam perspektif islam” dalam membincang feminisme. surabaya: risalah gusti. doren, mark van. 1968. insights into literature. boston: houghton mifflin company. glaspell, susan. 2004. trifles: with anchors for the primary symbols and images. new york: mcgrawhill co. laporan kenegaraan. 1996. gender dan kemitrasejajaran. kantor menteri negara urusan peranan wanita ri bekerjasama dengan tim pengelola p2w dki jakarta (tp. p2w. dki jkt). maillakus, mikes. 2004. a woman’s place: literary background for glaspell’s trifles. boston: mcgraw-hill. satoto, sadiro. 1986. metode penelitian sastra. solo: sebelas maret university press. semi, atar. 1990. metode penelitian sastra. bandung: angkasa. tong, rosemarie putnam. 1998. feminist thought: pengantar paling komprehensif kepada arus utama pemikiran feminis. yogyakarta: jalasutra. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 75 integrating life skills in english language teaching (elt): strategies, problems and their possible solutions sajidin sunan gunung djati state islamic university bandung e-mail: sajidin.uin@gmail.com joko nurkamto surakarta state university mursid saleh semarang state university retmono sultan agung islamic university abstract the integration of life skills in english language teaching has to be managed properly to achieve an optimal result. the exploration to the fields reveals some problems on their implementation: (1) classroom management, (2) selection of learning materials, (3) learning assessment, and (4) selection of learning methods. in addition, most teachers were fully satisfied with the existing model due to the following reasons: (1) requiring an extra preparation and teaching media, (2) incomplete communication task executions, and (3) inflexibility of model to apply in any class. to make the model of implementation better some recommendation are made: (1) incorporating materials reflecting life skills, (2) providing more comprehensible inputs, (3) developing a representative assessments, and (4) selecting a learning method that guide teacher to gradually develop communicative competence and simultaneously develop life skills. key words: elt, life skills, integration, strategies, problems, solution introduction the integration of life skills in the teaching of subjects is officially recommended by the government through a policy numbered 19 in 2005. currently, a similar policy is made using a different label, the integration of character education in national curriculum 1 . the policies seem 1 in fact, character values are a part of life skills, identical with soft skills. the 18 – state selected characters fall under the four-statepromoted life skills: (1) personal skills (such as: religious, honesty, self-esteem, selfawareness, self-relience, hard working, and crucial to be made regarding the present social problems prevalent in the country, such as: unemployment (badan pusat statistik indonesia, 2012; low competitive labor forces (undp, 2012) and violence among students. eager to learn, ), (2) academic skills ( that is, logical, critical, creative, and innovative thinking, and curiousity), (3) social skills (that is, responsibility, healthy living, discipline, obidience to social norms, appreciating other people work and achievements, politiness, democrativeness, nationalism, respecting people‘s differences), (4) vocational skills--, that is entrepeneurship). mailto:sajidin.uin@gmail.com 76 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 all social problems above challenge us to seek their solution. one of strategic solutions is to develop life skill, for example, by integrating them in the teaching of subjects as recommended by the government. according to francis (2010), developing life skills is believed to produce the following effects: lessened violent behavior; increased pro-social behavior and decreased negative, selfdestructive behavior; increased the ability to plan ahead and choose effective solutions to problems; improved selfimage, self-awareness, social and emotional adjustment; increased acquisition of knowledge; improved classroom behavior; gains in self control and sociability; better handling of interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety; and improved constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control and popularity. further, it is claimed that life skills help people to encounter their life situation at home, school, work, and any other context in which they find themselves (manglallan and raskauskas, 2003; unesco, 2010). life skills education has been a great concern among researchers and project developers. therefore, a number of studies and projects have been carried out to find the best way to develop life skills, particularly, on the part of students (see for example, information synergy incorporation, 1989; elias and kress, 1994; alcantara, 1994; wendie, 1996; cascini and rich, 2007; awbery, 2008; and peet et al, 2009). however, the findings reveal that the projects were not always successful. a good claim was made by usaid (2008) that the projects involving 773 schools at 22 districts in five provinces: west java, central java, east java, north sumatra, and south sulawesi in the country was successfully implemented. among 22 districts, only one district, that is purbalingga was found less successful. this paper is going to present how the project is implemented in the efl classroom settings and how it is responded by the teachers, the school principles, and the students. the identified problems and their suggested solution will be presented after an ideal implementation is explored. to begin with the paper is going to present related literatures, followed with method of study, and terminated with the conclusion after presenting findings of the study. review of related literature three major relevant concepts will be discussed in this part: (1) the basic concept of english language teaching, (2) definition and coverage of life skills, and (3) strategies of integration. to the last concept, a specific account is presented. brown (1994:7) defines teaching as ―showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or to understand.‖ meanwhile, moore (2007: 5) defines it as ―the action of a person imparting skill or knowledge or language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 77 giving instruction; the job of a person who teaches.‖ from the definition above, we may infer that language teaching is helping language learners to learn how to do something using language. similar opinion is put forward by (richard & rodgers, 2001:157) that: ―language teaching is to help learners in any way that motivates them to work with language.‖ using or working with language is very central in language teaching. this implies that language teaching is not only transferring or imparting language knowledge on the part of learners but also it is developing language skills. language skills can be acquired through a practice using language. therefore, ppp, audiolingual method, grammar translation method, communicative language teaching — all these methods will be discussed latter—have been designed to provide a room for language practices with different terms. for example, the element of practice in ppp is represented by the last p, a short for production. in audiolingual method, it is represented with repeat after me; meanwhile, in communicative language teaching, it is represented with communicative activities. language knowledge is another important element of language teaching. it supports people to use language which is grammatically correct and sociolinguistically appropriate. related to this, experts are different in terms of their approach to teaching language knowledge. some tend to recommend explicit teaching; while, some others are more likely to propose implicit teaching. the proponents of implicit teaching argue that one can speak a language (commonly referring to first language) without teaching the knowledge of grammar. by providing an enough exposure and context, they will be able to communicate and grasp the meaning. meanwhile, the proponents of explicit teaching argue that explicit teaching helps language learners (particularly adults) acquire language knowledge (i.e. grammar) effectively. the fist argument has led to a language teaching strategy under the label ‗focus on meaning or function‘; while; the second has led to language teaching paradigm which is popular with ‗focus on form‘. the aim of language teaching may vary from time to time and from one place to another place. even, it may vary from country to another country. however, there has been a widely accepted belief that the aim of language teaching is for communication (allwright, 1979). in other words, the aim of language teaching is to develop communicative competence. ―the goal of language teaching is to develop what hymes (1972, in richard, 2001: 159) referred to as ―communicative competence.‖ similar opinion is put forward by leotiev (1981) that the aim of foreign language learning is to develop knowledge and skills needed to understand and participate in a wide range of intellectual and practical communicative activities realized through the target language. 78 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 the components of communicative competence have been differently defined and have evolved over the time. canale and merrill swain (1980, in brown, 2007) assume that there are four different components that build communicative competence: (1) grammatical competence; (2) discourse competence, (3) sociolinguistics competence, (4) strategic competence, and (5) actional competence. life skills are defined differently by one expert to another, even by an institution to another. however, they come with the same definition in common that life skills are essential skills for people life (see francis, 2010; depdiknas, 2007; usaid, 2008, junge, manglallan, and raskaukasm 2003, and; unesco, 2010). although life skills are a complex concept, some experts and institutions have developed their scope and categories. unicef (2005) for exmple divides life skills into 28 kinds which are classified into ten sub categories, while hurd, paul dehart (2000) divides life skills into 35 life skills as follows. in addition, iowa state university extension (2010) divides life skills into 4 h (heart, head, hands, and health). indonesian ministry of national education (in power, 2009) formulates life skills into following scope and categories: (1) personal skills, that cover devotion to the one and only god, having noble morals, understanding oneself, believing in oneself, self-study skills, rational thinking, respecting oneself, becoming a human who reflects the morals of god, and reaching individual optimal potential; (2) social skills, that comprise of working in a group, demonstrating social responsibility, being responsible, managing emotions, interacting with the community, participating in local and global culture, developing physical potential, sportsmanship, discipline, cooperation, and healthy living; (3) academic skills that cover having knowledge, using scientific skills, scientific attitude, scientific thinking, thinking strategically, life-long learning skills, communication skills, scientific and technological skills, critical, creative and independent thinking, decision making, problem solving, skills of research and exploration, and ability to use technology; (4) vocational skills that consist of skills connected to a profession which link with one specific area such as sewing, farming, raising animals, automotive, business skills, ict skills, industry, and good attitude for the work environment. in addition, the following life skills are frequently mentioned in some literatures (see for example, wilhelm 2002; nicolaides, 2002; snell, snell-siddle, and whitehouse, 2002; hasbullah & sulaiman, 2002; coates, 2006; murray, et al. 2005; hernández-march, del peso and leguey. 2009; and who, 1997): (1) communication skills, (2) interpersonal skills, (3) lifelong learning, (4) problem solving, (5) creative thinking, (6) leadership, and (7) empathy. http://www.extension.iastate.edu/ http://www.extension.iastate.edu/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 79 integration means ―combining (parts) into a whole‖ or ―completing (something that is imperfect or incomplete) by adding parts‖ (hornby, 1988: 444). referring to the definition, integration means adding components to them. in the context of elt curriculum, the integration of life skills tends to develop communicative competence on the part of english language learners. the acquisition of life skills occurs simultaneously with that of language skills. the assumption is relevant to principles of integration as suggested by the government (depdiknas, 2007) that the integration of life skills into the subjects of teaching (including english) should among other things be implemented to follow the four pillars of learning: (a) learning to know, (b) learning to do, (c) learning to be, and (e) learning to live together. theoretically, life skills can be integrated to all elements of teaching, simply called 5 ms: materials, methods, media, measures, and management. in this case, learning materials (content) are selected to reflect the targeted life skills; methods (including techniques, and learning activities) are developed to meet the goal of life skills; media reflects kinds of selected life skills; measurements (interchangeable with assessment, and evaluation) is designed to measure the targeted life skill; classroom managements are create to support the acquisition of both life skills and language skills. it is also possible that life skills are integrated to another m (man) as a role model. in language teaching, however, the first two ms are more popular. in other words, the integration of life skills is carried out through content and process (power, 2006:7; hopson & sally, 1981). the integration of life skills through content is well documented in english language teaching tradition under the heading, content-based language teaching (tblt). the approach has developed into several types to meet the goal of language learning: (1) themebased language instruction, (2) sheltered content instruction, (3) adjunct language instruction, (4) skill-based instruction, and (5) team-teach approach (richard & rogers, 2001; celce-murcia, 2001). one of obvious characteristics of cblt is that learning materials are selected to reflect targeted life skills. the main goal is that language learners acquire skills or knowledge other than language skills. the extent to which they acquire both skills depends on the formulated goal. however, it seems safe to say that in indonesian context, the language skills are primary goal; meanwhile, non language skills (including life skills or character values) are secondary (see depdiknas, 2007). to select learning materials for content-based language teaching is based on the kind of contents being taught. it is particularly true that if we teach students about ‗responsibility‘, the material should reflect ‗responsibility‘ in terms of its topic or 80 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 its language content. otherwise, teachers create their own learning materials related to it. in addition to the basic principle above, to select learning materials for content-based language teaching (including life skills content), a few literatures (see for example, callahan & motta, 2001; power, 2008; depdiknas, 2007; unicef, 2005; and postma, getkate, and van wijk, 2004) provide their guide line to follow. it is generally suggested that the content should share the following criteria: (1) appropriate with students‘ physical, cognitive, emotional development, (2) relevant to their need, (3) appropriate with the existing time and resources, (4) relevant to students‘ culture. by process, it means practicing life skills in classroom settings during teaching-learning process. for example, to develop interpersonal skills, the students are grouped to work together among their peers. they are not directly taught with these skills, but they engage in a structured learning experience designed by a teacher. the students may subconsciously learn interpersonal skills since the materials they study are content subjects, such as reading for comprehension, or writing a letter. the process of teaching and learning relevant to life skills education varies from one expert to another, but they shares some characteristics in common (see francis, 2007; who,1997; unicef, 2005; unicef, 2007; ferrari et al, 2005; unesco, 2006; postma, getkate,and van wijk, 2004; and, mangrulkan, whitman, and pasner, 2001). they are grouped in the following criteria: (1) an activity-based teaching, (2) interaction or participation, (3) reinforcement, (4) experiential learning in line with the criteria above, some techniques of life skills instruction are identified: (1) brainstorming (see who,1997), (2) role-playing (see who,1997; who, 2002; unesco, 2006; callahan, 2001; mangrulkan, whitman, posner, 2001), (3) debating (see mangrulkan, whitman, posner, 2001), (4) group work and discussion (see unesco, 2006; mangrulkar, whitman, posner, 2001; postma, getkate and van wijk, 2004:6; callahan, 2001; who, 1999), (5) storytelling (see who, 1999; ), (6) games (see unesco, 2006; postma, getkate and van wijk, 2004; callahan, 2001; mangrulkan, whitman, posner, 2001), and (7) literature content analysis (see mangrulkan, whitman, posner, 200), (8) decision mapping or problem trees (see mangrulkan, whitman, posner, 2001), and (9) story or situation analysis (see unesco, 2006; mangrulkan, whitman, posner, 2001). the integration of life skills through media is indicated with the emergence of targeted life skills within a medium or media. for example, to integrate ‗discipline‘ in english language teaching, a teacher prepares or displays people who work with a good discipline, such as: language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 81 coming on time, wearing official dress, or leaving the office as scheduled. classroom management in a broad term refers to any effort to make teaching and learning successful. it ranges from seeking self discipline to preventing mis behavior (cumming, 2001) or from reducing class of friction to providing students with rewards and punishment (smith & laslet, 1993). the integration of life skills through classroom management is reflected in seating arrangement, rewards and punishment, students‘ stress reduction. u-shape seating arrangement and a circle are central in developing social as well personal skills; similarly, rewards and punishments are important classroom managements to develop several personal skills, such as: confidence, discipline, and self-esteem. a basic indicator of the integration through learning assessment is the availability of learning measurement for both language leaning and life skills development. further exploration should be made how effective the learning assessment measures students‘ language skills and life skills. to identify its effectiveness, two main criteria are quite central: reliable and valid. the former refers to the consistence of assessment for different subject and different time; meanwhile, the latter deals with the extent to which the assessment reflects what is ought to measure. method this study was carried out in natural settings, without any intervention from the researcher. the researcher played as a research instrument, in which his role was to explore the existing phenomenon. the research design appropriate for this, therefore, is qualitative research. the research was carried out in five districts in central java implementing the integration of life skills in the teaching of subject (including english language teaching). central java has been chosen as a research activity since it is the province where the researcher studied and had an ample opportunity to have a direct access to data resources. the total population of the research are 29 districts; meanwhile, there 9 districts selected as a pilot project implementing the integration of life skills in the teaching of subjects by the government. of 9 districts, there are 44 schools used as pilot projects implementing the integration life skills into the teaching of subjects, including english language teaching (elt). they are subdivided into two cohorts; cohort i involving 24 schools and cohort ii involving 29 schools. among 24 schools, there are 1335 teachers (english teachers and nonenglish teachers) participating in the project. however, there are no specific data dealing with the number of english teachers participating in the project. 82 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 there are 20 schools implementing the project. however, five districts have been purposively selected as a sample since they had implemented the pilot project longer than the other districts among the districts in central java. it is believed that the longer their engagement with the projects the more knowledgeable they are. moreover, only 9 schools are purposively selected as a core sample; they are the schools under the full management of the government. in other words, they are stateowned schools fully funded and controlled by the government. data were drawn from 21 english teachers and 26 students. their opinion was elicited to conceptually explore the classroom implementation, and their perception toward the project. the respondents were selected on the basis on their readiness to be elicited. there was no specific information regarding the number of english teachers participating in the project. therefore, the sampling method employed was a snow ball; it began from a small unit and its number got bigger along the run. the research employed three techniques of data collection: interview, document analysis, and observation. the main purpose of interview is to explore the teachers, school principals, and students‘ perception to the project. to the teacher, the interviews were specifically conducted to know their opinion dealing with: (1) the kinds of life skills integrated in elt, (2) the strategy to integrate life skills into elt, and (3) the kinds of problem, if any, encountered during the implementation. the observation was conducted as much as nine times from efl classroom settings. the activity was terminated when general patterns had been conceptually formulated. in other words, there was a no longer new pattern emerging from the field. document analysis was carried out to know the kinds of life skills integrated into elt, kinds of teaching materials, form of assessment, teaching media, and general steps of teaching. results and discussion the kind of life skills integrated into elt the kind of life skills integrated in elt varies from one to another resource. an exploration to 15 lesson plans made by the teachers reveals that there are 17 life skills in common; meanwhile, the data elicited from the interviews report that there are 11 kind of life skills commonly integrated. moreover, the data from classroom observation 7 kinds of life skills potentially develop. table 1 represents the kinds of life skills integrated in elt from different resources. from table 1, there are two life skills frequently integrated in elt: collaborative working and communication skills. they are conceptually integrated in their lesson plans and empirically evident during classroom sessions. most life skills are conceptually integrated in elt; meanwhile, there are only a few life skills integrated in elt. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 83 table 1 kinds of life skills integrated in elt. no kinds of life skills lesson plan interviews classroom observation  f f f 1 trustworthiness 2 2 1 5 2 respect 2 2 3 diligence 2 2 4 courage 1 1 3 5 5 responsibility 1 1 2 6 religiosity 2 2 2 6 7 discipline 1 1 2 5 8 creative thinking 1 1 9 curiosity 2 2 10 hard working 1 1 11 self-reliance 1 1 2 12 collaborative working 1 3 11 15 13 problem solving 1 2 3 14 critical thinking 2 2 4 15 communication skills 1 11 12 16 self confidence 2 2 4 17 caring 1 1 18 decision making 3 3 6 the strategies of integration the english teachers at the target schools employed different ways to integrate life skills into the teaching of their subject. however, there is a tendency among english teachers that the commonest way to integrate them is by developing activities relevant to the life skills being developed. in other words, they integrated them by process. conversely, only few teachers, as they claimed, integrate them by content. however, analysis on documents and observation during classroom sessions do not approve at all. table 2 represents the teachers‘ strategy to integrate life skills into english language teaching as it is evident from interview, classroom observation, and document analysis. table 2 the strategies to integrate life skills. no strategies never sometimes often very often always 1 methods √ 2 materials √ 3 media √ 4 management of classroom √ 5 measurement √ 84 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 the integration through method the integration through method (techniques and learning activities) was claimed by 12 of 17 respondents. the exploration to the classroom sessions strengthens their claims. they teachers integrated life skills by developing group discussion (8 of 12 classroom sessions), pair works (2 of 12 classroom sessions), students‘ reflection (1 0f 12 classroom sessions), and students‘ presentation (1 of 12 classroom sessions). taking into account the data above, it seems safe to say that the strategy is very often carried out by the teachers. theoretically, group discussion is strongly recommended to employ (texas education agency. 1991). it can be employed to develop social as well as academic skills. nevertheless, other techniques are also suggested to employ. dillon (2004), for example, suggests that personal skills (living virtue) use a variety of techniques, such as: lecture, exercise in logic, exercise in dialectic and rhetoric, association, exemplification, and imitation. other life skills can be developed through the following techniques: presentation, demonstration, and think-pare share (texas education agency, 1991). the integration through materials teaching materials are selected to meet teaching goals. the kind of teaching materials for life skills are suggested to reflect the kind of life skills to be developed. this means that the integration of life skills as approached from content. exploration to the collected lesson plans reveals that the titles selected do not reflect the kind of life skills to be developed. for example, the kind of life skills to be developed in lesson plan (lp) #3 is respect and religious; meanwhile, the title selected is yuni’s holiday. likewise, the kind of life skills as presented in lp #6 is self confidence; whereas, the title selected is koala bears. the analysis to their content as well as teachers‘ questioning does not reflect the kinds of life skills being developed. the integration through media pictures are the most frequently used teaching media during classroom sessions. card is another teaching used by the teacher. an exploration to the existing media, however, does not reflect the kind of life skills being developed. therefore, during classroom sessions the teachers never integrate life skills through teaching media. the integration through management of classrooms there is no specific effort from the teachers, as they claimed from the interviews, to integrate life skills through management of the classroom. however, there are a lot of the teachers‘ spontaneous activities that lead the students to acquire particular life skills. among other things can be seen in table 3. language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 85 table 3 the integration through management of classrooms. no management of classroom potential life skills classroom observation total 1 structuring classroom communication skills interpersonal skills, leadership co #01, co #03, co #04, co #05, co #06, co #07, co #09, co #10, co #11 9 2 reminding jury time discipline co #01, co #06, co #09, co #11 4 3 appreciating students‘ work/performance self-confidence co #01, co #05,co #0 6, co #07, co #11, co #12 6 4 encouraging students to come forward confidence, courage co #04 1 seen from the table above, the teachers very often integrated life skills through management of classroom. the integration through measurement of the documents above, there is no single document identifying specific life skills to be developed and how they are assessed. instead of giving more specific life skills, life skills formulation was indentified in more general ones: (such as social skills, academic skills, and personal skills. the lack of clarity seems to lead teachers to develop the skills ineffectively. likewise, there is no specific activity how life skills were evaluated in the classroom. analysis carried out toward observation sheets did not identify how the evaluation was developed. form of assessment is also identified in lesson plans but it is limited to language skills. thus, life skills assessment is missing from both teachers‘ activities and their lesson plan. the absence of life skills assessment might lead us to assume that teachers have no specific target to develop life skills. to carefully develop life skills, a specific procedure of life skills assessment is required. this might help teachers to evaluate their teaching result. in addition, the student learning progress on the targeted life skills can be evaluated over the time. literatures on life skills assessment suggest that life skills are assessed through a variety of modes. the followings are popular techniques to assess life skills: observation, journal logs, performance test, paper-pencil tests, checklist, etc. (see unesco, 2008). problems of implementation and their possible solution the integration of life skills in english language teaching as implemented in the pilot project commonly works as planned by the teachers. however, some problems emerged during the implementation. the exploration to 9 classroom sessions reveals the following findings: 86 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 table 4 the problems evident during the implementations. no type of problems classroom observation (co) # total 1 incomplete communication task executions co#01, co#2, co#3, co#5, co#6, co#7, co#09, co#11 8 2 low monitoring co #01, co #07, co #05, co #09, 4 3 incomprehensible input co #03, co #04, co #05 3 4 life skill negligence co #01, co #06, co #08 3 5 unclear instruction co #06, co #07 2 6 poor time management co #03 1 as we may notice from table 4, incomplete communication tasks execution is the greatest problem among the six identified problems. the solution to the problem is that the teachers should have an obvious teaching goal and continue the teaching up to the acquisition of language skills and life skills. the acquisition of language skills is indicated with the ability to create a text (in a broader term). in this case, genre-based instruction cycles is strongly recommended since the instruction gradually guides a teacher to develop students communicative competence through the creation of different texts (see hammond et.al., 1992; derewianka, 1990, and feeze & joyce, 1998). the solution is also applicable for the fourth problem. the second problem is simply stated that the monitoring should be intensified by approaching an individual student or group during task execution. in respect to the third problem, the solution is the same as the problem put forward by the teachers above. in respect to the fifth problem is that the teacher developed a written instruction in addition to spoken instruction. last but not least, the teachers appoint a time keeper to remind their teaching sessions. furthermore, the integration of life skills in english language teaching in the existing model was positively claimed by the students. most of the students (21 of 26 respondents) claimed that the model facilitated them to work collaboratively; almost half of them (11 of 26 respondents) perceived that the model help to express their ideas; several of them (7 of 26 respondents) felt more confidence in learning english; few students (1 of 26 respondents) respectively were able to build togetherness, to learn from others, and to be more responsible. it was also positively claimed by some teachers (5 of 21 respondents). however, most of them (8 of 21 respondents) are not satisfied with the existing model. their dissatisfaction with the existing model can be seen in table 5 in which the greatest source of language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 87 dissatisfaction is that the model requires more facilities. they also perceive that the implementation requires an extra preparation. table 5 the teachers‘ satisfaction with the existing model. no type of problems respondent # total 1 requiring more facilities r#01, r#07, r# 08, r#0 9, r# 11, r# 17, 8 2 requiring an extra preparation r#09, r# 10, r# 13, r# 17, r# 10, 5 3 conflicting with teachers‘ teaching target (standard competence) r#01, r# 12, r# 13, r# 16, 4 4 inappropriate with students‘ local condition r#12, r# 13, r# 17 3 conflicting with their teaching target and inappropriate with students‘ local condition are problems which are considered minor. the solution to the first problem is that teachers should build communication with the local school principals to provide a specific budget for them. otherwise, they have to make any kinds of facilities available when the teachers needed them spontaneously. with regard to the second problem, it is imperative that the teachers select academic works with clerical works. the teachers only hand over academic works; meanwhile, the clerical works can be shared with others. regarding to the third problems, the teachers have to identify the kind of life skills possibly integrated in their lesson plans. as the government suggests, the teachers have to analyze english competence standard and basic competence and integrated life skills when they are possible (see depdiknas, 2007). by so doing, the target of language teaching and life skills integration is fully realized. in respect to the last problems, they teachers have to select appropriate teaching materials and tasks with their current abilities. it is generally assumed that a good level of teaching material and tasks are one level above their current ability (see krashen, 1984). conclusion and recommendation there are 18 kinds of life skills intentionally integrated in english language teaching. however, there are only 7 kinds of life skills empirically integrated in efl classroom sessions: trustworthiness, courage, religiosity, discipline, collaborative working, decision making, and communication skills. moreover, there are 4 kinds of life skills unintentionally integrated in elt. yet, they potentially develop on the part of students during their engagement in the classroom sessions. the integration of life skills in elt as piloted by usaid in five districts in central 88 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 java was carried out through various modes. however, there is a tendency among the teachers that they integrated life skills in elt through process (or method, that is, the selection of teaching techniques, and students‘ tasks). the most frequent technique employed is group discussion, another label for group work or cooperative learning. the technique was selected to develop communication skills, interpersonal skills, and other social skills. there are several problems frequently encountered by the teachers during the implementation. it is generally claimed that the implementation in the existing model (1) requires more facilities, (2) needs an extra preparation, (3) conflicts with teachers‘ teaching target (standard competence), and (4) inappropriate with students‘ local condition. besides, there are other problems as commonly identified during classroom sessions: (5) incomplete communication task executions, (6) low monitoring, (7) incomprehensible input, (8) life skill negligence, (9) unclear instruction and (10) poor time management. the solution to the problems is respectively given below: (1) building communication and coordination with the school principals as well as administrative staffs, (2) sharing works with other school parties, (3) selecting particular life skills to fit with the standard competence, (4) selecting more comprehensible teaching materials by modifying or adapting them, (5) setting up a clear teaching goal and employing a more structural step of teaching to develop communicative activities, (6) intensifying monitoring during task execution, (7) selection more comprehensible teaching materials and developing negotiation of meaning, (8) setting up clear goal of language skills, and developing life skills instrument, (9) developing written instructions in 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(unpublished annual report). wendie, o.1996. improving social skills through intervention integrated learning. illinois: saint xavier university & pearson achievement solutions, inc. weisen et al. 1997. life skills education for children and adolescents in schools: introduction and guidelines to facilitate the development and implementation of life skills programs. geneva: world health organization. who. 1997. partners in life skills education–conclusions from a united nations inter–agency meeting. geneva: department of mental health, world health organization. wilhelm, w. j. 2002. meeting the demand: teaching “soft” skills. usa: delta pi epsilon. http://hdrst.undp.org/en/indicators_display_cf_xls_indicator.cfm?indic_by http://hdrst.undp.org/en/indicators_display_cf_xls_indicator.cfm?indic_by http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/%20index_7308.html http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/%20index_7308.html language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 33 theme equivalence and theme shift found in indonesian-english translation of thesis abstracts yuanita damayanti semarang state university abstract this study analyzes types of themes, theme equivalence, theme shifts in the indonesianenglish translation of thesis abstracts. the data consist of 10 thesis abstracts and their translation into english, taken from postgraduate program of semarang state university from the last two years (2010-2011). the result shows that topical theme dominates the entire texts at 80.16% (198 out of 247) in st and 79.56% (222 out of 279) in tt. interpersonal theme is not found both in st and tt. most topical themes are in participants, followed by circumstance and process. the textual theme in both texts is adjunct conjunctive. most of the themes (70.2%) are considered as non shift or equivalent. the theme shift occurrs through three processes: (1) by changing the grammatical function within the theme (11.7%), (2) by adding more themes (14.7%) and (3) by deleting themes (3.4%). it is suggested for a translator to have complete mastery over the grammatical structure of both the sl and tl and also being aware of the notions and application of shifts and equivalence. keywords: equivalence, shift, theme, transitivity, translation, abstract introduction translation as defined by newmark (1988:7) is “a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” nida and taber (1982:12) propose a rather complete definition of translation. according to the two experts, “translating consisting of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” the definition proposed by nida and taber contain some elements that should be taken into account by a translator in performing his/her task: reproducing the message, equivalence, natural equivalence, closest equivalence, priority on meaning and also style. meanwhile, catford (1965:20) also states that translation is the “replacement of textual material in one language (sl) by equivalent textual material in another language (tl).” with respect to translation equivalence (te), baker (1992:77) used the notion of equivalence for the sake of convenience and it is variously regarded as a necessary condition for translations, an obstacle to a progress in translation studies, or a useful category for describing translation. translation equivalence should be characterized in terms of a negotiatory 34 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 interaction of all these factors; and these factors can be seen as the integrated condition of te. these conditions are as follows: vocabulary, structure, texture, sentence meaning as opposed to utterance meaning, language varieties, aesthetic effect, and cognitive effect. all these seven conditions should be taken into account in the process of establishing te (lotfipoursaedi: 1990:390). based on the notion above, we could see that the “theme equivalence” and “theme shifts” which are being the focus in this study has something to do with the structure of a clause. theme equivalence in this case, is defined as the equivalence occurring in the theme position of a clause, where the theme of source text (st) clause is transformed into the same theme type and grammatical function -seen from the theme and transitivity systemin the target text (tt). on the other hand, theme shift occurs when the theme in st is translated into different type of theme and grammatical functions in the tt. this assumption is supported by farrokh (2011:74) who argues that shift occurred when the form in the source language has a new form or different form from the target language. she adds that shift could minimize the inevitable loss of meaning when rendering a text from one language into another language (farrokh, 2011:79) the possibility of applying systemic functional theory to translation research lies in the fact that translation itself is a meaning-realization process which involves choices of different language resources, while systemic functional grammar provides us with a way of describing lexical and grammatical choices from the system of wording that enables us to see how language is being used to realize meaning (fang, 2008:286). theme and rheme are described as a method for structuring information. theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that which locates and orients the clause within its context, typically contains familiar or „given‟ information which has already been mentioned somewhere in the text, or is familiar from the context. on the other hand, rheme is defined as the remainder of the message, the part in which the theme is developed, typically contains unfamiliar or „new‟ information (halliday and matthiessen, 2004:64; and eggins, 1994:275). further, baker (1992:121) clearly points out two functions of the theme: (1) it acts as a point of orientation by connecting back to previous stretches of discourse and thereby maintaining a coherent point of view, and (2) it acts as a point of departure by connecting forward and contributing to the development of later stretches. meanwhile, rheme is the goal of discourse. it is the most important elements in the structure of the clause as a message because it represents the very information that the speaker wants to convey to the hearer. it is the rheme that language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 35 fulfils the communicative purpose of the utterance. according to gerot and wignell (1994: 104-108), the theme can be divided into: (1) ideational or topical theme, (2) interpersonal theme and (3) textual theme. topical theme is functioning as the point of orientation for the experiential meanings of the clause and contains a realization of the experiential representation – a participant, a process of a circumstance (wang, 2009:5 and fontaine and kodratoff, 2003:4). interpersonal theme includes elements that reflect the kind of interaction taking place among speakers (e. g. maybe, obviously) and is often functioning to code the speaker‟s or writer‟s personal judgment on meaning (wang, 2009:5 and fontaine and kodratoff, 2003:4). the constituents which can function as interpersonal themes are the unfused finite, in interrogatives structures, and all four categories of modal adjuncts: mood, vocative, polarity and comment (eggins, 1994:278). textual themes almost always constitute the first part of the theme, coming before any interpersonal themes. it functions to relate the meaning of the particular clause to other parts of the text (wang, 2009:5). further, these elements do not express any interpersonal or experiential meaning, but they are doing important cohesive work in relating the clause to its context. the two main types of textual elements which can get to be theme are continuity adjuncts and conjunctive adjuncts (eggins, 1994:281). while clause do frequently begin with a single transitivity constituent acting as theme, it is also possible to get either interpersonal or textual elements in thematic position. in addition to theme and rheme, it is also important to consider the transitivity. according to eggins (1994:229), in analyzing transitivity system, it is concerned with describing three aspects of the clause: (1) process, (2) participant, and (2) circumstance. the process represents the happening or event the clause is on about, whether it is a matter of a ‘happening’, ‘doing’, ‘saying’, ‘being’, ‘having’, etc. halliday in gerot and wignell (1994:54) assert that there are indeed seven different process types; they are material, behavioral, mental, verbal, relational, existential, and meteorological. participants represent things or people involved in carrying out the process or things or people affected by process. participants are realized by nominal groups (group of words which serve as subject or complement). according to but et al. (2001:52 – 66) a participant can be a person, a place, or an object (this is the notion of “thingness”). circumstance is any peace of circumstantial information about the process within its own clause. circumstances are realized by adverbial groups, prepositional phrases and even by nominal group. circumstances answer such questions as when, where, why, how, 36 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 how many and as what (but et al., 2001:64 – 70). moreover, gerot and wignell (1994:52 – 53) state that circumstances are divided into seven kinds, they are: (1) time (temporal), (2) place (spatial), (3) manner, (4) cause, (5) accompaniment, (6) matter, and (7) role. as part of the requirements of the thesis in postgraduate program of semarang state university, an abstract must be written in both indonesian and english. according to kies (2005), an abstract is a summary that highlights the major points of the works and outlines the significant detail. cooley and lewkowicz in paltridge and starfield (2007:155) give a more detailed definition about abstract. furthermore, kies (2005) argues that an abstracts informs the reader of six bits of information about the piece of writing. they are (1) purpose, (2) scope, (3) method, (4) results, (5) recommendations and (6) conclusion. the fact that the thesis is written in indonesian, then translated into english, it is important to examine the equivalence of the abstract in indonesian and in english. given this fact, this study focuses on analyzing the theme equivalence and theme shifts found in the indonesian-english translation of thesis‟ abstracts. specifically, this study investigates types of theme, thematic equivalence, and the theme shifts in the translation of thesis abstracts from indonesian to english. methods this study belongs to a descriptive qualitative research. as suggested by miles and huberman (1994:1) that qualitative research does not focus on numeral or statistics but give much attention to how deep the researcher‟s knowledge is toward the interaction among concepts which are being learnt. such data are considered a source of well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts. the findings from qualitative studies have an “undeniability” quality. in addition, cresswell (1994:145) stated that qualitative research is descriptive when the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or picture. as a consequence of the great number research abstracts found in the postgraduate program of semarang state university, the number of data used in this study is limited to only 10 thesis abstracts written in indonesia and 10 of their english translated version. they are from the latest 2 years (2010 – 2011) and come from different field of studies. the units of analysis in this reasearch are clauses. every clause found in both english and indonesian thesis‟ abstracts will be analyzed to observe the theme equivalence and theme shift. the data are analyzed qualitatively by taking the following steps: collecting the theses abstracts written in indonesian and their english translation, dividing all the data into language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 37 clauses, rewriting and labeling the parts of the clauses in terms of the theme-rheme system along with their grammatical function, contrasting the clauses, tabulating the frequency, identifying theme equivalence and theme shift, identifying the process of thematic shift from st to tt, and drawing conclusion. results and discussion types of theme based on the analysis, it is found that of the 192 clauses in source text (st) and 201 clauses in the target text (tt), there are total 247 theme used in the source text (st) and 278 theme used in the target text (tt). the dominant type of theme is topical theme either in st and tt. the textual theme is also found in both st and tt, but there is no interpersonal theme found. the topical theme lies in three grammatical functions of systemic functional linguistic (sfl) analysis. they are as participant, circumstances and process. the textual theme mainly functions as adjunct conjunctive. from 247 theme used in the source text (st), 199 of them or 81% are topical theme, while the rest are textual theme with total 48 or 19%. topical theme in st is dominantly in grammatical function of participant (80%) either as subject, object, or complement. other than dominant participant grammatical function, topical theme is also found in circumstance grammatical function (17%) and followed by process grammatical function (3%) as the least frequent. meanwhile, all textual theme found in st are in adjunct conjunctive grammatical function, with total 48 themes. if topical theme is found most frequent in st, the same thing happens to the dominant theme in tt. topical theme employs 80% (223) of the total theme in tt. the rest with 20% occupation of the total theme or 57 are textual theme. same with st, the st, most of the topical theme in tt are in participant grammatical function (87,4%), followed by circumstance grammatical function (12,1%) and then process grammatical function (0,5%) as the least frequent. textual theme found in st is in adjunct conjunctive grammatical function, with total 57 themes. in both st and tt, the topical theme is mostly dominated by participant grammatical function due to the process it owns. this translation is deal with the academic work, in which the translated texts are thesis‟s abstract. the translator should communicate the whole content of their works in a condensed short text but it contains thorough information, and the most important thing that he or she is able to transfer the intended message of the abstract‟s writer naturally and acceptable. the dominant processes found are relational process, mental process and material process. most of the relational processes are intensifying. an intensive relational process involves establishing a 38 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 relationship between two terms, where the relationship is expressed by the verb be or a synonym (eggins: 1994:256). the most participant in this process are as carrier, in which most of the clauses in this process is not reversible. this means that there is no passive form of the clause. in material process, the role of participant as an actor functions as the doer of the action in the process it owns. it is stated that actor should do something or something (goal) should be conducted. clauses in this process which fronted actor in the theme position are therefore in active form. on the contrary, if goal is placed in the theme position, the clauses should be in passive form. the mental process found in both st and tt involves mental reaction about thoughts, feelings and reaction. the most participant in this process are as senser, yet few of them also found in phenomenon in the case of passive form. meanwhile, the textual theme is dominated mainly by adjunct conjunctive. in abstract writing, usually it requires steps and actions as well as clarifies and states a condition. in most cases, the steps and actions are conducted by the same participant. thus, adjunct conjunctive is added to correlate the clause with its subordinates. theme equivalence and theme shift the theme equivalence is achieved when the theme of source text (st) is translated into the same theme type and grammatical function of target text (tt) clause. meanwhile, theme shift occurred when the theme of st is different from theme in tt, in a way that they are not in the same type and grammatical functions. example: 5a. akan tetapi program akselerasi di smpn 3 pati ini banyak menyita waktu anak untuk kegiatan belajar akan tetapi program akselerasi di smpn 3 pati ini banyak menyita waktu anak untuk kegiatan belajar adj. conj actor pr: material goal textual topical rheme theme 5b. however, the acceleration program in state junior high school 3 of pati requires the students to spend a lot of time to study, however the acceleration program in state junior high school 3 of pati requires the students to spend a lot of time to study, language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 39 adj. conj actor pr: material goal textual topical rheme theme (taken from abstract 9) as seen in the above example, theme in clause 5a consists of textual theme in adjunct conjunctive grammatical function, and actor as the topical theme. these themes do not receive any change when they are translated into clause 5b. so, they theme remain in the same type and grammatical functions. the process involved in the rheme position is also the same that is material process. further, we can say that the thematic equivalence is achieved in clause 5a and its corresponding clause (5b). 19a. (2) manajemen bermain anak kelas akselerasi smpn 3 pati dilakukan hanya pada waktu liburan ,vaktu senggang dikarenakan untuk setiap harinya mereka banyak menghabiskan waktu untuk belajar dan hampir tidak mempunyai waktu untuk bermain. manajemen bermain anak kelas akselerasi smpn 3 pati dilakukan hanya pada waktu liburan, waktu senggang. dikarenakan untuk setiap harinya mereka banyak menghabiskan waktu untuk belajar dan hampir tidak mempunyai waktu untuk bermain. goal pr: material circ: time circ: cause topical rheme theme 19b. (2) the students of the acceleration program manage their playing time during their holidays or free time because every day they spend most of their time to study and do not have time to play. (taken from abstract 9) meanwhile in clause 19a, goal is acted as the topical theme and the actor is not written or implied. whereas the process involved in those clauses is material process. clauses in st are then transformed to active form in 19b. the processes in those three clauses remain the same. since they are stated in active the students of the acceleration program manage their playing time during their holidays or free time. because every day they spend most of their time to study and do not have time to play. actor pr: material goal circ: extent circ: cause topical rheme theme 40 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 form, actor is needed to be placed as topical theme instead of goal. thus, we can say that there is a shift –changing theme from actor to goalin clause 19a to 19b. 6a. dan mengakibatkan anak merasa tidak mempunyai waktu bermain yang cukup. dan mengakibatkan anak merasa tidak mempunyai waktu bermain yang cukup. adj. conj pr: mental phenomenon textual rheme theme 6b. so they do not have enough time to play so they do not have enough time to play adj. conj token pr: possession value textual topical rheme theme (taken from abstract 9) 9a. bahwa secara simultan pengelolaan laboratorium dan kompetensi laboran berpengaruh signifikan terhadap kualitas pelayanan laboratorium, bahwa secara simultan pengelolaan laboratorium dan kompetensi laboran berpengaruh signifikan terhadap kualitas pelayanan laboratorium, adj. conj circ: manner senser pr: mental circ: manner circ: location textual topical topical rheme theme 9b. that the management of laboratories and laboratory assistant competence influence simultaneously on the quality of laboratory services, that the management of laboratories and laboratory assistant competence influence simultaneously on the quality of laboratory services adj. conj senser pr: mental circ: manner circ: location textual topical rheme theme (taken from abstract 5) language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 41 in the above example, clause 6a has only one theme, namely textual theme. but when it is translated into clause 6b, one more theme is added in order to make the clause more acceptable in tt, since in english, all clauses should have a subject. thus, the additional theme “they” as token is functioned as a subject or topical theme. on the other hand, clause 9a owns three themes as adjunct conjunctive, circumstance of manner and senser. but in its translated clause (9b) the theme decrease into two, functions as adjunct conjunctive and senser while circumstance of manner is moved to the rheme position. in other word, we can say that it is deleted from the theme position. table 2.1: the theme equivalence and theme shifts distribution abstract non-shifted theme shifted theme additional theme deletion of theme 1 27 3 4 2 10 5 6 3 16 4 2 4 27 7 5 17 1 2 1 6 16 2 2 1 7 31 3 3 2 8 19 1 7 1 9 20 10 5 2 10 22 5 5 3 total 205 34 43 10 percentage 70.2 % 11.7 % 14.7 % 3.4 % the table above shows that the theme equivalence, in this case is represented by the number of non-shifted theme is recorded more frequent than the theme shift. it is at 70.2%. meanwhile, the theme shift found in the translation can be divided into three processes, namely (1) shift by changing the grammatical function within the theme (shifted theme), (2) shift by adding one or more themes, and (3) shift by deleting one or more themes in the translated texts. there are 34 or 11.7% non-shifted themes, 43 or 14.7% additional theme and 10 themes were deleted (3.4%). considering shift happens to the translated abstracts, it can be seen that the meaning equivalence as the goal of the translator is still achieved. shifts happened to the translated abstracts are mostly caused by the different grammatical form of the target language text. the notion of equivalence and shift is undoubtedly one of the most problematic and controversial areas in the field of translation theory. this study is aimed at 42 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 analyzing the theme equivalence and theme shift in the indonesia-english translation of thesis‟ abstracts. as we know that equivalence and shifts in translation have a very board definition. thus, this study is expected to give insight on the concept of equivalence and shifts in translation study. conclusion and suggestion conclusion based on the finding of the analysis, there are two types of theme found: topical or ideational theme and textual theme. interpersonal theme was not found either in source text (st) or target text (tt). topical theme dominates the entire texts at 80.16% (198 out of 247) in st and 79.56% (222 out of 279) in tt. most topical themes are in participants, followed by circumstance and process grammatical function. as participant grammatical function, most common topical themes are carrier, actor, goal and senser. in tt, the process and circumstance shares the second common topical theme after participant grammatical function that dominates the text. the textual theme in both texts is adjunct conjunctive functions that correlates clause with the same theme sense. most clauses are in material and relational process. as the process is mostly in actions and events, it needs participants to conduct such intended actions and events. theme equivalence is recorded more frequent than the theme shift. it is at 70.2%. the theme equivalence occurred when themes in st are translated into the same theme types (topical, interpersonal or textual) and in the same grammatical functions –participant, process, and circumstancesin tt. on the other hand, the theme shift found in the abstract translation can be divided into three processes: (1) shift by changing the grammatical function of the theme, (2) shift by adding one or more themes, and (3) shift by deleting one or more themes in the translated texts. there are 34 themes or 11.7% were changed into different type and grammatical function, 43 themes or 14.7% were considered as additional theme and 10 themes were deleted (3.4%). suggestion theoretically, linguistics researchers, english learner and translator especially in higher education are expected to conduct further study and may use the findings of this research as their supported reference to analyze another dimension of translation equivalence or shifts which may occur in a translated work which can present a wider perspective on the analysis. practically, for translator, it is mostly recommended it is necessary for a translator for having complete mastery over the grammatical structure of both the source language (sl) and target language (tl), and also being aware of the notions and application of translation shifts and equivalence. pedagogically, as noted previously, the language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/1 october 2012 43 shifts in translation is an unavoidable matter in translating. consequently a translator should always pay attention to such shifts in order not to change the meaning. in other word, the translation should only changes the form thematically, or grammatically, or both without causing a change in meaning. references baker, m. 1992. in other words: a course book on translation. london and new york: routledge catford, j. c. 1978. a linguistic theory of translation. london: oxford university press cresswell, john w. 1994. research design qualitative and quantitative approach. london: sage publication eggins, suzzane. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publishers limited fang, jing, et all. 2008. what may be hidden behind a translator‟s choice: a comparative analysis of two translations of the art of war. in systemic functional linguistics in use, owplc vol: 29 pp 283-306. retrieved august 10th 2012 from http://static. sdu.dk/mediafiles. farrokh, parisa. 2011. the equivalence and shift in the persian translation of english complex sentence with whsubordinate clauses. in canadian center of science and education journal vol. 1 no. 2, pp 74-81 december 2011. retrieved july 22nd 2012. http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/ index.php/index/search/results. fontaine, lise and yves kodratoff. 2003. the role of thematic and concept texture in scientific text: comparing native and non-native writers of english. in la revue du geras journal. retrieved december 5th 2011. http://www.pdfsearch/thematicstructure /2175. gerot, linda and peter wignell. 1994. making sense of functional grammar. new south wales: antipodean educational enterprise halliday, m.a.k. and c. matthiessen. 2004. an introduction to functional grammar. london: arnold publisher kies, daniel. 2005. writing an abstract. retrieved november 30rd 2011 from http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp 2/abstract.htm lotfipour-saedi, k. 1990. discourse analysis and the problem of translation equivalence. in meta journal xxxv/2 pp 389-397. retrieved august 10th 2012 http://jaits.web. fc2.com/lotfipour-1.pdf. miles, mattew b., and michael a huberman. 1994. qualitative data analysis. california: sage publication. newmark, p. 1988. a textbook in translation. london: prentice hall nida, eugene and charles r. taber. 1982. the theory and practice of translation. leiden: e. j. brill wang, xuefeng. 2009. grammatical concepts and their application in foreign language teaching. retrieved november 19th 2011. http://www.aare. edu.au/06pap/wan06111.pdf. http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/%20index.php/index/search/results http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/%20index.php/index/search/results http://www.pdfsearch/thematicstructure/2175 http://www.pdfsearch/thematicstructure/2175 http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/abstract.htm http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/abstract.htm language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 177 efl teachers’ perception toward the use of “beyond” international textbook muhammad muzakky1 muhammd_muzakky19@mhs.uinjkt.ac.id albiansyah2 1,2universitas islam negeri syarif hidayatullah jakarta, indonesia abstract this study aims to explore the teacher’s perception on using the “beyond” textbook that is from an international publisher. the study used descriptive qualitative design. the open-ended questionnaire was used to explore the teachers’ perception. the participants of the study were three english teachers, two of them are from smpit al muqorrobin-depok and one is from smpi al ikhlas-south jakarta. the finding revealed that the teacher has a positive perception of the textbook. it has accordance with the requirements of the good book. the content is aligned with the indonesia curriculum. it also involved four basic language skills as well as its language knowledge. however, the textbook has very minimal local cultural understanding and doesn’t facilitate all learners’ cognitive level. for further research, it is suggested to have the study in bilingual or senior school in order to find the maximum result toward the implementation of the textbook. keywords: teacher perception, textbook, international introduction textbooks are an important source in teaching and learning english. it is stated by brown (1995) points out (johar & aziz, 2019) that textbooks are learning support, source of language, stimulation, and reference. it is used by teachers and students as the media that is mandated by the government (afersa, 2020). several benefits are performed in using textbooks; students can look back on previous learning easier, the price is affordable, and teachers can adjust the textbook to the learners' needs by modifying it (o’neill, 1982 as cited in susiati & mufidati, 2020) based on the benefits offered in textbooks, some schools tend to have the best book for their students. like the fact that english is an international language, most schools used the book that was published by international education. in one case in smpit al-muqorrobin, the school stockholder said that the international book used to provoke students to be able to speak bilingual (english-indonesia), successful in learning english, and ready to face the latest challenges requiring good performance in english. then, this study will focus on “beyond the book”. it is one of the international textbooks used at school. in light of the perception, it is a process of response after the stimulus given that affects our sense to be aware of a thing. ramadhani et al., (2017) concluded that perception is the ability to make a response and being aware of something after seeing and understanding something. in other words, perception is a human sense or sensor in the form of response and awareness after experiencing something. some factors affecting human perception are stated by (rakhmat, 2009). he argues personal factors as the first factor, it refers to human experience, needs, hope, motivation, situation, and emotion. the next is structural factors; it consists of intensity, quantity, and contradiction stimulus. the last factor is the cultural aspect which refers to individual lives. perception can be formed through the human sensory organ, by seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, or experiencing. as stated by walgito (2013) the formation process of perception is preceded by the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:muhammd_muzakky19@mhs.uinjkt.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 178 sensing process which is the admission process of the stimulus by an individual through the sensory organs or also called sensory processes. there are positive and negative perceptions. the positive perception refers to the good side of stimuli, whereas the negative indicates the weak side of stimuli. regarding this topic, some previous related studies to teachers’ perception toward the implementation of english textbooks, as mentioned by okitasari and palupi (2020) conducted a study regarding teacher's perception toward efl textbook “english ok” in 2019. then, it found that teachers said that the book was helpful and important since it is considered a good textbook. despite this, the weaknesses of the textbook were the unavailability of the audiocassette, answer sheet, and exercise preparation for the national examination. in the other study, ramadhani et al., (2017) conducted a study to describe the perception of english teachers of smpn 2 banda aceh regarding the english textbook’s content in “when english rings a bell” book. the finding revealed that the content of the textbook is already complete and relevant with the 2013 curriculum, syllabus, and standard and basic competence. however, the material provided in general with fewer examples. lastly (2013) conducted the study which purposed to investigate the teachers' perceptions towards the textbooks usage, their strategies, and difficulties in using the textbook in the classroom. the result shows that the teachers perceived positively towards the textbook. the book suited the students’ needs, and the syllabus. teachers are usually using the textbook by adding, modifying, and omitting the material as their strategies. however, teachers often face difficulties with the limited aids for teaching. beyond book is published by macmillan education in london which strives to provide the highest quality books, content, and tools. the content of the book includes language skills and competence section with two different video displays (moving picture videos and speaking video) in which makes the page come to life. besides, it has been operated in over 120 countries. however, in the indonesian context, the complete data is not found. based on limited observation, there are eight schools including smpit al-muqorrrobin, smp islam al ikhlas, natherdam school, my school, mardiyuana school, salib suci bandung school, karang turi semarang school, maria bintang laut bandung, school. also, the indonesian distributor said that the book is already in line with cefr (common european framework of reference for languages) international language standard. in sum, the textbook may probably be a good book for students to facilitate their needs. since the textbook is only as english teaching media, the key point is how to operate it optimally by the teachers. as a result, the teacher’s perspectives need to be explored to know the effectiveness of the book. therefore, teachers’ perception plays an important role to know the valuable information of material being used, curriculum, and the teachers’ consideration on choosing the material (afersa, 2020; starkey, 2010; borg, 2001) methodology this research was conducted with a descriptive study that is a qualitative approach to provide detailed information of cases. the descriptive method is defined as a method that is intentionally done to collect information about a phenomenon as in the pure condition (yin, 2003). it is to explore detailed information about the teacher’s perception, and the documents of the textbook. nine open-ended questionnaires are used to find out the teacher's perception of the textbook. the participants of the study are three english teachers who teach with macmillan beyond the book in multi-levels. the participants were selected by purposive sampling, it was used to a selection of particularly informative and can best help to understand the central phenomenon (cresswell, 2012). teacher 1 is from smpit al-muqorrobin, depok that has used beyond in two years, teacher 2 is also from the same school who use beyond in ten months, and the last teacher 3 is from smpi alhttps://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 179 iklhas-south jakarta who has used beyond in two years. result and discussion teachers’ perceptions on textbook to answer the research question, the study shows that there are eight items as mentioned by bsnp on feasibility aspects of the textbook: namely, completeness, deepness, social functions, elements and structure of meaning, linguistic features, up to date, life skills development, and cultural diversity development. those would be the consideration aspects of textbook perception. the interview result and the question are displayed. t1, t2, and t3 are labeled as the respondents or teachers. completeness the first question of the interview is to know the teachers’ perception of the suitability of beyond books with curriculum and syllabus in indonesia. the question is “what do you think about the suitability of beyond's book with the 13th curriculum and the indonesian education syllabus?” the respondents said that beyond book has already suited with the curriculum 2013 and teaching syllabus in indonesia. as the t2 stated that the publisher has mapped the material into the current indonesia curriculum as well as its syllabus teaching. it was supported by okitasari and palupi, (2020) who stated that a good textbook should provide an outline of the syllabus for the teacher. it is useful to assist the teacher in applying curriculum in the process of teaching and learning (ayu & indrawati, 2019). however, as t3 refers that the book has widely material than k-13. as it is an international book, the teacher also found that the content was expanded. deepness the second question, related to the material presented in beyond book “how detailed is the presentation of the materials presented in the beyond book?” it is to explore how the material packaging in the textbook is. in general, the book has good material presented. it includes four basic english skills and also in-depth discussion. it was supported by brown (2001) who said that a good textbook has involved four language skills and collaborates them in an integrated skill. as he stated that a textbook should be accompanied by audio to practice students’ listening skills. the other language knowledge is also presented to help students understand the material easily, such as a vocabulary box, a grammar section, and pronunciation (cunningsworth, 1995). social function then, question number 3 is to know the concept and definition presented in beyond book. it is as mentioned in the question “what is your opinion about the presentation of concepts and definitions in the beyond book?” the teachers’ perception indicates the agreement that the concept and definition contained in beyond book is presented appropriate with the language concept, also it indicates ease to understand and many activities. however, the students with middle-low cognitive competence will face difficulty to understand the book. they need to be assisted by the teacher clearly (susiati & mufidati, 2020). it was found also in septiana et al., (2020) who show that teachers should put students in the first consideration while implementing teaching-learning activity. what is more, a textbook also found not adequate to suit every learner (masruroh et al., 2019) element and structure of meaning question 4 is related to the structure of the textbook in which should involve interpersonal, transactional, and functional text. the question is as formulated “what do the texts presented in the beyond book cover the structure of each text? (both interpersonal, transactional, and functional text)”. from the data, beyond the book has involved the structure of each text. the structure of the text is shown in the dialogue and conversation of the book. linguistic feature the next question is to find the language feature of the book. the question derived to consider the students’ needs. it is as formulated https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 180 “what is your opinion about the use of language in beyond? is it following the student's education level?”. the respondents answer such as follow: according to t1 view, the language feature in beyond book was suited to students’ level. however, different perception delivered by t2 and t3 who states that the language feature used is quite difficult for jhs level as students have a variety of cognitive level. moreover, t3 adds for those who have motivated to be able to speak english, the language feature of the book will help them a lot. up to date situation question 6 is given to examine the newest aspect of the book and the current culture adaptation in indonesia. it is formulated as “how are the teaching materials (text, pictures, tables, examples, cases, etc.) in the beyond book appropriate to the situation and conditions in indonesia?”. below is the answer: from the data, we can conclude that t1 and t2 agree of the book has the same condition in indonesia due to its focuses on globalization topic which may every country has the same situation. on the other hand, t3 has a different perception. he stated that this book has not been in accordance yet with the indonesia situation. most of the material is global which talked to outside indonesia situation. it is appropriate with the current situation in the globalization era. it has been said by (richards, 2010) that add textbooks are generally developed based on textbook writers for worldwide markets. life skill development the next question is derived to know the life skill development in the book. the question is “there are four types of development of life skills, namely personal, social, academic, and vocational skills. do the texts or communicative acts presented in beyond link these four aspects?”. then, the answers are as follow: as the data presented, all respondents tend to have an agreement related to life skill development. they said that the text presented in conversation and dialogue has provoked students to develop their life skills. for example, t1 said the daily conversation in the book can be practiced knowing the international understanding. t2 also found that the dialogue contains life skills such as how to ask somebody, and how to reply to the request. then, t3 found that there is a text to encourage students to be able to speak up in a forum, how to have a friend, and so on. the teachers agree that the dialogues have important aspects that can engage learners to have good life skills (harmer, 2007). the teacher said the daily conversation in the book can be practiced knowing the international understanding. the other teacher found that the dialogue contains life skills such as how to ask somebody, and how to reply to the request. the last teacher stated that there is a text to encourage students to be able to speak up in a forum, how to have a friend, and so on. it was supported by tomlinson (2008) who stated textbooks help the students to make full use of the language experience outside the classroom. cultural diversity development the last aspect asked is aimed to know the local value as well as its nationalist of the textbook. the question is “how is your opinion regarding the reading texts or the material provided, are there nationalist values or the development of an attitude of diversity?”. the answers are as follows: at this point, the respondents have a similar perception that the book shows diversity, it can be found in the text or video provided. due to the book is from an international publisher, the nationalist aspect was not found. however, it is not according to indonesia's situation and culture. johar and aziz (2019) support this argument that international publishers contain very minimal cultural local content. for example, many dialogues consist of white and black people interaction. it tends to respect for cultures of indigenous people (setyono & widodo, 2019). the teachers’ difficulties on using the book to explore the use of textbooks and teachers, the question regarding teachers’ difficulty is asked. as it formulated “are there any trouble that you encountered when teaching using the beyond book?” then, the answers are as follows. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 181 from the data, we can conclude that teachers have some difficulties in using the textbook. as t2 mentioned, he sometimes has to look out for other sources due to the few materials in k-13 was not discussed clearly in the book. he also states that during the pandemic the audio and video provided can’t be played. what is more, t3 said that the students with low cognitive aspects will face difficulties in receiving the material because the language presented is all in english. teachers sometimes do not found a necessary material based on k-13 so they should employ supplementary materials (mizbani & chalak, 2017). it is to increase students’ ability to comprehend the concept (susiati & mufidati, 2020). then, the other problem is related to students’ understanding, because the book is presented in english and they have different cognitive levels. it was also found in roohani et al., (2015) that the top notch textbooks were to a high degree. this causes that the variety of students’ needs cannot be facilitated by the textbook (richards, 2010; ur, 1999) for a teacher, should consider this factor so the students' outcome will have the same understanding. conclusion teachers have a positive perception of the use of “beyond” textbook. the book is considered as a good book as it is seen by the content, material presented, language feature, and layout design. related to the content, the book has in line with the curriculum and syllabus used in indonesia. by this, it helps teachers to arrange the instruction in teaching and learning activity. the book has involved integrated skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing skills which help students to comprehend the material maximum. it is also supported by several language knowledge provided such as grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. furthermore, the material is presented in an authentic way. the material has included all aspects of functional structure as well as its life skill development. this skill is needed to interact with people outside the classroom. however, the material doesn’t meet students' local cultural understanding due to most material being a global issue. furthermore, regarding to the language feature of the book, teachers found that students with middlelow ability in english will face the difficulty in understanding the instruction and material of the book. it is that this book doesn’t facilitate all students’ cognitive level. for further research related to this study, it may have to add the participants so that the perception will be more in a good agreement. it also may be conducted to different levels such as in elementary, senior, or university level that used international textbook as the main source in teaching-learning activity. then, to have the maximum result of the implementation of the textbook, it can probably be conducted to the bilingual school in which the students have already had a good english competence. references afersa, m. 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(1999). a course in language teaching trainee book. in a course in language teaching trainee book. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511732928 walgito, b. (2013). pengantar psikologi umum. in rajawali perss. yin, r. k. (2003). case study reserach design and methods: third edition. in sage publicaton, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1300/j145v03n03_07 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://eudl.eu/proceedings/westech/2018 https://eudl.eu/proceedings/westech/2018 https://eudl.eu/proceedings/westech/2018 https://eudl.eu/proceedings/westech/2018 language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 275 translanguaging in international student teaching: narratives of filipino teachers in an indonesian setting willy prasetya1 willy.prasetya@uii.ac.id 1english language education department, universitas islam indonesia, yogyakarta, indonesia abstract regardless of numerous studies on translanguaging, little attention has been given to its practice among pre-service teachers, particularly in the asean context. to fill this gap, this article explores the experiences of three pre-service english teachers from the philippines who were assigned to a private elementary school in indonesia as part of a pre-service teacher exchange program. working in a context that did not share a similar first or second language, the three teachers used english, their second language, as a lingua franca in communicating with the students. drawing upon data from their teaching diaries, class observation, and in-depth interviews, this article reveals that using english in the classroom was challenging because english was neither the first nor the second language of their students. three narratives from the teachers are recounted to shed some light on their use of translanguaging to bridge the communication gap. the implication of the study is also discussed. keywords: multilingualism, translanguaging, pre-service teacher, english as a ling introduction previous studies into english as a global lingua franca, english as an international language, and english as a world language show that the use of english has penetrated into different educational terrains in educational settings across asean increases rapidly as more opportunities for educational cooperation and exchange programs become available for the academic community in the region. it is important to note that the use of english in asean is not related to any varieties of english. instead, the term english as a lingua franca (elf) is used to define the use of the language among people who do not share similar mother tongues. in this sense, elf is not a linguistic variety that is based on any nativespeaker norms (hülmbauer, böhringer, seidlhofer, 2008), and its sole purpose is effective communication through the use of any linguistic repertoire and communicative strategies that a speaker possesses (friedrich & matsuda, 2010). in this sense, it is vital to view english, not in isolation from other languages. instead, english should be considered as one resource among other languages (jenkins, 2015) and nonlinguistic aspects that are available to achieve effective communication in the abovementioned context. in other words, in elf contexts, it is common to use two or more named languages simultaneously or interchangeably. code-switching has been a popular term to define such practice. however, in a classroom context, the term indicates that there is a separation between the target language and another language that is ignored most of the time or even considered a hindrance for target language learning (garcia & lin, 2016). the interplay between english and other languages in real-life communication is best defined using the term translanguaging (garcia & wei, 2014). in translanguaging theory, two or more languages in an individual’s repertoire are not treated separately (garcia, 2017); those languages are equally essential in the meaning-making processes, and one particular language should not be considered more important than the others. regardless of numerous studies on translanguaging, little attention has been given to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:willy.prasetya@uii.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 276 translanguaging among pre-service teachers. a study conducted by musanti and rodriguez (2017) explored translanguaging practices of pre-service bilingual teachers’ academic writing in texas, united states. in the same context, caldas (2019) discussed the ideology shift of a group of preservice teachers as they participated in a teacher preparation course. meanwhile, iversen (2019) explored translanguaging practice of pre-service teachers in norwegian multilingual classrooms during their field placement. the findings reported that spontaneous translanguaging practices were used to support the students. given the scarcity of research on translanguaging in pre-service teachers’ classroom practices, particularly in the asean context, the present study explored how three pre-service filipino teachers with english as their second language used translanguaging in teaching indonesian elementary students who studied english as neither first nor second language. this study is one among the first to explore pre-service teachers’ translanguaging practice in the context of international student teaching in asean. the study this study highlights the preliminary findings of a larger research project on an international student teaching program in the asean context that was conducted in 2019. the program involved 12 preservice teachers with different majors, including natural science, math, and elementary education from the philippines and thailand. they were placed in three different schools in yogyakarta, indonesia to teach science, math, and english for two weeks. prior to the teaching practice, they took a two-day indonesian language course to learn basic indonesian words and expressions. the present study involved lourdes, jane, and maria (pseudonyms), three filipino female pre-service teachers, and also fourth-year students of a private university in the philippines majoring in elementary education. the three teachers were assigned to a private islamic elementary school to teach english. they were chosen as participants of this study because of the similarity in the linguistic background, major, and context of the teaching practice. such consideration was made to enable the author to explore the topic of this study from three different narratives. lourdes’s mother was an elementary school teacher so that lourdes was exposed to english through storybooks and educational books and videos since when she was five years old. she used english and filipino in a school setting and mainitnon, a dialect of the surigaonon language, at home. however, she expressed her preference for using english so that she could improve her communication skills. she realized that english was important not only as of the philippines’ national language but also as an international language. jane started learning english at home at a very young age. her parents, aunts, and uncles taught her basic english words and greetings. besides english, she was proficient in tagalog and surigaonon. jane was passionate about teaching and help students develop their knowledge, potential, and skills. her passion led her to participate in the teacher exchange program in indonesia. maria learned english when she was in elementary school. she could speak english well, but she said that she used english at school most of the time. she preferred speaking surigaonon and tagalog in other situations. her parents were both municipal councilors, and they frequently gave public speeches in english. however, they did not use english much at home. narrative inquiry was implemented for “its focus on how people use stories to make sense of their experiences in areas of inquiry where it is important to understand phenomena from the perspectives of those who experience them” (barkhuizen, benson, & chik, 2014, p. 2). through narrative inquiry, the experiences of the three preservice teachers were explored from their own perspectives in an attempt to understand how they situated themselves in their teaching context and why they made particular decisions in their practices, particularly in the use of translanguaging. the teacher narratives were derived from the teaching diaries that they wrote as partial fulfillment of the final report for the student teaching program. in addition, classroom https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 277 observation notes and a series of online correspondence were also conducted to gather more data on how the three teachers used translanguaging in their classes. the data were then presented as part of the storytelling so that the teacher narratives were rich and comprehensive. the three narratives were analyzed thematically to determine shared themes and pinpoint individual differences (barkhuizen, benson, & chik, 2014). findings and discussion findings four recurring themes in the three narratives were the influence of an indonesian language course, translanguaging through translation, visual and non-verbal support for translanguaging, and students’ sociocultural backgrounds in translanguaging. the following sections present vignettes of each participant with the focus on these four themes. lourdes with no prior knowledge of the indonesian language, lourdes expressed her relief for having the opportunity to take a course on the indonesian language before her internship. (1) i can say that we were lucky because the university fixed us a schedule to learn bahasa because it would be really helpful for us to communicate with our students since not all students in our designated schools were good at speaking english. in just two days, i learned a lot of things about indonesia, not just their language and important terms, but also their culture, way of communication, and how bright their personalities were. lourdes was told by her cooperating teacher that most of the students were difficult to control. knowing that using english only to teach the class would be challenging, she included the indonesian language in her teaching preparation. (2) so the night before the day i will teach, i prepared myself to the best that i can be, not just my lesson presentation or class discussion, but thinking and visualizing ways and strategies on how to control the misbehaviors of the class. i also included translations for important terms in my presentations so that there is a smooth transition in my class discussion. in her first teaching session with grade-four students, the topic was animals. lourdes used english to communicate with the students, and the indonesian language was only used when she read the translation on her materials and during an activity of finding indonesian language equivalents for animal names. as a result, many students did not seem to fully understand what she said. several students were seen talking to each other or doodling on their books. furthermore, several other students preferred asking their class teacher, who was observing the class, about what lourdes explained. however, by using gestures to explain word meanings and demonstrate the instruction, lourdes could make most of the students understand her. she narrated, (3) i was able to encourage my pupils to be participative during discussion and activities, through using different kinds of creative strategies, but i cannot deny the fact that there are pupils who are very noisy. reflecting on her experience of teaching her first class, she learned that translation was needed not only for materials but also for class instruction, particularly because she was to teach students of the lower grade with clothes and color as the topic. (4) even though the topic was very easy for me, but the challenge and difficulty there was how you will help the pupils understand the lesson or how you will deliver the information to them. the grade 3 pupils were very behaving and enthusiastic but cannot understand straight english, that is why beforehand i put translations in my powerpoint presentation especially for the important information and directions in order to have a smooth transition of class https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 278 discussion and for them to understand me while discussing. after several teaching sessions, lourdes started to translanguage using english and indonesian language in her class. in her last teaching session, while most of the time she still used english, in an exercise of finding appropriate past tense verbs for particular activities in pictures she asked “apa verb? (what verb?)” to the students while displaying an image of a person writing. when it came to the group activity, she said to one group, “this group, baca (read) number four.” then, she told another group, “read number one and two.” she repeated her instruction, “baca (read) number one and two.” she also asked, “what is this?” and repeated it in the indonesian language “apa ini?” to elicit the students’ answers. in addition, she also used body movement to demonstrate the activities displayed on the screen, such as writing, brushing teeth, watching, sweeping the floor, etc. in that session, all of the students actively participated in the learning process. lourdes recounted, (5) i prepared activities that make the pupils interacted and participated in my class, activities where they can show how much they have learned from my discussions, and activities be it may be grouped or individual where they showcase or manifest their gained knowledge. i started and ended my class with a lot of positivism and enthusiasm for myself to the point where i was able to influence my class as well. jane prior to her internship, jane joined a twoday course on the indonesian language. she learned basic expressions, such as introduction, greetings, and questions. (6) then after introducing ourselves, our teacher taught us to introduce ourselves using the indonesian language, therefore we do introduce ourselves again by using the indonesian language, for example; "kenalkan, nama saya (…) dan nama indonesia saya, jane". in english "i will introduce myself, my name is (…) and my indonesian name is jane". then after that, we proceed to our deep discussion about the indonesian language, then our teacher also provides an activity to evaluate our learning about the discussion, then they taught us about; greeting each other or greeting someone by using the indonesian language, then also counting numbers, etc. on the last day of our bipa class, the teachers taught us more about the indonesian language, especially the words or a type of sentences that can help us to communicate with the pupils, as the wh question, how, what, where, when, and why. in the indonesian language, bagaimana, apa, dimana, kapan, mengapa. on her several first days at school, jane observed several classes that she was going to teach to identify what the students needed and any other possible challenges. she narrated, (7) while observing i can think of some effective teaching styles or strategies for my class, because as what i've observed to the pupils, they can't understand the english language, that's why i planned to translate the english language to the indonesian language for the pupils to better understand my discussion. when she was teaching the first grade class about food and beverage, jane not only provided a translation of the materials but also spoke in both english and indonesian language. she asked the students, “food is important for our body?” a few students replied using minimal response “yes.” then, jane asked them again why food was important, but the students were unable to answer. then, she explained, “energy. kalau tidak ada makan kita tidak sehat (if we do not eat, we will be sick).” in one activity, she showed several food pictures one by one and ask the students for each picture, “apa ini (what is this)?” the students replied by mentioning the names of food on the pictures in english. when there are no pictures left, jane grabbed a student’s bottled tea and asked a https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 279 similar question in the indonesian language, and the students answered either water or tea. (8) i used to translate the english language to the indonesian language, and then i practiced some lines in the indonesian language. in grade i, i teach about foods and beverages, i show sample pictures of foods and beverages and i let them identify the picture that i’ve presented, either it is a food or beverage. for confirming the student's understanding, jane asked the students, “baik? (is everything ok?)” on one occasion, when she showed a picture of several apples, several students said, “that is apple.” jane responded, “more than one, use ‘those are’. if satu (one), ‘this is’. only one. ingat (remember)?” in another class, jane taught the students about the living room. she asked the students to read a text aloud. however, not all students participated in the activity. she asked the students again, “lagi, lagi (again, again). all, all. baca (read),” and all students did what she asked. then, she proceeded on the explanation of the living room using pictures depicting the room and things inside it. (9) then for grade ii, i teach all about living room, then i showed to them a picture of things that can be found in the living room and i let them named the things that i presented to them. after that, i explained to them that the things that i presented will be found in living room, and then after that, i discussed to them the meaning and the importance of the living room in the house. i enjoy teaching the pupils because they are very participative and i don’t expect it, because i thought that it’s hard for me to interact with the pupils because of the language barrier. maria maria was excited about the two-day course on the indonesian language. however, she found that the language was difficult to learn particularly in terms of pronunciation. (10) they conducted this activity for us to learn something since we are in the other country and to have another weapon the moment, we start our practice teaching because according to them, most of the students and teachers can hardly understand and speak english that’s why i was very excited during this time for i could learn again new language which is the indonesian language. for that morning session, we talked about random things but just the basic terms only that we can use in our practice teaching like how to introduce ourselves using the indonesian language, the numbers, the daily conversations and she (the teacher) also presented to us the tourist spots and transportations in yogyakarta, indonesia. it is quite hard to learn the language because of the terminology that is hard to pronounce but if you apply that in our daily interaction like what i did you can learn it easily. unlike the other two teachers, maria did not include translation of her teaching slides to help the students understand the materials. she also used english in most of the teaching process. (11) i was well prepared on that day but quite unproductive because my students showed less interaction in the class for, they could not understand english. in short, we could not understand each other, they could not speak also using the english language. i was struggling on that day but for that experience, i’ve learned something that’s why on my next teaching demonstration i provided translation. in the next class, maria provided a translation of her teaching materials, but she still spoke english in most of the teaching process. she spoke the indonesian language only when she read the translated materials aloud. many students looked confused with her explanation, but she was not aware of it. as a result, several students were murmuring at each other. (12) i translated everything in the indonesian language but still i taught them how to speak english and understand such basic https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 280 words for they are still beginners for learning much. the next activity was group work. maria asked the students in each group to make a circle, and she moved her hand as if she was drawing a circle. in this activity, the students had to mention anything that they could find in a picture of a living room. they work enthusiastically to complete the task. when maria asked what the living room was for, the students answered using the indonesian language, “ruang untuk tamu (a room for guests).” she tried hard to understand it, but the students were unable to explain it using english or demonstrate it using gestures. maria then said, “it is a room for the family.” it turned out that maria and the students had a different concept of the living room. the students did not say anything to her either because they did not understand what maria said or because they did not know how to respond. for the next activity, maria showed several pictures of things inside a living room. the pictures were followed by several statements with no verbs, and the students were asked to fill the gaps with ‘is’ or ‘are’. a student incorrectly chose ‘are’ for a picture of three vases, and maria said, “if satu (one), you will use ‘is’.” she further explained, “without –s,” indicating a singular noun without the suffix –s. she then added, “if banyak or many or more than one, with –s.” she also used her fingers to demonstrate singularity and plurality. to check the students’ answers, she invited them to read their answers. one student did not read clearly, and maria asked her, “again baca (read).” when a student did not pay attention to her because of walking around the class, she asked him, “please duduk (sit down).” at the end of the activity, she checks students’ comprehension by asking, “any question?” several students raised their hands, but they seemed to have difficulties in expressing their questions. maria asked them again, “paham tidak? (do you understand?),” and the students had different answers. some of them understood, but the others did not. unfortunately, there was no more time left for any further explanation. maria specifically recounted in her diary that what she learned from the course enabled her to communicate with the students outside the class. (13) it good thing we had bahasa class for 2 days before we had our class observation and practice teaching so i’ve learned some basic words and conversation of bahasa. every time i talked to my pupils even outside the class, i used bahasa also even just the basic one and i can understand them little by little but just the simple words. the more i talk to the students using bahasa, the more i learn. of course, i also teach them how to speak english and i introduced the basic and simple english terminologies for their further learning and future use. discussion the findings revealed the three teachers’ progression in acquiring new linguistic resources and utilizing them along with their existing repertoire to ensure that their students learned something from them. the three teachers acknowledged that the indonesian language course was helpful, despite being given only for two days. as indonesian had been added to their repertoire, the three teachers were able to accommodate their communication with the students. at the beginning of the internship, lourdes and maria used only english in their class, while jane started using both english and indonesian language in her first teaching session. when using only english resulted in the students’ non-understanding, they translanguaged so that their utterances became more understandable for the students. however, due to limited indonesian language resources, non-understanding may be unresolved. for example, when talking about the function of a living room, maria and her students had different concepts of the living room probably due to their different cultural backgrounds. the students said that the living room was “ruang untuk tamu” (a room for accepting guests) in https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 281 reference to a common perception among indonesian people to have separate rooms for welcoming guests and spending time with family members. maria did not understand what the students said, and rather she told the students that a living room was for family, which the students also did not understand. as a result, they did not come to an agreement on what a living room was for until the end of the session. translanguaging in elf settings is advantageous especially if there is a disparity in the english language proficiency of the interlocutors. as narrated above, because the students could not understand english well, using only english resulted in the students’ nonunderstanding and lack of participation. when the three teachers incorporate words and expressions in the indonesian language, the students could understand better and participate in the class activities. in fact, the use of the indonesian language not only helped the students understand the materials but also made them feel a sense of acknowledgment for their identity. as observed in the classroom, the students immediately paid attention to the teachers when they spoke the indonesian language, and many of them were surprised that the teachers could speak the language. informed by elf paradigm, translanguaging, particularly through translation from english to learners’ languages, “make(s) a negotiable transition from language learners to language users as well as to recognize their first language or native language not as a hindrance but rather as a resource for building and developing their english language repertoire” (widodo & fang, 2019, p. 195). translanguaging also promotes the exchange of linguistic resources and the acquisition of new languages, as narrated by maria at the beginning of this section. as more people with different languages interact to each other, boundaries between languages, the ones that separate one language from the others, disappear (li, 2018; baker & sangiamchit, 2019). in such a situation, any interlocutors “go beyond narrowly defined linguistic cues and transcend culturally defined language boundaries to achieve effective communication” (li, 2018, pp. 24-25). translingual communication not only leads interlocutors to make use of any linguistic resources that they have but also to gain new resources to be integrated into their ‘communicative repertoires’ (zentz, 2014). communicative repertoires refer to the ability of an individual to select and use certain communicative resources among all that he/she possesses “to create the meanings and identity attributes that s/he wishes to present to others or to feel himself/herself in any of the languages s/he speaks” (zentz, 2014, p. 71). as reported in this study, the three teachers utilized their newly learned indonesian language resources to make their students understand what they said and gained their students’ attention while at the same time used english to provide the students with a certain amount of exposure to the language. conclusion this study explored the narratives of three preservice teachers from the philippines in terms of the use of elf for teaching indonesian elementary students. the findings revealed that the teachers encountered a communication problem due to their students’ limited english proficiency. thus, the indonesian language was also used along with english and other nonlinguistic strategies in their instruction to help their students comprehend the lessons. pedagogically, this study implies that students’ l1 should be prioritized over english, especially in the context of elementary education in asean and particularly in indonesia. this does not mean that english should not be taught in elementary school. rather, the teaching of english should not deny the existence of students’ mother tongue as the closest available linguistic resources. by acknowledging the importance of l1 in an educational setting, students can learn more effectively while at the same time maintain their mother tongue and/or national language as the representation of their linguacultural identity. furthermore, as kirkpatrick (2012) argued, “children are advantaged by learning in their mother tongue in the early years of schooling, and will be seriously disadvantaged if forced to learn https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 282 subjects in a language that is neither spoken nor understood” (p. 341). in addition, this study also indicates that mixing different language aspects in classroom settings should not be considered an error in language learning. from elf perspective, such practice occurs either because an individual has limited proficiency in one language or because they are trying to show their identity through the use of a certain language. despite the reasons, the only goal of such practice is achieving effective communication in which all interlocutors understand one another. it is important to note that this study is still in the exploratory stage, and thus the result is not generalizable. however, this study provides insight into the nature of english as a lingua franca in a classroom setting and the interplay between english and other languages as parts of multilingual ability. declaration of interest statement there is no conflict of interest in this paper. this paper has not been published or considered for publication elsewhere. references baker, w., & sangiamchit, c. (2019). transcultural communication: language, communication and culture through english as a lingua franca in a social network community. language and intercultural communication, doi: 10.1080/14708477.2019.1606230 barkhuizen, g., benson, p., & chik, a. (2014). narrative inquiry in language teaching and learning research. ny: routledge. caldas, b. (2019). to switch or not to switch: bilingual preservice teachers and translanguaging in teaching and learning. tesol journal, 10(4), 1-16. friedrich, p., & matsuda, a. (2010). when five words are not enough: a conceptual and terminological discussion of english as a lingua franca. international multilingual research journal, 4(1), 20-30. garcía, o. (2017). translanguaging in schools: subiendo y bajando, bajando y subiendo as afterword. journal of language, identity & education, 16(4), 256-263. garcía, o., & lin a.m.y. (2016). translanguaging in bilingual education. in o. garcía et al. (eds.), bilingual and multilingual education, encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 1–14). springer international publishing ag. garcía, o., & wei, l. (2014). translanguanging: language, bilingualism, and education. palgrave macmillan uk. hülmbauer, c., böhringer, h., & seidlhofer, b. (2008). introducing english as a lingua franca (elf): precursor and partner in intercultural communication. synergies europe, 3, 25-36. iversen, j.y. (2019). pre-service teachers’ translanguaging during field placement in multilingual, mainstream classrooms in norway. language and education, 34(1), 1-15. jenkins, j. (2015). repositioning english and multilingualism in english as a lingua franca. englishes in practice, 2(3), 49-85. kirkpatrick, a. (2012). english in asean: implications for regional multilingualism. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 33(4), 331-344. li, w. (2018). translanguaging as a practical theory of language. applied linguistics, 39(1), 9-30. musanti, s.i., & rodríguez, a.d. (2017). translanguaging in bilingual teacher preparation: exploring pre-service bilingual teachers’ academic writing. bilingual research journal, 40(1), 38-54. widodo, h.p,. & fang, f. (2019). global englishesoriented english language education. in f. fang & h.p. widodo (eds.), critical perspectives on global englishes in asia (pp. 194–200). bristol: blue ridge summit. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 283 zentz, l. (2015) ‘is english also the place where i belong?’: linguistic biographies and expanding communicative repertoires in central java. international journal of multilingualism, 12(1), 68-92. doi: 10.1080/14790718.2014.943233 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 284 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ references language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９８ ９８ the representation of african traditional women in african literature: a feminist study of buchi emecheta’s the joys of motherhood makgwale hassel monthabeng1 edward.montle@ul.ac.za malesela edward montle2 eddiemontle@yahoo.com mphoto johannes mogoboya3 1,2,3university of limpopo department of languages (english studies) abstract african women writers had not been allowed a stage to air their views about the traditional african setup. however, with feminist winds of change sweeping from europe to africa in the 18th century, the social climate in most parts of the globe began to change. minority groups challenged the western canon and protested against their status as the second-class citizens. the groups included afro-americans, formerly colonized black people, women, gays, lesbians, etc. this paper focuses on one such group: black women. being marginalised as both black and female, the african women writers started to interrogate not only the mainstream society, but also challenges faced by women in traditional african societies. the paper adopts feminism as a theory through which issues impacting african women’s lives in their respective traditional set-ups are crystallised. feminism has various branches, of which, black womanism is one of them. as such, this paper adopts alice walker’s black feminism to unearth the emotions and perceptions about their daily challenges. keywords: patriarchy, polygamous marriage, childbearing, women as objects introduction like other african women authors, such as mariama bȃ,tsistsi dangaremba and others, emecheta attempts to portray the precarious status of women in a peculiar african society. her literary works expose dissatisfaction with the situation of women in her ibuza culture, which she criticises in her works. furthermore, the joys of motherhood is an interesting novel that centres on motherhood, and how its issues impact women’s lives in the traditional patriarchal igbo society in nigeria. as such, motherhood will be the critical theme to be analysed – alongside with others namely patriarchy, (a polygamous) marriage, marriage and childbearing, and women as objects. based on these impediments, the article will also consider the possibilities of women’s selfempowerment in the selected text. buchi emecheta’s the joys of motherhood uncovers various incidents of nigeria during the british rule. during this period, nigerians found themselves in the transitional era, that is, they had to change from traditional to modern life. it was at this time that the british government, and other european imperialist countries, started to offer goods and work for the development of their religion in africa. the argument above implies that it was the europeans colonialists who brought drastic changes to their colonies. through colonialism, africans have acquired a new identity, religion, and or civilization. for example, marriage should be done in the church lest it be regarded as illegal one. when nnu ego falls pregnant for the first time, naife becomes worried that he might lose his job because they have no married in the church. through this aspect of ‘marriage,’ emecheta describes how the west has http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９９ ９９ developed cultures and rules through various institutions. cynthia ward (2018) states that the emecheta’s novels apply feminist views because they represent the experience of the african woman struggling to assert herself against historically determined insignificance and try to speak for the disenfranchised african women who are oppressed by the colonial, patriarchal societies. balavatbhai (2020) argues that buchi emecheta’s the joys of motherhood attempts to expose the marginalisation and suffering of women in patriarchal african societies. the novel tells the story of nnu ego, an ibuza traditional woman, who is proud of herself as the mother of three sons. in patriarchal societies, women who do not bear children are often scorned by their inlaws. according to the ibuza society, the birth of successful sons offers the mother a comfortable old age. when the novel’s story ends, however, nnu ego dies lonely death in lagos, with ‘no child to hold her hand and no friend to talk to her (emecheta p.11). the author depicts the impact of colonial patriarchy and economic politics that marginalize ibuza women in the third world. a feminist observer, alice walker, submits that because of “their double identity, black women are the victims of both sexual and racial discrimination” (kohzadi et al, 2011). lewis and mills (2003) maintain that the novel ‘accommodates the aspect of western feminism which brings in the light gender inequality, sexual difference, and gender oppression within the igbo society, and highlights how women are oppressed and silenced by patriarchy (ibid, 2003). in other words, buchi emecheta criticizes how patriarchal african institutions define ‘motherhood.’ emecheta challenges the use of powers endowed to men by culture. the powers, according to the author, turn women into the victims of cultural subjugation. without the assistance of her husband, nnu ego does everything possible to feed her children: she does petty works and sells wood so that she can save money to pay for her children’s school fees. she cries: on my life, i have to work myself to the bone to look after them; i have to give them all. and if i’m lucky enough to die in peace, i have given them my soul (p. 186). emecheta demonstrates that by being completely devoted to her children, nnu ego grows faint, and does not make friends either – she is always lonely. the author highlights the burden of african womanhood. for example, in lagos women are multi-tasked: they have to work to provide food to and create some comfort in their families. they do so to supplement their husbands’ meagre wages. therefore, the joys of motherhood is an irony in which the novelist presents oppression, suffering, and loneliness that african mothers experience in patriarchal societies (balatavbhai, 2020). theoretical framework the word ‘theory’ has various definitions. in concise oxford english dictionary, stevenson & waite (2011) define ‘theory’ as a “supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.” hadi (2017) defines a theory as “a set of ideas that is intended to explain something about life or world, especially an idea that has not been proved to be true.” this paper focuses on thematic issues explored in buchi emecheta’s the joys of motherhood. the paper employs a feminist theory which argues for equality between men and women, and the elimination of all social forces that instigate discrimination, oppression, and exploitation (pasque & wimmer, 2011), and draws attention to patterns of thought, behaviour, values and power in the relationships (vine, 2017). methodology the paper has used a qualitative approach and is library-based. crang and kook (2007) in cropley (2019) argue that the central aim of qualitative research is to detail the daily lives of people under inquiry. it has collected its primary data from buchi emecheta’s purposively sampled literary text: the joys of the motherhood and supplementary data from internet sources. emecheta’s the joys of the motherhood is chosen by virtue of its brilliant delineation of theme of the study. results and discussion http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １００ １００ the findings from emecheta’s the joys of the motherhood has been presented through a qualitative thematic analysis technique, which qualifies the researcher to generate relevant themes to present and discuss the findings: patriarchy some literature writers around the world have found that african societies tend to be patriarchal. they argue that in some african societies, roleplaying is usually determined by patriarchal ideology, which prescribes who to do what, and when. cheris kramarae (1992) argues that the term ‘patriarchy’ has been around even around even before the contemporary women’s activist movements, and feminist studies. the author explains that the term was re-invented over the last two decades to trace the ‘origins and reasons for men’s oppression of women.’ it was in the first instance used to refer to the powers of the man as the head of the household. thenceforth, the term was defined as “a system of male authority which oppresses women through its social, political, and economic institutions” (ibid, 1992). rawat (2014) defines patriarchy as ‘a socially and ideologically constructed mechanism that regards men as superior to women, in which the former holds authority over the latter, children, and property’ (walby, 1990); it encourages male leadership, male domination and male power. reardon (1996) defines patriarchy as ‘a system in which women are subject to economic dependence, violence, domestication, and women are in peripherals of decision-making; it imposes structures that categorise some types of work as men’s, and others as women’s, and gender inequality (smith, 1990). furthermore, the term ‘patriarchy’ refers to the arrangement of a set of relations based on material ability that capacitates men to dominate women (stacey, 1993). this system of a social hierarchy and differentiation based on sex enables men to get some advantages, while at the same time putting some constraints on women’s freedom to advance their interests and creativity. based on this understanding, men characteristically have the strength and courage to face the outside world, and their sexuality is forced on women through rape, prostitution, pornography, and other cultural practices and their creativity impeded. “women labour is confiscated in marriage, their fertility is controlled and creativity is impeded with persecution and knowledge is withheld from them” (stanworth, 1987). the argument is supported by the narrator in chinua achebe’s things fall apart (1958) remarks about okonkwo’s obsession with his patriarchal rule in his household as the father: “okonkwo ruled his household with a heavy hand. his wives, especiallythe youngest, lived in perpetual fear of his fiery temper, and so did his childrenn. perhaps down in his heart okonkwo was not a cruel man. but his whole life was dominated by fear, the fear of failure and of weakness. it was deeper and more intimate than the fear of evil and capricious gods and of magic, the fear of the forest and of the forces of nature, malevolent, red in tooth and claw. okonkwo’s fear was greater than these. it was not external but lay deep within himself.” the connotation in the above quote is that men, as the heads of families, parade their muscular supremacy through injecting fear in their families to salvage their manhood. this tendency often results in family members being afraid to express their ideas. in his autobiographical novel, down 2nd avenue (2004), es’kia tells about his father’s patriarchal behaviour. his father, moses, does not take care of his family. es’kia’s mother, eva, does a dressmaking job for a tailor just outside pretoria (now the city of tshwane). to supplement her meagre income, eva sells skokiaana (a homebrewed beer). little does she know that each time her husband comes back home from work demands more of it (beer). when asked to at least care of his children, moses falls into tantrums, and always threatens to beat eva up. instead of acknowledging his weak points, moses says: “don’t talk to me like that. didn’t your mother teach you never answer back to your husband and lord?” (p. 16). in pedi custom of limpopo region, south africa, for example, a man is the initiator. he proposes love to a woman, sends hid clan members to negotiate the bride price with his future wife’s family, pays the bride price, marries, builds a home, and provides for the family; on the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０１ １０１ one hand while on the other the woman remaining inactive participant in the whole process. researchers have found that in some african cultures women are responsible for domestic chores such cooking, laundry, child-bearing and child-raising – regardless of their status and professions. it is against this gender-based classification of responsibilities that some men dominate women in many respects. taboos, idioms, and proverbs also help entrench patriarchal mindset. for example, in sepedi, then proverb ‘tṧa etwa ke ya tshadi pele, di wela ka leopeng,’ which literally means ‘led by a cow, the whole herd will fall into the donga.’ the implication in this proverb is that women do not have leadership qualities; they usually mislead people. montle (2021) avers that this cultural proverb declares that a woman cannot lead and hence, should not be given a position as a leader. however, some women leaders have demonstrated good leader qualities. for example, mrs margaret thatcher was once the prime minister in britain. mrs graca machel has founded the world child welfare organisation and many more occupy prominent government positions in the world. in the joys of motherhood, buchi emecheta explores a patriarchal view of women. nokwocha agbadi’s sexual advances to ona are indicative of patriarchy. the writer tells a sad incident in which agbadi uses his physical masculinity to force himself onto an unsuspecting ona – a girl given to him by his friend, agbadi, as one of his mistresses. some of nigeria’s ibuza traditional men’s view of women as sex objects is demonstrative of agbadi’s deliberate intent to show that some men do not need women’s consent to satisfy their sexual urge. the states that: “he did not let her mouth free for a long time. she struggled fiercely like a trapped animal, but agbadi was becoming himself again. he was still weak, but not weak enough to ignore his desire. he worked on her, breaking down all her resistance. he stroked and explored with his perfect hand, banking heavily on the fact that ona was a woman, who had hurt him many a time. and he was right. her struggling and kicking lessened. she started to moan and groan instead, like a woman in labour. he kept on, and would not let go, so masterful was he in his art. he knew he had had won. he wanted her completely humiliated in her burning desire” (p.20). therefore, emecheta challenges the abuse of powers endowed to men by culture, which often unnecessarily turns women into victims of cultural subjugation. instead of having sex with their partners out of mutual consent, the author shows how some traditional ibuza men employ their strong physicality to manipulate women’s physical feebleness to quench their lust, be it sexual or otherwise. moreover, the author shows that men in some traditional african societies tend to decide the fate of their daughters. the author of the novel sounds to know the truth about this cultural propensity. the essence underlying this submission is that what matters most in traditional ibuza society is family building, and not love between partners-to-be. this practice still exists today. in her book, the joys of motherhood, emecheta mentions that nokwocha agbadi and his friend, obi umunna, agree on ona’s fate. umunna tells agbadi that should bear a boy, the child would be his (umunna), but should it be a girl, she would be agbadi’s. “did ona tell you of compromise? she agreed that if she bore a baby girl, she would be mine, if a boy, he would be yours,” agbadi said cooly (p. 26). emecheta laments the fact that the fate of traditional ibuza women, either as wives or daughters, is often decided by men. given these circumstances, ibuza men turn women into objects even matters that directly impact them. for example, in a particular traditional african society, fathers have absolute right to determine the fate of their daughters; they can decide to marry them to their family friends or instruct them to bear them children if their parents do not have them (children). this is the case with ona, who has to bear her father children. the author challenges fathers to give a lease to their daughters to decide the type life they http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０２ １０２ cherish to lead, and not chastise or enslave them in any form they, fathers, fathom possible. two friends, obi idayi and nwokocha agbadi, go on to determine nnu ego’s life. it is by their agreement that nnu ego is married first to amatukwu. idayi tells agbadi: “your daughter’s mind is not here. she dreams of her man and her own home. don’t let her dream in vain. after all, her agemates are already having their first and second babies. stop rejecting young men, agbadi, let of them marry her” (p. 27). in response, agbadi says, “i have already promised amatukwu that i think about his son. he is one those out there,” (p.27). hoping to see a handsome man, nnu ego expresses some disappointment at the man chosen for her by her father. her disappointment with nnaife as her new husband indicates just how fathers in traditional african societies force their choices on the daughters. the narrator in the story describes nnaife’s physical appearance: nnu ego was grateful for it, and was just falling asleep with a full stomach when in walked a man with a belly like a pregnant cow, wobbling first to the side, and then to that. the belly, coupled with the fact that he was short, made him look like a barrel. his hair, unlike that of men at home in ibuza, was not closely shaved; he left a lot of it on his head, like that of a woman mourning for her husband. his skin was pale. the skin of someone who had for a long time worked in the shade and not in the open air. his cheeks were puffy and looked as if he had pieces of hot yam inside them, and they seemed to have pushed his mouth into a smaller size above his weak jaw. and his clothes – nnu ego had never seen men dressed like that: khakhi shorts with holes and an old loose, white singlet if her husband-to-be was like this, she thought, should go back to her father. why, marrying such a jelly of a man would be like living with a middle-aged woman! (p. 42). the cultural practice to choose marital partners still exists in some african villages today. certain traditional african communities believe that by right all members should have marital partners to continue men’s lineage (stanworth, 1987). it is therefore not surprising to see nnu ego being married to a man unknown to her. an ibuza culture allows men to get a marital partner through negotiations and an agreement reached between the respective families. but in cases where the potential partners are educated, the agreement might flop. in this book, however, buchi emecheta denounces this culture as something that belongs to the past; modern women have every right to chose what to do, and who to marry as the time might dictate. the author the fact that any man thought right by the parents is thrown unto the daughters without bothering to inform them. as such, the expresses the agony of seeing women treated objects of exchange, something which should be stopped. a polygamous marriage the narrative gives details of african woman’s oppression in the marriage system of patriarchal society. women are treated as properties of men, commodities that can appeal to the owner whilst still new (nyanhongo, 2011). furthermore, the author argues that they (women) are merely dominated by men, and their principal role is to attend to the needs of their men and produce children, especially the male ones. this incident is buttressed by nnu ego’s case: she seems to be infertile when she first married amatukwu. because of her infertility, she is to move to the nearby hut kept for older wives, especially after her husband has found him a new wife (p. 32). in most of the author’s books, marriage is a central theme along which others are aligned. marriage is the institution in which both partners are equal in procreation: a woman needs a man in the bearing of kids, and vice versa. the writer’s focus on marriage tends to expose hardships or challenges which some african women face. the writer’s novel has an african country, nigeria, as its setting. this african milieu gives the novel’s story a sense of absolute africanness or africanity. therefore, her respective characters represent some black africans and almost everything done and said in their countries. in other words, these characters are a reflection of african life. as for emecheta’s novel, the story takes place in ibuza, nigeria. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０３ １０３ the word ‘marriage’ has acquired various definitions. in this context, marriage can be defined as “a formal union of a man and a woman by which they become a husband and a wife,” (soans & walker, 2003). this definition implies that both a man and a woman are equal in marriage. however, in certain african cultures men marry women, that is, men pay dowries to the women’s families before they become husbands and wives. from the african perspective, marriage fulfils the completeness of a woman (baloyi, 2010). in her book, the joys of motherhood, buchi emecheta sees marriage, especially a polygamous one, as a means by which men objectify women. being men and egocentric, some polygamous african husbands tend to ignore the needs of their wives, regardless of how faithful the latter might be to the former. the writer shows how african are: they enjoy the comfort of their concubines’ company at the expense of their true, rightful wives. emecheta says this about nwokocha agbadi’s austere behaviour: the story gained credence particularly when agbadi’s wives showed sings of neglect. he would be reminded to do his duty by them, then when they became pregnant he would not be not seen in their huts until the time to mate them again. but whenever he returned from his many wanderings, he would go and stay with his ona (pp. 1213). emecheta uses the phrase ‘to mate them’ to demonstrate the state in which some women in polygamous marriages tend to find themselves. the writer refutes the type of marriage in which wives are neglected. the gist of the writer’s contention is that the nigerian ibuza community sees women as baby makers. to avoid experiencing these hardships, women should stay unmarried if they want to remain dignified human beings lest they be treated as the ‘other’ – people without emotions. this standpoint has symbolic violence. that is, in some african cultures an unmarried man or woman tends to be regarded as incomplete, on the one hand. on the other, some people had been married but experienced the agonies of a married life and want to emancipate themselves from the marriage shackles. emecheta challenges men who neglect their wives because of concubines. the writer further intends to imply that men are egocentric and selfish – they do not mind cheating on their wives. she, again, illustrates the atrocity of a polygamous marriage: agbadi’s senior wife, agunwa, dies on the very night he makes loves to ona in the same courtyard; he ignores his wives’ emotions and does not mind the consequences of his action(s). some ibuza men tend to append their unscrupulous behaviour to both culture and tradition. they treat their wives as insensible beings. it is men, as the writer shows, who are insensible to sensitive acts such as having sex with concubines or mistresses in the same homesteads where their wives stay. moreover, instead of taking care of and respecting their wives as they respect them, ibuza men tend to do more favours to those women with whom they are in extramarital affairs. ibuza women usually try to satisfy their husbands and their clans by remaining silent on their husbands’ misconduct to their own (women’s) disadvantage. the writer comments: agbadi’s senior wife, agunwa, became ill that very night. some said later that she sacrificed herself for her husband; but a few had noti ced that it was bad for her morale to hear her husband giving plea sure to another woman in the same courtyard where she slept, and to such a woman who openly treated the man they all worshiped so badly. a woman who was troublesome and impetuous, who had the audacity to fight with man before letting have her: a bad woman (p. 21). through this quote, emecheta portrays a man who is a culture outcast. agbadi, the old man who is respected by all and sundry in his village, fails to match the honour bestowed to him by his wives: he makes love to ona in the same courtyard. in other words, he disregards the morale and status of his wives. consequently, agunwa, being the first time in her life to experience this debauchery, dies of heart attack. her death, however, surprises agbadi, and now shows some recognition of agunwa’s importance in life. he says: http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０４ １０４ you are wrong, idayi, to suggest she might be or bitter just because last night with ona amused myself a little. agunwa is too mature to mind that. why, if she behaved like that what kind of example would that be to the younger wives? (p. 22). later, agbadi talks to his grown sons about their mother: your mother is a good woman. so unobtrusive, so quite. i don’t know who else will help me keep an eye on those young wives of mine, and see to the smooth running of my household (p.22). with these two quotes, emecheta shows that while they are culturally heads of their families, men fail in their responsibilities to protect their wives against senseless acts such as cheating. she further shows that ibuza men do not regard their as true human beings. for example, agbadi is surprised by his wife’s death because he thinks that having sex with ona in the same courtyard is the unlikely cause of death, on the one hand. on the other, the writer portrays agbadi as a man who, though unintentionally has contributed to his wife’s, is agonised. he fully acknowledges the superiority and importance of his life, the overseer of his other wives and their households. the implication of agbadi’s reaction to his wife’s death is that some african men lose honest and faithful wives because of their unscrupulous behaviour. in addition to this point, buchi emecheta defies the dynamics of the polygamous marriage. in the igbo culture, just like most of african cultures, a man can, upon the death of his sibling, inherit his family. this usually creates unprecedented rivalry between or amongst the wives. the writer argues that this culture/tradition disadvantages wives to such an extent that the chief wife usually gets relegated, or if possible, even replaced. the storyteller says: “a husband was meant to share of the wife whose turn it was to cook, unless she was indisposed, pregnant or nursing a child” (p. 138). according to some african customs/traditions, a daughter-in-law should demonstrate her accomplished womanhood either upon arrival at her husband’s homestead or at her house. in sepedi for example, there is a proverb that says ‘mosadi ke tṧhwene o lewa mabogo,’ which literarily means ‘a true woman demonstrates her complete womanhood through hard work.’ the connotation under this idiomatic expression is that a real woman does not tire up; she is always industrious. another example is the mozambiquan custom. it is rumoured that in mozambique, women married from foreign countries are given strenuous fieldwork to test their woman. failure to perform the prescribed work indicates physical weakness. marriage and childbearing in some african customs, the fundamental role of a woman is to become the mother. in this context, motherhood comprises childbearing and bringing up the children, looking after them and their father, washing clothes and cleaning the family house, fetching firewood in the mountain or bush, and ploughing the fields to produce food. in the joys of motherhood, emecheta criticises the traditional view of the ideal ibuza motherhood. to her, traditional motherhood enslaves women as wives while it emancipates men from this genderbased enslavement. a dialogue between nnu ego and her husband, nnaife, demarcates the genderbased line of responsibilities between wives and husbands: ‘’you are to give her children and food, she is to cook and bear the children and look after you and them,” (p. 71). “but now you have to make nnu ego pregnant very soon,” (p. 70). the author remarks: ‘nnu ego realised that part of that pride of motherhood was to look a little unfashionable and so can drawl with joy.’ nnu ego says, “i can’t afford another outfit, because i am nursing him, so you can’t go anywhere to sell anything,” (p.80). on the one hand, the author shows that children are precious to traditional african women, and that parenthood is a huge challenge that should be handled by both partners. on the other, the author implies that the onus to bear children and raise them rests on the shoulders of the mothers. in other words, the writer shows that in most cases it is only the mothers who experience family challenges as fathers are usually away. the quote http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０５ １０５ below indicates the hardships through which mothers go in bringing up children alone: “oshia, do you want to die and leave me? stop this sickness. i have nothing else to give you. please stay and be my joy, be my father, and my brother, and my husband – no, i have a husband i don’t whether he alive or dead” (p. 104). adaku tells nnu ego: “in ibuza sons help their father than they ever help their mother. a mother’s joys is only in the name. she worries over them, looks after them when they are small; but in the actual help on the farm, the upholding of the family name, all belong to the father ...” (p.122). the narrator says: “on her way to ther room, it occurred to nu ego that she was a prisoner, imprisoned by her love for her children, imprisoned in her role as the senior wife. she was not even expected to demand more money for her family; that was considered below the standard expected of a woman in her position. it was not fair, she felt, the way men cleverly used a woman’s sense of responsibility to actually enslave her” (p. 137). emecheta cautions women who believe that true motherhood is accomplished by sacrificing their lives. she highlights the pain of challenging work to bring up children who might not take of their mothers when it matters most. in other words, the author is concerned about the quality time ibuza women spend on perfect motherhood when there is no guarantee of their taking care of them in turn. nnu ego’s death accentuates this view. the remarks about nnu ego’s last days in the following quotes: “however, what actually broke her was, month after month, expecting to hear from son in america, and from adim too who later went to canada, and failing to do so, (p. 224) after such wandering on one night, nnu ego lay down by roadside, thinking that she had arrived home. she died quietly there, with no child to hold her hand and no friend to talk to her. she had never really made many friends, so busy had she been building up her joys as a mother” (p. 224). women as objects this section deals with the objectification of women. as i alluded to marriage as the central theme along which others are aligned, then the act of objectifying women follows as one of the accompanying themes in the author’s narrative. in this context, objectification of women includes, among others, women as inheritable property, women as commercial commodities and or women as sex objects either outside or inside marriage. in xala (a muslim senegal) ousmane tells the story of el hadji abdou kader beye, formerly a teacher who had been dismissed from the profession because of sexual misconduct. el hadji has become one of the wealthiest personalities in the new senegalese government under the black senegalese. he has already married two wives, namely adja anwa (six children), and oumi n’doye (five children). n’gone is yet to be married as the third wife. in this book, the writer shows that polygamy, as permitted by the muslim religion in fact objectifies women. adji anwa’s response to her daughter’s persistence that she stays home instead of attending el hadji’s third wife marriage demonstrates that traditional senegalese marriage imprisons women. her daughter, rama, encourages her mother to divorce instead of tolerating the humiliating polygamous marriage between her husband and the third youngest wife, n’gone. adja anwa quips: “it’s easy to talk about, rama, her mother began slowly. what she is about to say was the product of much careful reflection.” you think i should get a divorce. where would i go at my age? where would i find another husband. a man of my own age and still a bachelor? if i left your father and with luck and yalla’s help found a husband, i would be http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０６ １０６ his third wife or his fourth wife. and what would become of you?” (p. 12). in the joys of motherhood, buchi emecheta shows that sometimes daughters are names that determine their commercial value. in her other novel, the bride price, ezekiel odia names his daughter ‘aku-nna,’ which means ‘father’s wealth’ (p. 3). in the joys of motherhood, agbadi names his daughter ‘nnu ego,’ which literally means ‘twenty cowries.’ the author shows that from their birth daughters do not occupy the same social status as boys – they are commercial items fom which their parents, especially their fathers, make economic gains or profit just like any other commodity in the commercial market. this total objectification and authoritarian ownership of daughters by their paternal parents deny them their sense of complete humanitytheir fate is decided by someone else, and must comply with whatever contemplations and wishes their parents might develop about them. in this text for example, chief obi umunna has a daughter named ona, meaning ‘a priceless jewel.’ the writer says that the chief would remorselessly pull the daughter along wherever he went. when asked about that, he still showed no sign of resentment in treating his girl child as an object. the writer says: ‘but her father told people that his little was his ornament,’ (p. 11). therefore, the chief sees his girl child not as a human being, but as something with which to decorate himself. in the same book, the writer shows that an igbo woman is usually owned by someone. the author challenges the nigerian igbo custom which belittles women. the igbo woman does not only have to satisfy her husband’s wishes, but also her father’s. connotatively, typical igbo women should device a means to emancipate themselves from this traditional view of a woman. ona’s fate, ubi umunna’s only mentioned daughter in the text, is tossed between her father and his friend, agbadi: “... she had been dedicated to the gods to produce children in his name not of any husband. oh, how torn she was between two men: she had to be loyal to her father, as well as to her husband. (p. 18). ...my father wants a son and you have many sons. but you do not have a girl yet. since my father will not accept any bride price from you, if i have a son he will belong to my father, but if a girl, she be yours. that is the best i can do for you both” (p. 25). balavatbhai (2020) argues that emecheta demonstrates that in ibuza are dehumanized by their husbands. the author gives an example of agbadi who confesses that ibuza men want women ‘who could claim to be helpless without them (men). the only honour women in ibuza can get is when they produce sons, which means failure to carry out this ‘males-producing’ mandate will render a particular wife redundant or useless. emecheta says “s(till) many agreed that she has given all to her children. the joy of being a mother is the joy of giving all to your children,” they said and reward?”did she not get the greatest funeral ibuza had ever seen? ” it took oshia three years to pay off the money he had borrowed to show the world what a good son he was. that was why people failed to understand why she didn’t answer their prayers, for what could a woman want but to have sons who could give her a decent burial?” the above quote discloses emecheta’s awareness to suffering, loneliness, and oppression which some african women experience in the patriarchal society. coetzee (2010) shows that some men are promiscuous, that is, they see women as sex toys. in his book, disgrace, the author tells the story of a european man named david. david is a communication lecturer at the cape technical university, formerly cape town university college. he is fifty-two years old. he has divorced thrice in his life. the author says about him: “he existed in an anxious flurry of promiscuity. he had affairs with the wives of colleagues, he picked up tourists in bars on the waterfront or at the club italia; he slept with whores (p. 7). he does what he feels like. he doesn’t care if it’s good or bad. he does it. he doesn’t act on principle but on impulse, and the source of his dark to him” (p. 33). his love life profile includes soroya (indian), dam (employee at the institution), and melanie isaacs (student at the same institution). in the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０７ １０７ character of david, coetzee depicts a person who is remorseless in his sexual behaviour. a girl, melanie isaacs, who david brings home, is not only thirty years his junior, but also a student under his tutelage. “no matter what happens between them now, they will have to meet again as teachers and pupils,” (p. 89). david remorselessly tells his daughter, lucy, about his rape case (a university professor charged him with sexual misconduct after sleeping with melanie isaacs): “my case rests on the right of desire”, he says, “on the god who makes even the small birds quiver,” (p.89). “no animal will accept the justice of being punished for following its instincts,” (p. 90). in the joys of motherhood, emecheta shows that in the traditional igbo society, childbearing determines the failure or success of the marriage. if the marriage does not produce children, the society usually suspects the woman, and the man, as infertile. a wife accused of barrenness might be subjected t hard labour to force her run away or be replaced by the junior one. the author reprimands this traditional tendency by projecting ‘an infertile bride’ in nnu ego’s character. amatukwu tells nnu ego after no signs of pregnancy: “i will do my job by you. i will to your hut when my wife starts nursing her child. but now, if you can’t produce sons, at least you can help h arvest yams” (p. 33). emecheta exposes that some igbo men wives tend to neglect their families. but it comes to their daughters being ill-treated by their husbands, it hurts them. as unfaithful men, such fathers or husbands pretend as if nothing wrong happens in their families, and they think of wives as people who need material maintenance, but not their daughters. the author remarks: “agbadi was no different from many men. he himself might take wives and then neglect them for years, apart from seeing that they each received one yam a day; he could bring his mistress to sleep with him right in his courtyard while his pinned and bit their nails for a word from him. but when it came to his own daughter, she must have a man who cherish her” (p. 36). objectification of traditional igbo women happens also in the form of marriage. once a bride price is paid to the bride’s parents, the woman, now as a wife, is completely owned by her husband. if this happens, the wife has no control whatsoever of anything that directly affects her. in other words, the traditional igbo marriage subjugates wives to patriarchal whiffs. accordingly, the author, while not utterly objecting to the institution of marriage, is not happy with the advantages accrued to men. nnaife converses with nnu ego in their room. nnaife says: “what did you say? did i pay your bride price? am i not your owner? you know, the airs you put on are boring. i know you are the daughter of agbadi. pity he didn’t marry himself and keep you by his side forever. if you are going to be my wife, you must accept my work, my way of life” (p. 48). conclusion patriarchy is a system of male authority which oppresses women through its social, political, and economic institutions, and is perceive men as superior. marriage is the formal union between a man and woman/women or woman and woman or man and a man. in traditional african societies marriage and childbearing are inseparable: a marriage that does not produce children, especially the male ones, is doomed a failure. some authors argue is the mechanism through which men dominate women. the phrase ‘women as objects’ means treat women as inheritable properties, commercial commodities or sex objects either inside or outside marriage. references bȃ, m. (2008). so long a letter. britain. heinemann. balavatbhai, v.h. 2020. tale of african women: buchi emecheta’s joy of motherhood. international journal of advance academic studies, 2(2), 11-14 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０８ １０８ baloyi, e. (2010). an african view of women as sexual objects as a concern for gender equality: a critical study. university of south africa. chinua, a. (1969). things fall apart: african writers series. harlow. pearson education limited. coetzee, j. m. (2010). disgrace: reading guide edition. london. vintage books. crang, m & cook, i. (2007). doing ethnographies. california. sage publications. dangarembga, t. (2004). nervous conditions. uk. ayebia clarke publishing ltd. emecheta, b. (1979). the joys of motherhood. new york. allison & bushy ltd. hadi, a. (2017). patriarchy and gender-based violence in pakistan. european journal of social sciences, education and research. harran university. 4(4). kramarae, c. (1992). the conclusion of patriarchy in kramarae cheris and spencer dale (eds.). the knowledge explosion of feminist scholarship. athen suus. london. teachers college press. kohzad, et al. 2011. a study black feminism and womanism in toni morrison’s the bluest eye from the viewpoint of alice walker. international journal of academic research. lewis, m, et al. 2003. feminist postcolonial theory: a reader. new york. routlege. montle, m.e. 2012. denouncing cultural stereotypes against black women in the contemporary south african society the prism of northern sotho proverbs, ebangi: 18(1), 2322-242. mphahlele, e. 2004. down 2nd avenue. northlands. picador africa. nyanhongo, m.m. (2011). gender oppression and possibilities of empowerment; images of women in african literature with specific reference to mariama bȃ’s so long a letter and buchi emecheta’s the joys of motherhood and tsitsi dangarembga’s nervous conditions. university of fort hare. smith, m.d. (1990). patriarchal ideology and wife beating: a test of a feminist. hypothesis, violence and victims, 5(4). 257-274. ousmane, s. 1974. xala.. digitalized by revsocialist for social stories. pasque, a..p. & wimmer, b. (2011). an introduction: feminist perspectives. university of oklahoma, 9(1)21-47 rawat, g. (2014). the impact of culture on traditional african women: a case of india. new dehli. ajanta publications. soanes, c & walker, s. (2003). compact oxford english dictionary of current english. oxford new york. oxford university press. stacey, j. (1993). untangling feminist theory. in richardson d. and robinson v. (eds.). introducing women’s studies: feminist theory and practice. london. macmillan. stanworth, m. (ed.). (1987). reproductive technologies: gender, motherhood and medicine. cambridge. polity press. stevenson, a & waite, m. (eds.). (2011). concise oxford english dictionary. 12th edition. oxford new york. oxford university press. vine, k. (2017). understanding indian patriarchal practices. dehli. anta publications. ward, v.c. (2018). restoring fairness to campus sex tribunals. 85 tenn.lrev.1075.1136. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle october 2010.pdf the transfer of modalization in the indonesian translation of english interpersonal clauses yan mujiyanto semarang state university abstract this study aims to provide explanation on the fransfer of modalization in restructuring interpersonal clauses. as a case study, it has been deliberately directed to analyze written clauses in english texts and their counterparts in indonesian. four major procedures were taken to manage the data withdrawn from the texts, i.e. (1) data reduction, (2) data display, (3) data analysis, dan (4) inferencing. based on the procedures, it was found that in order to achieve functional equivalence, interpersonal clauses were translated by means of restructuring processes. the grammar of proposition has been restructured in three major modes, i.e. (1) the translation of polarity which includes affirmative, polar interrogative, wh interrogative, and exclamative restructuring , (2) the restructuring of probability which includes the transfer of modal adjunct, mood adjunct, and grammatical metaphor, (3) the transfer of usuality which was restructured according its different degrees. key words: modalization, proposition, functional equivalence, interpersonal clause introduction translation study can be focused on process or product. the process oriened study aims to psycho-physiologically explore what happens in the translator’s mind when processing message in one language to reproduce the same message in another language. the product oriented rendering, on the other hand, aims to provide explanation on the characteristics of translation product relative to its source. these orientations can then be focused on the language form, meaning, or function. a translation study that is focused on language function aims to explain how meaning realized in one language is rendered to another language so that the meaning comes to its target readers with minimal functional deviation or nonequivalence. in interlanguage translation, meaning may be transferred by implementing certain techniques to anticipate the linguistic and cultural differences in characteristics between the two languages. meaning realized in a wording pattern in the source langiuage (sl) may be expressed in a relatively the same pattern in the target language (tl) resulting in formal correspondence between the two languages. however, the fact is generally the opposite so that a translator likely faces the fact that in order to achieve functional equivalence (s)he has to make use of certain techniques or strategies to reproduce meaning in the tl that functionally resembles that in the sl. given the different linguistic characteristics between the sl and the tl, a translation effort needs to be supported by procedures of clause restructuring to make messages contained in the sl be transfered to the tl in such a way that they can be understood the way the source text is understood by its native readers. in other words, the implementation of techniques in the transfer of message and the clause restructuring in conveying the message in the tl are meant to produce meaning in the tl equivalent with that in the sl by fulfilling the three requirements of a “good” translation, i.e. accuracy, naturalness, and readibility. the purpose of translation studies is to disclose the achievement of such equivalence viewed from different perspectives. among the perspectives is functional or dynamic equivalence. based on such a view, this study is meant to solve the problem of how modalization is transferred in the effort of restructuring interpersonal clauses to result in functional equivalence in the rendering of english text into indonesian. the main purpose of this study is thus to provide explanation on the ways in which sl interpersonal clauses are restructured to generate meaning in the tl which are functionally equivalent with their counterpart in the sl. review of literature modalization when exchanging information, we make a form of proposition, i.e. something that can be argued in a particular way. in this argument, something can be is or is not, meaning that something can only be affirmed or denied. however, in reality these poles of polarity are not always possible. there are a number of choices to realize degrees of certainty or usuality between the two poles. we refer to these degrees as modalization. in other words, modalization is used to argue about the probability or frequency of proposition. according to halliday (1985: 85-9), modalization involves the expression of two kinds of meaning: (1) probability where the speaker expresses judgments as to the likelihood of something to happen or or be and (2) usuality where the speaker expresses jugements as to the frequency with which something happens or occurs. probability may be represented by such modal operator as must, may, might or mood adjuncts like certainly, probably and possibly, while usuality by such adverbs as always, usually, and sometimes. since these words can be in the finite category of modal operator or in the class of mood adjuct, their meaning can therefore be present in the clause in three possible ways: (1) through the choice of modal operator, (2) through the use of mood adjunct of probability, certainty, etc., or (3) through both together. modalisation can also be realized explicitly by the use of what halliday calls grammatical metaphor of modality. such expressions as i reckon, i suppose, i’m sure, it is possible, it is probable, it is certain (that) are classified as metaphorical because being expressions of modality they are realized as complete clauses with their own mood/residue structure. equivalence in the domain of translation study, the term equivalence has been defined in a number of ways. while defining the term as …, nida distinguishes two different types of equivalence, i.e. formal equivalence—which is also referred to as formal correspondence—and dynamic equivalence. formal correspondence consists of a tl item which represents the closest equivalent of a source language (sl) word or phrase. nida and taber (1982) make it clear that these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. the use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text (tt) since the translation will not be easily understood by the target audience (fawcett, 1997). dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language (tl) wording will trigger the same impact on the tl audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience. they argue that 'frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful' (nida and taber, 1982:200). differenent from nida and taber’s, catford's approach to translation equivalence had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach. his main contribution to the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation. catford proposed types of translation in terms of three criteria: (1) the extent of translation; (2) the levels of language involved in translation; (3) the grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established. of the three types, the third concerns the concept of equivalence. in rankbound translation an equivalent is sought in the tl for each word encountered in the st. as far as translation shift is concerned, catford (1965:73) defines them as departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the sl to the tl. he argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely level shifts and category shifts which are divided into (1) structure-shifts, (2) class-shifts,(3) unitshifts, (4) intra-system shifts, (catford 1965:80). house (1997) argues that st and tt should match one another in function. she suggests that it is possible to characterize the function of a text by determining the situational dimensions of the st. according to her, every text in itself is placed within a particular situation which has to be correctly identified and taken into account. after the st analysis, house is in a position to evaluate a translation. if the st and the tt differ substantially on situational features, then they are not functionally equivalent. she acknowledges that 'a translation text should not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve that function' (1997:49) central to house's discussion is the concept of overt and covert translations. in an overt translation the tt audience is not directly addressed and there is no need to recreate a 'second original' since an overt translation 'must overtly be a translation' (1997:189). by covert translation, on the other hand, is meant the production of a text which is functionally equivalent to the st. house also argues that in this type of translation the st 'is not specifically addressed to a tc audience' (1997:194). house's theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more flexible than catford's. in fact, she gives authentic examples, uses complete texts and, more importantly, she relates linguistic features to the context of both source and target text. an extremely interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence can be found in baker (1992) who seems to offer a more detailed list of conditions upon which the concept of equivalence can be defined. she explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in relation to the translation process, including all different aspects of translation and hence putting together the linguistic and the communicative approach. she distinguishes between equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, grammatical equivalence, textual equivalence, and pragmatic equivalence. halliday (2001:.13) contrasts the linguist's interest in translation theories which involves "how things are" and a translator's interest in a theory which concerns "how things ought to be". with reference to the process of translation, halliday (1967; newmark1991: 65) suggests that translating proceeds by three stages: (1) item for item equivalence; (2) reconsideration in the light of the linguistic environment and beyond this to a consideration of the situation; (3) reconsideration in the light of the grammatical features of the target language where source language no longer provides any information. as far as translation quality assessment is concerned, halliday (1967) points out that, the equivalence of units and of items is lost as soon as we go below the sentence; the further down the rank scale we go, the less is left of the equivalence. then, in respect of the register variables – field, tenor and mood – in translation, halliday (2001:17) emphasises the importance of contexts in deciding the "value" of different strata. he stipulates what can be seen as "a principle of hierarchy of values" when he observes that equivalence at different strata carries differential values; ...in most cases the value that is placed on it goes up the higher the stratum—semantic equivalence is valued more highly than lexicogrammatical, and contextual equivalence perhaps most highly of all; but ...these relative values can always be varied. and finally, halliday (2001:15) justifies his view on translation equivalence by asking: "equivalence with respect to what?" equivalence, he asserts, should be defined in respect of the metafunctions (ideational, interpersonal, textual) (halliday 2001:16). for him, although "in any particular instance of translation, value may be attached to equivalence at different ranks, different strata, different metafunctions," it is "usually at the higher lexicogrammatical units" in rank, and "typically" at the highest stratum within language, i.e. that of semantics in strata, that equivalence is most highly valued (halliday 2001:17). with regard to the three metafunctions, halliday thinks that "high value may be accorded to equivalence in the interpersonal or textual realms—but usually only when ideational equivalence can be taken for granted" (halliday 2001:17). method of investigation the term interlanguage translation signifies the effort of translators to analize a source text in order to comprehend its meaning, to seek the counterpart of the meaning in the target language, and to restructure clauses in the text to result in functional equivalence between the source text and its counterpart in the target language. focusing the attention to translation as product, the term is refered to as clauses in the target language as a result of rendering act from the sourse language. based on the notion, the object for this study is translation, i.e. indonesian text as a result of rendering task from english. for this purpose, this study has deliberately chosen the translation of harry potter series to be the object of the study. the data for this study were clauses in indonesian and their counterpart in english which were drawn from their sources. in order to disclose the meaning contained in the clauses, this study had deliberately chosen seven novel series of j.k. rowling’s harry potter and their indonesian counterpart which were done by l. srisanti. due to the ample number of the data source, this study limited its data withdrawal merely from a number of chapters from each of the seven siries. the data were randomly drawn from the chapters based on the assumption that data homogenously spead over the chapters so that small precentage of sample will be adequate to represent the whole parts of the data source. the data were managed by means of the following procedures.firstly, the data source in the form of chapters in the two languages were put side by side with the purpose of obtaining general picture on the completeness of the texts. the second step was identification of clauses as the largest unit of analysis. this step aimded to obtain ideas on clauses which were assumed to contain relevant aspects of the study. the clauses were then picked out to be put into the database for categorization based on the references of clause restructuring viewed from the systemic-functional grammar perspective. this step yieled categories and sub-categories of data ready for analysis, whose results were subsequently used as the basis to describe and explain phenomena in translation practices. findings and discussion in order to achieve functional equivalence, modalization of interpersonal clauses was transferred in at least three categories of restructuring modes. the restructuring of polarity includes affirmative, polar interrogative, wh interrogative, and exclamative, that of modalization includes the employment of modal operators, mood adjuncts, and grammatical metaphor. the grammar of usuality was restructured by observing that of the sl. these three restructuring categories are illustrated in figure 1. figure 1 variations of interpersonal clauses polarity affirmative the grammatical structure of proposition consists of two main clause elements, i.e. mood and residue. mood may be in the forms of (1) subject, (2) finite, and (3) expression of polarity, while residue may be in the forms of (1) predicator, (2) complement, and (3) adjunct. each of the six elements is presented in sample (1). in this clause pattern, the expression of polarity is realized by the negator “not” attached to the finite “had”. (1) a/b. grammar of modalization polarity probability affirmative polar interrogative whinterrogative exclamative modal adjunct mood adjunct usuality grammatical metaphor degrees they had (not) been given permission to show curiosity mereka telah diberi izin untuk memperlihatkan keingintahuan subject finite (polarity) predicator complement adjunct mood residue in sample (2) the finite element is the past tense form represented by the suffix /-ed/ attached to the predicator “give”. in this pattern, two complements are used to furnish the clause, i.e. “george” and “a book”. (2) a/b. simon gave george a book too subject finite predicator complement complement adjunct mood residue it is quite possible that an element in the sl does not have any counterpart in the tl. for instance, in sample (3), the finite “had” does not have any counterpart while the two complements, i.e. “his mother” and “the slip” were changed to circumstantial adjunct “dari ibunya”, shifting an idiomatic expression to a literal one. (3) a/b. he ‘d given his mother the slip dia kabur dari ibunya subject finite predicator complement complement adjunct mood residue in restructuring a clause like the one shown in sample (4), all elements of the clause in the sl were maintained so that the translation resulted in formal corresponce in the word, group, phrase, and clause levels. this had eventually yielded the highest level of equivalence, that is functuional one between the two languages. (4) a/b. oh, come on, hagrid, you might not want to tell us oh, ayolah, hagrid, kau mungkin tak ingin memberitahu kami, cont cont voc subject finite (neg) predicator compl residue mood residue different from the sample shown above, in (5), each of the elements of the sl clause were provided with its counterpart in the tl resulting in semantic equivalence at word level. nevertheless, the elements were restructured by reordering them resulting in a shift of word order. (5) a. it must have made sense to dumbledore, though. b. tapi dumbledore pasti bisa mengartikannya. the subject “it” for instance was moved to function as complement “-nya” while the conjuctive adjunct “though” which was originally in the final position of the sl clause was moved to the initial position in the tl clause. besides that, the word “dumbledore” as a part of the complement in the sl clause was moved to the subject position in the tl. this restructuring process is illustrated in sample (6). (6) a/b. it must have made sense to dumbledore though. -nya pasti bisa mengartikan dumbledore tapi subj à compl finite predicator compl à subject final à initial in sample (7), the circumstantial adjunct “into an uneasy sleep” was restructured by means of moving the noun “sleep” to the prosition of predicator “tidur” while maintaining the adjunct “uneasy” in its original position of circumstantial adjunct by adding a conjunction “walaupun”. meanwhile, the predicator “been drifting” which literally means “hanyut” was translated to “bisa” signifying the notion of “ability”. (7) a. mr dursley might have been drifting into an uneasy sleep. b. mr dursley mungkin saja bisa tidur, walau tak nyenyak. in sample (8), the word “however” whose meaning refers to contradiction was translated to “ternyata” which refers to the notion of ‘reality’. besides that, the circumstantial adjunct in the form of the clause “(than) they’d thought” was restructured to become a nominal phrase “dugaan mereka” (their guess). (8) a. quirrell, however, must have been braver than they'd thought. b. quirrell, ternyata, lebih berani daripada dugaan mereka. these modes of translation had resulted in grammatical as well as semantic shifts. nevertheless, they had provided their share to the achievement of functional equivalence because it is this type of equivalence that had been applied to reflect the st writer’s thought in realizing meaning, instead of word and grammatical structure. polar interrogative polar interrogative clauses were restructured in at least five major patterns, i.e. (1) “apa(kah) substitution, (2) modal adjunct placement, (3) predicator placement, (4) negator “tidak(kah)” or “bukan(kah)” placement in initial position, and (5) the use of statement in interrogative intonation. these five patterns are illustrated in figur 1. in one of the patterns, all the clausal elements were provided with their counterparts placed in the same positions as those in the sl clause except the finite “do” that was translated to the question word “apa” and optional particle “-kah” used for politeness purpose. st tt interogatif polar? apa(kah) + clause? modal(kah) + clause? predicator(kah) + clause? tidak(kah) + clause? clause? figure 2 the restructuring pattern of polar interrogative clauses using such patterns, interrogative clauses in the sl employing finite like “is”, “can,” and “did” in initial position such as represented in sample (9), were restructured by using the question word “apa(kah)” maintaining the referential meaning of the modal adjunct in its original position. (9) a. is serious black with--er--he-who-mustnot-benamed? b. apakah serius black bersama—er—dia yang namanya tak boleh disebut? such polar interrogative clauses can also be restructured by shifting the mood or predicative element to the initial position and optionally adding the particle “-kah” to the word for politeness purpose. in sample (10), instead of using the question word “apa(kah)”, the sl clause was restructured by shifting the word “sudah” as the counterpart of the finite “have” and adding the particle “-kah”, maintaining the rest of the clause elements in their original position. (10) a. have you discussed this matter with the dark lord? b. sudahkah kau membicarakan masalah ini dengan pangeran kegelapan? in sample (11), it is the predicator “tahu” that had been shifted to the initial position with the particle “-kah” added to it. meanwhile, in sample (12) it is the negator “tidak” that was placed in initial position; the other clause elements were restructured according to the original position in the sl. (11) a. do you know what i think, potter? b. tahukah kau apa pendapatku, potter? (12) a. don't you see? b. tidakkah kau paham? polar interrogative clauses may also be restructured to form a type of affirmative while adding to it the question mark (?) representing a change from a statement to a question. in sample (13), the interrogative clause signified by the inverted form of “do you” was restructured to form an affirmative clause “kau sering bertemu …?” completed with the question mark, instead of tentative interrogarives like “apakah kau sering bertemu …?” or “seringkah kau bertemu …?” the choice of such expressions is likely determined by a particular element within the clause to be emphasized or in other words thematized. (13) a. do you see much of your uncle, marcus? b. kau sering bertemu pamanmu, marcus? based on such principles, it can be predicted that a clause like “will you make the unbreakable vow?” which had been translated into “apakah kau mau melakukan sumpah tak-terlanggar?” might also be restructured to form hypotetical clauses like “maukah kau melakukan sumpah tak-terlanggar?" or “kau mau melakukan sumpah tak-terlanggar?” without reducing the degree of the functional equivalence. whinterrogative in english, the question word “wh-” functioning as subject, complement, or adjunct of an interrogative is normally placed at the initial position of the clause. in translation, however, such a word may be flixibly placed at initial, medial, or final position depending on whether or not it is thematised. in sample (14), the question word “who” is used to substitute and simultaneously placed in the subject position. in the example, the word “yang” had been inserted between the question word “siapa” and “bisa as the counterpart of the finite “can”. (14) a/b. who can say that they know the real harry potter? siapa (yang) bisa berkata bahwa mereka kenal harry potter yang sesungguhnya? subject finite predicator complement mood residue in sample (15), the question word “how” functioning as circumstantial adjunct in the clause was also placed in initial position followed by the inverted form of subject – finite construction of “dumbledore” and “did”. in restructuring the clause, the finite “did” was not given any counterpart in the tl so that the question word “bagaimana” is directly followed by the subject of the clause . (15) a/b. how did dumbledore really meet his end? bagaimana dumbledore sebenarnya menemui ajalnya? wh-/adjunct finite subject predicator complement residue mood residue different from the restructuring pattern presented above, a “wh-“ interrogative may also be restructured by inserting the particle “yang” and changing the verb into its passive form signified by the presence of the prefix “di-“ in the tl. in sample (16), the active verb “would … say” was restructured to form a passive construction “akan dikatakan”. (16) a. what would ron and hermione say about this? b. apa yang akan dikatakan ron dan hermione tentang ini? another mode of wh-interogative restructuring is providing the counterpart of the question word and changing the interrogative structure (finite + subject) to affirmative (subject + predicator). in sample (17), the question word “how” was translated into “bagaimana” while the interrogative structure “can i” was restructured to form an affirmative construction “saya bisa” (“i can”). (17) a. how can i help you? b. bagaimana saya bisa membantu anda? instead of putting the question word in initial position, it is also possible to put it next to the subject or predicator of the clause. for instance, in sample (18) the question word “where” was translated into “dari mana” and was restructured by positioning it next to the predicator “to start” which had been translated to “mulai”. (18) a. where to start! b. mulai dari mana! eventually, the restructuring process may also be made passible by replacing the question word used in the sl with another question word. in sample (19), for instance, the question word “what” which refers to an object is replaced by the question word “kenapa” as the counterpart of the sl question word “why” refering to reason. (19) a. what happened to his hand? b. tangannya kenapa? to summarise the presentation above, in translation the interrogative structure in the sl can be restructured by means of (1) employing the particle “yang”, (2) passifying the verbal predicator, (3) shifting the interrogative to affirmative, positioning the question word next to the subject or predicator, or (5) replacing the question word with another one. these restructuring modes may be used to generate hypotetical translation of an sl “wh-“ interrogative like the ones illutrated in figure 3. figure 3 alternative translation of an sl “wh-“ interrogative exclamative in exclamative clauses, the “wh-“ element (“what” or “how”) is followed by the complement or adjunct within the mood structure. for instance, in sample (20), the question word “what” is followed by the complement “a surprise” and is positioned as residue followed by the mood element “it is”. (20) a/b. what a surprise it is! wh-/complement subject finite residue mood the residual element such as the one in the above example can stand by itself or is followed by a mood element. for instance, in sample (21) the exclamative clause which merely consists of a “wh-“ element and a complement was restructured by means of substituting the “wh-“ element with the adjunct “sungguh” followed by the complement “omong kosong” as the counterpart of “utter rubbish”. (21) a. what utter rubbish! b. sungguh omong kosong! in such exclamative structure, the word “sungguh” as the counterpart of the “wh-“ element may optionally be dropped and a new element added to the clause. in sample (22), the question word “what” was eliminated while the expression “a shape” rendered to “bentuknya”; then an expression “ajaib” was added to function as a cohesive element of the move. (22) a. what a shape! b. bentuknya ajaib! if there is a mood element in the exclamative, the clause is restructured to form an interrogative. in sample (23), the residue which was in the form of an expression “what madness” had been translated to “kegilaan macam apa” while the mood element “is this” was restructured to become “ini” functioning as an element of the so-called nonverbal clause in the tl. (23) a. what madness is this? b. kegilaan macam apa ini? exclamative clauses like “what a surprise it is!” can therefore be hypotetically redered to “kejutan macam apa ini!”, “sungguh ini suatu kejutan!” or “sungguh suatu kejutan ini!” whichever context is appropriate to accommodate such variations. probability modal operator in sample (24), the modal operator in the form of finite “must” was positioned between the subject “filch” and predicator “know”. (24) a/b. filch must know a shortcut filch pastilah tahu jalan pintas subject finite: modal predicator complement mood residue the other modal operators representing probability are among others “can”, “could”, “may”, “might”, “shall”, “should”, “will”, dan “would”. in translation, interpersonal clauses are restructured by means of (1) positioning the counterpart of finite that is in the form of modal operator between subject dan predicator, (2) moving the counterpart of the modal operator to the initial position, or (3) deleting the modal operator. in sample (25), the clause was restructured by means of matching the modal operator “must” with the word “pastilah” positioned between subject dan predicator resembling the position in the sl. (25) a. filch must know a shortcut. b. filch pastilah tahu jalan pintas. different from the restructuring exemplified above, in sample (26) the word “pasti” as the counterpart of “must have” was placed in initial position, while the order of the other clause elements in the sl were maintained. (26) a. it must have been a trick of the light. b. pasti itu tipuan cahaya. the grammatical structure of sample (27) is basically similar to that of the above example. in this clause, the idiomatic expression “it must’ve cost you a fortune” was restructured to form a literal expression “pasti mahal sekali harganya” meaning “it’s very expensive” or “the price is so high”. (27) a. it must've cost you a fortune. b. pasti mahal sekali harganya. in sample (28), the modal operator in the sl, i.e. “might” is grammaticalized to form a grammatical metaphor “siapa tahu” causing the restructure to result in a complex clause in the tl. (28) a. she might have gone for filch. b. siapa tahu dia menemui filch. different from the grammatical structure presented above, in sample (29) the modal operator “shall” along with the predicator “be leaving” was not provided with any counterpart in the tl yielding a non-modalized clause. (29) a. we shall be leaving before harry. b. kita berangkat sebelum harry. mood adjunct in sample (30), the probablity element of the clause was represented by the mood adjunct “probably” which was positioned between subject and finite. (30) a/b. filch probably knew everything filch mungkin tahu segalanya subject adjunct: mood predicator complement mood residue in such example, the mood adjunct “probably” used to express the speaker’s opinion about a degree of probablity on the existence of an action was positioned between the subject “filch” dan predicator “knew”. therefore, such mood adjunct could also be placed at the initial position just like the one in example (31). (31) a/b. maybe it only shows dead people. mungkin cermin itu cuma menunjukkan orang-orang yang sudah meninggal modal adj subject adj finite predicator complement mood residue mood adjunct placed in such position are among others the mood adjunct whose meanings are refered to the notion of probability (“probably”, “perhaps”, “possibly”, “maybe”, “definitly”, “undoubtedly”), readiness (“willingly”, “readily”, “really”, “gladly”, “actually”, “certainly”, “easily”), and obligation (“definitly”, “absolutely”, “surely”, “indeed”, “positively”). in sample (32), the mood adjunct “probably” was translated into “mungkin”. then, the clause was restructured by positioning the word between subject and predicator. (32) a. he probably knew everything. b. dia mungkin tahu segalanya. in sample (33), the mood adjunct “mungkin” as the counterpart of the word “”maybe” was placed in initial position. the clause was then restructured by moving the subject “he” to the position of complement in the tl. (33) a. maybe he was imagining it. b. mungkin itu cuma perasaannya. in sample (34), the word “certainly” which was positioned between the finite “was” and the idiomatic expression “quick off the mark” was restructured by means of matching it with the word “jelas” positioned between the subject “skeeter” and predicator “bergerak”. meanwhile, in sample (35), the word “benar-benar” which was the translation of the word “indeed” was positioned between the subject “grawp” and complement “raksasa” in a tl nonverbal clause. (34) a. skeeter was certainly quick off the mark. b. skeeter jelas bergerak sangat gesit. (35) a. grawp was, indeed, an undersized giant. b. grawp benar-benar raksasa berukuran terlalu kecil. in sample (36), the mood adjunct “actually” was represented by italizing the predicator “bilang” showing the representativeness of the adjunct “actually” which refers to the notion of obligation. (36) a. justin actually told him he'd been down for eton. b. justin bilang padanya dia sudah didaftarkan ke eton. mood adjunct can also be in the form of a prepositional phrase like “without doubt”, “beyond doubt”, “in fact”, “in effect”, “as a matter of fact”,”in truth”, and “in reality”. in clause restructuring, such phrases can be placed in initial, medial, as well as final position of the clause. for instance, in sample (37) the word “ternyata” as the counterpart of the phrase “in fact” was placed in initial position, while in sample (38), the word “malah” as the counterpart of the phrase “as a matter of fact” was placed in medial position, i.e. between predicator and circumstance. (37) a. in fact, their departure the following morning was smoother than usual. b. ternyata keberangkatan mereka pagi berikutnya lebih lancar daripada biasanya. (38) a. it happened just around the corner from here, as a matter of fact. b. terjadinya malah hanya di balik tikungan dekat sini. combination of modal operator and mood adjunct modal operator may go hand in hand with mood adjunct to take the role of a the mood element of interpersonal clause. this may be used to express the speaker’s opinion in the probability of existence. for instance, in sample (39), the modal operator “would” and mood adjunct “probably” were used together to express such opinion. (39) a/b. this would probably be the best christmas he'd ever had subject modal adj mood adj predicator complement mood residue modalization is restructured by placing the two types of adjunct in relatively loose positions. it is possible to position the mood adjunct between subject and finite such as in “saya barangkali akan terlalu sibuk” as the counterpart of “i shall probably be too busy”, in initial position such as in “mungkin ini bahkan akan jadi natal paling menyenangkan …” as the counterpart of “this would probably be the best christmas.” grammatical metaphor modalization can be realized by means of clauses semantically referred to the speaker’s opinion on a certain phenomenon. for instance, clauses like “i think”, “i’m sure”, and other expressions consisting of the first person singular subject “i” followed by such mental processes as “believe”, “feel”, “consider”, “agree”, “suppose”, “assume”, “imagine”, “sense”, and “doubt” are constructed for that purpose. clauses like that are commonly called grammatical metaphor of modality because these finite clauses function just like adjunct modal and mood adjunct do. for instance, in sample (40), the expression “i think” was positioned to function as mood adjunct, and could also be substituted with expressions like “i’m sure”, “i believe”, “i feel” and the like. (40) a/b. i think i know who that one’s from. mood subject finite operator complement mood residue in translation, such interpersonal clauses are restructured through the provision of a counterpart fulfilling the requirements of formal correspondence. in sample (41), the grammatical metaphor of modality “i think” which was followed by the main clause in the mood system had been restructured to “kurasa”, a variation of “aku merasa”. (41) a. i think i know who that one's from. b. kurasa aku tahu yang itu dari siapa. that is particularly true of the clause rendering of “i’m sure” to become “aku/saya yakin” followed by the main clause like the one presented in sample (42) in which the expression “it [the book] would help me” had been translated into “buku ini bisa membantu saya” without any formal shift. (42) a. i'm sure it would help me understand what you say. b. saya yakin buku ini bisa membantu saya memahami apa yang anda ceritakan. sample (43) shows an interpersonal clause than could be translated into an expression whose literal meaning had been digressed from the meaning contained in the sl clause. the expression “i believe” which should have been translated into “saya yakin” had instead been restructured to form the expression “setahuku” signifying the shorter form of “seperti yang saya tahu” or “sejauh yang saya ketahui”. this type of restructuring would not reduce the degree of functional equivalence between the two languages so long as the meaning was positioned in an appropriate context. (43) a. i believe learned wizards study the matter in the department of mysteries. b. setahuku para penyihir terpelajar mempelajari masalah ini di departemen misteri. usuality mood adjuncts like “usually”, “always”, “seldom”, and “never” may be employed to show a certain degree of usuality. this type of adverbs is commonly positioned in medial position, i.e. between subject and predicator. in sample (44), the mood adjunct “never” and its counterpart “belum pernah” in the tl was positioned between the finite “had” which does not correspond to any word in the tl and the predicator “received” (“menerima”). (44) a/b. he had never received a birthday card in his life dia belum pernah menerima kartu ulang tahun seumur hidupnya subject finite mood adjunct predicator complement adjunct mood residue another instance, in sample (45) the mood adjunct “usually” which is positioned between the finite “were” dand the complement “light and speedy” had been translated into “biasanya” which was placed between the subject “seeker” and the complement “ringan dan gesit” in a nonverbal clause of the tl. (45) a/b. seekers were usually light and speedy seeker biasanya ringan dan gesit subject finite mood adjunct complement mood residue if the negator “not” is attached to the modal operator like “would”, such as the one in sample (46), the mood adjunct “biasanya” as the counterpart of “usually” is positioned between the subject and the modal operator along with its negator. (46) a. grubbly-plank wouldn't usually show them to us. b. grubbly-plank biasanya tidak akan memperlihatkan mereka kepada kita. however, instead of the placement of such adjunct in that position, such mood adjunct as “belum pernah” can also be placed in initial position like the one in sample (47). (47) a. he had never been in a worse fix. b. belum pernah dia dalam kesulitan sebesar ini. mood adjunct like “sometimes” and its counterpart in the tl “kadang-kadang” can also be placed in initial postion such as presented in sample (48). (48) a. sometimes he thought that the postlavender ron might not mind too much b. kadang-kadang dia berpikir bahwa ron paska-lavender mungkin tidak akan terlalu berkeberatan mood adjunct like “sometimes” which is commonly placed in final position of the main clause may also be restructured by placing it in initial. in sample (49), the word “kadang-kadang” was placed in initial position, while in sample (50) the expression, “dari waktu ke waktu” as the counterpart of the sl word “sometimes” was placed in final position. (49) a. he caught it sometimes when hermione spotted him staring at ginny. b. kadang-kadang dia melihatnya ketika hermione memergokinya sedang menatap ginny. (50) a. third years at hog—at my school are allowed to visit the village sometimes. b. murid-murid kelas tiga di hog—di sekolahku, diizinkan mengunjungi desa dari waktu ke waktu. the rendering of such adjunct as “never” into “tak…sanggup” shows nonequivalence at word level given that the word “never” is commonly understood to correspond with such expression as “tak pernah”. this fact, again, may not necessarily result in any shift at clause level because functional equivalence may also be yielded by employing formal shift or semantic nonequivalence below clause levels. (51) a. he'd never be able to drag his trunk all the way to london. b. dia tak akan sanggup menyeret kopernya sampai ke london. subsequently, mood adjunct can also be matched with a word referring to opposite meaning. then, the clause was restructured by substituting the verb with a word also of the opposite meaning. in sample (52), the mood adjunct “never” was matched with “selalu” while the predicator “missed”, referring to “failure” was translated into “berhasil” referring to a state of “success”. (52) a. you've never missed the snitch before. b. kau kan selalu berhasil menangkap snitch sebelumnya." conclusion in translation processes, a proposition is generally restructured my maintaining the whole clause elements in patterns which are appropriate with the ones employed in the sl. the functional equivalence at clause level can also be achieved by emplementing the notion of shift as well as nonequivalence at word, group, or phrase level. in rendering interpersonal clauses, the functional equivalence can be achieved by maintaining the structures of the sl so that formal correspondence is materialized at all grammatical levels. however, other efforts may also be made with a consequence of formal shift or nonequivalence. in this case, interpersonal clauses may be restructured by the placement of the three types of sl adjunct in four modes, i.e. (1) word order maintenance, (2) shift of order, (3) elimination, (4) addition, (5) substitution. although a proposition can be realized in the state of ‘is’ or ‘is not’, between the two poles there are spaces accomodating a number of choices on degrees of probability and usuality. based on this notion, propositions can be expressed using certain types of modalization, covering the realization of two types of meaning, i.e. probability and usuality. the meaning of probability is realized by employing among the choices of (1) modal adjunct in the form of finite operator; (2) mood adjunct representing probability; (3) a combination of modal and mood adjuncts. the flexibility in the placement of modal adjunct and mood adjunct in interpersonal clauses (be it discretely or in combination) has made it possible to hypotetically restructure sl clauses either through changes or word order, processes of permutation or substitution, or employment of word pair or correspondence. references baker, m. 1992. in other words: a coursebook on translation, london: routledge. catford, j. c. 1965. a linguistic theory of translation: an essay on applied linguistics, london: oxford university press. fawcett, p. 1997. translation and language: linguistic theories explained, manchester: st jerome publishing house, j. 1977. a model for translation quality assessment, tübingen: gunter narr. nida, eugene a. 1964. towards a science of translating, leiden: e. j. brill. nida, e. a. and c.r.taber. 1969 /1982. the theory and practice of translation, leiden: e. j. brill. halliday, m. a. k., and hasan, r. 1976. cohesion in english. london, longman. halliday, m.a.k. 2004. an introduction to functional grammar (revised edition by ch. m.i.m. matthissen). london: arnold. hatim, b., and i. mason. 1990. discourse and the translator. london: longman. wills, w. 1982. the science of translation: problems and methods. tubingen: gunter narr verlag. language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 219 persuasion action strategies in da'wah discourse on social media in the global communication era hari kusmanto1 harikusmanto.ums@gmail.com harun joko prayitno2 harun.prayitno@ums.ac.id isnaeni sofiana3 a310150036@student.ums.ac.id norliza jamaluddin4 norliza@fbk.upsi.edu.my 1,2,3universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, indonesia 4universitas pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia abstract creative and suggest speech partners. this study aimed to identify the persuasion action strategies in da'wah discourse on social media of instagram. the approach of this study was descriptive qualitative. the data of this study was persuasion utterances in da'wah discourse on social media. the data collection employed documentation, transcription, and listening method and was followed by notetaking techniques. the data analysis of this study used the distributional method and markup reading technique. the results of this study showed that there are eleven persuasion strategies used by ustadz hanan attaki in da'wah through social media of instagram. the eleven strategies include (1) the use of al-qur'an, (2) directly persuasion (3) indirectly persuasion, (4) persuasion using repetition, (5) the use of stories, (6) the use of the figure of speech, (7) the use of hope, (8) ) the use of analogy, (9) the use of al-hadith, (10) the use of expressiveness, and (11) the use of cause and effect. in the era of global communication, the realization of da'wah on social media can utilize persuasive language to influence speech partners so that the purpose of da'wah can be successful keywords: da’wah, instagram, persuasion, global communication introduction in the era of global communication, da'wah is not bound by time and space. the development of da'wah goes so fast, and it is not limited to study spaces such as buildings and is not limited to any time to be done. this brings good things in which da'wah communication can also reach widely and even globally. as islam (2019) stated, it can become an effective tool for the da'wah of islam through the development of modern technology. this is reinforced by the findings of qarni, syahnan, harahap, nasution, and fithriani (2019) that two factors influence the success of ustad abdul somad's da'wah, first, verbal factors and second, nonverbal factors in the context of the study, namely the use of platforms in disseminating da'wah. through social media, da'wah can be said to be quite successful, especially for teenagers who are starting to enjoy participating in studies. this is following what siagian, mustari, and ahmad (2016) have stated that audio and visual media such as television and social media have strong and persuasive messages. moreover, social media is one of the successful strategies in conducting da'wah, such as youth hijrah, hijrah, youth baper (bring changes), and so on. this social media account emerges after the da'wah carried out through social media. the success of da'wah https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:harikusmanto.ums@gmail.com mailto:harun.prayitno@ums.ac.id mailto:norliza@fbk.upsi.edu.my http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 220 through social media can be understood because teenagers in the era of global communication can be sure to have social media accounts so that indirectly da'wah on social media is aimed especially at teenagers. one of the social media used in da'wah is instagram. through social media of instagram, it can be used to disseminate information, develop existence, and da'wah in attractive packaging to attract public attention (rahmanto & satyawan, 2020). the ustadz who preaches through social media and what teenagers love is ustadz hanan attaki's instagram account. this can be seen from the followers of hanan attaki's instagram account, which reaches 8.2 million. based on this case, the researcher is interested in conducting a study related to the persuasion strategy of ustadz hanan attaki in da'wah through social media of instagram. persuasion is a way for a speaker to affect a speech partner to want to follow what the speaker wants by using various methods, such as both spoken and written language, pictures, photos, videos, and so on. persuasion is spoken or written words and visual devices play an important role in changing the mind, attitude, or behavior of the target (fanani, setiawan, purwati, & maisarah, 2020). therefore, the means of persuasion are both written and spoken language and visual tools. however, in general, language is a key means of persuasion because it is a medium that allows more flexible and richer expression of arguments to convince users to adopt the desired behavior (maimone, guerini, dragoni, bailoni, & eccher, 2018; gadzhiyeva & sager, 2017). persuasion is a person's attempt to influence others in terms of understanding, attitudes, and actions. in this connection, persuasion is also closely related to the ability of argumentation to convince others to change according to the persuasion message conveyed (dutta, das, & chakraborty, 2020). therefore, persuasion has a close relationship between speakers, writers, speech partners, or readers (fanani, setiawan, purwati, maisarah, & qoyyimah, 2020). this has a close relationship because, in persuasion, there are speakers, conveyed messages, and speech partners who receive messages. there are several ways to do to influence others. anesa (2020) stated that in terms of influencing people's attitudes, it could be done through two ways of persuasion, first, persuasion which requires thought and exploration, and second, persuasion which focuses on the attraction of resources without logical elaboration. this shows that persuasion is not only related to the logical strength of the messages presented but also the source of information. the success of persuasion can be influenced by various things, both from the information presented and outside the information. for example, emotional experiences (appel, schreiner, haffmans, & richter, 2019) consider the benefits of the information presented (han, chen, liu, luo, & fan, 2018; itzchakov, uziel, & wood, 2018). therefore, in presenting persuasion messages, apart from using suggestive facilities, it is also necessary to consider the aspects of the usefulness of the information to the speech partners so that the persuasion message can be successful. there are several ways to do to convey persuasion to readers or listeners. these ways include (1) direct persuasion, (2) indirect persuasion, (3) persuasion using the figure of speech, (4) persuasion using references, (5) persuasion using special criteria, (6) persuasion using analogy, and (7) persuasion using cause and effect (sukarno, 2013). musahadah and triyono (2019) also added that some ways can be done to influence speech partners, including (1) directly, (2) indirectly, (3) al-hadith, prayer or hope, (4) stories, (5) expressions, (6) figure of speech, and (7) repetition. based on the description presented, the problem is, how are the persuasion strategies used in da'wah discourse on social media that make da'wah to be successful? following these problems, this study aims to identify the persuasion strategies in da'wah discourse on social media. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 221 methodology the approach of this study was descriptive qualitative (graue, 2015; tojo & takagi, 2017; zurqoni, retnawati, apino, & anazifa, 2019). this approach aimed to produce a description or generalization of the theory of persuasion strategies in da'wah discourse on social media of instagram. the data in this study were utterances that contained persuasion in da'wah discourse on ustadz hanan attaki official's instagram social media. this study's data source was obtained from the da'wah discourse on social media of instagram owned by ustadz hanan attaki official. the choice of the account was based on the fact that ustadz hanan attaki especially spearheaded da'wah on social media. in addition to this, the reason for choosing the social media account of ustadz hanan attaki was because the followers of hanan attaki's instagram account were 8.2 million. the data collection of this study employed documentation, transcription, and listening methods and followed by note-taking techniques. the documentation referred to in this study was a study video of ustadz hanan attaki uploaded to his instagram account. then, the videos were downloaded and transcribed. the transcription method referred to in this study was an orthographic transcription, so that data was truly natural following the utterance of ustadz hanan attaki. the next step was to do listening, which was to read the study transcriptions carefully and thoroughly to find preliminary data in the form of persuasion strategies on da'wah discourse on social media. after obtaining the initial data in the form of a persuasion strategy, the initial data was recorded according to the type of strategy found on the data card. the data analysis of this study used the distributional method and markup reading technique (sudaryanto, 2015). the use of the distributional method based on the data determinants in this study was part of the language itself. the use of the markup reading technique in this study aimed to find out directly certain lingual realities in da'wah discourse on social media. result and discussion the finding and discussion of this study focus on the persuasion strategy of da'wah discourse on social media of instagram to influence speech partners, either in the form of carrying out the message content or receiving the da'wah message conveyed. the persuasion strategies in da'wah discourse on social media can be categorized into 11 strategies. the eleven strategies include (1) the use of al-qur'an, (2) direct persuasion, (3) indirect persuasion, (4) persuasion using repetition, (5) the use of stories, (6) the use of the figure of speech, (7) the use of hope, (8) the use of analogy, (9) the use of al-hadith, (10) the use of expressiveness, (11) the use of cause and effect. this can be seen in figure 1 . https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 222 description: (1) the use of al-qur’an (2) directly persuasion (3) indirectly persuasion (4) persuasion using repetition (5) the use of stories (6) the use of the figure of speech (7) the use of hope (8) the use of analogy (9) the use of al-hadith (10) the use of expressiveness (11) the use of cause and effect. the use of al-qur’an the first da'wah persuasion strategy on social media is the use of al-qur'an. the use of alqur'an as a da'wah strategy is the strategy most commonly found among other strategies. the alqur'an and al-hadith are important things in islam and the da'wah of islam (bawazir, mahmud, & molok, 2019). a document does not mean something manual like a book. this can be understood because the mission of islam is to convey the al-qur'an. the following example data shows a persuasion strategy using alal-qur'an. (1) what are the characteristics of a godly person? ali imron 134, allah swt said “wal'adina 'aninas, wallahu yuhibul muhsinin. godly people are "afina 'aninnas", people who forgive. thus, forgiving people is a fortune. the example of data (1) begins with a question about the characteristics of a godly person. furthermore, the question is answered using the al-qur'an surah ali imron. in other words, the data is in conveying the speaker's invitation to follow and practice the meaning in verse. as for the meaning of this verse is to forgive those who wronged us. forgiving is one of the characteristics of a godly person. the al-qur'an influences people through the mind and reaches the heart so that it is internalized and accepted in everyday life (fathollahi & kamely, 2012). the reasons behind the influence of the message of alqur'an lies in the use of universal language that is easy to understand, strong words and phrases, and makes use of literary structures. these data provide a picture of the reality that occurs in a society that most people find it difficult to apologize to people who have wronged us. this is contrary to pious people's nature, which is to forgive people who have wronged ourselves. the advice is intended to suggest the speech partner be forgiving. direct persuasion the direct strategy is a strategy used to convey the intentions directly. for example, the intention to rule, the sentence is directive. the following example data shows a da'wah discourse on social media using direct strategy. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 223 (2) keep the eyes is not just for men. although god prioritizes men over women because usually the most difficult to maintain that view is men. the data (2) is a persuasion sentence using direct strategies to influence speech partners. the direct strategy in the sentence can be seen from the purpose conveyed, namely about keeping the eyes. the phrase to keep the eyes is a form of command because the word "keep" itself is a command sentence. thus, it can be concluded that the sentence is a direct strategy in influencing speech partners to keep the eyes, especially regarding the opposite sex of men and women and vice versa. indirect persuasion the next persuasion strategy is carried out with an indirect strategy. it means that speakers convey messages indirectly, for example, intending to command by using news sentences or interrogative sentences. the following example data shows indirect persuasion in da'wah discourse on social media. (3) we may have bad times before, right? a lot of sins, being far away from allah swt, leaving prayers. almost all of the big sins we have committed when we have moved/hijrah, we say like this. "this is a fortune, ustadz! i used to be naughty. if not, i wouldn't have become what i am today. the example of data (2) in delivering da'wah messages is carried out using an indirect strategy. this can be seen in the intent that the speaker wants to convey, namely, to be grateful for the opportunity. everyone has the opportunity, whether in a good position or a bad position. when in a good position, then you shouldn't waste this opportunity. still, on the contrary, when you have been in a bad situation, it becomes a lesson on how important it is to get opportunities for goodness. in other words, the persuasion is to be grateful for the opportunity. persuasion using repetition repetition is a word repeated in a discourse. in the context of this study is repetition in da'wah discourse on social media. the relation with the repetition of da'wah discourse on social media serves to put pressure on the sentence and also as a strategy to influence speech partners. koch (2017) stated that repetition could stimulate speech partners' sensitivity to the persuasive message conveyed. the following example data shows the repetition in da'wah discourse on social media. (4) allah knows, where our fortune is saved. allah knows, where we will spend the fortune. all written in a clear book. allah knows, allah guarantees, all human have been guaranteed their fortune. the data (4) is a da'wah discourse that uses repetition as a strategy to influence speech partners to receive the message conveyed. this is following what sari, sobarna, sari sujatna, & darmayanti (2017) have stated that repetition can stimulate emotions and imagination and explore children's thoughts. this is also reinforced by findings (spielvogel, naderer, & matthes, 2020) that repeated phrases are important, especially regarding children who are less prepared to detect persuasive messages than adults. the repetition in the discourse can be seen from the repetition of the phrase allah knows, which emphasizes to the partner that allah is omniscient about what has happened and something that has happened. this expression is a strategy to influence the partners that allah knows everything, including fortune for his servants. also, allah guarantees the fortune of all creatures. persuasion using stories the next persuasion strategy in da'wah discourse is to use stories and tales of the prophets and prophets' friends. the story of the prophets and friends is a good story and even the best story, so it becomes important to preach by using historical stories. also, the millennial generation will more easily accept historical stories as life lessons because the stories are presented straightforwardly. this is consistent with what derin, nursafira, yudar, & gowasa (2020) have stated that stories are known as powerful, persuasive tools. the following example data shows the persuasion strategies in da'wah discourse on social media. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 224 (5) there is one of the coolest historical attitudes that we can imitate if we see a slander. the abu ayyub al-ansari family exemplifies the historical attitude. it is kusnudzon's best perception of historical attitudes in addressing slander. compare that person with us. maybe we don't do that if we think it's impossible, especially if that person is more pious than us. no matter how strong the slander is. iltamisu li aakhika alfa uszin "look for your brother a thousand reasons" nothing to lose. on the other hand, when we don't want to look for reasons directly to conclude and judge, judging is a loss. if it's true, then we give it back, if it's wrong, we slander. but if we look for a thousand reasons, if we're right. so we are among those who have tried to cover up disgrace, if we are wrong then we are among the safe people. the data (5) is a da'wah discourse persuasion on social media that uses story strategies to influence speech partners. the story used as the material is a friend of the prophet, namely abu ayyub al-ashori. the prophet's friends' stories are inspirational and can be used as a medium of persuasion. because persuasion will work if speakers use statements that inspire speech partners (gunawan, 2019). content used as story material is related to the attitude when someone is getting slander. the meaning conveyed in this discourse is that when facing slander, we should not follow the slanderous narrative if we need to look for a thousand reasons that that person can't commit the slander he/she is accused of. thus, when there is slander like that, it is not good to participate in spreading it, if it is true, then it will spread slander, and if it is wrong, then it also includes spreading the slander. therefore, the persuasion conveyed in the discourse is that facing slander is not easy to justify the slander. the use of figure of speech the next persuasion strategy is to use a figure of speech. the use of a figure of speech states that figurative language in their words as persuasion does not have a significant impact (wu, shen, fan, & mattila, 2017). the following example data shows the figure of speech strategy of persuasion. (6) in this world, nothing can be obtained easily, because the nature of this world is a place for tiring. the nature of the world is a place for people to grow crops not to reap the results. unlike the character in heaven. the data (6) is a discourse of persuasion using a figure of speech strategy. the figure of speech in the discourse is used to emphasize the nature of the world as a place to grow crops, namely a place to do business. there is a place to reap the rewards of future efforts in the world when in the hereafter. the function of a figure of speech in the discourse of persuasion is used to emphasize the essence of human life in the world. persuasion using hope the next persuasion strategy in discourse is to us hope. the use of hope in da'wah discourse on social media serves to motivate both speakers and speech partners. the following example data shows the persuasion strategy using hope. (7) precisely by asking, we are learning the faith, friends. it is like, we are walking and take off, we say “bismillahi tawakaltu 'alallah”, o allah, i hope i am safe, if in our language. this is, learning to depend on allah, who else we take refuge in, who else we depend on, who else we hope is part of faith. the data (7) is a da'wah discourse persuasion on social media using a hope or prayer strategy. this can be seen from the expression "o allah, i hope i am safe, if in our language." this expression is a form of hope or prayer to god so that salvation is given. through hopes and messages that raise expectations, it can be a strong motivator to influence changes in one's behavior (chadwick, 2015). in other words, salvation can be obtained if allah gives pleasure to his habituation. persuasion using analogy the next persuasion strategy is to use an analogy. analogy in persuasion is used to expand or deepen the meaning conveyed. the goal is to make speech partners can easily understand the meaning conveyed. the following example data shows persuasion using an analogy strategy. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 225 (8) if we confine when we have any problems, it means that we are back in the norm, we haven't met allah for a long time, haven't miscalled allah, haven't been private line allah, haven't confided in allah, haven't been dm. allah misses him, how come he/she never dm me, how come he/she never miscall me. even though it is online often, but how come he/she never been to me, who is it online with? allah likes that with his servant. the data (8) is a persuasion discourse in da'wah discourse that uses an analogy strategy. the analogy strategy in the da'wah discourse can be seen from the use of the words “confide, dm, miscall, private line, and online”. this analogy is a social media analogy. the use of analogy as a da'wah persuasion strategy serves to facilitate the information conveyed. the speech partner certainly has social media because it is impossible to hear this information without having social media. the content of this information is related to always remembering allah stw which is analogous to social media, only remembering when you are in need if you do not need it then you do not remember. persuasion using al-hadith the next strategy for da'wah persuasion discourse in social media is the use of al-hadith. the use of al-hadith as a da'wah strategy is a good strategy. this can be understood because basically, the da'wah of islam is conveying the alqur'an and al-hadith. al-hadith as bayan or explanation of the al-qur'an so that between the al-qur'an and the al-hadith is one package. the following example data shows a persuasion strategy using al-hadith. (9) hence when the prophet said "yufaqqihu fiddin". who is the person allah wants to give goodness, then allah makes him the thigh of religion. the meaning of religious understanding in this al-hadith according to the scholars is that allah made religion feel in his heart. the data (9) is a da'wah persuasion discourse on social media with the use of alhadith. persuasion is that someone in religion should not only stop at religious knowledge but also have to be internalized in everyday life. people who understand religion are not people who just stop at a lot of knowledge about religion. this is following the data above "yufaqqihu fiddin," which means that people whose religion feels in their heart. the use of al-hadith serves to support the arguments presented because the speakers know the big impact of using the alqur'an and al-hadith in their persuasion discourse (n. abu rumman, 2019). if every religious person internalizes himself like that, the morals of the indonesian nation will be good. likewise, on the other hand, if religion is still merely knowledge, not much change will occur. persuasion using expressiveness the next strategy of da'wah persuasion is to use expressiveness sentences. the use of expressiveness sentences in da'wah discourse is important, so that speech partners feel happy even though the information conveyed is heavy when done. this is a strategy so that speech partners in their perceptions can do things that are considered hard. (10) thus, take advantage of our opportunity if you are being wrongdoers to pray good things. if you can't, that's fine for other people because you don't really want to. at least for yourself, what's the harm. that's a real opportunity for us to pray and allah grantees it. the data (10) is a da'wah discourse using an expressive language strategy. this can be seen from the language style used by the speakers. the use "if you can't, that's fine for other people because you don't want to." this expression is an expression that functions to build perceptions in the speech partner that praying well for those who wrongdoers ourselves is a noble thing. this is following what gadzhiyeva & sager (2017) have stated that the vowel expressions increase the meaning or power felt by speakers. if you can't do this noble thing because that person has wrongdoing yourself, then the least you can do is to give yourself good support. the persuasion is to treat other people as well as possible even if that person policies us. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 226 persuasion using cause and effect pattern the next persuasion strategy is to use a cause and effect pattern. the use of cause and effect patterns in da'wah persuasion discourse will form speech partners that, when doing something, something good or bad is obtained. the use of cause and effect patterns aims to make speech partners more convincing. here is an example of persuasion using a cause and effect strategy. (11) if our hearts are committed, it means that we believe in creatures more than in allah. it will be stuck later, if you are stuck in despair, it is because his heart is bored with the effort. the data (11) is a persuasion discourse in da’wah discourse on social media using a cause and effect pattern strategy. this can be seen from the message delivered. the pattern of cause and effect in the discourse can be seen from the expression “if our hearts are committed, it means that we believe in creatures more than in allah.” this expression is a cause and effect pattern, whereas a cause and effect pattern for people who endeavor with their hearts is a baper in making endeavors. this can be seen from the expression that you will get stuck later if you are stuck in despair because your heart is bored with effort. persuasion with the use of argumentative content can increase the acceptance of the message conveyed. this is following what dutta et al., (2020) have stated that persuasion has a close relationship with the ability of argumentation to convince others to change according to the persuasion message conveyed. conclusion based on the finding and discussion, it can be concluded that there are 11 strategies of persuasion in da'wah discourse on social media. the eleven strategies include (1) the use of al-qur'an, (2) directly persuasion (3) indirectly persuasion, (4) persuasion using repetition, (5) the use of stories, (6) the use of the figure of speech, (7) the use of hope, (8) ) the use of analogy, (9) the use of alhadith, (10) the use of expressiveness, (11) the use of cause and effect. these findings show that the success of da'wah is not only related to the knowledge possessed by the preacher. language, especially, persuasion has a role in achieving the success of da'wah. references anesa, p. 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(2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis. sanata dharma university press. sukarno. (2013). retorika persuasi sebagai upaya memengaruhi jamaah pada teks khotbah jumat. humaniora, 25(2), 215–227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22146/jh.23 64 tojo, h., & takagi, a. (2017). trends in qualitative research in three major language teaching and learning journals, 2006–2015. international journal of english language teaching, 4(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijelt.v4n1p37 wu, l., shen, h., fan, a., & mattila, a. s. (2017). the impact of language style on consumers 0 reactions to online reviews. tourism management, 59, 590–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.09.006 zurqoni, z., retnawati, h., apino, e., & anazifa, r. d. (2019). impact of character education implementation: a goal-free evaluation. problems of education in the 21st century, 76(6), 881–899. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/18.76.881 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 17 language variation: register and accent in ken arok and ken dedes drama performance frimadhona syafri semarang state university email: frima_d@yahoo.com abstract language and culture are inseparable. when people communicate to one another, they take their culture in communication; they may use the same language, but differences in accent show their register. language variation covers distinctions in pronunciation, grammar, or word choice within a language. it includes register and accent. this concept is reflected in the performance of ken arok and ken dedes. in the performance, the register described a group of people and their roles in the community. it is interesting to analyze english with javanese accents and register in the drama performance. in this performance, speaking english with javanese accent does not reduce the traditional values of javanese culture. key words: language variation, accent, register. introduction this paper is an analysis of language variation: register and accent consisted in a drama performance ken arok and ken dedes. before analyzing the data, it is better to know what the legend is aboput. ken arok (or ken angrok) (died c. 1227) was the founder and first ruler of the singhasari kingdom, an ancient hindubudhist kingdom in the east java area of indonesia. he was considered as the founder of rajasa dynasty of both the singhasari and majapahit line of monarchs. he came from humble origin but subsequently rose to be one of the most powerful rulers in java. his life was colored with adventures, treacheries, and tragedies. the king of kediri kingdom in east java, kertajaya thought himself as a deity, and he was opposed by the brahmana (priests) caste. when threatened by the king, the brahmanas ran to tumapel and asked its ruler, ken arok, for his protection. ken arok thought that kediri army would attack his territory, and ordered his troops to fortify. kediri army came to tumapel as arok was expecting. the battle of ganter, was the end of kediri kingdom, then ken arok settled his own empire, singosari. ken arok proclaimed himself as the son of shiva. historians have argued about ken arok’s new dynasty because his origin was not clear. who is he? why was he able to found a kingdom? did he have a dark past? after kertajaya fell from power, the kediri kingdom was ruled by tunggul mailto:frima_d@yahoo.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/singhasari http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hindu http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/budha http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/east_java http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/indonesia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rajasa_dynasty http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/majapahit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/java_island 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 ametung. he had a very beautiful wife, ken dedes. a statue in leiden museum, netherlands, shows ken dedes as prajnaparamitha, the goddess of wisdom. one day ken arok accidentally saw ken dedes, then a wind hiked her gown. suddenly ken arok got a vision, that he had to have ken dedes as his wife, at any risk. ken arok decided to kill tunggul ametung. he ordered a “keris” (a sacred short sword) to a priest, mpu gandring. it took a long time to make a “keris” because it is only an enlightened priest that could make it, and they had to do some rituals for that. ken arok was impatient to wait for the keris to be ready. his lust to ken dedes was growing bigger and bigger. he came up to mpu gandring to ask if the keris was completed. when mpu gandrig said “not yet”, ken arok killed him with that incompleted keris. before he died, mpu gandring cursed the keris. later, ken arok lent the keris to a petty criminal kebo ijo who was so proud that he showed the keris to everyone. at night, ken arok stole the keris, and he successfully killed tunggul ametung. kebo ijo was framed as the killer, but before he could talk, ken arok killed him with the same keris. in the 5th year of his reign, a man called anusapati wanted the throne of singosari from ken arok. the latter had abandoned mpu gandring’s keris but anusapati killed him with that weapon instead. ken arok had a concubine named ken umang, and their son, tohjaya decided the revenge. at the 21th year of anusapati’s rule, tohjaya invited anusapati for gambling, and when anusapati was having fun, tohjaya killed himi, again with mpu gandring’s keris. after anusapati’s death, his son ranggawuni wanted the throne. tohjaya sent lembu ampal to attack ranggawuni and his companion, mahesa cempaka. lembu ampal realized that ranggawuni was the right person to be the king, and they fought against tohjaya. tohjaya was killed with mpu gandring’s keris. ranggawuni and mahesa cempaka realized that mpu gandring’s keris would only make chaos and death, so they threw the keris to the java sea. according to the legend, the keris turned to be a dragon. (source of history of ken dedes and ken arok: http://fummo. wordpress.com/) one of the interesting parts of the drama performance of ken arok and ken dedes is the language used by the actors and actresses in the drama. even though they used english in conversation or dialogue performance, they did not leave the register and accent of javanesse language. it reflects the javanese culture. it is very interesting to analyze how the actors and actresses use language variation in the context. before discussing the data, it is better to talk about some terminologies that are related to the study. javanese language javanese language (javanese: basa jawa, indonesian: bahasa jawa) is the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/indonesian_language language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 19 language of the javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of java, in indonesia. the javanese language is part of the austronesian family, and is therefore related to indonesian and other malay language varieties. most speakers of javanese also speak indonesian for official and commercial purposes and to communicate with nonjavanese indonesians. phonology the phonemes of modern standard javanese include vowels and consonants. front central back i u e ə o a the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively in closed syllables. in open syllables, /e o/ are also pronounced [ɛ ɔ] when they are followed by the vowel /i u/ in an open syllable, or /ə/, or identical (/e...e/, /o...o/). the main characteristic of the standard dialect of surakarta is that /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate syllable before such an [ɔ]. labial dental/ alveolar retroflex palatal velar glottal nasal m ɳ ɲ ŋ plosive/affricate p b t d ʈ tʃ d k ʔ fricative ʂ h approximant central ɽ j w lateral ɭ the javanese voiced phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel. in the sounds of the world's languages, the distinction of phonation in the plosives is described as one of stiff voice versus slack voice. a javanese syllable can be of the following type:[clarification needed] csvc. c=consonant, s= sonorant (/j/, /r/, /l/, /w/ or any nasal consonant) and v=vowel. in modern javanese, a bi-syllabic root is of the following type: ncsvvncsvvc. as in other austronesian languages, native javanese roots consist of two syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of bisyllabic words for pronunciation. politeness javanese speech varies depending on social context, yielding three distinct styles, or registers. each style employs its own vocabulary, grammatical rules and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/javanese_people http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/java http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/indonesia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/austronesian_languages http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/indonesian_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/malay_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/closed_syllable http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/labial_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dental_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alveolar_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/retroflex_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/palatal_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/velar_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glottal_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nasal_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plosive http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/affricate http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fricative_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/approximant_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lateral_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/breathy_voice http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/breathy_voice http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/phonation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stiff_voice http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/slack_voice http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/slack_voice http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/syllable http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikipedia:please_clarify http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sonorant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nasal_consonant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vowel http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/register_(linguistics) 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 even prosody. this is not unique to javanese; neighboring austronesian languages as well as east asian languages such as korean and japanese share similar constructions. in javanese these styles are called: (1) ngo ko is informal speech, used between friends and close relatives. it is also used by persons of higher status to persons of lower status, such as elders to younger people or bosses to subordinates. (2) madya is the intermediary form between ngoko and krama. an example of the context where one would use madya is an interaction between strangers on the street, where one wants to be neither too formal nor too informal. (3) krama is the polite and formal style. it is used between persons of the same status who do not wish to be informal. it is also the official style for public speeches, announcements, etc. it is also used by persons of lower status to persons of higher status, such as youngsters to elder people or subordinates to bosses. below are some examples provided to explain these different styles.  ngoko: aku arep mangan (i want to eat)  madya: kula ajeng nedha.  krama:  (neutral) kula badhé nedhi.  (humble) dalem badhé nedhi. the most polite word of eat is "dhahar". but it's forbidden to use any most polite word for self expressing, except when talking with lower status people, and in this case, ngoko style is used. the use of most polite words are only for expressing other, especially upper status people, like shown bellow.  mixed:  (honorific addressed to someone with a high(er) status.) bapak kersa dhahar? (do you want to eat? literally meaning: does father want to eat?)  (reply towards persons with lower status, expressing self superiority) iya, aku kersa dhahar. (yes, i want to eat).  (reply towards persons with lower status, but without having the need to express one's superiority) iya, aku arep mangan.  (reply towards persons with the same status) inggih, kula badhé nedha. the use of these different styles is complicated and requires thorough knowledge of the javanese culture. this is one element that makes it difficult for foreigners to learn javanese. on the other hand, these different styles of speech are actually not mastered by the majority of javanese. most people only master the first style and a rudimentary form of the second style. people who can correctly http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/prosody_(linguistics) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/east_asian http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korean_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/japanese_language language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 21 use the different styles are held in high esteem. pronunciation most javanese people, except those who live in west java, accept the pronunciation of the phoneme "a" as /ɔ/. therefore, there is a different pronunciation of many words; for example apa (eng.=what) is pronounced /apaʔ/ in western javanese and /ɔːpɔː/ in central and eastern javanese. when there is a condition of phoneme stem vcv (vowel-consonant-vowel) with the same vowels, central javanese speakers drop the second vowel into another sound, with the following formula: "i" becomes /e/ and "u" becomes /o/, the easterns drop both of the vowels, whereas western javanese maintains the sounds "i" and "u". so the word cilik (eng.= small), is pronounced /tʃileʔ/ in central, /tʃeːleʔ/ in eastern, and /tʃilik/ in western javanese; the word tutup is pronounced /tutop/ in central, /toːtop/ in eastern, and /tutup/ in western javanese. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/javanese_language, para.2-4, 28 april 2011) discussion language variation: register language variation helps to distinguish one person, or group of people from others. but all of us are also involved in another kind of language variation, which is much more rapid. we vary our language from one situation to another many times in the same day. typically, the language we use when we write is different from the language we use when we speak, the language students use to write literature essays is different from the language used to write linguistics or science essays, and the language we use in formal situations like lectures and seminars is different from the language we use when chatting to friends in the coffee bar. this kind of language variation, which can vary from minute to minute in the same day is usually called register. register can vary according to the three main ways. medium ('mode'): your language changes according to the medium used ( 'the language of speech', 'the language of writing'). domain ('field’): your language changes according to he domain that the language is related to. this includes (a) the subject matter being spoken or written about ( 'the language of science', 'the language of law') and (b) the function that the language is being used for ( 'the language of advertising', 'the language of government'). tenor: the tenor of your language (e.g. how politely or formally you speak) changes according to (a) who you are talking or writing to ( the language we use when talking to close friends compared with that used when talking to strangers or people who are socially distant from us) and (b) the social situation you find yourself in (a child whose mother is a teacher will talk to her in different ways, depending on whether they are at home or at school). http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/stylistics/glossary.htm#register 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 the register is crucial in javanese language because it is related to use of complicated different styles that requires knowledge of the javanese culture. when one talks about oneself, one has to be humble. but when one speaks of someone else with a higher status or to whom one wants to be respectful, honorific terms are used. status is defined by age, social position and other factors. the humilific words are called krama andhap words while the honorific words are called krama inggil words. for example, children often use the ngoko style, but when talking to the parents they must use both krama inggil and krama andhap. the illustration of dialogues ken arok and ken dedes drama performance describes the register that reflected variety of javanese language .the dialogues began with poor ken arok was thrown away by his own mother. she put him in the cemetery, left him only a murmur. mother prayed he will be found by a kind person.well, gods listened, gods listened, but gods mistaken? “oh, my beloved son, please forgive me, for there’s nothing i can give you. this fate forces me to abandon you my son. i will only give you a name, and prays. this name will be written in history, i do believe that god in heaven will protect you. remember my son; you are the son of brahma, though no one will believe that. you’ll be a great man. ken arok. trust him; i know he has his own plan for you.” analysis of the dialogue shows that mother actually loves and appreciates her son even though, they are different age. in javanese culture, a son has higher position than a daughter. the family will be proud if they have a son. it is related to javanese heritage that rails patriarchy. medium ('mode'): mother used the speech language to talk to her son, even though her son is still baby and doesn’t understand what mother says. in this dialogue mother regards her son as adult who understand what she means. domain ('field’): mother uses spoken language that has function of language is being used for hoping to gods in order to protect her son. tenor: the tenor of mother’s language how politely or formally she speaks. she prays to gods of honour in order to protect her beloved son. the dialogues of the drama performance also reflects krama ( the polite and formal style) in javanese langauge. it is also used by persons of lower status to persons of higher status, such as youngsters to elder people or subordinates to bosses. it is reflected by the conversation between lemong (ken arok’s step father and ken arok). ken arok used krama and lembong used ngoko language. lembong : temu...come here!!!! ken arok: father? lembong: get the hell there and fetch me some money i’ve lost there. ken arok: no father...i won’t do that!!! lembong: surely yes!!! ken arok: yes! ups.. please, i dont wanna be a language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 23 sinner lembong: haaa...you won’t be a sinner if you obey your father’s order.now go!!! the illustration ngoko and krama language are also encountered the conversation between tunggul ametung (lord) and kebo ijo ( his commander). ta: we’ve been around this jungle from the morning, but we still have nothing. ki:yes my lord, i’m afraid we wouldn’t get anything here. ta:you are right. by the way, where is mantili? there is a hut here, who would live alone in this jungle? (his another bg)?? ki:maybe, it belongs to a hermit ta:a hermit???ki:yes my lord the use madya language is happened in the conversation between tunggul ametung and ken dedes before she knows that tunggul ametung is a lord ta: hm… (thinking!)she is the one who i am looking for all this time. she’s the one who always comes to my dreams, and she deserved to be mine! “beautiful sunshine blinds me. beautiful sunshine that’s you my lady” good afternoon, beautiful lady. kd: good afternoon stranger, but so sorry my father just left. ken dedes changes the using of her language becomes krama after she knows the man is a lord. ta: ahh…forget about your father my lady. my name is tunggul ametung, the chief of tumapel, and they are my servant. nobody will blame me because i’m the king, the authority of this kingdom. kd: greeting my lord, but it is so impolite to visit a maiden without any permission from her father, right? ta: i was hunting in the jungle. and accidentally i arrive at this place. isn’t it our fate that has us meet. kd: what do you mean my lord? ta: well i’m waiting for someone to be my queen and i think that you’re sent to be mine.kd: oh, i’m sorry my lord, i must refuse your invitation. i don’t know you, i don’t love you and i guess my father will not permit me to be your wife. i’m sorry. ta: please think about it, my lady. the beautiful woman like you don’t deserve to live in the middle of nowhere likes this. be my wife! company me in the luxurious, glamorous life! kd: i’m sorry my lord, i must decline. there is a lot to learn before someone becoming a great leader, i’m still learning and i see you can’t teach me about this life. i’m a woman and i’ll take a man who will become a good leader for me. ta:hah! a thorn for your rose like beauty...and i do agree with you if you say that i couldn’t buy your love, but you’d be surprised in how easy to take it with my authority...muahahahahahahaha kd:i’m sorry my lord, my obedience obey the authority higher than yours. the authority that higher than the word authority itself. ta:ahhh!!! enough with your lecture!!! if you don’t want to be mine, then nobody can. bg!!! take him to the palace and burn this place!! i’ll force her to marry me. 24 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 in the dialogues above shows that register is very crucial in javanese language. the differences in social status and age influence the variety of language. eventhough, the illustration of the variety of javanese language is not too clear in english that actor or actress spoke. the choice of words and using modality in english try to be representative of variety javanese language. it is even felt when we heard the javanese accents of the actor or actress in speaking english. accent the use of accent javanese language in english in the performance and emphasized the different styles of language that use of javanese people. in linguistics, an accent is a manner of pronunciation peculiar to a particular individual, location, or nation. an accent may identify the locality in which its speakers reside (a geographical or regional accent), the socio-economic status of its speakers, their ethnicity, their caste or social class, their first language (when the language in which the accent is heard is not their native language), and so on. accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody. although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, the word 'accent' refers specifically to the differences in pronunciation. (www.e.n. wikipedia.org/wiki/ accent. para. 2, 26 april 2011) the accent of javenese in the performance reflected javanese culture. although, the actor and actress used english, the atmosphere and condition of javanese values could be felt through stress and prosody while they spoke. while making conversation, they use english with stress, prosody and intonation of javanese. so , we could know the role of the actor or actress in different age, social position (high or low status). for example, when lembong spoke to his step son ken dedes. he spoke with high intonation, strong stress, and high prosody shown his power as a father as older than ken dedes. the other way, ken dedes spoke with low or middle intonation, fair stress, and low or middle prosody shows his humble. moreover, tunggul ametung also spoke with high intonation, strong stress, and high prosody that illustrated his superiority as a lord. thus, register and javanese accent in english in drama performance ken arok and ken dedes described the stratum of javanese society. conclusion the literary works is data that could use to analyze language and culture of a region. through the language we know the culture and society of a community. the variety of language of a community reflects stratum of society. learning literary works means learning language and culture of a society. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/linguistics http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pronunciation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/geography http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/socio-economic_status http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/socio-economic_status http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ethnicity http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/caste http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social_class http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/first_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/first_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/prosody language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 25 references fromkin, v., r. rodman, & n. hyama. 2011. an introduction to language. canada: nelson education,ltd mckay, s.l & n.h. hornberger. 1996. sociolinguistics and language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. mesthrie, r., j. swann, a. deumert, & w.l. leap. 2000. introducing sociolinguistics. edinburgh: edinburgh university press. ohoiwutun, p. 2002. sosiolinguistik memahami bahasa dalam konteks masyarakat dan kebudayaan. jakarta: kesaint blanc. trudgill, p. 1980. sociolinguistics: an introduction. victoria: penguin books ltd. wardhaugh, r. 2006. an introduction to sociolinguistics. victoria: blackwell publishing ltd. yule, g. 1996. pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. anonymous. ken arok ken dedes. retrieved from http:// en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ ken_arok. anonymous. javanese language. retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ javanese_language http://en.wikipedia.org/%20wiki/ http://en.wikipedia.org/%20wiki/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 65 the significance of academic literacy in analysing texts for translation yan mujiyanto semarang state university email: pak_yan@staff.unnes.ac.id. abstract academic literacy has long been discussed throughout the scientific disciplines. such discussions have partly resulted in a sort of awareness in people’s mind concerning how we implement it in the areas of scientific disciplines we deal with. in the translation domain, we question how much the significance of such stuff is for the benefit of comprehensively analyzing text for inter-language rendering. this paper intends to provide an answer to such question. it deals with the use of relevant literacy to analyze any source text as a basis to produce a target text through transfer of meaning and reconstruction of language fulfilling the aspects of readability, accuracy, and naturalness. keywords: academic literacy, text analysis, translation introduction translation involves three ways of knowing texts: understanding, interpreting and organizing knowledge. these are closely related to the notion of academic literacy practices which covers reading and writing within disciplines constituting central processes through which translators strive to understand texts and develop knowledge as a basis to understand the texts for rendering purposes. an approach to literacy takes account of cultural and contextual components of writing and reading practices, and this in turn has important implications for an understanding of translation tasks. educational research into translation has tended to concentrate on ways in which practitioners can be helped to adapt their practices from this perspective. in order to understand the nature of translation practices, it is important to investigate the understandings of both the translation process and literacy practices, without making prior assumptions as to which practices are either appropriate or effective. it is significantly important to develop a more complex analysis of what it means to become academically literate as one of the starting point to translation practices. meanings are contested amongst the different parties involved. viewing literacy from a cultural and social practice and approaching meanings as contested can provide insights into the nature of academic literacy and academic learning because through researching these differing expectations and interpretations of academic literacy and translation we hope to shed light on failure well as success and mailto:pak_yan@staff.unnes.ac.id 66 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 progression in translation practices covering three major phases, i.e. analysis of a source text, transfer of meaning, and restructuring or reconstructing the text in the target language. this paper, however, does not discuss the three phases of translation; it merely intends to explore the significance of academic literacy to understand subject matter by answering the question: how academic literacy operates in analyzing the source texts for translation purposes. translation process a careful analysis in the process of translating, especially in the case of source and receptor languages having quite different grammatical and semantic structures such as the case of english and indonesian, has shown that, instead of going directly from one set of surface structures to another, the translator actually goes through a process of analyzing the source text, transferring massage to the target language, and restructuring the text in the target language. through this process, the translator first analyses the message of the source language into its simplest and structurally clearest forms, transfers it at this level, and then restructures it to the level in the receptor language, which is most appropriate for the target audience. such a set of related procedures can be represented diagrammatically as follows. figure 1 translation process (source: nida and taber, 1969). in this seemingly simple process, the ‘analysis’ phase begins with discovering the so-called ‘kernels’, i.e. basic structural elements to which syntactically more elaborate surface structures of a language can be reduced. according to nida and taber, kernel analysis is a crucial step in the process of moving from a source text to a target one. this is in line with the essentially universalist hypothesis to which nida subscribes: languages ‘agree far more on the level of the kernels than on the level of the more elaborate structures’ (nida and taber 1969:39). source language receptor language text translation analysis transfer restructuring language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 67 nida and taber stated that kernels consist of combinations of items from four basic semantic categories: object words (nouns referring to physical objects including human beings); event words (actions often represented by verbs); abstracts (qualities and quantities, including adjectives); relational (including linking devices, gender markers). kernel sentences are derived from the actual source sentence by means of a variety of techniques including, most importantly, back-transformation. in explicating grammatical relationships, st surface structures are ‘paraphrased’ into ‘formulae’ capturing the way in which elements from the various categories listed above are combined (nida 1969:485). thus, the surface structure of the utterance will of god may be back-transformed into a formula such as b (object, god) performs a (event, wills). transfer is the stage ‘in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from the source language (a) to the target language (b)’ (nida and taber 1969:33). it is important to remember that, during the phase of ‘transfer’, kernels are not treated in isolation since they would already be marked temporally, spatially and logically. but they would still be raw material which the translator, in the light of his or her knowledge of target language structure, must now modify in preparation for restructuring (the stage of putting pen to paper, as it were). a source language word may have to be expanded into several target language words, or alternatively, a source language phrase re-moulded into a single target language word. along similar lines, structural differences between source language and target language are reconciled at the sound, word, sentence or even discourse level. it is probably here that ‘strategy’ (or the translator’s ‘game plan’) is worked out, and decisions regarding such matters as register and genre are initially taken. thus, rather than a simple replacement exercise of actual source language elements with their most literal target language counterparts, ‘transfer’ is a dynamic process of ‘reconfiguration’ in the target language of sets of source language semantic and structural components. however, the analysis of a text in the source language is not limited to a study of the syntactic relationships between linguistic units or to the denotative (or referential) meanings of these same units but also treat the emotive (or connotative) values of the formal structure of the communication, necessitating the translator to understand the subject matter contained in the text under translation including linguistic and socio-cultural aspects, besides mastering competence in using the source language, competence in the target language. it is this fact which may have led european code of ethics for literary translators from ceatl to include them in its verses stating that (1) anyone practicing the profession of translator 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 confirms that they have a very sound knowledge of the language from which s/he translates (the source language), and of the language into which s/he is working (the target language). the target language should be their mother tongue, or a language in which they have mothertongue competence, as any writer must master the language in which s/he writes; and (2) the translator must be aware of his/her limitations and refrain from translating material which is outside his/her scope or the sphere of knowledge required, implying that a translator should equip him/herself with adequate knowledge about the text which (s)he intends to translate to his/her mother tongue. (hatim and munday 2004:305). in other words, a professional translator should equipped him/herself with competence in both the source and the target language and the so-called academic literacy, i.e. competence in reading and understanding text in the source language, as well as capability in reproducing such text in the target language fulfilling the requirements of accuracy, naturalness, and readability. academic literacy literacy is basically defined as (1) the ability to read and write; (2) knowledge of a particular subject, or a particular type of knowledge (cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary). this definition only covers a very basic level of literacy, i.e. the so-called basic and functional levels of literacy. if an adjective ’academic’ is put to modify such a word forming the term ‘academic literacy, then, it refers to much broader scope of literacy. the term academic literacy may refer to the critical thinking, reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills learned within the academic society. it allows an individual to effectively establish communication within all areas of his/her academic environment. to become academically literate, a person has to familiarize himself with the levels of communication that exist. in order to define and understand the term academic literacy, it must be broken into segments since it has an array of sectors that must first be met to achieve it. for instance, in order to become academically literate one has to become familiar with academic discourse, i.e. a type of writing and reading skills used in specific fields using certain terminology. this requires a type of critical thinking and writing strategies that are used to help people communicate effectively (http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpape r/14852.html) academic literacy has a great impact over how a person expresses and presents themselves in a scholastic environment. the tools to effectively read, write and critically think are skills that not only help a person in the scholastic environment, but also in personal discovery. through positive experiences with academic literacy, people do not only learn to http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/14852.html http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/14852.html language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 69 improve their writing and other critical skills, but they also apply this toward learning about themselves and becoming a more confident person in everything they do. (http://www.directessays.com/view paper/85152.html) learning in higher education involves adapting to new ways of knowing: new ways of understanding, interpreting and organizing knowledge. academic literacy practices-reading and writing within disciplines--constitute central processes through which students learn new subjects and develop their knowledge about new areas of study. a practices approach to literacy takes account of the cultural and contextual component of writing and reading practices, and this in turn has important implications for an understanding of student learning. (lea and street) academic literacy can thus be defined as the ability to read, write, understand, analyze, interpret, create and communicate in a formal scholarly context. it involves translators’ capability of critical/independent thought, of working alone and knowing how to acknowledge the work of others. because academic literacy covers all elements of academic conducts – reading, writing, listening, speaking, critical thinking, use of technology, and habits of mind that foster academic success, the habits of mind expected of translators—their curiosity, their daring, their participation in intellectual discussions—are predicated upon their ability to convey their ideas clearly and to listen and respond to divergent views respectfully. academic literacy in text analysis as stated above, a professional translator should equip him/herself with competence in both the source and the target language and the so-called academic literacy, i.e. competence in reading and understanding text in the source language in order to be able to transfer the massage contained in the text and restructure it in the target language resulting in written text that is accurate, natural, and readable. the significance of academic literacy in this case can then be viewed from three inseparable perspectives, i.e. significance in reading a source text, rewriting the text in the target language, and critical thinking of relevant knowledge contained in the texts. significance of academic literacy in reading in reading a source text, the mastery of academic literacy functions to maximally minimizing lack of analytical reading skills that may contribute to lack of success in translation. besides, such competence is also applicable to enhance the translators’ comprehension of academic and workplace texts under the translation project, and to enrich his/her reading competence not formally taught beyond language department. furthermore, competence in academic literacy is also significant for the effort of developing the translators need to effective critical reading http://www.directessays.com/view%20paper/85152.html http://www.directessays.com/view%20paper/85152.html 70 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 strategies, and maximizing the use of the strategies to think critically, to argue, to compare, to own an idea, and to remember, all of which are necessary bases to understand texts in the source language. significance of academic literacy in (re)writing in (re)writing, the importance of academic literacy is seen in analyzing information or arguments and synthesizing information from several sources. besides that, academic literacy is also useful as a basis in producing target texts relatively free of language errors. this in turns leads to the effort of expressing meanings in the target language clearly, accurately, as well as naturally. academic literacy is therefore also significant as the basis for completing complex translation tasks across the disciplines, and considering and reconsidering additional points or arguments, to reshape and reconstruct translation texts. significance of academic literacy in critical thinking academic literacy has been instrumental in leading us to be familiar with some technological elements, demonstrating the crucial ability to evaluate online resources critically. for this purpose we need to form questioning habits of reading, especially material found on the internet where we must evaluate materials for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness. besides that, academic literacy may become one of the bases to master technological skills itself. so, it is sensible for a translator to cope with basic technological skills that include word processing, e-mail use, and the fundamentals of web-based research, all for the sake of analyzing text for translation. examples in excerpt (1) from bronte, the concept of meaning in the expression ‘like a turk’ can only be understood by observing how a turk habitually sits cross-legged, without which such expression does not provide any referential meaning: how would one sit in such manner? is it the same as the way a javanese sits? (1) i sat cross-legged, like a turk (bronte) in excerpt (2), which was taken from tolstoy, the year ‘1805’ can only be understood by means of exploring what really happened during that period of time. imagination about what anna pavlovna scherer is like along with the ways in which her environment treated her as a lady, and the like, can only be materialized by means of disclosing the realities taking place in the particular period of time in russian history as it was told by tolstoy, the story teller and the writer. (2) it was in july, 1805, and the speaker was the well-known anna pavlovna scherer, maid of honor and favorite of the empress marya fedorovna. (tolstoy). language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 71 the referential meaning in the relationships between milan and francresco sforza on the one hand and between kingdom of naples and the king of spain on the other in excerpt (3) can only be imagined by uncovering the referents of such expressions in reality be it fictional or historical. (3) the new are either entirely new, as was milan to francesco sforza, or they are, as it were, members annexed to the hereditary state of the prince who has acquired them, as was the kingdom of naples to that of the king of spain. (machiavelli) in excerpts (4 – 6) which had been quoted from morris (1839), expressions in french were inserted to the english text forming code-switching between the two languages. besides, the expressions in english itself were presented in a sort of nonstandard or casual language causing common readers find it hard to understand their intended meaning. in excerpt (4) the french expressions pardonnez-moi, monsieur, excusez-moi, and votre bureau were inserted to the common expressions in english. in excerpt (5) such words as ver, ting, wid, de, vid, and vatare were used to substitute more common expressions causing the text to become relatively strange. in excerpt (6) uncommon expressions in english were used alternately with french expressions. (4) "pardonnez-moi, monsieur," said poopoo, as the auctioneer descended his pedestal, "you shall excusez-moi, if i shall go to votre bureau, your counting-house, (5) ver quick to make every ting sure wid respec to de lot vid de valuarble vatare privalege. (6) von leetle bird in de hand he vorth two in de tree, c'est vrai—eh?" (morris) in excerpt (7) from hoban (1998), the phrase ‘naming day’, for instance, is an immediate puzzle, because it is not a phrase clearly related to any anniversary. the phrase ‘to gone’ is another puzzle. the words ‘kilt’, ‘wyld’, ‘pably’, and ‘ben’, which can be associated with the common words ‘killed’, ‘wild’, ‘probably’, and ‘been’ respectively, may also take the translator literacy to understand what they stand for and why hoban, the writer, employed such words in his story. (7) on my naming day when i come 12 i to gone front spear and kilt a wyld boar he parbly ben the las wyld pig on the bundle downs any how there hadn’t ben none for a long time befor him nor i aint looking to see none agen. (hoban) examining the excerpts presented above, it can be stated that it not only takes linguistic expertise including that of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics in english to analyze such texts but also vast understanding of uncommon expressions in english as the core or source language, and expressions in another language used side by side with the core language. in 72 language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 other words, analyzing such texts, a translator needs to equip him/herself with adequate level of academic literacy enabling him/her to internalize massages intended to be conveyed to its readers through varieties of expressions. conclusion a careful analysis in the process of translating has shown that instead of going directly from one set of surface structures to another, a translator actually goes through a process of analyzing the source text, transferring massage to the target language, and restructuring the text in the target language. in this process, the ‘analysis’ phase begins with discovering basic structural elements to which syntactically more elaborate surface structures of a language can be reduced. the term academic literacy refers to critical thinking, reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills. in practice, this term involves ways of knowing, understanding, interpreting and organizing knowledge. academic literacy practices constitute central processes through which translators deal with new subjects and develop their competence in new areas of knowledge. a professional translator should equip him/herself with such competence in both the source and the target language and academic literacy in the source language in order to be able to transfer massages contained in the text and restructure it in the target language resulting in written text that is accurate, natural, and readable. the significance of academic literacy can then be viewed from three inseparable perspectives, i.e. significance in reading a source text, rewriting the text in the target language, and critical thinking of relevant knowledge contained in the texts. analyzing such texts, a translator needs to equip him/herself with adequate level of academic literacy enabling him/her to internalize massages intended to be conveyed to its readers through varieties of expressions. references bronte, c. jane eyre. planet pdf. accessed from http://www.planetpdf. com. cambridge. 2008. cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary third edition. cambridge: cambridge university press. hatim, b. and j. munday. 2004. translation: an advanced resource book. london and new york: routlegde. hoban, r.1998. riddley walker expanded edition. indiana: indiana university press. http://www.directessays.com/viewpaper/85 152.html. accessed 1 august 2012. http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/ 14852.html intersegmental committee of the academic senates (icas). 2002. academic literacy: a statement of competencies expected of students http://www.planetpdf/ http://www.directessays.com/viewpaper/85152.html http://www.directessays.com/viewpaper/85152.html http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/14852.html http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/14852.html language circle journal of language and literature vol. vii/2 april 2013 73 entering california’s public colleges and universities. sacramento: icas. lea, mary r. 2004. academic literacies: a pedagogy for course design. studies in higher education. vol. 29, no. 6. lea, m.r. and b.v. street. 1998. student writing in higher education: an academic literacies approach. studies in higher education. vol. 23, no. 2. machiavelli, nicolo. the prince. accessed from http://www.planetpdf.com. morrell, e. and j.m.r. duncan-andrade. 2002. promoting academic literacy with urban youth through engaging hip-hop culture. english journal national council of teachers of english. july. morris, g.p. 1839. the little frenchman and his water lots, with other sketches of the times in the best american humorous short stories edited by alexander jessup. http://www.planetpdf.com. normazidah che musa, koo yew lie, hazita azman. 2012. investigating academic literacy practices in english language: the case of malaysia. http://www.auamii.com/ proceedings_phuket_2012/musa%20. pdf. schroeder, c. 2001. academic literacies, legitimacy crises, and electronic cultures. journal of literacy and technology. volume 1, no. 2. tolstoy, leo. anna karenina. planet pdf. accessed from http://www.planetpdf. com. what is academic literacy. 2012. http://www.exampleessays.com/viewp aper/14852.html. accessed 1 august. http://www.auamii.com/%20proceedings_phuket_2012/musa%20.pdf http://www.auamii.com/%20proceedings_phuket_2012/musa%20.pdf http://www.auamii.com/%20proceedings_phuket_2012/musa%20.pdf http://www.planetpdf/ http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/14852.html http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/14852.html attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab3ec431242 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 105 reviewing the british english (bre) and american english (ame) dialects i wy dirgeyasa wayandirgayasa@yahoo.com state university of medan, indonesia abstract of the many different dialects of english such as british english (hereafter bre), american english (hereafter ame), australian english (ase), or canadian english (cne) or even singaporean english (hereafter singlish), etc, the most common widely use across the globe are bre and ame. the two dialects of english, as a matter of fact, are dominantly used in any kinds of fields to mention a few such as politics, economics, diplomatic relationship, medical, information communication and technology (ict), and education as well. the debate about the use of bre and ame often centers on education especially in the process of learning and acquiring the english itself because the two dialects of english provide some different and distinctive features. because of their differences and distinctive features, the learners often find difficulties and often make them confused which one to use. this paper is attempting to review the unique features of bre and ame focusing on the spellings. keywords: british english (bre); american english (ame); dialects introduction historically, from its root in the small colonies of the new world (the origin of the america state), beginning with jamestown, virginia in the early 17th century (1607), was the rise of the varieties of english (bre and ame). since then, the american english has become the most of mother-tongue varieties of english. over the years, english spoken in the united states and in england started diverging from each other in various aspects such as spelling, lexis, pronunciation, grammat-ical pattern and so forth. this finally led two dialects in the form of the american english and british english in some ways, the differences between the two are not only in terms of pronunciation and grammar particularly but also in vocabulary. american english is conservative, for example having preserved features from british. for example, the word fall has been used since the sixteenth century as a variant for the word autumn. and it is still used in the united states until now even though it has become uncommon in the united kingdom. it is generally known that american english is also innovative, especially in its words. americanism, as words and meanings originating in american english are called, has enriched every facet of the vocabulary and many of them have spread to use in english worldwide. sometimes the settlers in the american colonies took old words and used them in new senses. the word corn, for instance originally meant grain in general, and in england, often the wheat in particular. american applied it to maize instead. another example showing that bre is different from ame is the word creek. the word creek in england refers to an inlet or bay from the sea but in america, 106 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 it was used for a small stream (webster, 1996); (hornby, 1973). american also invented the new words which are out of old elements, as thomas jefferson did in coining belittle, a term that might just as well have originated in england. garrymander, on the other hand, arouse out of a particular event in the political history of massachusetts, and so it became the characteristics of american english. the history then noted that the most famous and successful of all american invention is the expression ok. ok is a word has pervaded not only other varieties of english but many foreign languages as well. despites effort to relate ok to several other languages, including african ones, its history as chronicled by allen walker read shows it is to be a native invention. the term was coined in a boston newspaper in 1839 as an abbreviation of the comic misspelling ollkorrect and was subsequently popularized as the name of a political supporting president martin van buren, who was nicknamed old kinderhook from his birth place (webster, 1996); (salim, 2006). description as stated previously, this paper is attempting to review the unique different features of bre and ame in terms of the spelling and the tense aspects. these two aspects seemingly dominant showing their uniqueness. in the real teaching and learning process the two aspects often make confused and tend to disturb the process of communication either in the form of spoken and written. by history, webster, one of the most proponent american linguists with his famous dictionary entitled webster‘s new world college dictionary firstly published in 1988 proposed and reformed english spelling to be typical american english spelling for reasons both philological and nationalistic. he launched and proposed many spelling changes in ame. in terms of spelling, the majority of spelling differences between ame and br falls into two categories. the first category is latinderived spelling and the second is greekderived spelling. the latin-derived spelling of ame falls into many form and patterns. there are a number of latin-derived spellings of ame. they vary in many different forms. first, (our) is in bre and (-or) is in ame.these most words end in unstressed-our in bre (e.g. colour, flavour, harbour, humour, labour, neighbour, rumouretc) end in -or in ame (e.g. color, flavor, harbor, humor, labor, neighbor, rumor etc). second, (-re) is in bre and (–er) is in ame. actually in british english (bre), some words are derived from french, latin or greek end with a consonant followed by (– re), with the (–re) unstressed. in american english (ame), most of these words have the ending (–er). however, the differences are most common for words ending (–breor –tre). british spellings (e.g. calibre, centre, litre, manoeuvre, metre, nitre, reconnoitre, saltpetre, spectre, theatere, etc) become (e.g. caliber, center, liter, manoeuver, meter, niter, reconnoiter, saltpeter, specter, theater, etc). however, most english words that today either bre or ame use (–er) such as chapter, disaster, enter, filter, letter, minister, monster, oyster, parameter, powder, proper, sober, tender, etc (longman, 1982); (webster, 1996). in addition, still many words have (–er) in bre. these includes germanic words like anger, mother, timber and water and roman words like danger, quarter, and river. then, then ending (–acre), such as in acre, lucre, language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 107 massacre, and mediocre are used both in bre and ame to show that the /c/ is pronounced /k/ rather than /s/. then, the spelling ogre and euchre are also the same both in bre and ame. third, (-ce) is in bre and (–se) is in ame. for the word advice/advise and device/devise, the bre and ame both keep the noun/verb distinction (where the pronunciation is -[s] for the noun and -[z] for the verb). for the words like licence/license or practice/practise, bre also keeps the noun/verb distinction (the two words in each pair are homophones with -[s], though). on other hand, ame uses license orpractise for both noun/verb (with -[s] pronunciation in both case too. also, the ame has kept the anglofrench spelling for defense and offense, which are usually defence and offence in bre. likewise, there are the american pretense and british pretence; but derivatives such as defensive, offensive, and pretension are always, they are spelled in both system. fourth, (-xion vs –action).it seems that the use of the spelling connexion is now rare in everyday british usage and it is not used at all in the united states. the word connection has become the standard worldwide. historically, according to the oxford english dictionary, the older spelling is more etymologically conservative, since the original latin word had (–xio-). while the american usage come from webster, who abandoned (–xion) in favour of (– action) by analogy with verb like the word connect. on the other hand, the word complexion which comes from the word complex is standard worldwide but complection is rare in use. the second is greek-derived spellings. it is a fact that american spelling system is also influenced and enriched by greek language. unlike bre, spelling uses (– iseize) in (-isation), the american spelling uses (–ize) in (-ization). the greek-derived spelling of ame falls into some forms and patterns such as( –ize, -yze, -og)etc. first, (-ise) is in bre and (-ize) is in ame. in general, american spelling system avoid – ise ending in words like organize, realize, recognize, etc. while bre tends to use both (–ize) and (-ise) (organise/ organize, realise/realize, recognise/ recognize) etc.the (–ize) ending is actually used world-widely in scientific writing and many international organization such as the international organization for standarization (ios) and world health organization (who). however, the cambridge university press, on the other hand, has long preferred to using (–ise) and many reference works, including the pocket flower‘s modern english usage. perhaps it is as a reaction to the ascendancy of american spelling. as mentioned previously, the (–ise) is more commonly used in uk mass media and newspaper like the times, the daily telegraph, and the economist. however (-ize) is also used in many british-based academic publications as shown by nature, the biochemical journal, and the time literary supplement. second,(-yze)is in breand(-yse)is in ame. it is found that the ending (-yse) is british but –(zye) is in ame. these two endings can be found in the world like analyse, catalyse, hydrolyse, andparalyse in bre whereas like analyze, catalyze, hydrolyze, and paralyze. dating back to 17th century and 18th century english, the word analyse was commonly used but many of the great dictionaries of that time such as john kersey‘s of 1702, nathan bailey‘s of 1721 and samuel johnson‘s of 1775 108 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 prefered using the word analyze. in canada, (-yze) prevails, just as in the us while in australia and new zealand, (-yse) stands alone. third, the endings (–ogue) and (–og) are also common in english. the british and commonwealth english use the ending – logue and gogue while american english usually uses the endings (–log) and (–gog) for the words like analogue vs analog, catalog vscatalogue, dialogue vs dialog, monologue vs. monolog etc. sometimes, the word catalogue is also used in ame but catalog is more common (thus the inflected forms cataloged and catalogin vs. catalogued and catalogueing). then, the word analog is standard for adjective but both analogue and analog are current for noun. in all other cases the (–gue) ending strongly prevails, for example monologue, except for such expression as dialog box in computing, which is also used in the uk. in australia for example, analog tends to be used in its technical and electronics sense, as in analog electronics while in canada and new zealand, analogue is used except analog has some currencies as a technical term (e.g. in electronics, as in ‗analog electronics‘ as opposed to ‗digital electronics‘ and some video-game consoles might have an analog stick). finally, many words that are written with /aeoroe/ in bre are written with just an /e/ in ame. the sound in question is /i:/ (or unstressed /i/). the examples with non-american the words in bre such as anaemia, anaethesia, diarrhoea, encyclopaedia, gynaecology, etcleukaemia become anemia, anethesia, diarrhe, encyclopedia, gynecology, etc. however, the word oenolgy is acceptable in american english but is deemed a minor variant of enology, whereas archeology exists in both ame and bre. then, the words that can be spelled either way in american english include aesthetics and archaeology (which usually prevail over esthetics and archeology, as well as palaestra for which the simplified from palestra is described by webster as ―chiefly brit[ish].‖ besides, the bre and ame also provide the distinctive features of spelling in the double consonants. some words having double consonants may exist in bre but they are not in ame. otherwise, the words may have single consonants in ame but they are single in bre. in addition, the final consonant of an english word is sometimes doubled in both american and british spelling when they are added a suffix beginning with a vowel, for example strip/stripped which prevent confusion with stripe/striped and shows the difference in pronunciation longman, 1982); (webster, 1996). the following examples are provided as follows. double in bre but single in ame the british english doubling is used for all inflections (-ed, ing, er, and est) and for the noun suffixes (–er) and (–or). therefore, the british english usage is cancelled, counsellor, cruellest, labelled, modelling, quarrelled, signalling, traveller and travelling. while american english usually use single /l/ for canceled, counselor, cruelest, labeled, modeling, quarreled, signaling, traveler and traveling. both in bre and ame, the word parallel keeps a single /l/in bre, as in ame (paralleling, unparalleled) to avoid the unappealing cluster (–llell). word with two vowels before a final /l/ are spelled with (–ll) in bre before a suffix when the first vowel either acts as a consonant (equalling and initialled); in ame becomes (equaling and initialed). language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 109 the word endings in (–ize/-ise, -isme, ist, and -ish) usually are not double the /l/ in bre, for example normalise, dualism, novelist, and devilish, etc. however, the words tranquillism, duellist, medallist, panellist and sometimes triallist, the /l/ is doubled. for (–ous) bre has a single /l/ such as in scandalous and perilous however the (-ll) is used for marvellous and libellous. american english sometime has an unstressed (–ll) as in the uk, in some words where the root has /l/.these are cases where the change happens in the source language, which is often latin like cancellation, chancellor, excellent, raillery, tonsillits, etc. both bre and ame have the words compelled, excelling, propelled, and rebelling but not the words revealing, fooling and hurling. among consonants other than /l/, practice varies for some words, such as where the final syllable has secondary stress or an unreduced vowel. the spellings kidnaped and worship in ame but they are kidnapped and worshipped in bre. double in ame conversely, there are some words where british english prefers using single /l/ but american english uses double (-ll). in ame usage, the spellings of words do not usually change when they form the main part (not prefix or suffix) of other words, especially in newly formed words and in words whose main part is in common use. words with this spelling difference include willful, skillful, fulfill, enrollment, thralldom etc. these words have monosyllabic cognates always which are written with (–ll) such as in will, skill, trall, fill, stall, still, etc. in the uk, (-ll) is sometimes used in the words like distil (l), enrol (l), and enthral(l) ment. all of which are always spelled this way in american usage. historically, the former british spellings of words instal, fulness, and dulness with single (-l) but now tend to be with double (-ll-) like in the words install, fullness, and dullness. however, in both ame and bre usages words normally spelled (–ll) usually drop the second /l/ when used as prefixes or suffixes. for example, full – useful – handful all – almighty – altogether well – welfare – welcome chill – chilblain to be noted that the bre is fulfil and ame is fulfill but they never be fullfil or fulfill. drop (e) bre sometimes keeps silent /e/ when adding suffixes where ame does not. it is a fact that bre usually drops it in only some cases in which it is needed to show pronunciation whereas ame only uses it where needed. for example, bre prefers to having ageing and routeing for the word age and route, but ame often uses aging and routing. however, to avoid and to distinguish from dying, singing, and swinging (in the sense of die, sing, and swing), the words like dye, singe, and swinge become dyeing, singeing, and swingeing, both bre and ame keep the e letter. in bre, the words like likeable, liveable, rateable, saleable, sizeable, and shakeable are common otherwise, ame prefers to dropping the (–e), so those words tend to be liveble, ratable, saleable, sizable, and shakable. however, both bre and ame prefer to using the words breathable, curable, datable, loveble, movable, notable 110 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 quotable, scalable, solvable, usable and also the root is polysyllabic like believable or decidable, the silent (–e) is dropped. both systems keep the silent (–e) when it is needed to preserve a soft /c, ch, or g/ such as in traceable, cacheable, changeable; and both bre and ame also keep the /e/ after (– dge) like in knowledgeable and unabridgeable (salim, 2006); (webster, 1996).in the us, both abridgment and the more regular abridgement are current rather in uk. likewise for the word lodg(e)ment. both judgment and judgement or achievment and acihevement are in use interchangeably everywhere, although the former prevails in the us and the latter prevails in the uk except in the practice of law, where judgment is standard. this also holds for abridgment and acknowledgment. both systems prefer fledgling to fledgeling, but ridgeling to ridgling. in addition, both acknowledgment, acknowledgement, abridgment and abridgement are used in australia; the shorter forms are endorsed by australian governments. then, the word blue always drops the /e/ when forming the word bluish or bluing (salim, 2006); (webster, 1996); (hornby, 1973). 2. miscellaneous spelling differences between bre and ame besides, actually both bre and ame also have miscellaneous spelling differences which often confuse us. then, the miscellaneous different spellings are not only by bre and ame, but also canadian, australian and new zealand english. table 1 below shows the miscellaneous different spellings among them. table 1 the miscellaneous of different spellings. uk us remarks annexe annex to annex is the verb in both british and american usage; however, when speaking of an annex /e/ – the noun referring to an extension of a main building – the root word is spelled with an (-e) at the end in the uk and australia but in the us and new zealand it is not. artefact, artifact artifact in british english, artefact is the main spelling and artifact a minor variant. in american english, artifact is the usual spelling. canadians prefer artifact and australians artefact, according to their respective dictionaries. artefact reflects artefac(um), the latin source. http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annexe http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annexe http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annexe http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annex http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annex http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annex http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/artefact http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/artifact http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/artifact http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/artifact language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 111 axe ax, axe both the noun and verb which are derived from old english(æx) is acceptable and commonly used. the oxford english dictionary states that "the spelling /ax/ is better on every ground, of etymology, phonology, and analogy, than /axe/, which became prevalent in the 19th century; but /ax/ is now disused in britain". the spelling /axe/ was used by shakespeare and in the king james bible. camomile, chamomile chamomile, camomile the more common british spelling camomile, corresponding to the immediate french source, is the older in english. whereas the spelling of chamomile more accurately corresponds to the ultimate latin and greek source. in the uk, according to the oed, "the spelling of chais chiefly in pharmacy, after latin; that with cais literary and popular". in the us chamomile dominates in all senses. carat carat, karat the spelling with a /k/ is used in the us only for the measure of purity of gold. the /c/ spelling is universal for weight. cheque check in banking.hencepay cheque and paycheck are used. accordingly, the north american term for what is known as a current account or cheque account in the uk is spelled chequing account in canada and checking account in the us. some american financial institutions, notably american express, use cheque, but this is merely a trademarking affectation. chequer checker as in chequerboard/checkerboard, chequered/checkered flag etc. are used in uk while in canada as it is used in the us. chilli chili, chile the original mexican spanish word (chilli) is spelled chile. in merriam-webster's collegiate dictionary, chile and chilli are given as also variants. choir choir, quire quire was given as an alternative spelling by webster (1828, 1844 and 1913) and century dictionary. however, quire is also used in the uk to refer to the area in a cathedral occupied by the choir (usually the western part of the chancel). cosy cozy in all senses, they are adjective, noun, verb. both of them are used uk and us, and canada as well. dyke dike the spelling with /i/ is sometimes found in the uk, but the /y/ spelling is rare in the us. http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/axe http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/axe http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/axe http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ax http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/old_english http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/old_english http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/old_english http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/oxford_english_dictionary http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/oxford_english_dictionary http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/oxford_english_dictionary http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/camomile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chamomile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chamomile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chamomile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/karat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/karat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/karat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/karat http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cheque http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cheque http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cheque http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bank http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/american_express http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/american_express http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/american_express http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chequer http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chequer http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chequer http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chilli http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chilli http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chilli http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chili http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chile http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mexican_spanish http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/merriam-webster%27s_collegiate_dictionary http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/choir http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/choir http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/choir http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quire http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quire http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quire http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/century_dictionary http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=quire_%28disambiguation%29&action=edit&redlink=1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chancel http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cosy http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cosy http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cosy http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cozy http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cozy http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cozy http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyke http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyke http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyke http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dike http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dike http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dike 112 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 doughnut doughnut, donut in the us, both are used, with donut indicated as a variant of doughnut. whereas, in the uk, donut is indicated as an american variant for doughnut. draught draft draft british english usually uses draft for all senses as the verb; for a preliminary version of a document; for an order of payment (bank draft), and for military conscription (although this last meaning is not as common as in american english). it uses draught for drink from a cask (draught beer); for animals, itis used for pulling heavy loads (draught horse); for a current of air; for a ship's minimum depth of water to float; and for the game draughts, known as checkers in america. it uses either draught or draft for a plan or sketch (but almost always draughtsman in this sense; a draftsman drafts legal documents). american english uses draft in all these cases, including draftsman (male or female) (although in regard to drinks, draught is sometimes found). however, canada uses both systems; in australia, draft is used for technical drawings, is accepted for the current of air meaning, and is preferred by professionals in the nautical sense. the pronunciation is always the same for all meanings within a dialect (received prouncaition (rp) /ˈdrɑːft/, general american /ˈdræft/). the spelling draught is older, reflecting the word's connection with the verb to draw; draft appeared first in the late 16th century. gauge gauge, gage both spellings have existed since middle english. gauntlet gauntlet, gantlet when meaning ordeal, in the phrase running the ga(u)ntlet, some american style guides prefer gantlet. this spelling is unused in britain and less usual in america than gauntlet. the word is an alteration of earlier gantlope by folk etymology with gauntlet (armored glove), always spelled thus. glycerine glycerin, glycerine scientists use the term glycerol, but both spellings are used sporadically in the us. grey gray grey became the established british spelling in the 20th century, pace dr johnson and others, and it is but a minor variant in american english, according to dictionaries. canadians tend to prefer grey. the non-cognate greyhound was never grayhound. both grey and gray are found in proper names everywhere in the english-speaking world. the two http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/doughnut http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/doughnut http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/doughnut http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/donut http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/donut http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/donut http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/draught http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bank_draft http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/military_conscription http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/draught_beer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/draught_horse http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/draft_%28hull%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/draughts http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gauge http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gauge http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gauge http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gage http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gage http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gage http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gauntlet http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gauntlet http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gauntlet http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gantlet http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gantlet http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gantlet http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/running_the_gauntlet http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/style_guide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/folk_etymology http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gauntlet_%28glove%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gauntlet_%28glove%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gauntlet_%28glove%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gauntlet_%28glove%29 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glycerine http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glycerine http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glycerine http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glycerin http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glycerol http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grey http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grey http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grey http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gray http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gray http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gray http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_latin_phrases_%28p%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greyhound language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 113 spellings are of equal antiquity, and the oxford english dictionary states that "each of the current spellings has some analogical support. grille grill, grille in the us, the word grille refers to that of an automobile, whereas the word grill refers to a device used for heating food. however, it is not uncommon to see both spellings used in the automotive sense, as well as in australia, and new zealand. hearken harken this word comes from hark. the spelling hearken was used by shakespeare and the king james bible. it was probably influenced by hear. idyll idyll, idyl idyl was the spelling of the word preferred in the us by the merriam-webster dictionary, for the same reason as the double consonant rule; idyll, the original form from greek eidullion, is now generally used in both the uk and us. jail, gaol jail in the uk, gaol and gaoler are used sometimes, apart from literary usage, chiefly to describe a medieval building and guard. both spellings go back to middle english: gaol was a loanword from norman french, while jail was a loanword from central (parisian) french. in middle english the two spellings were associated with different pronunciations. in current english the word, however spelled, is always given the pronunciation originally associated only with the jail spelling /ˈdʒeɪl/. the survival of the gaol spelling in british english is "due to statutory and official tradition". kerb curb for the noun designating the edge of a roadway (or the edge of a british pavement/ american sidewalk/ australian footpath).curb is the older spelling, and in the uk and us it is still the proper spelling for the verb meaning restrain. (kilo)gram, (kilo)gramm e (kilo)gram (kilo)gramme is used sometimes in the uk but never in the us. (kilo)gram is the only spelling used by the international bureau of weights and measures. liquorice licorice the american spelling is nearer the old french source licorece, which is ultimately from greek glykyrrhiza. the british spelling was influenced by the unrelated word liquor. licorice prevails in canada and it is common in australia, but it is rarely found in the uk. liquorice is all but nonexistent in the us ("chiefly british", according to dictionaries). http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grille http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grille http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grille http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grill http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/automobile http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hearken http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hearken http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hearken http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/harken http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/harken http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/harken http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hark http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hear http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idyll http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idyll http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idyll http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idyll http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jail http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gaol http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gaol http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gaol http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/help:ipa_for_english#key http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kerb http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kerb http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kerb http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/curb http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/curb http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/curb http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kilogram http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kilogramme http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kilogramme http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kilogramme http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kilogramme http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/liquorice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/liquorice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/liquorice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/licorice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/licorice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/licorice 114 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 mollusc mollusk, mollusc the related adjective may be spelled molluscan or molluskan both in uk and us. mould mold in all senses of the word. both spellings have been used since the sixteenth century. in canada, both words have wide currency. when speaking of the noun describing a form for casting a shape, the us will also use the mould spelling, but defaults to the word mold when referring to the fruiting bodies of tiny fungi. in new zealand, the word mold is the spelling adopted when describing a form for casting a shape while the word mould is used when referring to a fungus omelette omelet, omelette the omelet spelling is the older of the two, in spite of the etymology (french omelette). omelette prevails in canada and in australia. plough plow both spellings have existed since middle english. the oed records several dozen variants. in the uk, plough has been the standard spelling for about 300 years. although plow was noah webster's pick, plough continued to have some currency in the us, as the entry in webster's third (1961) implies. newer dictionaries label plough as "chiefly british". the word snowplough/snowplow, originally an americanism, predates webster's dictionaries and was first recorded as snow plough. canada has both plough and plow, although snowplough is much rarer there than snowplow. in the us, the word plough sometimes describes a horsedrawn kind while plow refers to a gasoline (petrol) powered kind. primaeval primeval the word primeval is also common in uk but etymologically 'ae' is nearer the latin source primus first + aevum age. rack and ruin wrack and ruin several words such as rack and wrack have been conflated, with both spellings thus accepted as variants for senses connected to torture (orig. rack) and ruin (orig. wrack, cf. wreck). in (w)rack and ruin, the /w/-less variant is now prevalent in the uk but not the us. the term, however, is rare in the us. sceptic (-al, -ism) skeptic (-al, ism) the american spelling, akin to greek, is the earliest known spelling in english. it was preferred by fowler, and is used by many canadians, where it is the earlier form. sceptic also predates the european settlement of the us, and it follows the http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mollusc http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mollusc http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mollusc http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mollusk http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mould http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mould http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mould http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mold http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mold http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mold http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/omelette http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/omelette http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/omelette http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/omelet http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plough http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plough http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plough http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plow http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plow http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plow http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sceptic http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skeptic language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 115 french sceptique and latin scepticus. in the mid-18th century, dr johnson's dictionary listed skeptic without comment or alternative, but this form has never been popular in the uk; sceptic, an equal variant in the old webster's third (1961), has now become "chiefly british". australians generally follow the british usage (with the notable exception of the australian skeptics). all of these versions are pronounced with a hard /c/, though in french that letter is silent and the word is pronounced like septique. slew, slue slue, slew this means to turn sharply; a sharp turn, the preferred spelling differs. meaning a great number is usually slew in all regions. smoulder smolder both spellings go back to the sixteenth century, and have existed since middle english. thesmoulder is used in bre whereas, smolder is used in ame. storey story level of a building. the plurals are storeys and stories respectively. the letter /e/ is used in the uk and canada to differentiate between levels of buildings and a story as in a literary work. story is the earlier spelling. the oxford english dictionary states that this word is "probably the same word as story [in its meaning of "narrative"] though the development of sense is obscure. one of the first uses of the (now british) spelling "storey" was by harriet beecher stowe in 1852 (uncle tom's cabin xxxii). sulphur sulfur, sulphur sulfur is the preferred spelling by the international union of pure and applied chemistry (iupac) and by the uk's royal society of chemistry (rsc). sulphur is used by british and irish scientists, and it is actively taught in british and irish schools. it prevails in canada and australia, and it is also found in some american place names (e.g. sulphur, louisiana and white sulphur springs, west virginia). american english usage guides suggest sulfur for technical usage, and both sulfur and sulphur in common usage and in literature. the variation between /f/ and /ph/ spellings is also found in the word's ultimate source: latin sulfur, sulphur. through through, thru the thru is typically used in the us as shorthand. tyre tire in canada as in the us, tire is the older spelling, but both were used in the 15th and 16th centuries (for a metal tire). tire http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australian_skeptics http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australian_skeptics http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australian_skeptics http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slew#etymology_2 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slue http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slue http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slue http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slue http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/smouldering http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/smouldering http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/smouldering http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/smolder http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/smolder http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/smolder http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/storey http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/storey http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/storey http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/story http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/story http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/story http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sulphur http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sulphur http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sulphur http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sulfur http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_union_of_pure_and_applied_chemistry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_union_of_pure_and_applied_chemistry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_union_of_pure_and_applied_chemistry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/royal_society_of_chemistry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/royal_society_of_chemistry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/royal_society_of_chemistry http://louisiana/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/white_sulphur_springs,_west_virginia http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/through http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/through http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/through http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thru http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thru http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thru http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tyre http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tyre http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tyre http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tire http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tire http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tire 116 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 became the settled spelling in the 17th century but tyre was revived in the uk in the 19th century for rubber / pneumatic tyres, possibly because it was used in some patent documents, though many continued to use tire for the iron variety. the times newspaper was still using tire as late as 1905. for the verb meaning "to grow weary" both american and british english use only the tire spelling. vice vise, vice americans and canadians retain the very old distinction between vise (the tool) and vice (the sin, and also the latin prefix meaning a "deputy"), both of which are vice in the uk and australia. thus, americans have vice-admiral, vicepresident, and vice-principal, but never visefor any one of these. yoghurt, yogurt yogurt, yoghurt yoghurt is an also-ran in the us, as is yoghourt in the uk. although the oxford dictionaries have always preferred yogurt, in current british usage yoghurt seems to be prevalent. in canada, yogurt prevails, despite the canadian oxford preferring yogourt, which has the advantage of satisfying bilingual (english and french) packaging requirements. australian usage tends to follow the uk. whatever the spelling is, the word has different pronunciations: in the uk /ˈjɒɡɚt/ or /ˈjoʊɡɚt/, only /ˈjoʊɡɚrt/ in america, ireland, and australia. the word comes from the turkish language word yoğurt. the voiced velar fricative represented by ğ in the modern turkish (latinic) alphabet was traditionally written gh in romanizations of the ottoman turkish (arabic) alphabet used before 1928. conclusion there are several areas in which british and american spelling are different. the differences often come about because british english has tended to keep the spelling of words. it has absorbed from other languages (e.g. french), while american english has adapted the spelling to reflect the way that the words actually sound when they're spoken. for practice, if you're writing for british readers, you should only use british spellings. in one or two cases, the preferred american spellings are acceptable in british english as well, especially the -ize/-ization endings. while you can use both the -ise/isation or the -ize/ization endings in british english, it's important to stick to one style or the other throughout the same piece of writing. http://times/ http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vice http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vise http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/yoghurt http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/yogurt http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/yogurt http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/yogurt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/turkish_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/voiced_velar_fricative http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%c4%9e http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/turkish_alphabet http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/turkish_alphabet http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/turkish_alphabet http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/romanization_of_arabic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ottoman_turkish_alphabet language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 117 thus, it is important to note where the two typical english dialects are used. geographically, the american english is the form of english used in the us including all english dialects used within the united states of america. but, the british english is the form of english used in the united kingdom covering all english dialects used within the united kingdom. references hornby.a.s. 1973.the advanced learner’s dictionary of current english. oxford: oxford university press. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/american_and_b ritish_english_spelling_differences http://esl.about.com/od/toeflieltscambridge/a /dif_ambrit.htm http://www.diffen.com/difference/american_ english_vs_british_english http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/brit ish-and-american-spelling http://www.studyenglishtoday.net/britishamerican-spelling.html procter. p. ed. 1982. longman dictionary of contemporary english. london: longman group ltd. salim, peter. 2006. the contemporary englishindonesian dictionary with british and american pronunciation and spelling. jakarta: media ekapustaka. webster. w. 1996. webster’s new world college dictionary. new york: macmillan. 118 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 language circle: journal of language and literature xi/2 (april 2017) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 183 the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia abdulghani mohammed emran al-mergib university, lybia dwi anggani l. b. universitas negeri semarang, indonesia e-mail: abdo07mohammed@gmail.com. received: 20 february 2017. revised: 20 march 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract this study attempts to investigate the errors of segmental phonemes that libyan english students have when they pronounce english sounds. the participants in the study were fifteen, three females and the rest males, who study in semarang city, indonesia, and they were form different majors of master and doctoral degrees (information system, public health, economic and bio-medic) at semarang state university and diponegoro university. the participants have never been to any of the english speaking countries, so they do not have any kind of exposure to a native english environment. the data was collected by two methods; recording test, in order to identify and evaluate the segmental errors, and questionnaire, in order to obtain participants’ perceptions about the expected errors, the reasons behind these errors and how to cope with them. the results showed that the libyan speakers in this study had errors while they produce consonant clusters and certain english sounds, such as: consonants” /p/ , /v/ , /θ/ , /ð/ , /tʃ/ , /dʒ/ and /ŋ/”, vowels “ /ә/ , /ɛ:/ , /i:/ , /ɑ:/ , /u:/ , /ᴐ:/ and /ɪ/”, and finally diphthongs “/eә/ , /ʊә/ , /әʊ/.” this study also provides some helpful suggestions and recommendation that will reduce future errors regarding english segmental phonemes among libyan english learners. keywords: segmental phonemes, consonant clusters, students’ perceptions, pronunciation how to cite: abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. introduction many second language learners want to“sound like natives”, however this dream has yet to be achieved by the majority of second language learners are under the impression that they speak english intelligibly, but the truth is a vast majority of esl learners make numerous errors. in addition to phonological, lexical and spelling errors, learners also produce pronunciation, rhythm, intonation voice quality errors. to a greater extent, esl learners are not even aware of the pronunciation errors that they make. there are numerous factors that contribute to the errors second language learners produce, especially in the area of pronunciation. certainly, the differences between the learners‟ native language and the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:abdo07mohammed@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 184 acquired language play an important role in these difficulties. moreover, there are elements that contribute directly to pronunciation errors. in addition to variations in the phonemic inventory of both languages, age and language transfer also play a strong role in the acquisition process. its importance has shaped the positive attitudes of some second language learners. suleiman (1993) stated that according to the participants in his study; learning english provides the individual an advantage as an active participant in today's world, opening new horizons to a better future. a large population of second language learners believes that the main difficulty they experience when speaking english is pronunciation. generally, they consider pronunciation as the main cause for their communication problems (derwing & rossiter, 2002; alkahtany, 1995). the majority of esl learners want to be indistinguishable from english native speakers. in a study conducted by derwing (2003), more than half of the interviewees felt that they would receive more respect if they pronounced english well. according to (giles, 1970; weener, 1967), it is very important to second language learners to be perfectly understood and not be stigmatized as being “lower class” and have anything they produce be discounted by others. good pronunciation insures that a message gets transmitted more effectively. also, abnormal pronunciation means that the person is stained as a “non-native” speaker of that language (weeren & theunissen, 1987). often, native speakers of english evaluate non-native speakers of english negatively. ryan and her colleagues found out that u.s. listeners of english negatively rated spanish and german accented english speech (ryan, carranza & moffie, 1977; ryan & sebastian, 1980; ryan & bulik, 1982). however, not all nonnative speakers of english are stigmatized due to their accents. in a study conducted by cargile & giles (1998), a japanese speaker with a “moderate accent” was rated highly by american university students. this study attempted to identify and evaluate the errors of segmental phonemes by the libyan students of english in semarang, central java, indonesia. english language, just like any other language, has a rule for combining sound segments to make meaningful words. when the libyan students produce a language, they face some overlaps because of the very different phoneme systems of both languages arabic and english. so, when they try to produce a language, they produce the sounds which are closest to the sounds and also exist in their mother tongue. for example, the libyan speakers of english pronounce beer instead of peer and sheap instead of cheap. this kind of pronunciation problem creates a big hindrance in the process of communication amongst speakers. briefly, this study concerned mainly on the consonant sounds, vowel sounds, diphthongs and consonant clusters with different positions in the speech according to the sound so it is either initial, medial or final position. the tested consonant sounds are /p/, /θ/, /ð/, /v/, / ᴣ/, /t∫/, /dᴣ/, and /ŋ/. the vowel sounds are /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /ɑ/ and /ә/. the tested diphthongs are /eә/ and /ʊә/. finally the consonant clusters which combine two, three or four consonant sounds together with vowel sound. review of the previous studies many researchers have conducted their studies on the mistakes committed by arab learners while learning english as a abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 185 second or foreign language, such as harrison, prator and tucker (1975), abdul haq (1982), kharma & hajjaj (1989), altaha (1995), wahba (1998), binturki (2008) and alshuaibi (2009) and some others. mostly they have focused on the field of phonology, morphology and syntax. in her study, raya (2016) claimed that the most errors produced by the jordan speakers are consonants " /p v ʧ ʤ ŋ ɹ ƚ/ ", vowels "/ɪ ɛ ɑ ɔ: oʊ ә /" clusters and stress. all the participants were sharing the same hometown and the same dialects features, the average of the age was 23 and no one of them has lived outside jordan for over six months. she categorized some errors related to stress, clusters, vowels and consonants and she mentioned the reasons and the differences between arabic and english producing of the sounds and the organs of pronouncing each sign sound of each language. the study filled the gaps of all reader's questions as arabic speakers of english language and it explained in details all the pronunciation aspects of consonants, clusters, vowels and stress, also the errors done by the jordan in particular and the arabic in general. turki (2008) demonstrated that saudi esl speakers do have difficulty with the voiced interdental fricative /v/ and to lesser extent, with /p/ and /r/. five native speakers of saudi arabian studying in the u.s. were chosen to participate in this study. a words list and a reading passage were used to elicit the target sounds in order to generate data for both context and isolation. for feeding the curiosity of the arabic and non-arabic readers, the author may could vary with his participants by choosing speakers of english who never be in an english speaking country and those who ever be there. methodology this study is qualitative study and the data was obtained by recording test, to evaluate and identify the errors commit by libyan students, and questionnaire, to understand the reasons behind these errors and how to cope them. this current study included fifteen libyan english students from two universities in semarang, central java, indonesia; namely (semarang state university and diponegoro). those fifteen participants were from different regions in libya and they were form different majors of master and doctoral degrees (information system, public health, economic, bio-medic) and their levels of speaking english vary from intermediate to upper intermediate levels. they were tested to identify the common errors of segmental phonemes and how to cope with them. results the results that exposed from the recordingtest were divided into five terms related to the research questions. those terms were consonant, vowel, diphthongs, consonant cluster and finally students’ perceptions which tried to suggest some recommendations to cope with these errors. consonants table 1 below gave mispronounced consonant sounds produced by the libyan students. table 1. consonants’ results sound frequency language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 186 initial medial final no. fre q. no. freq. no. freq. p 10 66.6% 11 73% 9 60% t 4 10% 3 13.3% 3 10% k --------1 3.3% b 3 10% 2 6.6% 4 16.6% d ----1 3.3% 4 23.3% g 5 30% 3 26.6% 5 30% f 1 6.6% ----3 6.6% v 8 53.3% 9 60% 10 66.6% θ 10 63.6% 8 50% 8 46.6% ð 5 30% 5 30% 10 66.6% s ----3 10% ---- z ------------ ∫ 4 23.3% 3 26.6% 1 10% ᴣ ----13 56.6% ---- h 5 26.6% -------- t∫ 7 43.3% 7 43.3% 7 43.3% dᴣ 12 83.3% 11 73.3% 11 73.3% m ------------ n ------------ ŋ --------12 80% l ------------ r ----4 20% 6 40% j 2 6.6% 1 3% ---- w --------9 70% the participants were asked to read an individual words and tinny paragraph in order to identify the errors of the consonant sounds. the results were analysed carefully one by one. the voiceless bilabial plosive sound /p/ was replaced with /b/ sound in all the error cases and the table above showed that 10 out of 15 students mispronounce the /p/ sound in the initial position with 67% of errors' frequency of the sound, it also showed that 11 out of 15 students mispronounce the sound in the medial position with 73% of errors' frequency, and 9 students mispronounce it in the final position with abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 187 60% of errors' frequency. the voiceless alveolar sound /t/ mispronounced by 4 participants out of 15 with 10% of the total error's frequency in the initial position, 3 of them with 13% in the medial position and in the final position only 3 participants with 10% of the total errors' frequency. for the voiceless velar sound /k/ looks so familiar for the libyan students because only 1 student out of 15 with 3% of the errors' frequency miss pronounce it in the final position,whereas they pronounce it perfectly in the initial and medial position. the bilabial voiced sound /b/ was pronounced correctly by most of the students only 3 respondents out of 15 mispronounce it in the initial position with 10% of the total error's frequency, 2 respondents were mispronounce it in the medial position with 7% and 4 of them with 10% in the final position. as the students produced the voiced velar sound /d/, only 1 student mispronounce it in the medial position with 3% of total errors' frequency and 4 of them mispronounce it with 23% in the final position, whereas in the initial position was correctly produced. the table above also showed that 5 students of the total number of the students mispronounce the voiced velar sound /g/ in the final position with 30% as the highest errors' frequency and then the initial with 30% by 5 students as well and the medial position get the lowest errors' frequency with 27% produced by 3 students. the voiceless labiodental fricative sound /f/ produced perfectly in the initial and medial positions by most of the respondents, only 3 of them mispronounce it in the final position when it was formulated by "ugh" alphabets like in the word "laugh" with 7% of errors' frequency. the voiced labiodental fricative sound /v/ was replaced with /f/ sound in the test, there was 8 students mispronounce it in the initial position with 53%, 9 of them mispronounce it in the medial position with 60% and 10 of them in the final with 67% of errors' frequency. for the voiceless dental fricative sound /θ/ almost in the all error's cases were replaced with /d/ sound, 10 out of 15 participants with 64% mispronounce the /θ/ sound in the initial position, 8 with 50% of errors' frequency in the medial position ,and 8 of them as well with 47% mispronounce it in the final position. again as the voiceless dental fricative sound /θ/, the voiced dental fricative sound /ð/ was also replaced with /d/ sound in all the words, only 5 students mispronounce the sound in initial and medial position with 30% of error's frequency, and 10 of them mispronounce it in the final position with 67%. the voiceless alveolar fricative sound /s/ produced correctly by all of the participants in the initial and final position but when the /s/ sound formulated by the alphabet letter c and followed with vowel sound in medial position, 3 of the participants produce it as the voiceless velar plosive /k/ which covers 10% of the errors' frequency in the test. the voiced alveolar fricative sound /z/ pronounced correctly in the three different positions by the libyan students. for the voiceless palato-alvelar fricative sound /∫/, 4 students replace it with /s/ sound when it was formulated by the alphabet letters ''ciat'' in the medial position with 27% and it was the highest error position in the sound and then in the initial sound with 23% produced by 4 students when the sound was formulated by "su" alphabet letters as in the word "sugar" and finally the lowest errors' frequency with 10% in the final position by only one student. for the voiced palat-alvelar fricative sound /ᴣ/, it was replaced with language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 188 voiceless palate-alvelar /∫/ sound in the medial position by 13 respondents with 57% of errors' frequency. the voiceless glottal sound /h/ mispronounced in the initial position by 5 participants with 27% when it was silent like in the word "honour" where is it pronounced correctly in the other pronounced forms. the voiced affricative sound /dᴣ/ was replaced with /ᴣ/ sound by 12 students in the initial position with 83% and 11 students with 73% for both the medial and final positions. the results also showed that the /t∫/sound was replaced with /∫/ sound in the three positions by 7 students with 43.3% of errors' frequency. the bilabial nasal sound /m/, the alveolar nasal sound /n/ and the lateral /l/ sound were produced perfectly by the fifteen libyan students because the three mentioned sounds and some other sounds as well are present in the arabic language which helped the student to pronounce them correctly and easily. for the velar nasal sound /ŋ/, there were 12 out of 15 students with 80% replaced the sound /ŋ/ in the final position with heavy pronouncing of /n/ and /g/ sounds mixed together. the /r/ sound produced correctly in the initial position by the libyan student as it presents in their mother tongue but 4 respondents produced it very heavily in the medial position with 20% of the total errors' frequency and 6 of them produced it heavily and noticeable as well in the final position with 40% of the total errors' frequency. for the /j/ sound it was mispronounced only by 2 students with 7% of the total errors' frequency in the initial position and in the medial position only one student mispronounce the /j/ sound with 3% of errors' frequency. finally the /w/ was produced correctly by the libyan students in initial and medial position but it was mispronounced in the final position with 70% of the total errors' frequency by 9 students. vowels table 2 below presented the mispronounced vowel sound. table 2. vowels’ results sound frequency initial medial final no. freq. no. freq. no. fre q. /ɪ/ 6 40% 9 56.6% ---- /e/ 9 60% 7 46.6% ---- /æ/ 3 16.6% 2 10% ---- /ɒ/ 1 3% 4 13.3% ---- /ʊ/ ----4 13.3% ---- /ә/ 13 83.3% 12 80% 10 70% /i:/ 10 80% 9 70% 9 70% /ɑ:/ 9 66.6% 12 76.6% 9 80% /ᴐ:/ 9 66.6% 8 56.6% 10 70% abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 189 /u:/ 9 70% 10 73.3% 7 56.6% /ɛ:/ 5 60% 13 83.3% 9 86.6% we can notice from the table above that libyan students still mixed up between the short and long vowels in all positions. the highest percentage of errors' frequency went to the schwa short vowel /ә/ in the initial position with 83% produced by 13 english students, 80% with 12 students out of 15 mispronounce it in the medial position and finally 10 of them with 70% of total errors' frequency miss pronounce it in the final position; in the three mentioned errors' cases, the schwa sound was replaced by the short vowel /ɒ/ but mostly was replaced with /ɪ/ sound specially in the medial and final position. then the long vowel sound /i:/ was mispronouncing by 10 libyan participants in the initial position with 80%, 9 of them with70% mispronounce it in the medial and final positions; the /i:/ sound was replaced with some other short vowels but mostly by /ɪ/ sound. for the long vowel sound /ɛ:/, there were 5 students mispronounce it in the initial position with 60% of errors' frequency, 13 of them mispronounce it in the medial position with 83% and 9 of them in the final with 87% of error's frequency. the long vowel sound /u:/ was highly mispronounced by 9 participants in the medial position which covered 70% of total errors' frequency, 10 of them with 73% produced it incorrectly in the medial position and 7 participants with 57% of total errors' frequency mispronounced it in the final position; in three cases it was replaced with short vowel sound /ʊ/. the short vowel /u/ was mispronounced in the medial position with only 13% of total errors' frequency by 4 students. for the long vowel sound /ɑ:/, it was mispronounced by 9 out of 15 students with 67% in the initial position, 12 with 77% in the medial position and in the final position there was 9 students with 80% of the total errors' frequency. the long vowel /ᴐ:/ was produced incorrectly by 9 students with 67% in the initial position, 8 of them also produced it incorrectly in the medial position with 57% and finally 10 students with 70% mispronounce it in the final position. the table also showed that 6 out of 15 students mispronounce the /ɪ/ sound in the initial position with 40% of error's frequency of the sound, it also showed that 9 of them mispronounce the sound in the medial position with 57% of error's frequency, in almost the whole errors cases produced as /e/ short vowel sound. the short vowel sound /e/ was mispronounced by 9 of the respondents with 60% of the total errors' frequency in the initial position and 7 of them with 47% mispronounced it in the medial position; the /e/ sound replaced with long vowel sound /i:/ or the short form /ɪ/. the lowest errors percentages went to the short vowels /æ/ and /ɒ/ sounds. for /æ/ sound, it was mispronounced by 3 students with 17% of errors' frequency in the initial position and 2 of them in the medial position with 10%. finally the /ɒ/ sound was incorrectly produced by only 1 student in the initial position with 3% of errors' frequency and 4 of them with 13% in the final position. diphthongs table 3 discussed the mispronounced diphthong sounds. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 190 table 3.: diphthongs’ results sound frequency initial medial final no. freq. no. freq. no. fre q. /ei/ 4 10% 4 20% 3 16.6% /ai/ 6 26.6% 7 33.3% 3 10% /ͻi/ 2 10% 2 6.6% ---- /әʊ/ 9 63.3% 9 70% 7 60% /aʊ/ ----2 13.3% ---- /iә/ ----3 16.6% 1 5% /eә/ 13 83.3% 14 90% 13 83.3% /ʊә/ ----11 73.3% ---- the participants were asked to read an individual words and tinny paragraph in order to identify the errors of the tested diphthong sounds. table c showed that the highest diphthongs percentage of errors' frequency is /eә/ with 83% produced by 13 students in the initial, in the medial position with 90% produced by 14 students and 13 students with 83% in the final position. then, the diphthong /ʊә/ was also highly mispronounced with 73% produced by 11 students in the medial position. the diphthong sound /әʊ/ was produced incorrectly by 9 participant out of 15 in the initial position with 63%, the same sound but in the medial position was incorrectly produced by 9 participants also with 70% of total errors' frequency and in the final position 7 of them mispronounced it with 60%. for the /ai/ sound, 6 respondents out of 15 mispronounced it in the initial position with 27%, 7 of them with 33% mispronounced it in the medial position and in the final position, 3 of the respondents out of 15 with 10% of errors' frequency. the /ei/ sound was pronounced incorrectly by 4 students in the initial position with 10% of errors frequency, 4 of them mispronounced it in the medial position with 20% and 17% of the total errors' frequency in the final position produced by 3 students. the diphthong /ͻi/ was mispronounced by only 2 students with 10% in the initial and 7% in the medial position. the /aʊ/ sound was produced incorrectly by 2 students with 13% in the medial position. finally, the /iә/ sound produced incorrectly by 3 students out of 15 with 17% of errors' frequency in the initial position and only 1 student with 5 % in the final position. consonants clusters a recording-test was used (see appendix x) to collect the data and then to evaluate and analyse the libyan errors with the tested consonant clusters. the figure below clarified the frequent of errors in the target vowel sounds. abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 191 table 4. consonant clusters' results consonant cluster type number of the students frequency cc 13 86.6% ccc 14 90% cccc 12 80% the participants were asked to read sentences that contain the three kinds of consonant clusters, two three and four consonants combined together. table 4.4 above clarified that 13 students out of 15 mispronounce the words with two consonant clusters with 86.6% of error frequency, 14 of them mispronounce it with 90% in the three consonants type and finally 12 students with 80% of error frequency mispronounce the words with four clusters. student's perception the student's perceptions were collected after the recording-test is done via a questionnaire. the questionnaire contains eight main terms which tried to ask about their opinions and their expected errors in the test specifically and pronunciation of english generally. below is the analysis for each term. table 5. frequency of consonants sound number of students frequency pronouncing /b/ instead of /p/ 9 60% pronouncing /f/ instead of /v/ 9 60% pronouncing /d/ instead of /θ/ 11 73.3% pronouncing /d/ instead of /ð/ 13 86.6% pronouncing /∫/ instead of /ᴣ/ 5 33.3% pronouncing /∫/instead of /t∫/ 11 73.3% pronouncing /ᴣ/ instead of /dᴣ/ 13 86.6% pronouncing /n/ & /g/ instead of /ŋ/ 12 80% pronouncing /e/ instead of /ɪ/ 4 26.6% pronouncing /ᴧ/ instead of /ɜ:/ 12 80% pronouncing /ɑ/ instead of /ɑ:/ 13 86.6% pronouncing /ɪ/ instead of /ә/ 8 53.3% language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 192 pronouncing /eɪ/ instead of /eә/ 12 80% pronouncing /u:/ instead of /ʊә/ 14 93.3% pronouncing ɑːskɪd instead of ɑːst 11 73.3% pronouncing gɪfts instead of gɪfs 14 93.3% pronouncing tekst instead of teks 13 86.6% . sounds' errorsthat they mispronounce the sound /θ/ and pronounce /d/ instead, 13 students which is 86.6% answered that they mispronounce the /ð/sound with /d/ as well, only 5 students said that they did an error in pronouncing /ᴣ/ sound and replace it with /∫/, the /t∫/ sound was replaced with /∫/ sound by 11 students which mean 73.3% of the total number of the students, 13 students replaced /dᴣ/ sound with /ᴣ/ with 86.6% as they answered in the questionnaire, 12 students said that they mispronounced the sound /ŋ/ and pronounced the sounds /n/ & /g/ sounds which cover 80%, according to the questionnaire, only 4 students pronounced /e/ instead of /ɪ/ sound and that means only 26.6% of the students total number, the /ɜ:/ sound was replaced with /ᴧ/ sound by 12 students with 80%, the long vowel /ɑ:/ pronounced as the short vowel /ɑ/ by 13 students with 86.6%, the /ɪ/ sound produced as /ә/ by 8 students and that covered 53.3% of the students' total number, the diphthong /eә/ was produced as /eɪ/ with 80% by 12 students, the diphthong /ʊә/ with the three consonant clusters type got the highest expected error by 14 students which means 93.3% of the students' total number, the two consonant clusters got 73.3% by 11 students and finally the four consonant clusters type got 86.6% as 13 students answered they mispronounce it. table 6 below discussed the number of libyan student that were motivated to improve their english. table 6. expected errors in the recording test scale 1 2 3 4 5 no. - 2 3 7 3 when i asked the students about their expected errors in the recording-test, 9 students out of 15 which means 60% of the students answered that they did an error as they pronounced /p/ as /b/ and /v/ as /f/, 11 of them which covers 73.3% said english i used likert-scale to find out the students' motivation to improve their english none of the students answered with the level number 1 whereas 2 of them answered the second level which covered 13% of the total number of the students, 3 of them got the third level with 20% of the overall students, 7 abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 193 students chose the fourth level with 47% and only 3 chose the fifth level which adopted only 20% of the total number of the students. i asked the students if they tried to overcome the pronunciation errors they do while they speak english, table x below explained the students’ answers. table 7. students' motivation to improve their pronunciuation sc ale 1 2 3 4 5 no . 1 3 5 3 3 the students' perceptions about overcome the mispronunciation of the sounds was answered as the following: one students answered with the first level with 7% of the students' number and he commented that he is not interesting to overcome his pronunciation as long as he still understand by the other side, 3 of them with 20% answered the second level, 5 of them with 33% got the third level, finally the fourth and fifth levels was answered by 3 students with 20%. the students were asked about the ways they use to improve their pronunciation performance. table below simplify the students answers. table 8. students' opinions about the methods to improve their pronunciation skill listening to music watching english movies talking with native english speakers 8 6 8 reading english books educational english videos 4 5 table 8 summarized the percentage of each way of the suggested methods in the table above that libyan students used to improve their pronunciation skill. eight students out of fifteen which covered 53% of the whole students answered that they do listen to music and talking with english native speakers to improve their erformance in pronunciation and they believe it is useful for them. six students with 40% prefer to watch english movies even though they still misunderstand the movies language but they believe it is helpful for them to overcome their pronunciation obstacles. only four students with 27% do read books in order to improve their pronunciation and finally five of them which covered 33% watch educational english videos which they think it can work as the way to improve their sounds production. i asked the participants what they think the reason behind mispronouncing some sounds in english language. table 9 discussed some expected factors of the errors. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 194 table 9 students' opinions about the reasons of their poor pronunciation shyness lack of equipment the big number of students in the class room 4 5 3 teacher s are not willing to assist me the mother tongue influence curriculum's weakness 4 8 4 below is the percentage of the reasons that libyan's students thought were behind their poor pronunciation the answers varied from one student to another and some of them said other reasons which we will discuss in the next questionnaire's terms. four students with 27% said they feel shy as they speak english, five of them 33% blame the official institutions by the lack of equipment which so helpful to improve their pronunciation performance. only three student with 20% said that the big number of the students in the classroom played an important role in the process of their poor pronunciation. four students 27% believe that the teacher just wanted to finish the whole curriculum without regarding to the students' performance. the influence of the mother tongue got the highest level with eight students with 53% whom believe it is the main reason for their prosaic performance. finally, only four students with 27% answered that the curriculum they studied, was not covering the whole sounds in details or even with simple clarification. the last three terms were detailed questions and i started with what kind of pronunciation errors do you have in english? some students said that they cannot pronounce the sounds which are not existed in arabic language, other students answered that they cannot differentiate between the sounds which produced by th, ch and ious letters as in thorn, weather and so on, they still confuse where and when should they pronounce the segmental phonemes of some letters specially those letter which combing together to make new sounds. some of them also answered that they cannot pronounce the english words which contain more than five letters, they feel like it is so complicated even though if it is familiar for them, other students said they do pronounce the sound /r/ very noticeable specially at the end of the word, and they cannot hide it while they speak in english, whereas the rest of the students got enough only with the obstacles i mentioned above. the second term was the reason in the students' perception which they think is the main factor in mispronouncing some english sounds. the highest responded went to the very great influence of the arabic language on their tongues as they speak english and some sounds are not existed in the arabic language so they use the closest unit sound. other abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 195 students answered that they rarely practicing english either with native speakers or even with their colleagues, a student answered she is not motivated or interesting to improve her pronunciation. the last and the third term was how the student cope with these errors. the highest responded went to practicing english everyday with native or even nonnative speakers of english and listening to english everyday either by music or movies. some students prefer to have courses by specialized teachers to help them overcome these errors they have, other students answered they need to motivate their selves and decide what they exactly can gain by mastering english other students believe that books and audio books are so useful for them to improve their pronunciation proficiency. conclusion the primary focus of spoken language is communication, where listening represents the most important skill in both listening to understand and listening to imitate (pronunciation). skills such as these can successfully be developed through language laboratory exercises that train learners to achieve accurate perception and production of the sounds of the new language. moreover, when listening to a foreign language, it is necessary to know the sounds, rhythms, intonation and stress patterns of that language. a language laboratory will provide the right environment where the learners can practice such pronunciation tasks, which will benefit the students' intelligibility. further study is also needed to investigate the possibility of giving more space to english pronunciation in the curriculum. the materials and classroom activities included in secondary and tertiary syllabi in libyan institutions, settings scarcely incorporate pronunciation teaching. a number of recommendations will be made for the teaching of perception and pronunciation of english in the context of the english curriculum taught at libyan universities and schools. focus on speech sound production in isolation and in context, higher priority should be given to the production of english speech, which represents a major learning problem for libyan learners. in this respect, the emphasis in production should be on getting the sounds right at the word level, dealing with words in isolation and with words in controlled sentence environments. this way of speech production enables learners/instructors to recognize which sounds are the most difficult to distinguish, e.g. in minimal pairs like /v/, /f/ love and laugh ,and /b/,/p/ as in pack /pæk/, back /bæk /which can have a negative impact on intelligibility when not properly distinguished. moreover, production instructions should place more effort on language as communication, as this will motivate successful production. pronunciation must be as necessary component of intelligibility in which the learners should surpass the threshold level so that their production does not hinder their communicative abilities. both of libyan teachers and learners need specific assistance by specialized teachers in english language teaching. teachers should obtain a high level of intelligibility, since they represent a model for english input to their students. therefore, they should receive special assistance that enables them to do their job properly. for example, listen-andimitate techniques, language laboratory exercises, free conversations, minimal pair language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 196 drills, etc are required. phonetic description of the articulator system of the target language is also important ,since it offers the learners an opportunity to develop explicit knowledge about the perceptual representations of the second language sounds. this is because learners cannot produce speeches sound correctly unless they acquire correct perceptual information about the second language. future researchers should pay more attention to speech intelligibility problems, teaching pronunciation, perception listening skills, etc as issues that receive relatively little attention. their investigations should use experimental evidence to account for the learning problems concerned, rather than using impressionistic views. results which are obtained by means of experiments have some degree of certainty and are scientifically more credible than impressionist judgments, especially when the impressions are voiced by observers who are not native speakers of the target language. use of language labs to teach foreign languages, language laboratories are needed to maintain a high level of training in foreign or second language learning. learners need to acquire an accurate perceptual representation of the speech sounds of the target language, which is a necessary. prerequisite for pronouncing the foreign speech sounds adequately. the language laboratory forms the most suitable place to practice phonetic exercises. i strongly suggest for the libyan learners to listen regularly to english sounds and words using audio aids like cassettes, cds, audio books and sound dictionaries. these tools are very useful for practicing pronunciation. it is also worth looking at the dictionary for checking the correct pronunciation of words. taking cues from the results, further large-scale and comprehensive investigations should be conducted to cover other areas that have to do with the speech intelligibility issue in the libyan classroom. therefore, research will be required in the following themes insufficient practice, wrong implementation and partial learning represent major causes of such problems. so, a further study that treats the use of the language laboratory to teach english phonetics and listening comprehension skills in libyan english teaching is recommended. references al-shuaibi, a. (2009). phonological analysis of english phonotactics of syllable initial and final consonant clusters by yemeni speakers of english. language in india, 9(11). binturki, t. a. (2008). analysis of pronunciation errors of saudi esl learners. proquest. bouchard ryan, e., carranza, m. a., & moffie, r. w. (1977). reactions toward varying degrees of accentedness in the speech of spanishenglish bilinguals. language and speech, 20(3), 267-273. cargile, a. c., & giles, h. (1998). language attitudes toward varieties of english american‐japanese context derwing, t. (2003). what do esl students say about their accents?.canadian modern language review, 59(4), 547-567. abdulghani mohammed emran; dwi anggani l.b. 2017. the errors of segmental phonemes among libyans english students studying in semarang city, indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 197 derwing, t. m., & rossiter, m. j. (2002). esl learners' perceptions of their pronunciation needs and strategies. system, 30(2), 155-166. giles, h. (1970). evaluative reactions to accents. educational review, 22(3), 211-227. kalaldeh, r. (2016). english pronunciation errors by jordanian university students. browser download. kharma, n., & hajjaj, a. (1989). errors in english among arabic speakers: analysis and remedy. longman. ryan, e. b., & bulik, c. m. (1982). evaluations of middle class and lower class speakers of standard american and german-accented english. journal of language and social psychology, 1(1), 51-61. ryan, e. b., & sebastian, r. j. (1980). the effects of speech style and social class background on social judgements of speakers. british journal of social and clinical psychology, 19(3), 229-233. suleiman, m. f. (1993). a study of arab students' motivations and attitudes for learning english as a foreign language. weeren, v. j., & theunissen, t. j. j. m. (1987). testing pronunciation: an application of generalizability theory. language learning, 37(1), 109-122. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/2 (april 2017) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 127 the shifts of functional words in the translation of toer’s bumi manusia into english by max lane inge rahmawatie indraprasta pgri university jakarta, indonesia rahma_inge@yahoo.com engliana indraprasta pgri university jakarta, indonesia engliana.seok@gmail.com ira miranti indraprasta pgri university jakarta, indonesia ade_miranti@yahoo.co received: 30 september 2016. revised: 28 february 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract in the process of translation, the translator uses class shift as a translation strategy to achieve a communicative translation. the aims of the research are to investigatehow functional word shifts performed and kinds of classshift in the novel. this research paper was conducted by using the qualitative method. the result of the research indicated that there were 12 types of classshift found on the selected pages in the novel. in this research, the writer found 177classshifts in translation. there were shift from adverb to noun (3 data) is 1,7 %, shift from noun to adverb (4 data) is2,26 %, shift from adjective to verb (7 data) is 3,96 %, shift from adjective to noun (8 data) is 4,52 %, shift from adverb to adjective (9 data) is 5,09 %, shift from verb to adverb (10 data) is 5,65 %, shift from noun to adjective (11 data) is 6,21 %, shift from adverb to verb (15 data) is 8,47 %, shift from noun to verb (22 data) is 12,43 %, shift from verb to adjective (23 data) is 12,99 %, shift from verb to noun (26 data) is 14,69 %, and shift from adjective to adverb (39 data) is 22,03 %. based on the elaborations above, it can be concluded that the result of this research show the translation of functional word shift are considered to be accurate, clear and natural because the words in tl has the same message with the words in sl although they have different classes of the word. keywords: translation shift, functional word shift, class shift how to cite: inge rahmawatie; engliana; ira miranti. 2017. the shifts of functional words in the translation of toer’s bumi manusia into english by max lane. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. introduction english is used in global communication even textual, audio or visual media. freeborn (2006) says that english today is a worldwide international language. english is widely used by people in the world, so it is called as the global language. the people who are from various countries will be united by using english as the international language which has to be learned by them. in this http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 128 globalization era, the need of english is very high because it can support communication activities. in learning english, translation is an important part because the nature of translation is that it involves two equivalent messages in two different languages (venuti, 2004). he also adds that the translator tasks “is not only to transfer a message from one culture to another but to assess the functions of both the original and translated texts and assess the level of functional equivalence between the languages.”in the process of translation, shift is a part that cannot be separated. catford (1965) states that shifts mean the departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from sl to tl. while newmark (1988) use the term "transposition" to reach the level of "naturalness" of certain to produce a translation that can be acceptable. in conveying the meaning from sl to tl,some shiftsare occurred because of the different grammatical rules, writing style, social and cultural background between two languages in order to achieve naturalness that can be understood by readers. catford (1965) distinguishes two major shifts that occur in the translation namely level shift and category shift. in this writing, the writers’ focus on category shift. there are four subs in the categoryshifts: structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and the intra-systematic shifts. among these subs, the writer will focus only on classshift. catford (1965: 78) states that class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of an sl item is a member of a different class from the original item. classshift occurs when there is a shiftfrom the classof word in translation. this word-classes may vary from one language to another language. for example, in english there are categories of words adverbs are usually paired with the phrasesin indonesian (e.g., "carefully" becomes"hati-hati") and determiners thatuse slightly different languageindonesia although it can be resolved counterpart(e.g.,the article “an” or “a”becomes“sebuah”, “sebutir”, “sehelai”; and “this” or “these” becomes “ini”) (alzuhdy, 2004).for those reasons, translation shift is needed to be discussed especially in the term of the class shift. methodology this research uses the descriptive qualitative approach in analyzing and identifying functional word shifts which performed in the translation of “bumi manusia” by pramoedya ananta toer and its english translation by max lane. in taking a sample of the analysis, the writers chooses some pages by using systematic sampling presented by cochran (1997: 205).the object data consists of 20 chapters and 535 pages. based on the formulation, the writer takes 27 pages for samples by picking them from chapter to chapter; the first chapter starts on page 9, and then the writer collects the data from the page 9 and continues every 19 pages from the novel. in this research, the writer focuses analysis on the major classes of the word. the instruments of this research are the researchers themselves. the data finding was taken from observing the novels both indonesian as source language (sl) and english as target language (tl). the goal is to find out the functional word shift which is performed in the translation from sl to tl by using the theory of translation shift by catford.the data were presented by analyzing and classifying thefunctional word shifts that are performedaccording to catford’s theory of translation shifts and describes by using words, natural language, and tables. then, the writer collects the data findings and makes a inge rahmawatie; engliana; ira miranti. 2017. the shifts of functional words in the translation of toer’s bumi manusia into english by max lane. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 129 percentage of each kind of shiftthat is performed. results and discussion there are totally 177 functional word shifts occur in the novel “bumi manusia” by pramoedya ananta toer and its translated “this earth of mankind” by max lane. table 1 shows the percentage of the word shift which is performed in the “bumi manusia” as the sl and its english by max lane as the tl. the results are shift from adjective to verb as much as 22.03%. 2.21% shift from noun to adverb. 12.43% shift from noun to verb. 14.69% shift from verb to noun. 12.99% shift from verb to adjective. 5.65 shift from verb to adverb. 22.03% shift from adjective to adverb. 3.96% shift from adjective to verb. 1.7% shift from adverb to noun. 5.09% shift from adverb to adjective. 8.47% shift from adverb to verb. table 1. percentage of the word shift in translation (n=177) word shift in translation total percentage (n) (%) shift from noun to adjective 11 6,21 shift from noun to adverb 4 2,26 shift from noun to verb 22 12,43 shift from verb to noun 26 14,69 shift from verb to adjective 23 12,99 shift from verb to adverb 10 5,65 shift from adjective to noun 8 4,52 shift from adjective to adverb 39 22,03 shift from adjective to verb 7 3,96 shift from adverb to noun 3 1,7 shift from adverb to adjective 9 5,09 shift from adverb to verb 15 8,47 in this research, most data found is shift from adjective to adverb as much as 22.03%. there is a total of 39 adjectivesshift into adverbs. it may cause the purpose of the translator is to make a good communicative translation. sl 1: membetulkan dengan tak kurang angkuh. (p. 123) tl 1: corrected papa arrogantly. (p. 84) the word ‘angkuh’ is an adjective in sl that means “sifatsukamemandang rendah kepada orang lain; tinggi hati; sombong; congkak” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and it has been translated into english as ‘arrogantly’ that is an adverb means “in a manner resulting from or revealing an exaggerated sense of one’s own importance or abilities” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator doesn’t use ‘arrogant’ because ‘angkuh’ here show the way how someone http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/result#result__10 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/reveal#reveal__2 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/exaggerate#exaggerate__2 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 130 looked down to others. the word “arrogantly” modifies a verb. because of that, the translator uses ‘arrogantly’ rather than ‘arrogant’. sl 2: bertepuk tangan riang (p. 448) tl 2: clapped merrily (p. 301) the word ‘riang’ is an adjective means “suka hati; girang sekali” (badan bahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘merrily’ is an adverb that means “in a cheerful way” (www.oxforddictionaries. com). the word ‘merrily’ shows the way how someone reacts cheerfully on something good. both ‘riang’ and ‘merrily’ has the same meaning. the second shift is shift from verbin to noun as much as 14.69%. sl 1: ia berkemban (p. 47) tl 1: she wore breast-cloth(p. 37) the word ‘berkemban’ is a verb that means “memakaikemban” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘breast cloth’ is a noun. in the complete costume dictionary by elizabeth j. lewandowski, kemben: java. breast cloth worn by women instead of a blouse”. it can be conclude that breast cloth is a noun that means a traditional cloth that is worn by javanese women instead of blouse to cover women breasts. in this analysis there is shift from verb into noun because of different grammatical rule. sl 2: puas mengumpat (p. 66) tl 2: satisfied after her outburst (p. 48) the word ‘mengumpat’ is a verb that means “mengeluarkan umpat(an); memburukburukkan orang; mengeluarkan kata-kata keji (kotor) karen amarah (jengkel, kecewa, dan sebagainya)” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘outburst’ means “a sudden release of strong emotion” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). it describes an aspersion because of strong emotion. the writer uses ‘outburst’ because ‘outburst’ show an expression of strong emotion while ‘mengumpat’ itself have the meaning issues expletives, vilifies people, issues vile words. it’s like swearing. because of the analysis above, it can be concluded that the translator inclined use more polite language in his translation. in this case there is shift from verb to noun because of the translator writing style. the third shift is shift from verb into adjective as much as 12, 99%. in data 73 : sl 1: sebagai terpelajar (p. 220) tl 1: as an educated person (p. 148) the word ‘terpelajar’ is a verb that means “telah mendapat pelajaran (di sekolah)” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘educated’ is an adjective means “resulting from or having had a good education” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator uses ‘educated’ because it has the same meaning with ‘terpelajar’ that is someone who had a good education. the word ‘educated’ here aims to modified noun. the word ‘educated’ represented sl text. sl 2: ia bersemangat (p. 334) tl 2: h e was eager (p. 224) the word ‘bersemangat’ is a verb which means “ada semangatnya; mengandung semangat” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘eager’ is an adjective that means “strongly wanting to do or have something” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). both ‘bersemangat’ and ‘eager’ have the same meaning there is an expression or act http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cheerful#cheerful__2 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/release#release__18 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/result#result__10 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/strongly#strongly__2 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ inge rahmawatie; engliana; ira miranti. 2017. the shifts of functional words in the translation of toer’s bumi manusia into english by max lane. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 131 full of passion. the word ‘eager’ convey the same message. the fourth shift is shift from noun to verb as much as 12. 34%. sl 1: suaranya meminta kepercayaanku. (p.66) tl 1: her voice pleaded with me to believe. (p. 48) the word ‘kepercayaan’ is a noun means “anggapan atau keyakinan bahwa sesuatu yang dipercayai itu benar atau nyata” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘believe’ is a verb which means “accept that (something) is true, especially without proof” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator uses ‘believe’ as the translation of ‘kepercayaan’ since the message in the sentence emphasized in the belief that something believed was true. both the sl and tl have the same meaning so the word ‘believe’ is represented the meaning of sl. sl 2: dalam iringan penari (p. 201) tl 2: partnered by the dancer (p. 135) the word ‘iringan’ is a noun means “bersama-sama (dengan); diikuti (dengan)” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘partnered’ is a verb that means “be the partner of” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the word ‘iringan’ has the same meaning with ‘partnered’ so tl represented the meaning of sl. the fifth shift is shift from adverb to verb as much as 8,47%. sl 1: tanyaku pura-pura. (p. 163) tl 1: i asked, pretending. (p. 109) the word ‘pura-pura’ is an adverb that means “tidak sesungguhnya” (badanbahasa. kemdikbud.go.id) while the word ‘pretending’ is a verb means “ behave so as to make it appear that something is the case when in fact it is not” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). both ‘pura-pura’ and ‘pretending’ have the same meaning, it is ‘behave’ that make something happen when it is not. sl 2: ia tertawa bahak. tl 2: he burst out laughing. the word ‘bahak’ is an adverb that means “nyaring dan keras atau keras-keras (tentang tertawa)” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘burst’ is a verb means “suddenly begin doing or producing something” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the word ‘burst’ in here is producing something suddenly, in these cases the word ‘bahak’ is laugh out loud that means producing laugh suddenly loud because of something unpredictable. so, the word ‘burst’ is represented the meaning in sl. the sixth is shift from noun to adjective as much as 6.21%. sl 1: tugas kemanusian itu. (p. 505) tl 1: the humanitarian task he was undertaking. (p. 339) the word ‘kemanusiaan’ is a noun that means “secara manusia; sebagai manusia” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘humanitarian’ is an adjective that means “concerned with or seeking to promote human welfare” (www.oxforddictionaries.com), the meaning does not change. the translator shifts sl noun to adjective in order to modified noun so the word ‘humanitarian’ represented the meaning sl. sl 2: hartawan (p. 505) tl 2: wealthy man (p. 339) http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/behave#behave__2 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/case#case__21 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fact#fact__21 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fact#fact__21 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 132 the word ‘hartawan’ is a noun that means “orang yang banyak hartanya; orang kaya” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘wealthy’ is an adjective that means “having a great deal of money, resources, or assets; rich” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator uses ‘wealthy’ as the translation of ‘hartawan’ since the message in the sentence is emphasized in the person who has much money, the adjective wealthy aims to modified noun in tl. they have the same meaning so the word ‘wealthy’ represented the meaning sl. the seventh is shift from verb to adverb as much as 5,65%. sl 1: dia semakin cantik menawan (p. 353) tl 1: she became more captivatingly beautiful (p. 238) the word ‘menawan’ is a verb means “menarik hati; memikat” (badanbahasa. kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘captivatingly’ is an adverb that means “capable of attracting and holding interest” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator uses ‘captivatingly’ because it can represent the message of ‘menawan’. both the words show an attracting gesture. sl 2: penyakit terkutuk (p. 258) tl 2: the accursed disease (p. 173) the word ‘terkutuk’ is a verb which means “terkena kutukan” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud. go.id) and the word ‘accursed’ is an adverb means “under a curse” (www.oxford dictionaries.com). both ‘terkutuk’ and ‘accursed’ have the same meaning. the word ‘accursed’ represented the message of sl. the eighth shift is shift from adverb to adjective as much as 5. 09%. sl 1: setiap pribadi akan datang padanya mau tak mau (p. 9) tl 1: we will all eventually arrive there willing or unwilling (p. 15) the word ‘mau’ is an adverb means “sungguh-sungguh suka hendak; suka akan; sudi (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘willing’ is an adjective that means “ready, eager, or prepared to do something” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator uses ‘willing’ because it has the same message as the word ‘mau’. though they have different classes of word, they convey the same message. sl 2: apa mungkin? (p. 220) tl 2: is it possible? (p. 148) the word ‘mungkin’ is an adverb that means “tidak atau belum tentu; barangkali; boleh jadi; dapat terjadi; tidak mustahil” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘possible’ is an adjective meaning “able to be done or achieved” (www.oxford dictionaries.com). both ‘mungkin’ and ‘possible’ has the same meaning, that is, something that can happen or be achieved. the word ‘possible’ represented the message of sl. the ninth shift is shift from adjective to noun as much as 4.52%. sl 1: jangan sampai ada banyak bising. (p. 239) tl 1: keep her away from any noise. (p. 162) in data 80 the word ‘bising’ is an adjective that means “ramai (seperti berdengungdengung, berdesir-desir, berdesing-desing) hingga menyebabkan telinga seperti pekak (tentang suara atau bunyi)” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘noise’ is a noun meaning “a sound, especially one that is loud or unpleasant or http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ http://www.oxford/ http://www.oxford/ inge rahmawatie; engliana; ira miranti. 2017. the shifts of functional words in the translation of toer’s bumi manusia into english by max lane. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 133 that causes disturbance” (www.oxford dictionaries.com). the translator chooses ‘noise’ because it conveys the same message as ‘bising’. it means sounds that causes disturbance. sl 2: hanya memandangi aku dan semua tingkah-lakuku dengan mata terheranheran. (p. 258) tl 2: but only stared at me, and everything i did, with amazement. (p. 173) the word ‘terheran-heran’ is an adjective that means “merasa sangat heran” (badanbahasa. kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘amazement’ is a noun means “a feeling of great surprise or wonder” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). in order to convey the message from sl, the translator uses “amazement” describes a feeling of wonder or amazed. the translator changes it to noun since the sentence will be more acceptable. the tenth shift is shift from adjective to verb as much as 3, 96%. sl 1: lenyap ditelan bumi. (p. 123) tl 1: swallowed up by the earth. (p. 84) the word ‘lenyap’ is an adjective that means “tidak kelihatan lagi; tidak ada lagi; hilang; musnah” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘disappeared’ is a verb means “cease to be visible” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). both ‘lenyap’ and ‘disappeared’ have the same meaning that is something gone; invisible. the translator chooses ‘disappeared’ in order to make sentence more acceptable by changing the adjective in sl into verb in tl. sl 2: mereka jadi pucat (p. 353) tl 2: they paled (p. 238) the word ‘pucat’ is an adjective that mean “ putih pudar (tentang air muka); agak putih (tentang warna); -seperti mayat” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘paled’ is a verb means “become pale in one’s face from shock or fear” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the translator changes the adjective into a verb since the message of the sl aims to face that became paled because of shock or fear. the eleventh shift is shift from noun to adverb as much as 2. 26%. sl 1: ia tak juga mendapat kemajuan. (p. 85) tl 1: he still didn’t get anywhere. (p. 60) the word ‘sementara’ is a noun means “beberapa lamanya; tidak selamanya; tidak untuk selama-lamanya” (badanbahasa. kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘temporarily’ is an adverb which means “for a limited period of time; not permanently” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). both sl and tl explain the details of the time or certain period. the word temporarily represented the meaning sl. sl 2: panji darman, dahulu jan dapperste (p. 505) tl 2: panji darman, formerly jan dapperste (p. 339) the shift also happened in the data 177 the word ‘dahulu’ is a noun that means “(waktu) yang telah lalu; (masa) lampau” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘formerly’ is an adverb means “in the past; in earlier times” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). they have the same meaning because it explains the times in the past. the twelfth shift is shift from adverb to noun as much as 1,7%. sl 1: bukan hendak keluar sebagai pemenang. (p. 334) http://www.oxford/ language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 134 tl 1: have no desire to be victor. (p. 224) the word ‘hendak’ is an adverb that means “mau; akan; bermaksud akan” (badanbahasa. kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘desire’ is a noun means “a strong feeling of wanting to have something or wishing for something to happen” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). the word ‘hendak’ here aims have a desire to possess or do (something); wish for. the translator chooses ‘desire’ in order to make a good communication in sl. both ‘hendak’ and ‘desire’ has the same message. the word ‘desire’ represented the message in sl. sl 2: selanjutnya, kan kita bakalnya bekerja sama? (p. 467) tl 2: and the future? we will continue working together, yes? (p. 314) the word ‘selanjutnya’ is an adverb means “seterusnya; sesudah itu; lalu; berikutnya” (badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id) and the word ‘future’ is a noun that means “a period of time following the moment of speaking or writing; time regarded as still to come” (www.oxforddictionaries.com). sl ‘selanjutnya’ aims to time or something that will happen in the future. both ‘selanjutnya’ and ‘future’ has the same meaning. the word ‘future’ represented the message in sl. based on analysis above, the translated version of bumi manusia by pramoedya ananta toer are considered to be accurate, clear and natural because the words in tl represented the message with the words in sl although they have different classes of word. the translator made the shift in order tomakegood communicative translation in tl with the result that it can be represented the message in sl. conclusion this research shows how functional word shift performed in the translation. in the process of transferring message from sl to tl, in this case from indonesian to english, the translator used wordshift as translation strategy in order to achieve communicative translation. the goal here is that the translation can be understood by englishspeaking readers. the translator should have the knowledge about the grammatical rule, social and cultural background of the source language in order toavoid the mistake that can lead to a different interpretation in tl and alsoachieve the communicative and acceptable translation. references ananta toer, p. (1980).bumimanusia. jakarta: hastamitra publishing house. ananta toer, p. (1982). this earth of mankind(m. lane, trans.). victoria: penguin booksaustralia ltd. baker. (original work published 1980). alzuhdy, y. a. (2004). analisis translation shiftdalam penerjemahan bilingual bahasa inggris – bahasa.journal oftranslation. 22 (2), 188-190 catford, j. c. (1965). a linguistic theory of translation. oxford: oxford university press. freeborn, d. (2006). from old english to standard english: a course book in language variations across time (3rd edition). basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. inge rahmawatie; engliana; ira miranti. 2017. the shifts of functional words in the translation of toer’s bumi manusia into english by max lane. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 135 lewandowski, e. j. (2011). the complete costume dictionary. maryland: scarecrow press. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. london: prentice hall international. oxford university press. (2016). oxford university press dictionaries. retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/. pusatbahasadepartemenpendidikan nasional. (2008). kamusbesarbahasa indonesia. retrieved from http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/kbbi/. venuti, l. (2004). the translation studies reader. new york: routledge. language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 317 analysis on the structure and purposes of travel blog posts hanna juliaty1 hanna.juliaty@ukrida.ac.id agustina dita2 agustinaditaa@gmail.com 1,2universitas kristen krida wacana abstract travel blogs have become a huge online platform used as a benchmark for internet users to plan holiday itineraries, consider choices, and finalize travel-related purchase decisions. as popular travel blogs are often visited by online readers globally, there might be a shift in the purposes for writing travel blogs nowadays compared to traditional blog posts. previous studies discussed the characteristics of blogs as a communicative platform; however, discussion on language features and blog structures used to achieve certain purposes of travel blogs is still scarce. this study, hence, aimed to evaluate the text structure and language function employed in popular travel blogs to determine their overall purposes. eighteen posts were selected from six popular travel blogs and analyzed qualitatively by using pascual’s (2018) blog structure moves and jakobson’s (1960) language function framework. the findings showed that the travel blog posts consisted of four moves: situational, descriptive, closure, and invitational moves and that most of the moves mainly employed referential and emotive functions. hence, the main purposes were to provide information on travel destinations and to express the bloggers’ feelings towards their travel experiences. the findings implied that the purposes of popular travel blog posts nowadays are related to the role of blogs as a source of information and the role of travel bloggers as social influencers in the online community. keywords: language function; text purpose; text structure; travel blogs introduction when it was first launched in the late 1990s, a blog or weblog was initially used for writing online diaries and personal experiences (bruns, 2017). in recent years, due to the expanding numbers of its users, the blog has been growing to be one of the most effective digital media for people to share experiences, give recommendations, express selfthought and creativity, or regulate commercial or organizational intentions (li & wang, 2011). as blog posts provide perspectives, moods, attitudes, and thoughts of different people, each of the posts is packed in an interesting, semi-formal to informal, and interactive setting that the blogger has (chen, shang, & li, 2014). this leads blogs to be considered as a place for self-published personal writing with flexible structure and purpose (ting, ting, & hsiao, 2014) and a place to have an open discussion, in which everyone can join (sinanan, graham, & jie, 2014). there are roughly a million blogs updated daily with different topics available on the internet, e.g., photography, cooking, parenting, journalism, political and other genres (bruns, 2017). among numerous topics discussed in the blogosphere, traveling is one of the most popular and influential topics to be written about (law, 2009). travel blogs display individual entries that describe planned, current or past, travel in the form of travel diaries or reviews, written mainly in chronological order and provide a descriptive explanation, evaluation, or recommendation of the overall trip, activities, and experiences of the blogger while visiting a specific destination as a tourist (bosangit, mccabe, & hibbert, 2009; pan, maclaurin, & crotts, 2007; van nuenen, 2016). travel blogs have a wide range of audiences that are diverse in ages and locations because they embrace readers from different cultures and points of view (pascual, 2018). furthermore, as an online platform, travel blogs tend to be interactive, which makes reading https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:hanna.juliaty@ukrida.ac.id mailto:agustinaditaa@gmail.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 318 travel blogs become one of the most popular online activities for many internet users (li & wang, 2011). people browse through travel blogs as they offer community networks and virtual travel guides that are easy and efficient to be accessed (law, 2009). in most countries, readers tend to think of travel blogs as a trusted platform that helps them plan travel itineraries or purchases (ting et al., 2014). consequently, travel blogs often influence readers to consider choices and finalize travel-related decisions, or become a benchmark for people who are interested to go to the places being written about (chen et al., 2014). in blog writing, the character and personality of a blogger are communicated through the posts (sinanan et al., 2014). either the bloggers share a personal opinion on a certain topic, or they offer an account of their own experience, the language in this online platform is used to communicate meaning and intentions with a more personal tone due to the subjectivity that the bloggers express themselves with (wang & lin, 2011; van nuenen, 2016). as many blog posts are in the form of written text, in general, there are at least six writer’s intentions: to inform, to persuade, to evaluate, to direct, to entertain, and to express (doyle et al., 2012; togeby, 2014). travel bloggers usually convey one or more of these intentions in different ways. for instance, if they aim to inform, they may enlighten the readers by sharing information and facts about tourist attractions and potential travel activities. if they aim to persuade, they may build arguments to influence the readers to visit certain tourism places or purchase certain travel-related products. if they aim to evaluate, they may share a subjective evaluation of travelrelated topics or issues, e.g., whether or not certain tours in a tourist destination worth the cost. if they aim to direct, they may give instructions to perform travel-related tasks, e.g., how to book or take public transportation to get to a certain place while visiting a country. if they aim to entertain, they may engage the readers with interesting stories that they experienced during the trip. on the other hand, if they aim to express, they may explain abstract details of personal thoughts and emotions towards certain happenings in their travel experiences. moreover, any information delivered to an audience is usually arranged in a certain structure that provides useful guidance for the audience to understand the information (krifka, 2008). as travel blogs contain written texts read by the public audience on an online platform, the blog posts are also organized in a certain structure. the general travel blog posts are mostly written in a narrative structure that contains details of experience and information in a descriptive form. the narrative structure in travel blogs is a central element for bloggers to narrate their experiences in a storytelling style to generate emotion and empathetic responses from readers to relate with the bloggers’ experiences, opinions, and emotions (hsiao et al., 2013). although the organization of the travel blog posts is flexible, travel bloggers tend to follow a particular structure that consists of several moves, namely situational move, descriptive move, closure move, and invitational move (pascual, 2018). the situational move is the first part of the blog post that consists of a topic introduction to meet certain expectations of the readers (azariah, 2016). the descriptive move follows the situational move, where the bloggers usually explain in more detail several traveling aspects divided into a few sub-sections, e.g., the travel destination, tourist attractions, and certain interesting travel activities or itineraries. due to the detailed information here, the descriptive move carries the ultimate purpose of the text (heerschop hogenboom, & frasincar, 2011) to attract the readers to read the post until the end (vraga et al., 2011). the descriptive move is followed by a closure move, in which the bloggers finish the post by providing a summary of the overall trip experiences and personal thoughts, and conclusion. the invitational move appears at the very end of a blog post after the closure move. unlike the other three moves, some blog posts may not have an invitational move and only end the posts with the closure move. the invitational move contains the bloggers’ invitation to the readers to share feedback and comments https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 319 related to the blog post content so that more readers can engage in the discussion. one of the ways to determine the purpose of a text in text analysis studies is by examining its language function. jakobson (1960) classifies six components of language function used to analyze written discourse: referential function (to inform), emotive function (to express emotions), conative function (to give instruction or direction), phatic function (to establish interaction), poetic function (to express meanings through poetic features), and metalinguistic function (to explain a concept using certain language code). as communication technologies are growing broadly and impacting how information is conveyed on online platforms, it is also necessary to study how written language is used in blogs as one of the largest online media nowadays. in the past two decades, there have been several studies on blogs as a medium of online communication. some examine the interpersonal goals of bloggers (e.g., stefanone & jang, 2007), the discursive features, structure and communicative purpose of blogs (e.g., pascual, 2018), and the roles of blog readers (e.g., baumer, sueyoshi, & tomlinson, 2008). despite various aspects that can be studied from blogs of different genres, studies on travel blogs generally focus on their impacts on tourism and marketing aspects (e.g., li & wang, 2011; pan et al., 2007). as one of the leading communication tools in this digital era, blogs are predicted to keep growing (bruns, 2017) and be encountered and used by global users of all ages for more diverse purposes. for this reason, this study aimed to examine the main purpose of travel blogs by analyzing the language function displayed in those blog posts. methodology as it sought to examine the main purpose of travel blogs, the study was conducted in qualitative design using the content analysis method. in content analysis, the text is coded and broken down into categories on a variety of word levels to describe the content, structure, or functions of the text, present important aspects of the content, and interpret meaning from the content of textual data (neuendorf, 2002). the object of this study consisted of blog posts of bloggers’ traveling experiences from six popular travel blogs listed on the ultimate rank category in blog rank (blogmetrics.org), accessed in march 2020. blog rank was used because the website had been featured in some studies (e.g., beagle, 2016; schneider et al., 2013) and is commonly used as an engine to find the most popular blogs online. to find top-ranked travel blogs, a few categories on the website were clicked, i.e., ‘travel’ and ‘general travel’. due to the large number of travel blogs listed on the results and the time restriction of this study, only the top six travel blogs were selected by considering relevant information about traveling activities and travel destinations presented in those blogs. in selecting those travel blogs, top-ranked blogs that belonged to organizations or companies were excluded as this study focuses on personal travel blogs written and maintained by individuals. the selected travel blogs had an average of 5-11 posts per month, indicating that the bloggers were active in posting at the time when the data of this study were collected. the six travel blogs also had many subscribers and visitors online, which made them have a wider spectrum of readers, resulting in a bigger chance of the blogs to appear on online search engines and to be read by various readers. as the blogs were on the highest rank in blog rank, the bloggers happened to come from north american countries, and their blogs used english as the language of communication. this indicated that the blog readers most likely consist of both native speakers and non-native speakers of english. besides, the bloggers were full-time professional bloggers who maintained their blogs for a living. therefore, in their blogs, they mainly provided various travel content for their readers. due to the numerous entries in each travel blog, judgmental sampling was used to select only a few blog posts from each travel blog for the data of this study. judgmental sampling is a sampling method where every unit of the population does https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 320 not have an equal chance to be selected because the sample is chosen based on the subjective judgment of the investigator (berndt, 2018). in this study, the blog posts were selected based on a few criteria: the posts were more than 1,000 words in length, contained the bloggers’ travel journey to a specific travel destination, were published between december 2019 and january 2020 because these months were considered to be the peak for people looking for travel and holiday itineraries (pan et al., 2007), and were searched and read by many readers among the other posts within the travel blogs. there were in total 103 posts compiled from the six travel blogs that met all those criteria. from those 103 posts, only 18 posts were selected as the data in this study. some posts were eliminated as they discussed many topics besides the bloggers’ travel journey to a specific travel destination, or they contained mainly interviews, pictures, or links to videos and podcasts. the 18 selected blog posts were analyzed in several steps. firstly, each post was read several times to identify both their structure and language function in it. both pascual’s (2018) framework of travel blog post structure moves and jakobson’s (1960) framework of language function were used to identify each structure in the blog posts and the language function that occurred there. secondly, each part of the blog posts that contained a structure move and language function was annotated and coded based on its theme, move, and type of language function. thirdly, the identified theme, move, and language function in those posts was categorized in a table. fourthly, the frequency of each language function that occurred in each move in the blog posts was counted and recapitulated in the table. lastly, the results shown in the table were interpreted and analyzed to find the main purpose of those travel blog posts. results and discussion from the analysis of all 18 travel blog posts, there were in total 808 language functions found. the language function that occurred with the highest frequency was the referential function, followed by the emotive function. the recapitulation of the occurrence of each language function in the blog posts is shown in table 1. table 1 recapitulation of language function in all travel blog posts language function frequency of occurrence referential 341 emotive 304 conative 105 poetic 55 metalinguistic 2 phatic 1 total 808 from the table, as referential and emotive functions occurred in the highest frequency, it can be inferred that the main purposes of the travel blog posts were to provide information and to share the bloggers’ personal opinions and feelings regarding the visited places, travel activities, travel experiences and travel-related itineraries (e.g., transportations, local foods, accommodations, and tour services in the travel destinations). also, when analyzed further, each language function occurred not only in a different frequency but also in different parts of the blog posts. this indicated that specific parts of the travel blog posts conveyed different purposes. the language function and the inferred purposes found in each structure of the blog posts are discussed in the following subsections. language functions in the situational move https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 321 the situational move is the beginning part of a travel blog post, where the blogger introduces a travel destination as a topic to be discussed in the entire blog post (pascual, 2018). an example of a situational move in a travel blog post is shown in the following excerpt: “chile is one of the most popular destinations (and one of my favorites) in south america. i was blown away by the beauty of the country, the delicious and inexpensive food, the plethora of different eco-systems, and how hospitable the locals were. (and, as someone who works online, how much they are investing in tech!)” –blog post 2 in this excerpt, the blogger opened the post by introducing chile, the country destination that he would like to share in the rest of the blog post. the blogger introduced the destination country as “one of the most popular destinations” and “one of my favorites”, which most likely was aimed to attract the readers’ attention and curiosity towards chile. in the next sentences, the blogger added more details to his previous statement about chile, i.e., his reasons for stating that chile was one of his favorite places. in mentioning the reasons, various aspects were highlighted about the country that might be interesting to the readers, e.g., its landscapes and nature (“beauty of the country”), its local foods (“the delicious and inexpensive food”), its richness of natural environments (“the plethora of different eco-systems”), its friendly citizens (“how hospitable the locals were”), and its technology investment provided for its people and tourists. from all 18 blog posts, there were a total of 70 language functions occurred in the situational move. the frequency of the occurrence of each language function in the situational move is shown in table 2. table 2 language function in situational move language function frequency of occurrence referential 30 emotive 31 conative 3 poetic 6 metalinguistic 0 phatic 0 total 70 table 2 shows that the language functions occurred most dominantly in the situational move were emotive function and referential function. these two language functions frequently appeared in the three major themes found in the situational move, as shown in table 3. table 3 major themes and language functions occurred in situational move major themes major language functions 1. introduction of the destination referential and emotive 2. travel itineraries referential and emotive 3. personal feelings and opinions towards the destination emotive as shown in table 3, the situational move of the travel blog posts mainly contained referential and emotive functions to convey specific purposes, which were providing information about the travel destination (shown by the first and second themes) and expressing the bloggers’ feelings and opinions towards the travel destination and experiences (shown by the third theme). in this move, the emotive function was used by the bloggers in expressing personal opinions of https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 322 the experiences and the visited places. reasons and some personal background for choosing the destination were also frequently mentioned using the emotive function. in utilizing the emotive function, the bloggers shared a part of their personality to the readers, which resulted in a possibility of them appearing as more authentic, genuine, and honest to the readers (azariah, 2016). on the other hand, the referential function was used by the bloggers in describing the travel destination and travel itineraries. this language function mainly had a role in introducing the topic of the blog post to the readers. by giving a brief description of the travel destination and itineraries in the situational move, the bloggers provided hints to the readers about the content that was going to be discussed in the rest of the post (togeby, 2014). in sum, the bloggers tended to use emotive and referential functions at the beginning of their blog posts to introduce the travel destination and to share some personal background for selecting or preferring the destination to their readers. this characteristic of the situational move was similar to the traditional blogs, in which the beginning part also consisted of an introduction about the topic of the blog post and a brief explanation or background on why the topic was important or necessary to be written and discussed in the rest of the blog post. language functions in the descriptive move a descriptive move is the main part of a travel blog post, in which the blogger provides a detailed explanation about the topic of the travel blog post, mainly about the trip (pascual, 2018). an example of a descriptive move in a travel blog post is shown in the following excerpt: “tbilisi is surrounded by hills, one of which is home to the ruins of narikala fortress, which dates back to the fourth century. take the cable car up for amazing views overlooking the city and the mtkvari river. and the restored historic old town is full of colorful window frames, gorgeous balconies, ornate spiral staircases, and intriguing alleyways to explore.” –blog post 3 in this excerpt, the blogger gave detailed information about things done in the country destination. the blogger explained the geographical location (“surrounded by hills”) and history of the destination, i.e., the place existed a long time ago (“home to the ruins of narikala fortres which dates back to the fourth century”). in the next sentence, the bloggers also included information about things to do in the visited place (“take the cable car up”) and give a detailed description of the sights that could be seen (“full of colorful window frames, gorgeous balconies, ornate spiral staircases”) and things that could be found in the (“intriguing alleyways to explore.”) the bloggers described the destination in details using sensory details so that readers can imagine what it is really like to visit the destination. from all 18 blog posts, out of 808 language functions in total, the majority of them occurred in the descriptive move (631 occurrences). the frequency of the occurrence of each language function in the descriptive move is shown in table 4. table 4 language function in descriptive move language function frequency of occurrence referential 276 emotive 230 conative 83 poetic 39 metalinguistic 2 phatic 1 total 631 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 323 table 4 shows that the language functions occurred most dominantly in the descriptive move were referential and emotive functions. these two language functions regularly appeared in the three major themes found in the descriptive move, as shown in table 5. table 5 major themes and language functions occurred in descriptive move major themes major language functions 1. activities to do in the destination referential and emotive 2. description of certain places or tourist attractions referential and emotive 3. historical background of the visited places referential as shown in table 5, the descriptive move of the travel blog posts mainly contained referential and emotive functions to convey specific purposes, i.e., providing more detailed information about the travel destination, including the available activities to do there, interesting facts about the places, and some historical background of certain places that would enhance the readers’ knowledge about the destination. in this move, the referential function was used by the bloggers in elaborating necessary and interesting information of the travel destination, e.g., the address of certain places in the destinated country or city, famous places within and nearby the destination, travel itineraries that should not be missed while doing the trip, and estimated budget for the trip. historical background of the places was often also provided, e.g., historical events that occurred in the places and the past stories of the places. the referential function was used dominantly in the descriptive move of the travel blog posts as it enabled the bloggers to describe the information in detail in order to help the readers felt as if they were experiencing the trip themselves. since most travelers that are planning to travel somewhere would most likely browse through travel blogs first (ting et al., 2014), it is important for travel blogs to be a reliable source of information to help readers make well-informed decisions about their travel itineraries. on the other hand, the emotive function was used by the bloggers in describing personal opinion and feelings about the travel experiences shared in the blog posts (togeby, 2014), e.g., what the bloggers liked or disliked from the experience and a range of best travel activities to do during the trip. in using the emotive function in sharing their personal travel stories, the bloggers tended to show many personal expressions or preferences in informal language to the readers. in the descriptive move, both the referential and emotive functions were followed by the conative function in terms of their frequency (see table 4), where the bloggers gave travel-related advice to the readers, and poetic function, which contained the bloggers’ personal feelings towards the travel destination. a minor occurrence was also found for the metalinguistic and phatic functions. from the data, these two language functions only occurred in the descriptive move and not in other moves. in sum, the bloggers tended to use mostly referential and emotive functions in the body of their blog posts to address deeper information of a particular topic to the readers in a narrative style so that the readers could get immersed in their travel experiences (pascual, 2018). this feature of descriptive move that elaborates specific details of a topic in the text is considered as the part of the text that carries the ultimate purpose of the text (heerschop et al., 2011). language functions in the closure move closure move follows the descriptive move and aims to end the blog post (pascual, 2018). this move often includes recommendations from the bloggers that would be helpful to the readers in planning their trips. an example of closure move in a travel blog post is shown in the following excerpt: “from its wild ruin bars to its relaxing spas, budapest offers everything you can find in western https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 324 europe — but for a fraction of the price. plus, it also sees a fraction of the crowds you’ll find in cities like london, paris, and prague.” –blog post 1 in this excerpt, the blogger closed the post by concluding that the country destination was worth the visit. the blogger also mentioned the reasons why the country was a good travel destination since it “offers everything you can find in western europe”. the blogger also mentioned some factors that made the visited place better than other cities, e.g., the cheap price (“— but for a fraction of the price.”) and the less crowd (“it also sees a fraction of the crowds you’ll find in cities like london, paris, and prague”). from the excerpt, it was evident that in the closure move, the bloggers tended to express an overall opinion and impression on visiting the country destination. from all 18 blog posts, there were a total of 94 language functions occurred in the closure move. the frequency of the occurrence of each language function in the closure move is shown in table 6. table 6 language function in closure move language function frequency of occurrence referential 31 emotive 40 conative 13 poetic 10 metalinguistic 0 phatic 0 total 94 table 6 shows that the language functions occurred most dominantly in the descriptive move were emotive and referential functions. these two language functions regularly appeared in the three major themes found in the closure move, as shown in table 7. table 7 major themes and language functions occurred in closure move major themes major language functions 1. personal impression and imagery description of the destination and travel experiences emotive 2. reasons why the destination is worth to be visited emotive 3. recommendations and travel hacks referential as shown in table 7, the closure move of the travel blog posts mainly consisted of emotive and referential functions to convey specific purposes, i.e., expressing the overall trip experiences (shown by the first theme), expressing opinions on the qualities of the destination (shown by the second theme), and offering recommendations of travelrelated tips and hacks (shown by the third theme). in the data, the travel blog posts often ended with an overall impression about the travel destination and recommendations that potentially would boost the readers’ travel experiences. in this move, the emotive function was used to provide imagery of the traveling experiences in the destination, whether the bloggers had good impressions on the trip or not, and how they rated the overall trip. by using the emotive function, the bloggers described what they experienced using more sensory and emotional details, which would enhance the readers’ insights on certain places or activities in the travel destination, and eventually would persuade them to also visit the destination (hsiao et al., 2013). on the other hand, the referential function was used mainly when the bloggers provided their https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 325 personal preferences, e.g., in booking the flights, accommodation, or tour agencies, and their tips about travel-related itineraries that readers might not know, e.g., how to activate a sim card in a different country. in doing so, the bloggers tended to act like someone who knew a lot better than the readers (togeby, 2014). in the closure move, the emotive and referential functions were followed by the conative and poetic functions in terms of their frequency (see table 6). the conative function occurred mainly along with the referential function, where the bloggers tended to recommend and direct the readers to follow the tips and recommendations given, e.g., using the promotion code to book a certain flight, hotel, or tour in the travel destination. on the other hand, the poetic function was mainly occurred along with the emotive function, particularly in the parts of the blog posts where the bloggers expressed their opinions regarding the overall trip experiences and qualities of the destination. in sum, the bloggers tended to use mostly emotive and referential functions in the closure move to share their final thoughts about the trip (pascual, 2018) and to persuade the readers to consider visiting the travel destination by sharing practical and useful tips. this was most likely due to the bloggers having a role as influencers as well in the blogosphere. since their blogs are popular and have many regular readers, the bloggers may feel responsible to ensure that their blog posts would be impactful to their readers. this may also be influenced by potential sponsorships that they may receive from business companies to market or endorse certain travel destinations or travel-related products or services (ting et al., 2014). language function in the invitational move the invitational move is usually found in the very last part of travel blog posts. yet, many travel blog posts end simply with a closure move and without an invitational move. in this move, the bloggers tend to encourage the readers to engage in further discussion about the topic being discussed in the post (pascual, 2018). an example of an invitational move in a travel blog post is shown in the following excerpt: “want more information on georgia? be sure to visit our robust destination guide on georgia for even more planning tips!” –blog post 3 from all 18 blog posts, there were a total of 13 language functions occurred in the invitational move. compared to other moves, in this study, the invitational move had the least number of language functions. this was probably because the invitational move did not occur in all 18 blog posts, and in the travel blog posts where it occurred, the move was the shortest among the other moves in the whole blog post. the numbers of occurrence of each language function in the invitational move are shown in table 8. table 8. language function in invitational move language function frequency of occurrence referential 4 emotive 3 conative 6 poetic 0 metalinguistic 0 phatic 0 total 13 table 8 shows that the language functions occurred most dominantly in the invitational move were conative and referential functions. these two language functions appeared the most in the three major themes found in the invitational move, as shown in table 9. table 9 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 326 major themes and language functions occurred in invitational move major themes major language functions 1. invitation for readers to visit other links related to the travel destination conative and referential 2. encouragement for readers to save the blog post for future need conative and referential 3. invitation for readers to write down comments in the blogs conative and referential as shown in table 9, the invitational move of the travel blog posts mainly consisted of conative and referential functions to direct the readers to do further activities that would better enhance their knowledge and understanding of particular travel-related inquiries. the conative function was used by the bloggers for inviting and directing the readers to read more travel-related posts within the bloggers’ own blogs (in a way, promoting the bloggers’ other posts to the readers), to save the posts for future travel references, or to write some travel-related comments for other readers to reply. on the other hand, the referential function mainly was used to give information about the bloggers’ other posts that had a similar or relevant topic with the particular post or to provide extra information on how the readers could access other pages in the blogs using a hyperlink. in sum, in the invitational move, the readers were encouraged to discuss more the topic of the blog post. often, the sentences in this move included exclamations, which were common to be found in the use of the conative function. in addition, the comments that the readers wrote in the blogs are beneficial not only to create a community of travel blog readers but also to increase the post’s recognition to a wider audience (stefanone & jang, 2007). conclusion from the analysis of 18 travel blog posts in this study, there were in total 808 language functions that occurred diversely in the four parts of travel blog post structure: the situational move, descriptive move, closure move, and invitational move. the referential function occurred most consistently in all those four moves, while the emotive function occurred most dominantly in the first three moves (excluding the invitational move). thus, it can be concluded that popular travel blogs were an online platform mainly used to provide travel-related information and express feelings and emotions of the bloggers’ personal travel experiences to the readers. compared to traditional blogs that initially were used solely as a personal journal or diary, recent blogs had a role as a source of information in addition to a personal journal. in this case, travel blogs provide travel-related information that is both objective (due to the dominant use of referential function) and subjective (due to the dominant use of emotional function). as a result, reading travel blog posts can be enjoyable and interesting as it provides readers with not only factual information, but also personal insights and experience-sharing from the bloggers (chen et al., 2014) that potentially could influence the readers to also experience what is written in the blog posts. as travel blogs contain both objective and subjective information using the personal language of the bloggers, the discourse in travel blogs may be different from the discourse displayed in other travel-related commerce, advertisements, or official websites. finally, since this study only analyzed the written content of the travel blog posts to investigate their main purposes, further research on the impacts of the content and writer’s intentions of travel blog posts to the readers as a source of information and personal journal on the online communication platform may be necessary, considering travel blogs are growing in popularity and continue to be widely accessed among the internet users. references https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? 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(2011). the effect of social influence on bloggers’ usage intention. online information review, 35(1), 50–65 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab28a4d1123 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa8482810af • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaef82b115d • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 61 reflection of religious intolerance myth in video construction “sayyid el-rais” based on barthes perspective ifi erhintiana uin sunan kalijaga ifierwhintiana@gmail.com laily fitriani uin maulana malik ibrahim laily@bsa.uin-malang.ac.id abstract this research aims to develop denotative and connotative meanings in sayyid el-rais' videos, as well as reveal myths based on barthes's perspective. this research is a qualitative descriptive research. data collection technique used observation and taking notes technique. researchers used descriptive analysis techniques based on the miles and huberman model are data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. the results showed that reading of first level in semiotics perspective produced several codes that referred to text structure including; symbolic, semantic, and hermeneutic. denotatively, the speech in video reflect outpouring of a palestinian child about incidents that happened to him, called deprived homeland. the second level reading that refers to code development resulted in a myth of religious tolerance. in connotative meaning, there are portraits of religious intolerance that are carried in these stories. this speech presents as religious intolerance representation felt by the palestinian people so that the author's message that can be taken through this portraits is able to increase awareness of religious tolerance and empathy for others as humanity form. keywords: barthes’s semiotic, myth, palestine, religious intolerance introduction today, literature is increasingly required to keep up with the times. in the digital era, humans are faced with technological advances where critical abilities are tested to adapt with novelty. likewise with literature, as a reflection of reality about society, of course, it must adapt to existence developments. in this context, literature cannot be separated from society because literature reflects social dynamics which occur in society. as well as other literature, the development of arabic literature marked by the arab spring where literary works began to be printed and published. not only that, but literature is also distributed through social media including youtube. nowadays youtube is one of the popular platforms for distributing literature because it makes literature easier for the public to consume it. talking about literature and media, literature is a medium for self-expression in expressing one's imagination and ideas substantially. in addition, through the media, literature is believed to be able to build social awareness with the aim of change and even resistance. why literature has the hidden ability to influence feelings and thoughts. as same as one of video clips on the youtube channel under title sayyid el-rais. sayyid el-rais is one of viral video clip on youtube in may 2018. a video with ramadhan theme has drawn much controversy, because it is considered provoking several parties. this video is about 3 minutes 39 seconds and published by zain entertainment. now, this video has 49 million viewers with 1.2 million likes and 122 thousand comments (youtube, 2018). it showed that this video is enough to attract the attention of audiences as consumers. as well as reported https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:ifierwhintiana@gmail.com mailto:laily@bsa.uin-malang.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 62 by detik.com, this video presents a portrait of a boy who invited some world leaders for breakfast (rosyadi, 2018). based on the phenomenon above, many netizens responded positively to this video. for them, the message conveyed is very touching because this video is considered to speak for palestine. but on the other side, many people considered this video as a form of provocation that cornered several parties, especially the portraits of characters shown in the video clip. this phenomenon makes researchers interested in examining more deeply the intent behind this video. in this context, researchers think that this video is very suitable to be analyzed with barthes' concept of myth. based on the semiotic review, barthes is based on the principle that cultural aspect is very valuable in a semiotic process. that’s why barthes presents the concept of "myth" in his semiology. semiotics exists as a branch of sign-focused linguistics. in simple terms, semiotics wants to know how humans interpret things. teuw defines semiotics as a sign that involves all factors to understand literature as a medium of communication (sobur, 2018, p.17). according to historical review, semiotics is pioneered by two great figures, they are ferdinand de saussure and charles sanders pierce. both of them have different backgrounds where saussure in europe and he departed from linguistic. meanwhile, pierce came from latin america and departed from philosophy. seeing its development, both of them have their own characteristics which saussure calls the study of signs with the term "semiology", but pierce calls it by the term "semiotics" which is considered to be more popular today (vera, 2014, p.100). barthes mythology roland barthes as a structuralist and also a saussurian who developed the concept of semiosis. barthes found a systematic analytical model in describing signs (birowo, 2004, p.45). in this context, he focused on the concept of significance. barthes believes that relationship between marker and marked is formed arbitrarily (vera, 2014, p.27). this concept begins from ferdinand de saussure's interest about complexity of sentence formation in determining meaning. however, barthes developed this thought and emphasized that there is an interaction between texts and individual cultural and personal experiences, as well as interactions between text conventions and their users. this concept is known as "order of signification" (kriyantono, 2006, p. 268). as suitable as barthes' basic assumption showed that language as a sign system is able to reflect the assumption of certain group in certain period (vera, 2014, p.26). based on the concept of ​ ​ "order of signification", barthes pays attention to significance that is classified into two steps, namely first order of signification and second order of signification (birowo, 2004, p.56). here are the difference between the concept of barthes and saussure where barthes divides the level of meaning into denotation and connotation or meta-language. barthes explains denotation as a simple signification process that refers to textual meaning. in this step, signs are produced and understood at the first level of meaning, known as the first order (sobur, 2006, p.70). this level produces the most obvious explicit meaning of sign (vera, 2014, p.57). it is different from the connotation which becomes the second signification process when the sign develops expression aspect (e) and obtains expansion of content (c) (rusmana, 2014, p.203). this level produces implicit meaning, indirect meaning, and uncertain. the creation of connotation meaning is motivated by combination of marker and marked that touched cultural aspects. that’s why the connotation meaning is arbitrary depending on the interpreter (sobur, 2006, p.128). based on barthes' semiotics, connotation meaning is aligned with an ideology known as "myth". according to him, the marker and marked in connotation meaning are ideological fragments, establishing relationship between communication and culture, also knowledge and history (rusmana, 2014, p.207). in this context, the definition of myth is indeed different from https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 63 the general meaning which identical with mystical things. barthes defines myth as a connotation formed by society in symbols form and being interpreted by society itself (sobur, 2006, p.71). myth is defined as a type of speech, so that all speech, both verbal and non-verbal, have the potential to become a myth (barthes, 1973, p.95).in his book “mythologies”, barthes illustrates myth with glasses. people with glasses are synonymous with intelligent but an innocent one. meanwhile, people who wear glasses are exactly someone with visual disabilities. in this context, glasses mean a visual aid. however, it is different if it draws in the mythical universe, glasses are considered to show someone's intelligence. culturally, the glasses are accepted by society as a symbol of genius, so that glasses are emphasized (hidayat, 2018, p.177). thus myth can be aligned with connotation meaning where cultural elements have a dominant role. tolerance concept religion exists not only as a medium for human interaction with god, but also to regulate relationship among humans, as well as the surrounding environment. that’s why, tolerance becomes important for every human being on this earth. the existence of tolerance can minimize the occurrence of conflict and replace it with a life of peace and tranquility. looking at the historicity of tolerance concept, it is necessary to have understanding of tolerance itself holistically. tolerance in etymological meaning is graceful. as same as definition in the big indonesian dictionary that tolerance comes from word “tolerant” which means to let, respect or take a different stance as before (kamus besar bahasa indonesia, n.d.).as same as arabic term, it means tasamuh, to let (munawir, n.d. p.1098). in other words, tolerance can be defined as generous attitude towards something deviating from usual. in terminology terms, there are several definitions according to experts, including umar hasyim (1979, p.22) defines tolerance as a form of giving freedom in exercising faith, and managing life even determining fate, but still in accordance with prevailing societal provisions. it different from tillman (2004, p.95) that defines tolerance as an attitude of mutual respect by each individual to plurality. based on the definition of tolerance, simply tolerance is an attitude statement that has a positive impact on society. according to historical reviews, the emergence of tolerance cannot be separated from religious backgrounds. in the context of religion, tolerance is always an interesting topic to discuss. unfortunately now, when faced with the condition of islam, there is an assumption that islam is identical to intolerance, extreme and discriminatory (bakar, 2015, p.124). based on western historical reading, tolerance has known since early 17th century as emergency concept in overcoming differences and bloodshed due to religion (nicholson, 1985, p.156). one of the most famous founding father of tolerance concept in west is john locke. through his work "a letter concerning toleration", he emphasized that a country must refrain from political authority involving religious beliefs (goldie, 2010, p.32). in this context, locke emphasized that tolerance only applies to religious owners, so that atheists do not need accept tolerant attitudes. in religious context, disagreement views often lead to conflicts, even wars (ismail, 2003, p.169). that’s why tolerance is urgent, especially in democracy foundation where each individual can hold his or her opinion and respect others (obsorn, 1993, p.11). as long as time development, tolerance concept also expanded. tolerance is not limited to respect, but an ethical framework that is intended to respond differences (nicholson, 1985, p.159).various experts develop tolerance concept, but there should be limitations on definition of tolerance itself. in other words, tolerance is not a doctrine for respecting others without limit until all freedom can be celebrated out of control (horton, 1985, p.4). talking about the limits of tolerance, of course it related to the question about how extent tolerance is allowed and said to be intolerant. as well as tolerance is defined as freedom, it extents https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 64 to how the freedom can be celebrated. in this context, borrowing karl popper’s concept which asserts that the loss of tolerance when tolerance becomes infinite. in other words, if this tolerance applies to intolerant people, then that person will be destroyed because of his tolerance (cohenalmagor, 2006, p.1). therefore, it is needed to be more attention to intolerance as vigilance form in overcoming tolerance issues. based on its implementation, there are tolerance elements in certain society including; 1) giving freedom as protecting individual and collective freedom with available regulations, 2) recognizing eveyone right in attitudes, 3) respecting beliefs of others who tend to be religious, but it can also be linked to social contexts, 4) mutual understanding and respect each other either individually or collectively (abdullah, 2001, p.202). based on the explanation of tolerance concepts and its elements, it is increasingly clear that the meaning of tolerance cannot be equated with neutrality which is almost similar to impartiality. because of tolerance is not indifferent, so it can openly accept criticism or suggestion as known as "critical tolerance" (masduqi, 2011, p.9). thus, tolerance is very easy to apply in creating unity without overlapping each other. as well as explanation above about suitability of phenomenon and theory, this research refers to several previous studies including; representation of ideological meaning in story “ashab al‐kahf” (hidayat, 2018, pp.170); semiotic analysis of roland barthes; islamic perspectives on moral values ​ ​ in the short story “daulah ashafir” by taufiq al-hakim (semiotic analysis of roland barthes) (nugraha & kasanah, 2019, pp.76); representation of mascunility in pond's men #lelakimasakini television advertisements (roland barthes' semiotic analysis of representation of personality) (yulianti, 2017, p.16). based on the relevance between material object and formal object, the researcher intends to further describe geopolitical myth in the video clip of sayyid el rais based on barthes' perspective. this article aims to reveal the form of geopolitical myths and the ideological concepts that are carried in the video. methodology this article is a qualitative descriptive research which used to examine the conditions of natural objects. in this context, the researcher as key instrument, sampling of data sources is carried out purposively, and the results of research emphasized generalization aspect of meaning (sugiyono, 2008, p.15). in obtaining valid data and suitable with expecting data, data collection techniques used in this study are watching and taking notes (sugiyono, 2008, p.208). the data collected will be analyzed using descriptive analysis based on the analysis model according to miles and huberman. it contained in sugiyono's book which states that miles and huberman argued that "activities in qualitative data analysis are carried out interactively, and continued to completion so that data is saturated. these activities are informed of the data reduction, data display, conclusion drawing or verification (sugiyono, 2008, p.337). thus the result of data analysis will be presented descriptively and be concluded as suitable as research problems contained in this study. result and discussion as previously explained regarding the level of meaning based on barthes perspective which includes denotation meaning as first reading level (first-ness), then connotation meaning as second reading level (second-ness), and the last one is myth (ideology). the more detailed explanation as follows: barthes' significance in this sub-chapter, researcher describes first level of meaning, namely denotation level where a text is interpreted autonomously or free from extrinsic elements of literary work. in this context, linguistic aspect plays very important role where speech is interpreted as it is without other elements. this study seeks to implement barthes semiotics in sayyid el‐rais' video. in this https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 65 context, video is positioned as a linguistic phenomenon, so this study focuses on speech contained in the video. the more detailed explanation is as follows: الرئيس سيدي كريم رمضان الفطار على مدعو وأنت the speech above shows an invitation. structurally, sentence is an invitation sentence that is marked by nida’ at the beginning of sentence, it is "sayyidi rais". the denotation meaning appears in the speech above is a call belong to president by saying, "o president, ramadan arrived, i invite you to fast with me. this speech is also supported by the context of a boy who walked towards a table that is none other than the office of united states president, called the white house and invited president trump to fast together with him. the denotative meaning obtained from speech above is purely a verbal invitation to fast together with him. this is suitable with barthes's concept of ​ ​ denotative meaning which explains that at this level of significance process naturally refers to a literal meaning, so it does not require other elements outside the text. it is different if the speech in second level meaning that called connotative. of course, this speech expanded its meaning. in other words, there is an implicit message that author wants to convey. it can be proven by the following two sentences which read: الدعام في بيتي وجدت إذا مكسور وفلب بخبز الطابور من أمي وعادت the piece of speech above shows that marker is a destroyed house and symbolizes a pessimistic attitude. while the sign in question is destroyed house. of course, it cannot be used for any activity, including fasting. here then connotation meaning that child wants a feeling of peace and comfort in life, especially in harmony among people. this is also confirmed by sentence that follows which describes the condition of his mother whom carrying bread and a broken heart. this speech clearly shows the dashing of one's hopes for a life in peace and safe. as suitable as context shows trump's deep lament when he said it directly in front of him, but trump just turned his face away without answering. as well as barthes's statement explains that connotation meaning is formed based on individual beliefs in interpreting phenomenon (sobur, 2018, p.70).thus, connotation meaning appeared is a hope in harmony people. the next speech is as follows: الكنائس ورنت مساجد، واذنت حارس بل وأبواب ا، في جيران a piece of speech above is an informative thing that the boy said to trump. denotatively, this speech means the mosque pealed adzan as a call to prayer, as well as the church rung its bells. position of the both are side by side and so close in addition, the context of this speech depicts when young children sit at dining table with vladimir putin (president of russia), then walked to the window while pointing towards al-quds mosque and church. as well as barthes explanation that the first signification process where unity of marker and sign bring out a sign. in this context, the markers in the form of mosque and church, while the signs in the form of bells and adzan so that the appeared sign is time for worship. it is different from connotative meaning that appeared in speech. when it involves elements outside the text, the setting shows that both worship places of two major religions are mutually exclusive. the resulting sign is form of religious harmony, and implicitly meaning shows hope for religious harmony. this signification refers to development of speech expressions which showed that there is no barrier between al-aqsa mosque and holy church. in addition, expansion of content is obtained when child uttered a hopeful lament while holding putin's hand toward the window to see a symbol of peace, it is mosque and church. here are, connotation meaning appears that actualization of the metaphor of harmony appears in palestine through the peace between two religions are islam and christianity. next is the speech as follows: الرئيس سيدي لأنام أنا انفجار اسمع عين اعمضت كلما https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 66 ونار دخان سرير ويشتعل الدواب باب من الخوف ويخرج اللعاب وتنزف الغاني، وتبكى الرئيس سيدي اللعاب تنزف similarly, the speech earlier which a piece of speech above is a declarative sentence because it shows a piece of information. this speech reflects story of child who could not sleep well because he always be listened by explosion sound. the denotation meaning obtained in 1-3 sentences which a child always listens to the explosion sounds, sees flames and smoke everywhere so that he cannot sleep peacefully. in addition, this meaning is strengthened by subsequent speech which mean that crying sound becomes a hum that he always listens to. thus, first level semiotic meaning shows the outpouring of child's heart about his situation. this is certainly in accordance with barthes' semiotic concept that refers to literal meaning. after knowing the denotation meaning of the speech, researcher found an expansion of content. it is actualization of the denotation meaning is supported by a contextual representation that describes a boy who pour out his heart to kim jong un in a room that burnt by the explosion. existence of supportive background setting further strengthens the marked to bring out connotative meanings. the speech above shows the connotation that child lives in unsafe condition, his house is victim, his homeland is being threatened. he expressed his fear of the president of north korea as a form of voice people wanted to hear. on the other hand, the words “explosion, fire, smoke, cry and blood” are in speech above showed a symbol of chaos, anxiety, and even fear of palestinian people with what happened yesterday, now, and tomorrow. in addition, the speech shows a proairetic code that explains series of events which took place to ruin the homeland. this entity meaning is suitable with barthes' statement (rusmana, 2014, p.187) that the world is full of signs, not just a simple meaning behind letters of alphabet. this is why the second level of significance is necessary. as for significance in subsequent speech is as follows: الرئيس سيدي المبعدون نحن الحاربون، نحن بالعبادة بالعبادة المتهمون نحن المذنبون، نحن بالعبادة شتقا المحكومون ألسنتنا قطعت الذين بالشهادة بالشهادة نطقت لنها a piece of speech above shows declarative sentences in the form of passive voice. the marker is indicated by word “we” then the marked appears after it, until appearing a sign. in this step, significance is done denotatively, they are discriminated which this meaning is reinforced by the words, ،المحكومون" ،المذنبون ،المبعدون "الحاربون all these contained in speech. this meaning is obtained because it only refers to text without considering other elements outside the text (yulianti, 2017, pp.17). all speech above child statement to a president of north korea (kim jong un). a declarative expression about what palestine happened. this is first signification process happen. after first level of significations over, barthes continued signification process at second level to find connotative meaning in speech above. based on the resulting denotation meaning, there is an expansion of content that involves elements outside text. representation of context is background setting in burma which becomes semantic code because there is hidden meaning there. implicitly, a piece of speech above describe reconstruction of myanmar refugees who are looking for refuge and protection places. they are in discrimination condition on behalf of religion, even getting harsh attitude for what they believe. the manifestation of violence as known as dehumanization form on behalf of religion. it is suitable with barthes' explanation (rusmana, 2014, p.212) that relationship is dynamic and the functions is developing signs as result of sign openness. thus speech arrived at second level semiotic meaning process. the meaning of next speech is as follows: الرئيس سيدي القدس في سنفطر فلسطين عاصمة https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 67 وآمين ياليت بين العالقة المنيات رب يكتبها a piece of speech above is last statement in video “sayyid el-rais”. it is imperative speech that showed fasting invitation in quds. as the speech clearly stated, "o president, we will break the fast in quds". in addition, the speech is continued with declarative sentence in the form "capital city of palestine" which clearly provided information that al-quds is capital city of palestine. denotatively, it means that there will be an agenda of fasting together in the quds as capital of palestine. as well as barthes' semiotic ideas (hidayat, 2018, pp.176) where denotation meaning is result of simple significance. it refers to textual and explicit meaning of text. thus speech above showed denotative meaning as first-level meaning. continues to the next meaning, namely connotation meaning. in this case, the speech implicitly shows voice of palestinian people who declare for the claim of al-quds as capital of palestine so that this speech implies that al-quds is part of palestine and nothing else. in addition, developing relationship is showed by context which describe a boy goes to a cell to approach girl. the girl is a prisoner, and she is helped by the boy then they ran towards al-quds with joy. not only that, the subsequent speech also strengthened palestinian hopes for al-quds. implicitly, this speech explains that quds is a city that is sanctified by islam because allah will grant every prayer of his servant there. an affirmation of colonial nation for the struggle for al-quds. based on this speech, there is symbolic code in the form of al-aqsa mosque as representation of al-quds. as well as barthes' explanation (rusmana, 2014, p.209) that there are codes that operate in the text. code indicates combination of signs in the text. like the code above, which refers to the symbol of al-aqsa mosque which is repeatedly presented in video speech. thus, the speech above arrived at second level of significations, namely connotation meaning of barthes' perspective. based on the results of analysis above, the researcher revealed the results of signification based on barthes concept of thought, namely first order and second order which are represented in two levels of meaning, namely denotation, and connotation. however, these findings do not stop here, but there is one concept that makes barthes' characteristics different from other semiotics experts, namely myth concept that is carried in the masterpiece entitled mythologies (1957). myth of religious intolerance based on the analysis of speech contained in "sayyid el rais", speech has significant process based on barthes concept. this significance process produces two levels of meaning, called denotative and connotative meanings. generally, this speech shows palestinian voice as well as protest form aimed at pioneer of world. here are further identification is needed to develop connotative meanings and find myth behind the expressed speech. in this level, retroactive reading as medium for finding ideology that attached to connotation or well known as myth. here are the reader has active role in expressing ideology contained in the speech. in the opening speech, there is hermeneutic code that is indicated when a boy invites united states president to fast with him. further, there is emphasis on the following two sentences which describe house, bread, and broken heart. that statement clearly leaves puzzle where invitation culminates in lament. in this context, there is reflection of religious intolerance contained in speech. it can be proven in metaphor shown in speech “ramadan kareem”. an era is glorified by islam and synonymous with breaking (ifthar). ifthar is not only interpreted as banquet but the meeting of individuals in one assembly. a moment of strengthen friendship. as same as fasting invitation toward trump is form of religious tolerance to create peace. as explained by tillman (2004, p.95) that tolerance exists when individuals respect plurality. here are religious tolerance concept is built to criticize world leaders about reality happened in palestine. there is intolerance meaning in speech above that represented through author's imagination in building metaphor how beautiful religious tolerance. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 68 in addition, element of tolerance is described as attitude of mutual understanding and respect each other, either individually or collectively, so that peace can be realized. in other words, the author wants to convince positive effects from tolerance. not only that, the other one demonstrates myths of religious intolerance are: الكنائس ورنت مساجد، واذنت الرئيس سيدي حارس بل وأبواب ا، في جيران this speech clearly shows binary opposition where both worship of two major religions, namely islam and christianity. they are side by side, although in reality they are inversely related. in this context, it is clear that proximity of two sacred places, namely al-aqsa mosque and holy church as symbol of religious harmony. on the other hand, the speech has opposition meaning that shows portrait of palestinian people hopes towards religious harmony. this is why the speech is pinned on religious tolerance value where tolerance is interpreted as attitude statement that has positive impact (bakar, 2015, pp.124). although the speech is just an imagination that implicitly presented by author. as well as this statement, phenomenon that carried in video has historical review. there is phenomenon as background for emergence of this video. coinciding in 2018, palestine is shocked by us action which placed embassy in jerusalem and declared it as capital of israel (bbc, 2018). thus, the speech clearly has implicit meaning to be shown to the reader. the speech which demonstrates tolerance is as follows: الرئيس سيدي القدس في سنفطر فلسطين عاصمة وآمين ياليت بين العالقة المنيات رب يكتبها a piece of speech above shows religious tolerance value where speech is not merely statement that al-quds is capital of palestine, but there is religious ideology prevails. in addition, there is symbolic code that addressed through word "al-quds" repeatedly presented in the video. this clearly shows how important the city is to palestinian people. as well as mythical concept promoted by barthes (1973, p.95), conventionally al-quds is a city that is highly venerated by three major religions are islam, judaism and christianity. that’s why myth is an ideology that accepted by society because it considers cultural aspects in its implementation. indirectly, speech above contradicts reality about al-quds. nowadays al-quds is still a dispute land that is contested by three major religions. the tolerance concept that is carried becomes an insinuation as well as voice of the palestinian people who yearn for their homeland. as forst (william &waldron, 2008, p.80) states that tolerance is present as an alternative to avoid conflict. harmony views between minorities and majority on social peace that tolerance offers. in other words, tolerance can be an alternative in resolving disputes on large scale, especially the state. based on connotative development of some speech in sayyid el-rais' video, the researcher are increasingly convinced that the figures presented are reflections of religious intolerance. it implicitly represented through speech that are hopeful, grievous, or imaginary as representation form of palestinian voice that are not heard. through narrative above, author has high hopes which his work can increase individual awareness and empathy for the palestinian state. conclusion based on semiotic analysis result of barthes' perspective in the video of sayyid el-rais, it can be concluded that there are two levels of meaning found in speech, namely denotative and connotative meaning. first level of significance produces some codes that refers to text structure including; symbolic, semantic, and hermeneutic. denotatively, speech in that video reflect outpouring of palestinian child about what happened to him called deprived homeland. the second level reading that refers to code development resulted in amyth of religious intolerance. in connotative, there are portraits of religious intolerance are carried in video. reflections on religious intolerance can be shown https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 69 through implicit meanings in speech such as expectations about religious harmony, mutual respect, and peace among countries, sad lamentations. thus, the speech present as representation of religious intolerance felt by palestinian people, so that the author's message that can be taken through this. it increases awareness of religious tolerance and empathy for others as a form of humanity. references abdullah, m. (2001). pluralisme agama dan kerukunan dalam keragaman. penerbit buku kompas. and, m. s. w., & waldron, j. (2008). toleration and its limits. cambridge university press. anonim. (2018). presiden trump tidak akan hadir dalam pembukaan kedubes as di yerusalem. bbc indonesia. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia44035112 bakar, a. (2015). konsep toleransi dan kebebasan beragama. toleransi: media komunikasi umat bergama, vol 07, no, 1–9. barthes, r. (1973). elements of semiology. hill and wang. birowo, m. a. (2004). metode penelitian komunikasi. gitanyali. cohen-almagor, r. (2006). the scope of tolerance: studies on the costs of free expression and freedom of the press (extremism and democracy). routledge. goldie, m. (2010). john locke: a letter concerning toleration and other writings. liberty fund, inc. hasyim, u. (1979). toleransi dan kemerdekaan beragama dalam islam sebagai dasar menuju dialog dan kerukunan antar agama. pt. bina ilmu. hidayat, w. (2018). representasi makna ideologis kisah ashab al-kahf: analisis semiotikaa roland barthes dalam surah alkahf. mutawatir: jurnal keilmuan tafsir hadith, 08, n, 170–190. horton, j. and s. m. (1985). aspects of toleration: philosophical studies. methuen. ismail, m. s. (2003). one true god: resiko sejarah bertuhan satu. penerbit qalam. kamus besar bahasa indonesia. (n.d.). kemendikbud. retrieved january 13, 2021, from https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/toler%0 aan. kriyantono, r. (2006). teknik praktis riset komunikasi. prenada media group. masduqi, i. (2011). berislam secara toleran: teologi kerukunan umat beragama. mizan. munawir, a. w. (n.d.). kamus arab indonesia al‐ munawir. balai pustaka. nicholson, p. p. (1985). toleration as a moral ideal. cambridge university press. nugraha, r. s. and s. u., & kasanah. (2019). perspektif islam terhadap nilai moral dalam cerpen daulah al‘ashāfīr karya taufīq alchakīm (analisis semiotikaa roland barthes). jurnal cmes, 12, n. obsorn, k. (1993). tolerance. the rosen publishing group, inc. rosyadi, m. i. (2018). ajak trump bukber di palestina. detik.com. https://inet.detik.com/cyberlife/d4032335/ajak-trump-bukber-di-palestinaiklan-ramadan-ini-viral. rusmana, d. (2014). filsafat semiotikaa (paradigma, teori, dan metode interpretasi tanda: dari struktural hingga dekonstruksi praksis). cv pustaka media. sobur, a. (2006). semiotika komunikasi. pt remaja rosdakarya. sobur, a. (2018). analisis teks media. pt remaja rosdakarya. sugiyono. (2008). metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif, r&d. alfabeta. tillman, d. (2004). pendidikan nilai untuk kaum muda dewasa. grasindo. vera, n. (2014). semiotika dalam riset komunikasi. ghalia indonesia. yulianti, f. d. dkk. (2017). representasi maskulinitas dalam iklan televisi pond’s men #lelakimasakini (analisis semiotikaa roland barthes terhadap representasi maskulinitas). jurnal komunikasi, 09, n. اللللللللرئيس سللللللللللللللللللليدي .(2018) ح. .مشلللللللللللللللللللاري, zain. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 70 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jijb7c v97dg https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 305 using modelling-based speaking module for informal interaction class to support self-regulated learning ratih laily nurjanah1 ratih.laily@gmail.com deswandito dwi saptanto2 maya kurnia dewi3 1,2,3universitas ngudi waluyo, central java, indonesia abstract teaching speaking is considered challenging during this outbreak era where lecturers and students cannot have a face-to-face meeting while in fact, students still need to get examples from lecturers related to pronunciation and intonation especially. a module of speaking for informal interaction is developed to support the process of teaching and learning speaking skills. this module comes with an audio-cd of daily expressions records spoken by a native speaker to give examples of standard pronunciation and intonation. this study aims to explain the steps used in the learning process using the module. it uses narrative design to describe the steps. the findings of the study implied that lecturers need to explain what the module is and how to use it followed by some steps; introducing lesson plan, playing audio-cd, imitating the records, practicing independently, working in pairs, reporting works, receiving feedback. by giving the model or examples in audio, students can repeat it as much as they need and whenever they need it. this study's implication is giving standardized materials using authentic materials to teach speaking skills with a self-regulated learning strategy. keywords: self-regulated learning; speaking skill; modelling technique; speaking module introduction the condition where students and lecturers cannot have face-to-face meetings nowadays forces lecturers to be more creative and prepared to keep the students engaged in learning activities even at home. the distant-learning may cause students to get less guidance from lecturers especially in terms of speaking skill practice that usually is done under the guidance of lecturers in terms of giving models or examples and correcting some errors or mistakes. various teaching and learning techniques and methods have been recorded from previous researches such as (hartatik, 2016) in which she applies authentic materials in teaching speaking skills or research by (burns, 2019) proposing the concepts of teaching speaking in the classroom. to overcome the gap of limited authentic materials for teaching speaking in the classroom, this study focuses on the use of modelling-based module as a module purposed to guide students to conduct independent practice at home or with peers containing dialogues and structured activities that comes with an audio-cd containing records from a native speaker in pronouncing words or dialogues in the module as one of the sources of authentic materials so students can get proper models or examples during the practices. the development of this module was based on a gap found in previous research stating that modeling technique is important to keep the students on track and learning english both correctly and properly (salisu & ransom, 2014). the concept of making it possible for students to use the module independently is inspired by the student-regulated learning technique (srl) where it includes forethought and planning phase, performance monitoring phase, reflection on performance phase (bloom, 2013), and (zumbrunn, 2011). srl has also been applied https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:ratih.laily@gmail.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 306 to the process of teaching and learning such as reading by developing instructions based on the phases of srl (nurjanah, 2020). using a selfregulated learning strategy in speaking was also considered improving the students’ skill and reducing their anxiety in performing speaking skill (el-sakka, 2016), (aregu, 2013) self-regulated learning strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, resource management, and motivational strategies) have proven to give a good influence on students’ academic achievement in terms of conceptual understanding, and motivation. by reviewing the national literature about self-regulated learning strategies, it has been concluded that self-regulated learning has significant and insignificant effects on academic achievement (ergen, 2017). the application of a self-regulated learning strategy can be helpful and significantly influence students’ achievement when it is supported with proper activities before, during, and after the learning cycle. it also needs to keep in mind that this strategy involves the monitoring and controlling of students’ cognitive performance (li et al., 2018). the implementation of this module along with the technique is expected to be able to solve the problems of conducting distant-learning and motivate students in learning activities as well. this module was developed based on the principles of speaking skills for communication (cmy, n.d.); phonological skills: producing accurate sound of the target language at phonemic level (vowels and consonants) and prosodic levels (stress and intonation), speech function skills: using spoken words in performance using communicative functions; requesting, declining, accepting, begging, interaction management skills: managing face-to-face interaction including initiating, maintaining, and ending conversations, extended discourse organization skills: showing or applying the coherence and cohesion using conventions to build the various spoken text. those principles are applied in the module as; phonological skills: the phonological skills are given in this module by completing the module with an audio cd to give examples or models to students related to pronunciation (stress, intonation, vowels, and consonants), speech function skills: this module comes up with spoken expressions used in daily lives to support the fluency of students in using english in everyday communication such as greeting, asking and giving an opinion, interaction management skills: this is also completed with spoken expressions to initiate a conversation (greetings), maintain it (chunks, phrasal verbs), and end it (leave-taking), extended discourse organization skills: structured activities to be done with peers make it possible for students to create their discourse whether it is in form of narrative or descriptive in a conversation. the role-play activity to expand their discourse competence is still proven to be one of the effective methods to teach speaking for efl students (krebt, 2017) teaching speaking skills is conducted based on some principles (hussain, 2018); building encouragement to speak from the very early day before giving students lots of words, phrases, or sentences, tolerating students for repeating some words or phrases, letting students use english based on their knowledge with whatever they have, drilling students with structures/ phrases/ words and the use of them in a different situation, combining more than ten sentences to build a long sentence using back-chaining or tail-forwarding technique, using role-play and pair-work as much as possible and being active in both supervising and activating students, preparing the lessons and materials related to activities and tasks, avoiding interruption and correction to prevent the learners from discouragement at the early stage. this modelling-based speaking module was developed by following those principles mentioned. first, it provides chances for students to practice by themselves by giving them examples from cd so they can feel more relaxed without being supervised directly by the lecturer. second, the activity of repeating the same expressions gives the students more chance to drill and be more confident. third, the role-play activity is still given in this module to help students build the ability to apply or implement the spoken https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 307 expressions based on instructions given. fourth, the feedback is given personally to each student so they will not be embarrassed in front of their peers. each unit in this modelling-based speaking module consists of; 1) dialogues; 3 sets of dialogues are given as examples for students related to how the conversation in the topic may happen. since it is a speaking-for-informalinteraction class, the topics given are related to the events that may happen in students’ daily lives, 2) discussion; this set of questions are given after each example of dialogue. it consists of some questions related to the dialogue. since the dialogue is also presented in written form, these questions can be used to help students comprehend the situation reflected in the dialogue, 3) phrases; since spoken english involves phrases or sets of expressions to be considered as natural conversation, some examples of phrases or expressions are given in this module as enrichment for students and give them help to later construct their conversation with peers or in real life, 4) small-group practice; this part gives the structured assignment for students to apply what they have learned from the examples. the task given in this part is in form of completing dialogue so students learn first to choose the appropriate response for expressions or utterances. they can exchange their work with their friends to see that there may be variations in responding to an utterance, 5) cued dialogue; this assignment is created more complex since students need to work in pairs to create their dialogue based on cues or situations given in the module. the cues are expected to help students in creating the dialogue that is on track. this part of the assignment is the recorded one to later be sent to the lecturer to get feedback. sending the file in form of an audio file should be accepted to minimize some technical difficulties that may occur when involving audiovisual media. the structured assignment included in the module is given with examples and clear instructions. the discussion forum created by the lecturer also allows students to confirm or consult their difficulties in understanding or completing the tasks. this part supports the statement that the effective instructions or activities given to students can be reflected in the forms of minimal responses, script recognition, and language to talk about language. these instructions assist students to speak so students are more able to use speaking. (bahrani & soltani, 2012) the language teaching methodology was due to the lack of knowledge of teaching strategy and different characteristics of students. thus, in transforming the challenges into possibilities, some strategies were implemented, such as initiating activities, applying collaborative learning, and having good planning and time management. (wiraningsih & santosa, 2020) those strategies were covered thoroughly in self-regulated learning phases where students are required to do timemanagement and in this module, those strategies were covered well by giving group-work activities to support collaborative learning. clear materials and instructions given in the module also highlight the needs of learners, especially the adult ones. when learning on their own, adult learners spend plenty of energy and time trying to understand the value of the new learning; either the benefit from learning or the consequence of not learning. adult learners are different from young learners who are usually easier to be asked to learn something. the adult learner needs either to be told or, even better, to be led to discover why certain knowledge is worth learning. therefore, the materials prepared for them should be conveyed to meet their needs in learning english. (madkur, 2018) while the previous researches focus on the implementation of the self-regulated learning strategy in the classroom, this research focuses on giving the standardized materials for speaking class integrated with self-regulated learning phases to support independent learning especially when students and lecturers do not meet face-toface. this paper aims to describe the steps of implementing a modelling-based module for speaking for informal interaction in the classroom. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 308 figure 1 research framework in short, this paper was caused by the distant-learning activities happening nowadays which shows that there are still limited sources of materials that can be used to support the teaching and learning activities especially the speaking skill teaching. the need of students to get examples or models also becomes a consideration in developing the module. finally, after the module is being ready, it needs some observation in the process of implementation to make sure it accommodates the students’ needs. methodology it is a narrative design that describes the steps of implementing the learning process with this module. narrative research works with studying human experiences presented in story-telling mode to build knowledge (publishing, 2014). the subjects were 13 students of the 2nd semester of english literature at universitas ngudi waluyo. the study was conducted during the speaking for informal interaction course by distant-learning. this level was chosen because it is considered as the lowest level requiring guidance from the smallest unit such as pronunciation and examples. a questionnaire was distributed after the implementation of this module in the classroom. it is important to see the students’ perspectives on the learning activities with the module. the questionnaire was presented in open-ended questions then the results were interpreted descriptively. the questions were; 1) what are the advantages of using modelling-based speaking module?, 2) what are the difficulties you find during the use modelling-based speaking module?, 3) how do the lecturer help you when learning with the modelling-based speaking module?, 4) what aspects need to be improved from the modelling-based speaking module? results and discussion results the first step in conducting the course was introducing learning objectives and course introduction delivered by the lecturer. this step is considered important so students know what they have to achieve in the course so students can set their own goals and know what is expected by the lecturer. this step helps to build communication assisting lecturers and students in the learning process. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 309 the problems that occurred during this step was that students sometimes ignored the importance of getting familiar with the objectives of learning. it was quite challenging to get them engaged with the explanation given and it was quite hard for them to keep themselves motivated during the long process of learning. this problem was solved by giving the learning objectives at the beginning of every meeting and stating the objectives in the module at every beginning of a unit figure 2 steps of self-regulated learning activities with modelling-based speaking module for informal interaction second, the lecturer introduced the module and gave a guide to students related to how to work with the module effectively. students were asked to scan the dialogue carefully: this gives an overview to students about what conversation may happen related to the topic. then they played the audio file one by one: this can give students an overview of how the pronunciation or conversation should be produced. next, students imitated the pronunciation from the audio after each audio file played: this is the simplest task that can be done by students. imitating the pronunciation from the audio in the form of practicing before they perform to complete the next assignment. last, students can repeat as many as they want until they feel confident with their pronunciation. the problem found during this step was that students could be so in hurry sometimes. instead of keeping repeating to get accepted pronunciation, they just did the practice once or twice the proceeded to the next activities. this was solved by keeping on asking them about the practice and giving feedback. the lecturer can have more roles in this step by opening chances for them to get the pronunciation checked before getting to the next step. third and fourth, students practiced the pronunciation based on the audio file by themselves. in this step, the independent learning principles were applied; forethought and planning phase, performance monitoring phase, reflection on performance phase. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 310 figure 3 self-regulated learning phases in the forethought and planning phase, students planned how they would use the audio file with the module whether they imitated the model one by one or did it after all the audio files were played. by getting the examples from the audio files, they knew their target. they had standards about how their performance should be. the activities reflected in this phase that given by the lecturer were building self-motivation, helping the students in setting their goals. the problem was that students sometimes could not set their standard by setting it too low or high. the lecturer's role in this step was to help students set their standards based on their competencies. setting the standard too high can lead to frustration or a lack of self-confidence. the lecturer must assure students that it is okay to have different standards from their peers. the lecturer must also be active in reminding students of the learning objectives and help them to stick with their goals or even go beyond them. it is quite difficult for students to feel keep motivated when there is no influence from external parts or in this case are lecturers and or peers. in performance monitoring, since they could repeat the practice as many as they needed, they could observe their performance whether they could keep up with the models given from the audio files or not. the activities done in this phase were related to determining the self-instructions, set the learning environment, time management, help-seeking from the lecturer. asking students to note their practice and or progress in a student’s log can also be an alternative to support the performance monitoring. students can take note of which part of the dialogue or spoken expressions that are seen still become a problem or difficulties for them. this log can be in form of recorded audio so students can compare their own produced expressions with ones from examples. the problem was that students were getting distracted by not being able to assess their performance compared to the models/ examples given. here, the lecturer must be able to keep them https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 311 on track by monitoring how the progress was whether students have achieved their goals or not. the lecturer can give more examples when needed. pointing out clearly which part that needs to be improved more was also considered helpful and sensible. it helped students to focus on a certain part. in the reflection on performance phase, they could reflect on their performance when they practice and assess themselves whether the final results met their expectation or not. this reflected the activity of self-monitoring. related to the reflection phase, the lecturer role was getting more important here since students had less confidence to ask their peers for assessment. they could report to the lecturer about how satisfied they are related to their performance. positive encouragement is needed in this part to make students feel motivated. fifth, after practicing the dialogues individually, students can follow the activities given in the module. the module also gives some phrasal verbs that students can use to enrich the conversation. the activities given are; 1) practicing the dialogues in pairs: it is considered as a more complicated task because students have to perform or show their competencies after imitating and practicing a lot, and 2) practicing the independent group works by composing their conversation using expressions and or phrasal verbs are given; it is the highest level of task where students are required to create their conversation with the partner helped by some guidance provided by the module also (cue cards, outline of conversation, case study) students recorded their performance and sent the records to the lecturer. this might be the most difficult problem to be solved since it is related to the internet signal. sending audio files could even be as difficult as sending a video through any platform. the flexible deadlines are considered helpful considering this technical problem. the low quality of the audio file sent by students should also be accepted because the device used by students was mostly a smartphone. sixth, the lecturer assessed the performance then gave feedback. here, the role of the lecturer is limited to supervisor and facilitator. the feedback given was related to the positive sides of the performance and things that needed to be improved along with the correction for any errors and or mistakes. the challenging part of this step was keeping students to follow the patterns of independent learning. students may get bored or distracted and it is important for the lecturer to be sensitive on these issues and read them before they come. the lecturer should handle the problems carefully to keep the students on the correct phases. continuous and deep feedback is expected from the lecturer to build students’ motivation and confidence in this learning. the observation of examples, imitations, and activate experience by improving the students’ independence is considered as the most prominent sources to be self-regulated learners. the development is defined in four levels; 1) observation: students develop an idea about strategy and standards of performance and outcome by examining a model such as a lecturer or a peer or in this case is the audio file, 2) emulation: students attempt to copy the strategies of the model. however, due to the limited knowledge of students, they perhaps are not able to copy the strategies perfectly that leads to the need for supervision from the lecturer, 3) selfcontrol: students master the use of the skills in a structured setting without any helps from the models. but, the use of the sill still depends on the standards of the models, 4) self-regulation: students can adapt their performances based on personal and contextual conditions by using various strategies and making adjustments based on evaluation or feedback given by the lecturer. it is important to be noted that students do not necessarily go through four levels in sequence. since srl is specifically contextual, students may go through various developmental stages related to different tasks, situations, and contexts. however, because new problems may be revealed in performances, additional learning experiences may be needed (brandmo & berger, 2013). those experiences may be in the form of discussion with https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 312 the lecturer to receive continuous feedback or comments, and the experience of learning without being directly supervised by a lecturer in the classroom but being replaced by audio files given by a native speaker. from the results of the questionnaire distributed to students, it can be concluded that the module helped students in various ways; giving proper examples: the audio files coming with the module with a native speaker as the model are considered as helpful examples for students so they know what the correct pronunciation is like, giving clear instructions: the instructions given in the module are clear and easy to follow. it starts from the simplest assignment to more complicated ones such as creating their conversation, offering flexibility since it can be used anytime students need: students can play the audio file anytime they want and repeat it as many times as they need until they feel confident to perform by themselves. asking for repetition in the classroom many times may cause anxiety for a student since they are worried about their friends’ judgment or disturbing their friends, motivating and giving confidence: by having chances to practice as many as they want, students feel that they have well preparation before finally performing or completing tasks from the lecturer. on the other hand, the difficulties found by students were not related to the use of the module itself. it was a technical difficulty related to signal because they had to send their group work to the lecturer. related to the roles of lecturer during the learning activities with the strategy and the module, students stated that the lecturer helped them in the terms of explaining and re-explaining any materials that may cause difficulties to students, monitoring students’ progress and development, giving comments and feedback to students’ works, correcting errors or mistakes so students will not repeat them in the future. being asked about the layout or the appearance of the module, students stated that the module still needs some improvement on the design of the cover and students feel the need for illustrations. the native speaker performed as a model in the audio is considered adequate and helpful because the speed of speaking is not too fast and can be heard clearly by the students. the novelty stated in this study is the modelling-based module itself where it was developed through previous research and now applied to support the distance learning activities and help students be more independent by practicing by themselves under the guidance with proper examples. discussion the objective of this paper is to describe how the modelling-based speaking module is used in the classroom. the findings explain clearly how the module is applied in the classroom with the phases of self-regulated learning strategy including the difficulties occurring during the activities. by providing an audio file of the native speaker as models or examples, this module attempts to give students authentic materials. the use of the materials is considered motivating students’ more since they know they learn from the correct examples or in this module, is a native speaker. this is in line with what stated in previous research that authentic materials are always seen as interesting and motivating materials giving a clear overview about how language is used related to culture appropriately (hartatik, 2016). the use of a self-regulated learning strategy as a part of independent learning is expected to help students build their competency in speaking skills. based on the results of the questionnaire, the implication of the strategy in the classroom helps students comprehend the materials more since they have more time to read the materials on the module and learn from the audio file provided. this supports the previous research stating that students’ speaking ability can be improved by working with independent learning method so teachers or lecturers should provide more various activities to keep students feel interested in the materials (efl & no, 2019) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 313 some lecturers may still have various definitions related to independent learning, especially self-regulated learning. but in terms of the application in the classroom, lecturers agreed that this strategy can be an alternative for classroom activities. the different concepts owned by lecturers may lead to different practices conducted by lecturers (language & faculty, 2019). from this research, in the case of speaking class, this module is developed to give a standard about what activities can be given in terms of supporting the self-regulated learning strategy based on independent learning method. lecturers can use this module as a starting point to elaborate more activities for students. in reality, self-regulated learning should be supported by various activities and guidance from lecturers so students are working on the right track. the materials given in this module are developed to give students examples and guidance so students can feel more confident in improving their speaking skills. as stated that by including various activities and resources to be used by students and keeping them monitored by lecturers, it is possible to enhance the students’ language performance and independent learning. (soliman, 2014) the results of the questionnaire related to students’ perspectives on learning activities are in line with those previous researches that the independent learning activities enhance students’ confidence and motivation. from the application of the module in the classroom, there are some steps needed before getting students to work with the strategy and the module. first, it is important to explain to the students the principles of the strategy where they are expected to work independently under lecturers’ guidance. second, introducing the module well and giving examples on how to use the module are considered as a prominent step so students can use the module effectively. third, the lecturer needs to keep in mind that the roles of the lecturer here are as assistant and guide to always give help whenever students need it and monitor how students get through the learning processes. giving feedback is one thing that is must do by the lecturer. it is aimed to motivate students in terms of improving performances. this implementation is expected to initiate independent learning habits to support the distantlearning process by following the principles of self-regulated learning (srl). the roles of lecturer are getting more varied in this type of learning activities start from introducing, motivating, facilitating, assessing, and giving feedback. independent learning habit is considered to be prominent for students to be able to keep up with the distant-learning environment. the modelling-based speaking module is proposed in this study to accommodate the needs of students in terms of examples/ models and structured-guided activities though they had the lessons online without face-to-face classroom because it still triggers the active communication between lecturer and students by requiring supervision, guidance, and feedback from lecturer. the problems occurred during the process of implementation somehow reflected that students tend to match an appropriate strategy with certain goal and students focus more on the performance rather than the understanding or mastery (wandler & imbriale, 2017) it is also important to always keep in mind that building the habit of self-regulated learning especially in speaking skills requires even a whole semester to develop. it can be considered stressful for students to form the habit after the first meeting. conclusion the implementation of the modelling-based speaking module was done in 6 steps; the introduction of the lesson plan, the learning with playing audio-cd, the imitation of the models, the independent practice, the collaborative learning by working in pairs, the work reporting, and the feedback giving. the application of this module is prominent in terms of providing standard materials of teaching speaking with a selfhttps://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 314 regulated learning strategy. after the implementation of the module in the classroom, future researchers are recommended to explore the effectiveness of this module with the self-regulated learning strategy to improve the speaking skill performance. acknowledgements the gratitude is delivered to lldikti vi jawa tengah for supporting the development of modelling-based speaking module for speaking of informal interaction. references aregu, b. b. 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(2019). independent le language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/lc p-issn 1858-0157 e-issn 2460-853x an analysis of higher order thinking skills realization in reading comprehension questions ervina juli aryani, sri wahyuni* universitas negeri semarang, indonesia *email: sriwahyunifbs@mail.unnes.ac.id doi https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v15i1.26064 submitted 5 september 2020. revised 30 september 2020. accepted 23 october 2020 abstract the significance of higher order thinking skills (hots) has led many educational stakeholders to include the skill in educational curriculum and more specifically in the subjects that students learn. in the context of learning english, hots should be instilled in four language skills, especially reading skill. this skill is vital since students are demanded to be critical of what they read. therefore, this research aimed at investigating how the reading comprehension questions in english textbooks for three different grades (x, xi, and xii) published by the ministry of education and culture facilitate hots. by employing cognitive level of bloom’s revised taxonomy (2001) and critical thinking task type of numrich’s sequence (beaumont, 2010), the questions are analyzed qualitatively. the results reveal that hots are realized adequately in the textbook for grade xi. in the textbooks for grade x and xii, hots are found in small quantity. besides, based on numrich’s sequence, the majority of the questions focus on the text which means that critical thinking-based questions are found in small number. thus, it is expected that this result assists teachers, textbook writers, and future researchers to engage more on the implementation of hots. keywords: critical thinking; english textbooks; hots; reading comprehension questions thinking. it is explained that hots are defined into three categories namely transfer, critical thinking, and problem solving (brookhart, 2010, p.3). based on this categorization, it is defined that hots in terms of transfer demand students to apply knowledge and skills they learn in a new context that they do not repeatedly experience. in terms of critical thinking, hots encourage the skill of making judgement and making decision. while on the problem solving, students are expected to formulate solutions to certain problems. therefore, in accordance with the definitions, hots can be assumed as skills of engaging with unfamiliar context, the activity of making judgement and decision, and also solving problems. in connection with the categorization, it is inferred that through the emphasis of hots, there is an effort of promoting critical thinking. in connection with the insertion of hots in the educational field, it directly affects the design of teachinglearning activities and textbooks in facilitating hots. it is expected that those components provide wide opportunities for students to exercise hots. moreover, textbook takes an integral part in promoting hots since it becomes a universal element of elt teaching (hutchinson & torres, 1994). it is widely used considering the benefits introduction the great challenges and rapid development of science and technology demand people to possess the skills needed in this era in order to win those challenges and demands. the skills are formulated under the name of 21st century skills which include critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and innovation, collaboration, question formulation, global awareness, communication skills, and technology skills (harvard advanced leadership initiative, 2014). those skills are perceived to be the provisions to face the global challenges in these days. noting the significance of the skills, there is an initiation of the inclusion of the 21st century skills in many educational curricula. this attempt is also projected in the indonesia national education curriculum which emphasizes higher order thinking skills (hots) as one of the competencies that are envisioned (pusat penelitian kebijakan pendidikan dan kebudayaan, badan penelitian dan pengembangan, kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2018). the inclusion of hots is believed as the effort of fostering critical thinking since it is in line with the statement by brookhart (2010) regarding the relation between hots and critical language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 84 can practice, see their progress, and even develop hots. however, based on my previous studies, it is found that hots-based questions are realized in small quantity. another result obtained by ulum (2016), barashid (2020), tangsakul (2017), and permatasari (2012) revealed that most of the reading comprehension questions are tapped by the lower categories and less likely promote higher categories. ulum (2016) who conducted a descriptive content analysis of a reading comprehension questions in a course book q: skills for success 4 reading and writing according to bloom’s taxonomy revealed the same findings that the reading comprehension questions were lack of hots. these results urge the action to assure the implementation of hots in reading comprehension questions. the results of some previous researches bring us evidences that textbooks play an important part in supporting the development of hots, and reading comprehension questions should ideally implement hots. however, based on previous studies hots are realized in small number. connecting these facts, it is essential to make sure that the elements of teaching-learning activity, such as, textbook and reading comprehension questions should implement hots. therefore, this present research is intendedly conducted to analyze how hots are realized in the reading comprehension questions found in english textbooks using cognitive level of bloom’s revised taxonomy (2001), and task types of numrich’s sequence (beaumont, 2010). the research is mainly formulated to answer five main questions: (1) how are hots realized in reading comprehension questions found in the textbook for grade ten?; (2) how are hots realized in the reading comprehension questions found in the textbook for the eleventh grade?; (3) how are hots realized in the reading comprehension questions found in the textbook for the twelfth grade?; (4) how are the reading comprehension questions found in the textbooks for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade realized critical thinking task of numrich’s sequence?; (5) how are the differences among those three textbooks in realizing hots and critical thinking of numrich’s sequence in reading comprehension questions? methods this research is a content analysis analyzing the content of textbooks, specifically the reading comprehension questions found in the analyzed textbooks. since this present research aimed at describing the analysis result regarding that exist not only for students, but also for teachers. for students, textbook provides several components such as materials, activities for students’ practice, and syllabus (when reflected the objectives that have been determined) (cunningsworth, 1995, p.7). in addition, textbook also provides components that ease teachers in deciding what the most appropriate things for their classes are (bojanic & topalov, 2016). this is strengthened by herlinda (2014) stating that textbooks play a crucial role in teaching-learning activity. it is revealed that both teachers agreed that textbook provided materials and activities aspects in language learning, guided teachers in giving homework and created standardized instruction, and also gave idea in making lesson plan. it was also found that in teaching-learning activity, both teachers use more than one textbook as reference. this shows that textbooks play a vital role in classroom activity. realizing those significant roles; therefore, textbooks should ideally come with materials and exercises fostering hots in any subjects, including english. hots should be realized in all of the language skills, specifically reading skill since it is extremely required nowadays. moreover, in current days, students are not only demanded to be able to read, but are also demanded to be able to make meaning of the information they gain (wahyuni, 2019) and further to be critical of what they read (taylor, 2018). referring to the importance of making meaning from reading text; thus, it is no wonder that great effort of assessing and exploring students’ performance on the reading skill has been made. for instance, international test, namely pisa, has been conducted in order to assess proficiency on reading, mathematics, science and an innovative domain, and students’ well-being (oecd, 2018). referring to the result of the test held on 2018, it is revealed that indonesian students scored lower than the average score of oecd in reading. translating the score, 30% of indonesian students attain at least level 2 of proficiency which primarily deal with identifying main idea in a moderate length, find information based on explicit, though sometimes complex criteria, and reflect on the purpose and form of texts when explicitly directed to do so (oecd, 2018). some a negligible percentage reach top performers. these impliedly means that further attention on the reading proficiency should be put. taking the issues into consideration, there should be created exercises and specifically sample of reading comprehension questions promoting hots. by providing these aspects, students language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 85 the realization of hots in reading comprehension questions using cognitive level of bloom’s revised taxonomy (2001) and critical thinking task types of numrich’ sequence (beaumont, 2010), it is categorized into descriptive qualitative research. the reading comprehension questions under the study are those of questions following reading passages found in the textbooks entitled bahasa inggris sma/ma/smk/mak kelas x, xi, xii edisi revisi 2017 published by the ministry of education and culture. there are 170 reading comprehension questions in the textbook for grade x, 42 reading comprehension questions in the textbook for grade xi, and 117 reading comprehension questions in the textbook for grade xii which were examined. since the data under analysis are in the sort of written text, thus, it is categorized as qualitative data. in collecting the data, documentation was chosen with three main steps: (1) reading the textbooks under analysis; (2) collecting the reading comprehension questions; and (3) documenting the questions. having been collected, then, the data were analyzed. in analyzing the data, a framework of data analysis by miles and huberman (1994, p.10) was employed. accordingly, there are three major steps of data analysis: (1) data reduction; (2) data display; (3) conclusion and verification. data reduction is the stage of organizing the raw data into the data which are ready for further analysis and conclusion drawing. data display is believed as the stage of displaying the compressed data. lastly, conclusion and verification is the stream of concluding the displayed data and then verifying the conclusion. referring to the framework, the data on this present research were analyzed with the following procedures: (1) sorting relevant reading comprehension questions and listing the questions based on the textbook they belonged to; (2) identifying the data and displaying the result of identification in the form of table and narrations; (3) drawing conclusion and validating the conclusion. in order to validate the conclusion, triangulation was conducted. it is employed in order to show that other independent measures support the findings or at least don’t contradict (miles & huberman, 1994:266). in doing triangulation, triangulation by data source and theory were employed. therefore, two english teachers were invited to share their perspectives on the implementation of hots in reading comprehension questions in english textbooks trough questionnaire, and related previous researches were selected to triangulate the analysis result. the procedure of analysing data is visualized in figure 1. figure 1. data analysis process results and discussion as previously mentioned that this research specifically investigates the realization of hots in reading comprehension questions in three english textbooks for different level of grades using cognitive level of bloom’s revised taxonomy and critical thinking task types of numrich’s sequence (beaumont, 2010), it is revealed that hots are realized in three different ways. in general, hots are realized in the three textbooks, however, the realization is in different number. for more detail result, table 1 visualizes the frequencies and percentages from the three textbooks. citing the frequencies and the percentages of the realization of cognitive level shown in table 1, there are three main points that can be derived: first, in the textbook for grade x, the table 1. analysis result based on cognitive level of bloom’s revised taxonomy (2001) cognitive level frequency on each grade of the book x % xi % xii % remember 125 73.52% 8 19% 72 61.53% understand 22 12.94% 8 19% 25 21.36% apply 0 0 0 0 1 0.85% higher order thinking skills analyze 9 5.29% 11 26.19% 10 8.54% evaluate 11 6.47% 12 28.57% 6 5.12% create 3 1.76% 3 7.14% 3 2.54% language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 86 categories on the cognitive level are not equally distributed. the lower categories tap the questions in comparison to the higher categories. although applying category is not found, remembering and understanding are found in high percentages. remembering becomes the major category found with more than three quarter of the total questions. in dealing with this category, students mostly cope up with explicit information written in the text, e.g. does she like animals? what impression do you get when you read the word majestically? in accomplishing the questions, students only need to read the text and scan the related information. the answers are explicitly written in the text. this type of question is found in more than three quarter of the total questions, which means that students mostly deal with the question focusing on the lower category. this phenomenon makes the realization of the higher categories in lower percentages. linking to the frequencies of hots-based questions, there are only 13.52% of hots based questions. these hots-based questions are distributed into analyzing 9 questions, evaluating 11 questions, and creating 3 questions. through those type of questions, students are encouraged to deal with the skill to analyze information on the text by differentiating the elements found there, such as, read the text 1 again. find out the similarities between text 1 and text 2. this question demands students to break the text and analyze the elements to find out the similarities and differences. another skill to give evaluative judgement is also manifested in the question like, do you think that the information in the text is clear? this question requires students to evaluate the information in the text and then give their judgement on that information based on the imposed criteria. an important skill to create is also emphasized through 3-unit questions. in the skill of creating, students are demanded to be able to hypothesize, make a plan, or create a product, for instance, why do you think the date of the battle of surabaya is used as a momentum to commemorate our hero’s contributions? through this question, students need to deal with the process of hypothesizing premises. second, the reading comprehension questions found in the textbook for grade xi are dominated by hots. this is proven by the availability of hots in more than 50% of the questions. based on the analysis, there are 61.9% of the reading comprehension questions which are categorized into hots. there are 26.19% of analyzing category, 28.57% of evaluating category, and 7.14% of creating category. from the three categories, evaluating is found higher than analyzing and creating. in evaluating, students mostly deal with making judgement and checking inconsistency. this skill becomes one of the main concerns in critical thinking in which students see an issue from various perspectives and positions (parviz & imam, 2018). this skill is important for the development of critical thinking for students. hence, a great number of questions in this category could stimulate and help students train hots ability. the great number of hots-based questions proves that students are given wider opportunities to practice higher thinking skills. this can be seen through the manifestation of analyze, evaluate, and create in a more than half of the total questions. for instance, these skills are found in the questions, for examples, do you think the poet is content with his choice? give reasons to support your answer!; do you think smoking is dangerous?; do you think it should be banned?; if you had to change the lyrics of stand by me, which lyrics would you change?; who is your hero?; what might the two roads represent or symbolize? make a list of possibilities and discuss with your partner! these questions promote the process of investigating writer’s point of view, making judgement, and hypothesizing. these processes become one of the concerns mainly emphasized in higher order thinking skills. third, reading comprehension questions found in the textbook for grade xii are dominated by lower category, which is remembering category. this creates a situation in which the higher categories are only attained in small quantity. from overall 117 questions, hots-based questions only appear in 19 out of 117 questions or in 16.2% of the questions. these questions are distributed into analyzing 8.54%, evaluating 5.12%, and creating 2.54% of the questions. in comparison to lots, hots are found in lower percentages. in hots-based questions, the skill is translated into the question such as what is being debated? what is the fact? why do you think so?; what differentiate one type of bullying from another?; do you think is the most damaging kind of bullying?; if you were one of the parents, what would you do to respond to some problems with the online system? in the first and second questions, students are required to demonstrate the skill of analyzing by distinguishing facts from opinions, and also differentiating one element to another. while the third question, students are given a challenge to give judgement over kind of bullying. what students are expected to do is deciding which kind of bullying that fits the label of the most damaging, considering all the features mentioned in each type of bullying. on language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 87 the other hand, the last question asks students to formulate solutions to solve online system problem. in this task, students must produce a solution to overcome the problems. this task belongs to creating category in which students mainly focus on connecting elements to create a functional whole (anderson & krathwohl, 2001, p. 84). the cognitive level of bloom’s revised taxonomy (2001) is created for the purpose of assisting teachers in designing tasks based on the cognitive level that is aimed to be reached (anderson & krathwohl, p.6). the categories on the cognitive level work hand in hand. the lower categories need to be emphasized to support the mastery of the higher categories. the higher categories are those the skills of analyzing, evaluating, and creating. in relation to that, only reading comprehension questions in the textbook for grade xi provide adequate number of questions that are qualified to hots. this is claimed as adequate since the realization of hots is found in more than 60% of the questions. the frequent number of hots gives students more platform to sharpen their ability on solving problems requiring higher degree of thinking. however, the reading comprehension questions found in the textbooks for grade x and xii, majorly focus on the lower categories, especially remembering. this category is good to recall the previously learnt information, but too many questions of this category is not enough to promote hots. in these two textbooks, hotsbased questions are only found in less than 20% of the questions which is not sufficient to stimulate and further progress the ability of hots. this brings the evidences that hots ability should be developed. this development can be realized by familiarizing the skills for students. one thing that can provide the platform to familiarize and train the ability of hots is textbook (pratama & retnawati, 2018). thus, in fostering hots for pursuing critical thinking as how it is mentioned in the 21st century skills, hots-based questions should be ideally realized more often (wu & pei, 2018). to sum up, two major findings emerge from this present research. the reading comprehension questions found in the textbooks for grade x and xii mostly deal with the lower categories than the higher categories. hots-based questions are presented in a small number of questions. these are in line with the result obtained by ulum (2016), brasahid (2019), and tangsakul (2017). in those researches, reading comprehension questions are still lack of hots-based questions. in comparison, there is an initiation of imposing hots in reading comprehension questions in adequate number. this is realized in the reading comprehension questions found in the textbook for grade xi. this is supportive with the research by setiyawati who unveiled that hots are found dominant in the textbook she investigated. these two findings are confirmed by two english teachers, who are the users of the textbooks. they stated that hots are moderately realized in the three textbooks. this means that hots, are realized, but not in sufficient number. aside of hots analysis, the analysis based on task types of numrich’s sequence is also conducted. the result of the analysis is displayed in table 2. table 2 shows the result of analysis based on task types of numrich’s sequence. there are seven tasks which are categorized into three perspectives. those tasks are the sequence in building critical thinking starting from investigating personal views, engaging with the main text, and focusing beyond the text (beaumont, 2010). from table 2, it is presented that the task types are not equally realized. from the three textbooks, observing and inquiring further are not found. in contrast, understanding and organizing, and interpreting are dominated. understanding and organizing task is found in more than 50% of the questions in the textbooks for grade x and xii. besides, interpreting task is realized table 2. analysis of reading comprehension questions based on numrich’s sequence perspective cognitive level frequency on each grade of the book x % xi % xii % focus on students’ world observing 0 0 0 0 0 0 identifying assumptions 7 4.11% 8 19% 4 3.41% focus on the text understanding and organizing 124 72.94% 5 11.9% 80 68.37% interpreting 27 15.88% 18 42.85% 22 18.8% focus beyond the text inquiring further 0 0 0 0 0 0 analyze and evaluate 10 5.88% 9 21.42% 8 6.83% making decision 2 1.17% 2 4.76% 3 2.56% language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 88 in nearly 50% of the questions in the textbook for grade xi. the domination of understanding and organizing, and interpreting shows that most of the questions lead students to focus on the information on the text. in understanding and organizing task, the answer can be directly picked from the explicit excerpt on the text. this task is part of critical thinking, however, in dealing with the task, students do not need to think critically since the answer is already written on the text. this is slightly different from interpreting task. this task demands students to focus on the information in the text, but students are required to understand the information deeper. they do not rely on the literal statements, but they have to investigate the meaning behind the literal information. however, in this task, students still focus on the text and not yet move to think beyond the text. seeing the percentages, it can be stated that the tasks focusing beyond the text are distributed in lower percentages. in the textbooks for grade x and xii, questions focusing beyond the text are only found in less than 10% of the questions. moreover, inquiring further is not realized, and making decision is only found in 2 question items. this also happens in the textbook for grade xi. however, in this textbook, the percentages of the activity focusing beyond the text is higher with 26.18% of the questions. those representations share similarity in terms of focusing on the text. the difference is on the task the questions mostly focus on. in the textbooks for grade x and xii, understanding and organizing task is dominating. in the textbook for grade xi, the majority of the questions belong to interpreting. deducing the information related to the task types of numrich’s sequence in the three textbooks, it is discovered that the reading comprehension questions primarily focus on the text. this perspective is surely part of critical thinking; however, dealing with this perspective too much is not enough to stimulate critical thinking. moreover, focusing on evaluating, analyzing, making decision, and problem solving, which are important in critical thinking, are only found in small quantity. according to paul and elder (2008) citing in parviz and imam (2013) critical thinking is a matter of analyzing and evaluating in the purpose of improving it. critical thinking is a kind of thinking involved in solving problems, designing inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decision (parviz & imam, 2013). in comparison to the definitions, from three analyzed textbooks, the task of analyzing, evaluating, finding more sources of information, and making decision are found in small percentages. inquiring further, which focuses on finding out more information is not found in the three textbooks. analyzing and evaluating is found in less than 6% of the questions in the textbook for grade x, 21% of the questions in the textbook for grade xi, and less than 7% of the questions in the textbook for grade xii. furthermore, making decision task is only found in 2 questions in the textbooks for grade x and xi, and 3 questions in the textbook for grade xii. inferring the percentages, the critical thinkingbased questions are found in minimum percentages. in comparison to that, critical thinking seems to be imposed in only small quantities and needs more number in order to pursue the skill. in connection to critical thinking task types of numrich’s sequence, it is explained that critical thinking is built by experiencing various activities that give increasing challenges. it starts from investigating students’ own world, focusing on the text, and then focusing beyond the text (beaumont, 2010). it is also explained that critical thinking activates emotional or get responses to finally create a reasonable judgement (beaumont, 2010). however, it is revealed that the reading comprehension questions only focus on the text. the activity of investigating students’ personal emotion and then connect it to think beyond the text is somewhat neglected. thus, it can be said that the three textbooks are less likely boost critical thinking since the tasks that students perform do not call students to think critically to engage with the world beyond the literal information that they gain in the text and the problem beyond what they solve in the text. those results are agreed by the findings obtained by permatasari (2010) which released the information regarding the tasks students mainly focus on. in that research, the majority of the questions push students to focus on the text. this means that the attention on developing critical thinking-based questions should be increased. conclusions in accordance with the presented findings, it is drawn that hots are only adequately realized in the textbook for grade xi. in the textbooks for grade x and xii, hots are found there, but in small quantity. this is quite surprising since hots-based questions are demanded in current days by the curriculum. furthermore, it is also explained that critical thinking-based questions according to task types of numrich’s sequence language circle: journal of language and literature 15 (1) october 2020 83-89 89 appear in low percentages, for the questions commonly focus on the text. therefore, taking the findings into consideration, it is advisable that education stakeholders, teachers, textbook writers, and house of publishers should give more attention on the effort of fostering and developing hots. it is expected that more sources on hots-based questions should be added. further action in engaging with the issue on the development of hots are expected to be initiated. references anderson, & krathwohl. (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. longman barashid, m. (2020). analyzing the content of reading texts questions in flying high for saudi arabia. international education studies, 13(6), 96-103. beaumont, j. (2010). a sequence of critical thinking tasks. tesol journal, 1(4), 427-448. radić-bojanić, b. b., & topalov, j. p. (2016). textbooks in the efl classroom: defining, assessing and analyzing. zbornik radova filozofskog fakulteta u prištini, (46-3), 137-153. brookhart, s. m. (2010). how to assess higher-order thinking skills in your classroom. ascd cunningsworth, a. (1995). choosing your coursebookmacmillan heinemann publishers ltd brown, s. (2014). education for the 21st century: executive summary.© advanced leadership initiative. business administration harvard business school. cambridge. uk, 14. herlinda, r. (2014). the use of textbook in teaching and learning process (a case study of two eyl teachers). the 61st teflin international conference, uns solo. hutchinson, t., & torres, e. (1994). the textbook as agent of change. elt journal, 48(4) miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). sage publications oecd. (2019). programme for international students assessment (pisa) results from pisa 2018, 1(3) parviz, b., & imam, a. (2012). manifestation of critical thinking skill in the english textbooks employed by language institutes in iran. international journal of research studies in language learning, 2(2), 27-38 permatasari, r. (2012). the critical thinking tasks displayed on the textbooks for eleventh grade students of senior high school (doctoral dissertation, universitas negeri semarang). pratama, g. s., & retnawati, h. (2018, september). urgency of higher order thinking skills (hots) content analysis in mathematics textbook. in journal of physics: conference series (vol. 1097, no. 1, p. 012147). pusat penelitian kebijakan pendidikan dan kebudayaan, badan penelitian dan pengembangan, kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. (2018). muatan hots pada pembelajaran kurikulum 2013 pendidikan dsar. rahma, d. n. (2019). an analysis of reading comprehension questions made by english teacher at sman 2 sidoarjo based on baret’s taxonomy ineltal conference proceedings. the international english language teachers and lecturers conference. setiyawati, e. (2016) using revised bloom’s taxonomy to analyze reading comprehension question in english textbook entitle ”bahasa inggris” for grade xi by kemendikbud 2014. unpublished thesis. universitas katolik widya mandala, surabaya. tangsakul, p., kijponphol, w., linh, n. d., kimura, l. n. (2017). using bloom’s revised taxonomy to analyze reading comprehension questions in team up in english 1-3 and grade 9 english o-net test. international journal of researchgranthaalayah, 5(7), 31-41 taylor, s. (2018). reading for meaning: a guide to the research on best-practice teaching of comprehension in today’s world. oxford university press ulum, o. g. (2016). a descriptive content analysis of the extent of bloom’s taxonomy in the reading comprehension questions of the course book q: skill for success 4 reading and writing. the qualitative report, 21(9), 1674-1683. wahyuni, s. (2019). investigating students’ critical literacy: a preliminary study. 2nd unnes teflin seminar wu, y., & pei, z. (2018). an investigation of critical thinking manifested in the questions of efl textbooks for tertiary-level english majors of china. american journal of education and learning, 3(2), 72-84. language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８７ ８７ efl learners’ reflection on digitally mediated multimodal project-based learning: multimodal enactment in a listening-speaking class kaffah visa alvionita1 kaffahvisa_1803046029@student.walisongo.ac.id lulut widyaningrum2 lulut.widyaningrum@walisongo.ac.id agus prayogo3 agus.prayogo@walisongo.ac.id 1,2,3universitas islam negeri (uin) walisongo semarang abstract although teaching methods had been developed in recent years, project-based learning adopting multimodality in language teaching-learning which deals with materials development facilitating language skills and environment care at the varsity level remained underexplored yet. this qualitative content analysis study purposed to explore learners’ reflections in the enactment of multimodal projectbased learning – to display how multimodal project-based learning facilitates learners’ language skills and environmental care. twenty-four learners act as participants, do various projects, and describe their experience toward multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking course in the form of learners’ reflections. the findings show that students report the positive effects which influence their learning process. the results also indicate that adopting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking facilitates learners’ language skills development and builds environmental awareness. thus, the results of this research may have implications as the pioneer projects on investigating learners’ reflection of multimodal project-based learning and contribute to the development of the efl learning process in general. keywords: multimodal project-based learning, learners’ reflections introduction since the growth of technology has become more affordable day by day, chris (2011) states that higher education institution classrooms are being converted from traditional into multimodal learning environments, while students are equipped with any gadget such as tablets and smartphones which are connected with the network and social media as well. here, as students, learners need to adjust this condition related to the learning process. besides, the development of teaching methods also has been being varied in recent years. so, an appropriate teaching method is needed to be enacted in the class of higher education institutions these days. multimodal project-based of green listening and speaking is an alternative way that comes with a combination of materials, methods, and media. this kind of multimodal challenges students with a kind of product-oriented performance-based assessment. by using this assessment, the score will be examined based on some products such as flyers, posters, videos, and powerpoint presentations. by using this kind of multimodal, youngjoo (2016) states that the products are supposed to be a combination of (1) texts/genre/purposes, (2) images/visual, (3) sound/audio, (4) videos, gestures, costume, poems, or websites. thus, this multimodal projectbased learning is expected to help students learn english skills, especially listening and speaking. likewise developing learners’ listening and speaking skills, the materials of “green listening” may enrich and build learners’ environment care. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:kaffahvisa_1803046029@student.walisongo.ac.id mailto:lulut.widyaningrum@walisongo.ac.id mailto:agus.prayogo@walisongo.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８８ ８８ it is related to the student's preparation for the unpredictable 5-10 years of global changes. the given projects in the listening class are expected to sensitize learners’ environmental awareness such as deforestation and waste problems that causes global climate change on our earth. adams (2020) states that this earth has called us to consider and start to take actions of its conservation and protection towards: (1) 75% damage of ecosystems, (2) up to one million threatened with extinction species, (3) more than 85% lost wetlands, (4) 90% greenhouse gas emissions, and (5) the loss of a football field of forest in every minute. then, students get a project of making a campaign video related to the environmental crises above. therefore, learners’ environmental awareness can be built up and empower them to survive their future life. studies about multimodality previously explained that multimodality is important for meaning-making and communication. eugene (2020) defined meaning-making as “the relationship between a genuine, interested, information-seeking, question and serious response to it". furthermore, students can be attracted when they start asking as follow: a) what other people think, and how they describe it; then b) what they do, feel, relate to, and think about. another study from rowsell & walsh (2011) explains that multimodality is a kind of field that takes into account how individuals arrange the meaning in another way. so, we can say that in multimodality meaning-making does not only based on the individual perspective but also related to the others’ perspective that aims to communicate with others. multimodality on the varied foci such as multimodal literacy, motivational capacity, inquiry, and multimodal digital project assessment had been explained by drajati et.al (2018). the use of multimodal platforms in the classroom is intended to improve the quality of the learning process. hence, project-based learning (pbl) is one of the methods that help teachers and learners especially gain a higher level of goals in 21st-century skills development which are related to technological skills. along with the technological developments, sarosa et.al (2021) explained that project-based learning methods recently had been more popular in the education field. stephany (2010) exposed this kind of method was explained as a teaching method that instructional allowed students to play a role actively in driving their learning process through inquiry, working in a collaborative activity, and creating any project that reveals their knowledge well. in the meantime, previous researchers indicated that project-based learning used over past years was being a successful method that afforded academic performances, high-order cognitive skills, attitudes, students’ self-directed learning skills, motivation, and creativity in the educational settings (see. bagheri et al., 2013; gültekin, 2007; isabekov & sadyrova, 2018; kai et al., 2011; koparan & güven, 2014; pinho-lopes & macedo, 2014). therefore, it showed that investigating pbl in a learning process was a beneficial method in the educational setting, especially at the varsity level that must be conducted by the researcher. based on the explanation above, it is clear that project-based learning is a very helpful method in the teaching and learning process. here, knowing learners’ perceptions in adopting project-based learning is an important thing to be investigated. sometimes, learners are getting bored and even unengaged in the class. they are also likely uninterested to learn and work the assignments. so, to increase their understanding and engagement of the material, the use of projectbased learning is suggested to be applied and it is important to be investigated. as the explanation that project-based learning is one of a great method in the teaching and learning process, peter (2012) explains that knowing students’ attitudes in adopting projectbased learning is very important as well. students’ attitude plays an important role because it is one of the main factors besides motivation that influences them in a good way. in indonesia, luh et.al (2018) explained that this study is quite limited. thus, a study on this topic which is rarely explored of adopting multimodal project-based learning must be engaged by the researcher. some studies had explored in the education field such as the effect of the project-based learning method on students’ attitudes, as well as students’ attitudes in terms of cognitive, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８９ ８９ behavioral, and effectivity (see. ayaz & söylemez, 2015; gültekin, 2007; koparan & güven, 2014). meanwhile, genc (2015) exposed the effect of project-based learning on learners’ attitudes toward environmental care. in this study, environmental care and preservation concepts were explored in detail. here, students had their group projects on environmental problems to deal with. this course was beneficial in evolving learners’ positive attitudes toward the environment. the researcher explained that environmental problems were clearer and it was found by the project. this activity also enhanced learners’ creativity in their way of thinking and problem-solving. this study had a different methodology from the present one. the previous study used a mixed-method explanatory design. in the meantime, the present study adopts a content analysis method. besides, previously students are in the environmental course while in this present research students are grouped in the extensive listening and speaking course. another study by vincent (2018) investigated a model of project-based learning that was called as 10cs of project-based learning tesol curriculum. this model engaged with the principle of pbl with second language development elements. project-based learning tesol curriculum is a student-centered design dominated by collaborative engagement and the teacher plays a role as the facilitator only. it is intended to develop students’ socio-affective capacities, creativity, communication skills, and linguistics knowledge. meanwhile, the present study adopts the principle of pbl to build learners’ english skills in terms of listening and speaking courses in efl classes by exploring their reflections. farrel (2006) explained an old cliché which stated “experience is the greatest teacher” might no be that true if we didn’t learn as much from such experiences as the reflection on those experiences. here, reflection or reflective practice provides an extensive understanding to the teaching and learning process. related to the statement, the researcher explains that reflection is purposed to improve the process and the outcome of classroom activities. it is also intended to develop the confidence and motivation of both learner and teacher. here, learners’ reflection should be invested due to the use of studentcentered method which mostly used nowadays. then, the process of teaching and learning in the efl class would be better although it might not be easy worked. prayogo & widyaningrum (2019) explicitly revealed a reflective practice mediated by whatsapp group application. this previous study explored teachers’ experience in an online environment where teachers shared and interacted with their colleagues by constructing knowledge and evaluating the teaching practice. the study was conducted in the general english two subject which focuses on reading and writing skills. the finding of the study provided the development of teacher professionalism which increased the quality of efl teaching and learning process by facilitating them with collaboration and interaction mediated by whatsapp application. meanwhile, the present study reveals learners’ reflections mediated multimodal projectbased learning which is expected to facilitate learners’ listening and speaking skills and also environmental care developments. it is intended to increase their enthusiasm for the learning process where the environmental care topic is rarely discussed in the field of english learning. both previous and present one explores reflections but the present one refers to explore students’ point of view instead of teachers’ perceptions. it is because the method used in the class is a student-centered method and this side is unexplored yet in the previous study which interestingly discussed to gain a better english learning process. so, investigating learners’ reflections to the implementation of multimodal project-based learning in language learning play important roles in supporting and enhancing learners’ learning process. based on the explanation above, knowing learners’ perceptions in adopting project-based learning in the efl class is an important thing since it has established the success of the learning process. so, adopting multimodal project-based learning is a good choice for the indonesian educational setting. since this kind of method is important for the learning process in education but it is still infrequently investigated, the researcher believes to explore this issue further. this recent study is conducted to answer these http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９０ ９０ following questions (1) how is pre-service teacher’s reflection in the enactment of multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking? and (2) how does multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking facilitate pre-service teacher’s language skills and environmental care? this research is intended to figure out the efl learners’ perceptions by investigating learners’ reflections on adopting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking skills since this kind of research is quite limited in indonesia. with this intention, this study is expected to complete the gap area of the previous studies. a piece of evidence from murat (2015) showed that project-based learning helped students deal with environmental problems more clearly and provide active tasks in the solution process. this teaching method also seemed to be meaningful in enriching vocabulary, pronunciation, creativity, listening and speaking skills, and in building environmental awareness during the extensive listening and speaking course. methodology 24 efl learners of the extensive listening and speaking course were willing to fill out the agreement form to participate in this present study. they have consisted of 21 female and 3 male students in the second semester level between 18 to 20 years old. the ultimate goal of the course is to develop learners’ listening and speaking skills, vocabulary development, pronunciation recognitions productivity behaviors, and environmental care. in this extensive listening and speaking course, the learning activities were adopting multimodal project-based learning activities where students engaged with various themes and topics repeatedly in defined time guided with a listening & movie logs platform, class discussion, and presentation, making online mind-maps, posters, video campaigns, and reflections. students also communicate with other people through the presentation and comment session on their social media accounts. because of the covid-19 pandemic, the class is set up in the form of an online mode adopting zoom for meeting and discussion, a whatsapp group for communication, and an e-learning system provided by the university for conducting attendance, instructions, materials, assignments, and reflections. this design supports students' information and communication technology (ict) skills development in facing any challenge in the 21st century. the topic selected in this extensive listening and speaking course is “green listening” which discusses environmental awareness such as waste, deforestation, and pollution. they also try to invite other people to care about these problems. this topic is purposed to build up learners’ awareness to take responsibility for keeping the environment through understanding spoken talks and projects related to the topic. so, these projects can empower learners’ positive attitudes and make a balance between ict skill developments and environmental care buildings. this project was carried out which consists of three kinds of activities. these projects began with making posters or flyers. in this way, the teacher had presented the material and gave the example of using canva as a design platform and online maps creator. both canva and online mind-map was selected because these two were easy to use and only needed a low level of ict skills, especially for beginners. a lot of templates also appeared in canva, so students could choose one of them as their flyer or poster design and edited the design based on their creativity and taste. they also easily added the texts of the campaign and interesting images to attract the viewers. the posters or flyers would be posted on learners’ social media accounts such as instagram, facebook, and whatsapp. then, they tried to show up their speaking skill by making a video campaign about environmental care that would be posted on their youtube channel. after posting the result projects, students identified the viewers' comments on their social media posts. they also might be responding and interacting with the viewers through the comment section. students also should report their projects in the form of presentations to the class individually. last but not least, the students were required to write down their experiences in the form of reflection through an e-learning system in adopting http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９１ ９１ multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking. the present research used learners’ reflections as the instrument which can be accessed through an e-learning system provided by the university. in the previous research conducted by peter jarvis (2002), it was exposed that reflections in the form of journals provide two kinds of reflective purposes. firstly, the reflection was going to help the student become a reflective learner who was expected to make various recording data including attitudes, reading, and study habits. here, students were required to describe their self-developments. in this case, students might record their development of knowledge, the ability to identify and articulate issues, and experience during joining the program. secondly, students were able to examine their self-development and empowerment feelings by themselves. this previous study has differences from the recent one. the reflections in the recent study consist of how the learning process is carried out, the projects are created, the campaign is made, and the viewers' responses. students also share the impact of multimodal projects in the form of reflections. after all, the researcher uses learners’ reflections to know their perception in adopting multimodal project-based learning in the extensive listening and speaking course. in the process of finding the result, the researcher conducted this research with an inductive qualitative content technique to analyze and describe the data retrieved from saldana (2009). here, learners’ reflections were transcribed and reviewed to gain a general understanding. then, each reflection is summarized by the researcher. the summarized reflection was abstracted and named with any code. the researcher categorized the codes depending on the similarities and the ways of emerging them. the researcher used a manual technique instead of using software to analyze the data. for gaining dependability, the pieces of information and codes were checked and examined by the participants. besides, to gain credibility, the report and interpretation were given, and checked the authenticity of the work to the students as the participants (informants) of this study. moreover, the researcher hired external auditors who are familiar with qualitative research to verify the findings of this study. this action means that the codes and classes of the reflections provided by the researcher had been examined and confirmed. here, the information of the participants was kept safe by the researcher. result and discussion result in this section, the researcher will describe the findings from the data collected by learners’ reflections on adopting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking. this is designed in the extensive listening and speaking course of the english education department which means in an efl class. each student explains their reflections in a paragraph and submits them in the e-learning that is provided by the university itself. the poofs provided in the reflection by explaining learners’ experience in making a poster or flyer and a video campaign which are commented on by the viewers. it also reveals learners’ perception of adopting multimodal project-based learning which facilitates their development of listening and speaking skills, creativity skills, vocabulary, pronunciation recognitions, and environmental care. students also explain another experience in engaging in this multimodal project-based learning which comes from the viewers’ responses. here, the researcher learners’ reflections are explained many kinds of feelings after they are going through the experiences. the analysis of learners’ reflections indicates that students find a new fun way to facilitate and improve their “listening” and “speaking” skills. the following extracts elaborate learners’ reflections on adapting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking. through this learning session, i can improve my speaking skill in class by inviting people to care more about the environment by making a poster and posting it on social media. i also make a video about the plastic waste issue and i invite my viewers to reduce the use of plastic to save our ecosystems. (participant a5) http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９２ ９２ the social media campaign in the extensive listening and speaking course is so fun. i am happy because i can practice listening through audio and video prepared by the lecturer and speaking in front of my friends on the online platform, even though my speaking skill is not fluent. this course motivates me to continue learning and improving my skill. (participant a21) another statement described that multimodal green listening and speaking improved their creative skills. students try to make creative captions to attract their viewers. they also feel the improvement of their “creativity” because they make a poster for reducing plastic waste. here are the reflections that elaborated on these statements. the campaign is carried out through presentation and social media where each student creates and uploads posters on instagram, whatsapp, and facebook. i also try to invite my viewers by making creative and attractive captions and also campaign how to protect the environment from waste. (participant a19) this activity also developed my creativity in making a poster for reducing plastic waste and choosing a proper design. (participant a24) the other advantages of multimodal projectbased learning show that this method can improve learners’ “vocabularies” and “pronunciation recognition”. students have found new vocabulary related to the environmental issue which is not the main topic discussed in their class. they also get more pronunciation recognition in the practice of speaking in making a campaign video. another elaboration of the reflection appeared below. in the extensive listening and speaking class, i got listening log assignments every week. i got a lot of new vocabulary that i never knew before. sometimes, i also found the difference in pronunciation of each word. (participant a22) then, most of the students mentioned that multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking methods in their course improve their environmental awareness. this is an essential topic which very good in building up learners’ good attitudes when combined with multimodal project-based learning. here are some students explained in their reflections below. in this course, i conducted socialization on how we reduce the trash in the sea by making a poster and posting it on wa status. i also made a video about this and uploaded it on my youtube channel. i got a lot of inspiration and new knowledge about protecting nature. from this session, i think it is very beneficial for me and many people who have seen my poster and video. (participant a1) i can say that i have achieved the goal of this campaign which is to invite others to minimize the use of plastic in daily life. (participant a2) this course made me realize the importance of reminding each other and growing a more conscious and caring attitude. if positive things are done for togetherness, indeed, these efforts can produce outstanding results for all. (participant a11) in this course, i consider that the use of plastic bags is increasing day by and it is not a good thing. instead of using plastic bags, it will be better if people use cloth bags. so, sharing and inviting to do this activity is a good idea. (participant a23) furthermore, students also faced challenges during this course. moreover, after they got any feedback from their friends in the comment sections. here are the student’s reflections that mentioned the challenge. i have created a poster entitled “one step to make your earth brighter” and i have shared it on social media. maybe many people saw it and also understood what i was conveying and campaigning on the poster. unfortunately, i did not get any response from people who saw my poster. (participant a8) out of the hundreds of viewers, most of them did not care about the invitation of environmental awareness through posters and videos. it was very disappointing for me because this small action did not motivate them to do positive action for the environment. (participant a14) based on the analysis above, learners have various impressions in adopting multimodal http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９３ ９３ project-based learning of green listening and speaking. students described that this kind of method can improve their listening and speaking skills in a new way. they also mentioned that this method enhanced their vocabularies and pronunciation recognitions. moreover, they claimed that the projects built up their environmental awareness. they also face any challenge of viewers’ feedback such unresponsive comments. these results indicate that this method gives various experiences for students in adopting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking. discussion this section provides a discussion of the research findings. depending on the analysis of learners’ reflections, the researcher infers that efl students who are engaging with multimodal project-based learning in their extensive listening and speaking course get various experiences based on their perceptions. depending on the data analysis of learners’ reflections, the researcher found out five themes emerged in this study. these five themes are listening and speaking skills, creativity improvements, vocabulary development, pronunciation recognition, and environmental awareness. table 1 related themes and quotes theme quotations listening and speaking skills efl students reflected on the descriptions that their listening and speaking skills are being increased since multimodal project-based learning has been conducted in their class. creativity learners’ creativity developments were also found based on the learners’ reflection on making the posters or flyers and creating the interesting caption. vocabulary development efl students were prompted to reflect on their vocabulary developments since they found unfamiliar vocabulary in making the projects. pronunciation recognition since the findings of unfamiliar vocabulary were not related to the usual material in efl class, students would look for the pronunciation to read the words properly. environmental awareness most of the students noted their experiences of being more considerate of the environmental issues which became their responsibility to keep it up. response several students also reported that they got unexpected responses from the viewers who did not give any good responses. second-year efl learners have gotten various experiences in the multimodal projectbased learning design. in the end, students also completed a reflection related to their experiences. based on learners’ reflection analysis, it is found that multimodal project-based learning in the extensive listening and speaking course is rewarding for the learning process. as the result of the present study, these projects give students a chance to play as active agents such as decisionmakers, poster designers, video makers, reporters, and agents of social change. the first theme of the results is the improvement of listening and speaking skills among indonesian efl students. mastering both listening and speaking must be considered to have good communication skills which is an important competency in the 21st century. the results were supported by the findings from simon avery (2006) that reviewed the teaching of english skills to students in higher education by conducting the project methodology. this previous study engaged with reflective learning to encourage their learning and progress activities. this study http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９４ ９４ outlined that the project method gives positive benefits for improving learners’ oral skills by participating in the discussions, reading aloud, engaging in group work, and delivering presentations. on the other hand, this present study did not only talk about the impact of the use of project-based learning on oral skills but also on listening skills. another previous study from moly and hilary (2018) also supported the findings of the recent study. the previous researcher conducted the same methodology as the recent one namely project soapbox which was project-based learning. the analysis of this previous study indicated that project soapbox gained student's anticipated political engagement, confidence in the presentation session, and listening to the other’s speech. thus, this previous study found that the project soapbox on high school students gave a positive impact on listening with empathy and speaking with confidence. similarly, both previous and recent study is engaged with the impacts of listening and speaking skills using the project-based learning method. the difference comes in the subjects of the study where the previous one deals with high school students and the recent one come with learners at the varsity level. the second theme of the result is creative development. creativity is defined as a core competency in the 21st century where the learning process at school is intended to prepare the student to be creative problem solvers in the future. greenier (2018) explored a model of project-based learning that was called the 10cs of project-based learning tesol curriculum applied in the korean middle school. in this previous study, the researcher found students’ experiences that explained that they were required to think creatively during the program and this model can be more effectively helped them in learning english. the similarities come to the present study where the results exposed the creativity development among indonesian learners while the previous one was conducted with korean middle schoolers. another study from ji won yu (2021) investigated the science college students’ creativity in a team project-based learning design. the results of this previous study had implications for the creative learning process in team project-based learning. the study also validated the importance of the safe psychology aspect in team project-based learning and explored the moderating role of team creativity. the previous researcher also revealed that team interaction was important to team creativity development. meanwhile, in the present one, the multimodal project-based learning of listening and speaking influenced indonesian efl learners’ creativity in making individual projects such as poster or flyer design and arranging interesting captions. the third theme of finding is defined to be vocabulary development. a word is a basis of communication. this is the reason why learning words is very important to explain ideas and thoughts as well. without using words, it will be very difficult. for these reasons, the existence of vocabulary is extremely important since without using proper words which are related to the context, people will not be able to know and understand what other people say. here, multimodality as the interdisciplinary approach related to the ict skill comes as a proper method in the learning process. previously, millaray et.al (2016)conducted an action research project to investigate the impacts of using multimodality on vocabulary acquisition among students of two semi-public schools. the result of this previous study indicated that the use of multimodality gave benefits to the students in their learning process of new vocabulary which could enhance students’ communication skills in learning english. the researcher of this present study also conducted multimodality for enhancing learners’ new vocabulary developments. moreover, the learners are prepared to be an educator of english in indonesia. by analyzing learners’ reflections after the class ended, the researcher found that the use of multimodal project-based learning in the class supported learners’ vocabulary developments in learning english as a foreign language. the fourth theme of the results tends to be pronunciation recognition. pronunciation is basic support in oral communication which is used to understand a message of people's statements. sometimes, english pronunciation errors can cause misunderstandings among people. hence, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９５ ９５ learning pronunciation adequately is a crucial thing for the ones who learn english. based on this reason, the teaching method used seems important to deal with the improvement of pronunciation recognition. here, multimodal appears as the one which can lead students to enhance their pronunciation properly. a previous study claimed that the multimodal tools used were having the possibility to enhance l2 learners’ pronunciation. by using a novel speech with an automatic speech recognition (asr) technology, strik et.al (2013) indicated that the possibility is not only for pronunciation training but also for l2 teaching aspects. in the present one, the researcher organized a multimodal projectbased learning design in an efl class. here, the researcher found out the existence of pronunciation recognition in the use of multimodal project-based learning. the fifth theme of the findings is students’ environmental awareness. therefore, a previous study conducted by genc (2015) exposed that project-based learning affected learners’ positive attitudes toward the environmental issue. this result resembles the result of this present study. depending on the analysis of learners’ reflections, this multimodal project-based learning in the form of poster making, students engage with activities of creating and meaning-making which then influence them to aware of environmental issues. since no course discussed environmental care in their major, this topic is extremely attractive for them. then, they are going to look for other materials related to the topic to support their environmental awareness posters. in the case of a campaign video, it has invited the audiences to care about the environment. so, this result shows that this kind of method influence and develop learners’ positive attitudes by enhancing their environmental awareness and the viewers as well. the last theme of the results is the viewers’ responses to the projects uploaded on social media. by analyzing learners’ reflections, the researcher found that many viewers did not give any response to the posters or flyers and even the video campaign. even if there is a comment, it doesn’t show their enthusiasm for an environmental issue. this result might be conducted as the evolution of the implementation of multimodal project-based learning in the efl class. conclusion in conclusion, adopting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking course can improve learners’ attitudes. based on the findings and discussions, this kind of method facilitates learners’ listening-speaking skills, vocabulary enrichments, pronunciation recognition, and builds their environmental awareness. moreover, students are being more active, interested, and enjoyed the learning process. so, we can conclude that adopting multimodal project-based learning of green listening and speaking is an effective way of developing learners’ attitudes in the learning process although they have to deal with unresponsive comments from the viewers. this study has given implications such as an example of how multimodal project-based learning can be adopted and applied in the classroom to improve learners’ english skills and build their environmental care. as a result, this research serves as the pioneer project in investigating learners’ reflections at the varsity level of multimodal project-based learning in the extensive listening and speaking course. this 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(2021). enhancing creativity in team project-based learning amongst science college students : the moderating role of psychological safety. innovations in education and teaching international, 58(2), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2020.17117 96 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 183 implementing group investigation to learn reading for senior high school students ana valentine maleng1 naanavalentine669@gmail.com elysa hartati2 elysa@mercubuana-yogya.ac.id 1,2english language education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mercu buana yogyakarta, yogyakarta abstract students’ boredom when it comes to reading long texts gives an impact on their comprehension of the text’s main idea due to the use of traditional teaching and learning techniques. therefore, this study aims to describe how group investigation (gi) is implemented in teaching reading, as well as to find out the students’ responses toward gi in learning reading. this research focuses on finding out the evidence of how far the method affects students reading ability. the mixed-method between qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to conduct this research. the data obtained were from observation, questionnaire, interview, and documentation. the gi was conducted with group discussion and peer review. the result showed that 84.21% of students gave positive respond toward gi implementation. based on the interview, students felt they were more motivated, engaged, and enjoyed during the reading skill lesson. thus, gi is a good alternative to learn reading and help students’ reading comprehension as well as the class environment to be more active and joyful. keywords: group investigation, method, reading skill introduction english as a language will become a language that is widely used for communication among people in different backgrounds at the end of the twentieth century (harmer, 2007). this statement showed that english has an essential role in education to make people can be a part of this modern era. in learning english, four skills have to be mastered by the user, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. these four skills must be balanced one and another. as the country that adopted english as the foreign language (efl), indonesia also applies these four skills in its education field. not only that, since indonesia has been included in asean economic community (aec), it is a must for this country to make the students fluent in english. however, not all students in indonesia can master those skills at the same time. grabe (2009) said that reading is an interactive process between the readers and the text, in which the readers are using their knowledge to build, create and construct the meaning. also, it is an automatic identification skill and an array of higher-level comprehension or interpretation skills. in line with it, the other experts said that reading is the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among (1) the reader's existing knowledge; (2) the information suggested by the text being read; and (3) the context of the reading situation (wixson, peters, weber, & roeber, 1987). reading is an important activity in digging up the knowledge and increasing insight. although it has many benefits, in education, some students may say that this theory is right, and some may not since they have no interest in reading. however, in today’s era, reading’s skill is important because many texts used in daily life have been available in english. this means students will have difficulty in following the process of globalization if their reading skill is not upgraded or improved. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:naanavalentine669@gmail.com mailto:elysa@mercubuana-yogya.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 184 based on a study of most littered nation in the world conducted by central connecticut state university 2016, it is known that indonesia is in the position 60 of 61 countries which has a low reading interest. moreover, according to the human development and culture ministry, people in indonesia only read three or four times a week or equal to spending 30 minutes until 60 minutes a day reading. this means they can only finish five to nine books in a year. in education itself, students also have a low reading ability, especially in english. megawati (2017) states that many students have difficulties in reading english texts because they only have limited vocabulary so it is hard for them to understand the meaning of the text. from the data collected through the preliminary interview, students were asked about their usual english class were conducted. most of the time, they were taught by the conventional learning method, which happened to be teachercentered learning. therefore, to gain more student’s interest, motivation, and comprehension toward the materials given, the group investigation method was suggested to be applied. reading then became the main skill in this research. it was due to the students’ boredom when it came to reading long texts and then gave an impact on their comprehension of the text’s main idea. the results of observations and interviewing english teachers at private senior high schools in surakarta, central java also showed that students had difficulty reading english texts. students in one class at that school had a low reading ability related to finding the main idea of the text and specific information asked by the teacher or question provided by the book they use. besides, the ability of reading owned by the students was also influenced by the teachers’ way of teaching. this was in line with the 2013 curriculum mentioned that the purpose of reading is to understand the meaning in the simple written interpersonal and transactional discourse formally or informally, especially in the form of recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, and report, in the context of daily life. to make students get the meaning of the text as well as achieve the goal of the curriculum, a suitable teaching and learning process and proper technique should be applied. many kinds of techniques can be used to teach reading, such as learning together, student teams achievement divisions, group investigation, let’s ask and learn together, jigsaw, and readingwritingpresentation. amongst the variety of teaching techniques, this study tried to identify the implementation of group investigation. this method is one of the cooperative learning methods that involve students in relatively long-term interaction, extending for many days, weeks, or even months (sharan & sharan, 1992). group investigation involves students working together on projects, with the class functions as a group or groups. working together with peers will make students feel happy, assume that it can be a fun activity to be done without pressure from the teachers. the group investigation technique requires the students to make small groups, plan and implement their investigation, synthesize the group member’s findings, and make a presentation to the entire class. by using this technique, teachers are expected to create a smooth and enjoyable teaching and learning atmosphere, especially in the reading activity. when applying this technique teacher should put the students with different levels of ability together in one group. group investigation not only makes the students interested in the reading activity, but it also makes the teachers should think creatively to choose the best materials for students to increase the student’s way of thinking to solve the problems. this means that group investigation does not only bring benefit for students, but also teachers themselves. previous gi implementation on english course has been done by nisfah (2009) and iswardati, (2016). both of the researches showed positive feedback and result. nisfah (2009) suggested that gi had given so much improvement, especially new atmosphere for students in learning writing. the students’ responses were positive as they became more interested in developing their english writing https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 185 skills. it is also in line with iswardati, (2016) where she used classroom action research and done in two cycles when implementing gi. after the execution, she found that it improved students’ speaking ability that can be seen in their pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. not only did it improve students’ speaking skill, but it also encouraged students to participate in a speaking activity.then, it is known that the implementation of gi had performed a good another possibility for better teaching english skill, such as writing and speaking. therefore, this study explores more on using gi in different fields of english skill, which is reading. it elaborates more on students’ responses, including their experience, emotion, and lesson comprehension. it is hoped that the use of gi also attains a better teaching and learning experience in a similar way as the previous study's outcomes. moreover, if the students’ reading ability is still low, then the purposes of the curriculum also cannot be achieved and it can make the quality of education in indonesia decreased. according to oecd (2016), there is only 1% indonesian adult who has adequate literacy level that can integrate, interpret, and synthesize information from a longer text. this has made indonesia rank as low as 60 out of 61 countries based on central connecticut state university (2016) on "the world most literate nation study" (john w miller, n.d.). this condition is believed to cause severe effects, such as lower human productivity, due to poor literacy, information and knowledge will hardly be acquired or limited. this will lead to another problem, the failure to optimize the potential for themselves and their society. also, education could easily stop, for instance, higher school drop level. without literacy awareness, the importance of education is not built from within yourself but rather as normative, thus lead to the basis of unemployment. based on the description aforementioned, this research is conducted to implement group investigation in one school in central java. this study aims to describe how group investigation is implemented in teaching reading, as well as to find out the students’ responses toward group investigation in learning reading. therefore, the implementation of group investigation is expected to create a new learning and teaching process so that teachers can teach reading using the suitable technique and students can have a good reading ability as well as they can learn something by themselves through reading. methodology this research used a mixed-method approach to gather and analyze the data. according to gunnell, (2016), mixed methods is a systematic integration of mixing between quantitative and qualitative data within a single investigation. the mixedmethod utilizes these data than do separate quantitative and qualitative collection and analysis. this study was conducted at the xi ipa grade students in the academic year of 2019/2020 in the even semester. this class was chosen based on the teacher’s recommendation due to teachers’ difficulties and students' low reading comprehension. in this class, there are eleven males and eight females. all of the students were between the age of 16-18 years old. to obtain the data, this research used observation, questionnaire collection, interviews, and documentation. in line with a qualitative method, the data collecting technique was done by observing the teaching and learning process in the classroom and interviewing 4 sample students as well as a quantitative method by asking the students’ response in form of a questionnaire toward the model of group investigation. the questionnaire was designed to be filled out by the students to see their responses towards learning reading through gi. there were 10 items designed with yes or no answers based on nurmalasari (2016) with focusing on their knowledge toward the gi model. at the end of the second meeting, the questionnaire was carried out. the students were guided and explained about the questionnaire items before filling them out so that they understood the items very well. the interview was designed to see more detail on their responses towards learning reading https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 186 through gi. when learning biography text, the teacher divided the class into 4 groups, where each group consisted of 4 to 5 students. each group should choose their leader on their own, without any teacher’s intervention. these leaders, later on, were chosen as the sample student to be interviewed. there were 20 items of semistructured questions designed based on pratama (2013) with focusing on their experience and feelings when gi was implemented in their lesson. the interview was done in indonesian to ease students when answering the questions as well as to get in-depth and genuine answers. the documentation was taken during the class activity. it aimed to picture how the students were engaged in the project work. according to helm et al. (1997), documentation reveals how the students planned, carried out, and completed the displayed work. documentation makes it possible for others to become aware of the students’ experiences in the classroom the data obtained from this research was analyzed by using miles et al. (2014) theory correlated to the data analysis in qualitative research, there were steps of data analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion/verification. data reduction was the activity of selecting, abstracting, and restudying the transcription or field notes during the process of observing and documenting. the second stage was data display which was about organizing and compressing the summary in data reduction. the third step was drawing conclusions and verification which was the last step of analyzing qualitative research. it was about finding and writing to summarize after two processes before done. result and discussion this research was conducted within the english subject in class xi ipa of senior high school. the meeting topic was biography texts which were placed on 2 meetings according to the teacher’s lesson plan. these meetings were different from their regular class due to the implementation of group investigation to help students’ reading comprehension. the implementation of group investigation in the research, students were given time to discuss more with their friends about the materials. the teacher brought up the topic of biography text. in this research, the lesson focused more on student-centered learning, thus the teacher became the facilitator, only to stir and make sure the materials were in track. group investigation in the first meeting in the first meeting, the teacher explained biography texts. it was done because explanation of biography texts was needed by students. the teacher was also asked some questions about some famous people by providing the materials on screen. some questions related to the biography text were asked to the students. it was done to catch student’s attention and to elicit their knowledge related to the texts. before starting the lesson, the teacher introduced the new learning method, group investigation, which would be applied in the first and second meeting. she explained that the course would require a lot of peer discussion and students were needed to be active. to make the discussion flowed smoothly, the teacher had already made the groups based on their reading comprehension achievement. this aimed the students not only gathered with their preference peers, but rather with those who could help them to improve each other reading comprehension. therefore, they should be around with their group in the first and second meeting when learning biography texts. in the next stage, the teacher distributed a biography text for all students. the students were given some time to read the text and comprehend the main idea. after that, a medium of short biography video was also played to make them understand more on the main idea of the text. then, the teacher asked the students to identify the generic structure and language features. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 187 students were given time to discuss with their peers, thus it made the class a bit noisy, but the teacher always checked each groups’ progress. however, the class felt joyful and fun, whilst they were only learning the basic material of the topic. from the observation, most of the group member were active and tried to share their opinion toward the topic. the students were solving the problems in their group, and the teacher made sure their discussion went on the right path. after each group finished discussing their work, the teacher gathered all students to discuss together on the answers. most of the group answered the task with the right answer. in the end of this stage, students needed to answer some questions related to the texts. they were asked to identify the elements of the text (topic, vocabulary, generic structures and the goal). then, the students had to answer the task related to the text. in the end of the discussion, the teacher summarized the materials. she also gave feedback to the students and their result with positive praise, such as “you did a good job today, i’m very happy with your activity in the class.” students were also given individual homework to write a biography text about one member of their families. then, the class was dismissed. group investigation in the second meeting in the second meeting, the teacher tried to encourage the students to be active in the class by asking questions about the lesson from the previous meeting. most of the students still remembered the materials that they had learned before. in the next stage, the teacher asked the students to gather again with their previous group consisting of 4 to 5 people. then, 4 to 5 different texts were distributed for each group. the texts were biographical recount texts in a full story about one figure but from different sources. each students were given some time to read their text. they were asked to find some information about the figure and they should inform it to their friends in the group. each student had specific and unique information about the figure so that this would complete and enrich their knowledge about the figure. this task gave students more excitement, and more serious class, because they had to focus on their work as well as their group result. students gave attention to their texts and they had to share it with their other friends. the class were quiet because the students were reading carefully, they seemed did not want to miss any specific information, since what they read were different from each other. after individual reading section, they were given discussion time. here, each member of the group should tell their materials. each group was enthusiast to listen each different stories from their members. the class was active, and they supported each other to speak up. the condition, thus, made the students enjoy sharing and discussion section, since they already felt close with their friends. when all member of the group had already stated their data from the text, they should gather all information to make a whole and complete biography text. in the end of the discussion, one of the each group member should share their group’s result. figure 1 students’ activity in gi implementation the teacher then gave some feedback about their learning progress. in the end of the discussion, the teacher summarized the materials. she also gave feedback to the students and their result with positive praise. the students were also given individual homework to about the next meeting topic then, the class was dismissed. students’ response fromquestionnaire https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 188 students ' responses were seen based on the questionnaire that has been shared at the end of the lesson. the student’s learning questionnaire were filled by 19 students after learning with the model of group investigation on the reading skill in class xi ipa of senior high school. the result obtained is provided in table1. table 1 students’ questionnaire responses towards gi implementation no statement response yes no total (%) total (%) 1 the group investigation learning model is a new learning model for me 16 84.21 3 15.78 2 i find it easier to understand the english reading material taught 16 84.21 3 15.78 3 i find it easier to interact with friends in the group 17 89.47 2 10.52 4 i feel more active when studying english reading text 15 78.94 4 21.05 5 the group investigation learning model increases interest in learning to read english reading material 15 78.94 4 21.05 6 i feel motivated in learning english reading material by using the group investigation learning model 16 84.21 3 15.78 7 i like the learning model of group investigation to study english reading text 17 89.47 2 10.52 8 i am interested in following the next lesson with the group investigation learning model 17 89.47 2 10.52 9 i feel the difference between learning using groupinvestigation with conventional learning16 84.21 3 15.78 10 the group investigation learning model makes me excited and not bored while the learning process is taking place 17 89.47 2 10.52 average 84.21 15.78 from the data, it is known that most students (84.21%) thought group investigation helped them on learning reading skills. most of the students loved to learn using the group investigation model because the study model was student-centered. students should seek their own information from the topics given by the teachers in each group, making students more active than teacher-centered learning, and facilitate the ability to understand the reading text material rather than using conventional models. through exchanging thoughts and sharing knowledge with each other, students got more enjoyment. in addition, students in their classes were required to read explicitly on topics closely connected to issues around them through the implementation of this technique. they may also develop their reading skills by debating, reviewing, posing, and asking or answering questions. this model not only improves students' awareness but also creates social skills that are very important for integrating the context of texts in life. student’s responses from interview an interview was also conducted with the students to triangulate the data to make it more https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 189 valid. it is done to students and teachers by giving semi-structural questions to find the problem. interview to students was held in random sampling, consisting of 4 students. the interview consisted of 20 set questions. the students were given structural questions which led to getting their response toward the implementation of group investigation on teaching english reading skills. some interviews were conducted with the students to obtain their comments on the reading class. group investigation has been effective in enhancing the students' comprehension of reading texts. through communicating with their peers and sharing their information with them, they could comprehend the knowledge. the technique also increased their interest by doing the research throughout the lesson to understand the texts. the teacher provided the students with a task to read unique and specific texts for every group member in order to activate all students in each group. the students appreciated the learning process because they liked new activity as seen in the interview transcript. the teacher did a group task that took the form of an essay during this process to include students more in the discussions. the task helped them to understand the biographical text that was aimed at investigating all the data on the figure. the goal of these questions was to improve the understanding of the biography text. it was submitted for review after the assignment was completed. students typically increase their interest in the learning process. such exercises helped them appreciate the information they received and they could share with others in their community what they learned. functioning in a group meant that students were able to get more understanding about the text from their friends' input. the students stated that they were encouraged to participate in the classroom activities. the students may even reduce the difficulties of answering to the tasks and the reading comprehension test. then the enthusiasm of the students also grew while reading english texts. on the results of the interview, students feel more comfortable as they read the text and answer questions. discussion group investigation (gi) model accounts as cooperative learning where students work together to find problem-solving with analysis with group research. group investigation (gi) model templates four or five members of each group from various backgrounds or levels. the group could grow good relationship based on the same interest or friendship, students felt more relaxed in their groups and likely engage with those who have the same style of work. group investigation has resulted in increasing the students' comprehension and engagement in reading english text. group investigation offered a situation for students that could allow them to be involved in learning reading skills. they were taught to communicate with each other and with the teacher. they got chances to exchange ideas and information about the materials with others. in the beginning, the students had been encouraged to express the goals of their lessons through media, accompanied by questions and answers. the students' attention to the lessons was also increased. the students have become more motivated to work together through gi. it allowed students, through sharing their ideas, teaching each other knowledge, and prompting students to read the text, and also help their other friends. during the lesson, the students were encouraged, confident, and actively engaged. the mixed skills group could help slow learners to understand reading material and encourage them. this also contributes to reading comprehension improvement. the group of mixed abilities also prevents students from boredom. in addition, when studying in groups or in pairs, students were more interested in joining the class. encouraging students and facilitating enjoyable learning activities are more likely to increase their engagement in the lessons. the students were not scared to interact positively with their peers. they https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 190 may exchange their knowledge and at the same time, they improve their comprehension. the gi method has successfully attracted the attention of students so that they have taken care of the material presented. as students' interests in the subject have grown, they have no more spoken to their peers about other subjects. thus the noise of the class was reduced. the class was therefore less monotonous since the teacher did not dominate the class. the teacher helped explain the text a little bit. the teacher did not give the answer straight away. the teacher encourages the learner to find the answers by themselves. therefore, students were getting benefit from the english course through the gi method. during the teaching and learning process, they were well engaged. for instance, they will ask questions when they do not understand, answer questions actively, and openly become volunteers. it was in accordance with nelli & hartati (2018), where students’ participation increased when students were given interesting learning methods and certain rewards. the students were often willing to teach or inform if their friends have difficulties while learning. they became more interested to read as they had friends who would help them to comprehend the text. it became more interesting the learning of reading english text. it was not simply reading texts, practicing translation, and answering reading questions, but also carrying out various activities that could motivate all students to work in groups. using the gi method built a fun and enjoyable learning environment. as the students became focus on the process, they did not rely on the teacher to learn english. students may assist other friends in finishing projects and understanding materials. as a result, they became more confident and willing to study english actively. conclusion based on the results of research and discussion, it can be concluded that group investigation methods of learning could help the students’ reading comprehension. the students were more driven to read by cooperative learning. this encouraged students to support other friends by sharing their opinions, skills, and encouraging them to read the text. during the reading class, students got motivated, confident and engaged, because they enjoyed the lesson. the students also felt helped by learning with the gi method. this means that the teacher can encourage students to work in groups or pairs so that they can discuss learning materials with their friends. at last, it can be noted that gi is a good alternative to teach reading and help students’ reading comprehension as well as class environment to be more active and joyful. references grabe, w. 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(2013). using cooperative learning strategies to improve reading comprehension of the seventh grade students at smp n 1 borobudur in the academic year of 2012/2013 [thesis universitas negeri yogyakarta]. sharan, y., & sharan, s. (1992). expanding cooperative learning through group investigation. teachers college press. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed367509 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://doi.org/10.29407/jetar.v2i2.833 https://doi.org/10.26486/jele.v4i1.317 http://library.ar-raniry.ac.id/ http://library.ar-raniry.ac.id/ https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/skills_matter_further_results_from_the_survey_of_adult_skills.pdf https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/skills_matter_further_results_from_the_survey_of_adult_skills.pdf https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/skills_matter_further_results_from_the_survey_of_adult_skills.pdf https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed367509 http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 192 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 293 a manipulation of semantic meanings as a humor construction strategy m. masqotul imam romadlani1 imam.romadlani@gmail.com 1gadjah mada university abstract this research is conducted to reveal how humorous utterances are constructed by manipulating semantic meaning especially dealing with lexical semantics. lexical semantics provides multiple meanings that portray their meanings’ relationship among a word and they are potentially exploited to elicit humor. this research examines utterances manipulating lexical semantics as the strategy of humor creation in mind your language situation comedy. applying a descriptive qualitative approach, the findings indicate that five types of lexical semantics are utilized as strategies of humorous utterances creation. those types of lexical semantics are polysemy, homonymy, homophone, hyponymy, dan synonymy. because of their multiple relation meanings, the speaker can refer to other meanings to construct different meanings with the hearer. the speaker constructs an incongruent meaning between what the hearer’s perception is and what the speaker meant. the deviation of lexical semantics between the hearer and the speaker completely illustrates the concept of incongruity theory of humor. keywords: humor; semantics; lexical semantics; mind your language introduction ross (2005) conceptualizes humor as a certain quality or potential of somebody or something to be funny and amusing. funniness and amusement are commonly expressed by smiling or laughing. quite resemble ross’s conception of humor, raskin (1994) defines humor as everything that can evoke laughter, it can be an audio or visual thing that stimulates something funny. humor can be expressed by a physical gesture or verbal language. some humorous expressions also employ both physical and verbal humor. verbal humor exploits linguistic aspects as a strategy of humor construction. the speaker can manipulate some linguistic aspects such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic, and pragmatic to create humorous discourse. the exploitation of those linguistic aspects in verbal humor is closely related to the incongruity theory of humor. attardo (1994) highlights that incongruity is based on the discovery of a reality or a thought that turns out to be inconsistent with what was expected. it means that the main characteristic of that theory of humor is incongruences. based on that theory, a distorted linguistics aspect could be represented by an odd linguistic expression, contradiction, bewildering, or disordering hearer’s perception. berger (1976) underlines that incongruity can be applied linguistically in syllables, words, phrases, and meanings to create humor. “incongruity is marked by conflict, contrast, and differentiation” (marmysz, 2003, p. 128). related to marmysz’s characteristic of incongruity, wijana (1994) also states that the essence of humor creation utilizes a different combination of two meanings, perceptions, or conceptions between speaker and hearer by which cause unexpectedness and peculiarity as a humorous construction requirement. that conception of incongruity can be found linguistically by breaking https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:imam.romadlani@gmail.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 294 the ruled-govern of a language which potentially elicit laugh or smile as an indicator of humor occurrence (wijana, 1995). even though laughter is a primary indicator of humor, meyer (2000) involves smiles, grins, or even sudden exhalations that can indicate the experience of humor. in a particular context, meyer asserts communication is a key factor in nearly all theories of humor because it results from a message or interaction perceived by others. based on the conception of humor creation above, wijana (2004) and hurley, dennett, and adams (2011) identify several forms of verbal humor such as puns and wordplay, situation comedy, cartoons, musical jokes, fairy tale, riddle, folk story, folk poetry, nickname, and an amusing name of food. this research examines verbal humor creation in one of the phenomenal and controversial situation comedies entitled mind your language, a british comedy television series produced by london weekend television (lwt) in 1977. that sitcom told the audiences about foreigners who learned english as their second language. they came from different countries with different first languages, cultures, and occupations as well. the characters in that comedy series involved miss courtney as the headmaster of the educational college, mr. brown as an english teacher, gladys as a cafeteria school keeper, and sid as the cockney caretaker of the school. the students’ characters presented chung su lee from china, taro nagazumi from japan, anna schmidt from german, max from greek, ranjeet singh from india, giovanni capello from italy, ali nadim from pakistan, danielle favre from french, jameela ranjha from india, and juan cervantes from spain. because of their different knowledge of english, their utterances mostly trigger laughter. to make it more specific, this research investigates lexical semantics as the strategy of humor creation in mind your language situation comedy. this research focuses on the incongruence of lexical semantics in manipulating meaning to construct humorous utterances. focusing on one of the smaller linguistic units, hopefully, this research is in a position to provide an applicable strategy in constructing verbal humor. semantic meaning, especially lexical relation unconsciously is widely used in daily conversation. this research should contribute theoretically in creating verbal humor by manipulating lexical relation meanings such as synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, hyponymy, and polysemy. theoretically, a study dealing with linguistic meaning is known as semantics. becker and bieswenger (2006) claim that words in a certain language can be semantically related to one another in many different ways. finegan (2012) labels that semantic phenomenon dealing with word meaning and examines relationships among word meanings is called lexical semantics (see also riemer, (2010) and becker and bieswenger, (2006). fromkin, rodman, and hyams, (2011) characterizes that lexical semantics often ends in the bound morpheme -nym such as synonymy, antonymy, homonyms, polysemy, and hyponyms (see also rowe and levine, (2016) akmajian, demers, farmer, and harnish, (2001) finch, (2003); o’grady, dobrovolsky, and aronoff (1997); finegan (2012); yule (2014); and saeed (2003). riemer (2010) also comprises meronym as part of lexical semantics even though it has nearly overlapped meaning with hyponyms. several pieces of research that examined linguistic aspect especially dealing with semantic aspect in verbal humor were conducted by joloud (2015); lutfi (2019); rahmi (2017); sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto (2018); litvinenko, sirazova, and zharkynbekova (2020); sukardi, yuwana, and sumarlam (2016); and anisah (2016). lutfi (2016) analyze semantic and pragmatic aspect in english jokes while rahmi (2017) examines semantic and pragmatic aspects as a joke strategy in situation comedy. some of those previous research findings show how lexical relation meanings are manipulated to construct humor. joloud’s semantic analysis in the reader’s digest humor found that homonymy, paronymy, and polysemy are identified as humor creation strategies. quite resemble joloud’s findings, litvinenko, sirazova, and zharkynbekova (2020) found that the phenomenon of homonymy, polysemy, and paronomasia is employed to create https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 295 humor in english, french and russian anecdotes. focusing on one type of lexical relations, anisah (2016) examines polysemy in indonesian lawak klub humorous discourse while sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto (2018) examine homonymy in meme. another investigation concerning lexical ambiguity is conducted by jojić (2013) and charina (2017). jojić (2013) examines lexical puns in a situation comedy while charina (2017) investigates lexical and syntactic ambiguity in 30 humorous and ambiguous sentences occurring in newspaper headlines, advertisement slogans, and jokes. methodology by the background of the research, this research applies a descriptive qualitative approach. as denscombe (2007, p. 248) highlights, “qualitative research is disposed to be associated with words or images as the unit of analysis, this research takes words as the unit of analysis”. scripts that had been adjusted to the subtitles of mind your language in season 1 are proceed to be research data. from those adjusted scripts, comprehensive observation and annotation are needed to provide data analysis. that sitcom has 4 seasons consisting of 42 episodes. this research considers all 13 episodes in season 1 to limit the saturation of repeated and similar data at the rest of the seasons. besides, the emergence of artificial laughter at that sitcoms is also considered to establish utterances containing humorous utterances especially related to lexical semantics. this research identifies lexical semantics exploited as a strategy of verbal humor creation in mind your language situation comedy. after identifying the types of lexical relations, an argumentative discussion is given to explain how the meaning relationship in a word is manipulated to build humorous utterances in that sitcom. this interpretation is also strengthened by looking up an oxford dictionary to understand the semantic meaning. findings and discussion a distorted meaning in the semantic aspect can be utilized to create humorous utterances. involving multiple meanings that potentially construct ambiguous or incongruent meaning lead the speaker and hearer to refer to a different meaning of a similar word. semantic aspects, especially lexical semantics, are employed to create humorous discourse in mind your language situation comedy. the findings show that the forms of lexical semantics employed to create humor are polysemy, homonymy, homophone, hyponym, and synonym. the types of lexical semantics which usually are originated in humor construction is polysemy and homonymy. the employment of those lexical semantics occurs because they represent a similar word that has more than one meaning. that is why becker and bieswenger (2006) and o’grady, dobrovolsky, and aronoff (1997) call them lexical ambiguity because both polysemy and homonym refer to a single lexical form that has two or more meanings. polysemy is used to the word which has more than one and related meanings, while homonymy is used to express a word that has more than one and unrelated meanings. rowe and levine (2016) explain that the term homonymy is labeled for words that have different meanings and might be spelled similarly or differently, but they are pronounced similarly. polysemy semantically, a word meaning can be a primary or secondary meaning. some words in every language have primary and secondary meanings, depending on the linguistic context surrounding them. a very common example of a polysemous word is the use of the word head. that word can be used to mean a part of a human’s body and it can also be used as the highest position in an institution or a group. those two meanings are still interconnected based on their linguistic context. the meaning of the word head is a part of humans’ body as the highest position. the concept of the highest position of the head in humans’ body is involved to construct meaning as the highest position in an organization. because of those multiple meanings, polysemy is often be employed to produce humorous utterances. the use of two https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 296 different concepts of meaning at the same speech event potentially led to an incongruity as in the example below. (1) mr. brown: let's see your observations on the stars. juan: por favor? ah sí, stars. there is plenty stars. mr. brown: yes, could you name some? juan: sophia loren, brigitte bardot. the conversation above occurred in the classroom between mr. brown and juan. mr. brown allowed each student to speak english for one minute on a different topic. in example (1), mr. brown asked juan to talk about stars. the word stars mean objects in the sky that appear to light up at night or they can also be interpreted as planets. mr. brown asked juan to describe the object and named some of the stars or planets that he knew. when juan mentioned several names related to stars, juan did not name those kinds of stars. he just mentioned several actresses’ names such as sophia loren and brigitte bardot. juan perceived the meaning of stars as a secondary meaning, while mr. brown asked juan to talk about stars in their primary meaning. the concept of discrepancy in juan's utterances above indicated the emergence of humor by manipulating the polysemous meaning of stars. even though that word was used in the different senses of meaning, they still showed a related meaning. both mr. brown and juan referred to different meanings of that word that evoked laughter. as mentioned in the previous section, the meaning of a word has a primary meaning and a secondary meaning. when a word used refers to its original meaning, without being influenced by the context of the situation, it can be classified as a primary meaning. conversely, if the word used does not refer to the original meaning or the lexical meaning it can be said to be a secondary meaning. in other words, the primary meaning can be said as literal meaning and secondary meaning as figurative meaning. as an english native speaker, mr. brown can produce meaning figuratively in his utterances to contribute to the humor construction. (2) mr. brown: taro, sit down. now, before we do anything else this evening, i want to find a monitor. giovanni: o.k. you tell us where to look! we find one. (3) mr. brown: taro. taro: yes teacher? mr. brown: paris is in france. taro: no. to buckingham parace. mr. brown: ah, buckingham palace! i follow you. taro: you follow me? mr. brown: yes. taro: i didn’t see you then. another example of the polysemous word in constructing humorous utterance was found in example (2). before mr. brown started teaching, he wanted to find someone with good enough english skills to handle the class if mr. brown had to leave the classroom for a while. mr. brown expressed it with the word monitor. as a native speaker, mr. brown certainly understands the figurative meaning of that word. however, students who are still in the process of learning english will take the meaning of monitor. a monitor is one of the hardware devices on a computer that functions to display images, video, or other works. meanwhile, mr. brown, in example (2), used the word monitor to refer to the meaning of a person who can help him to oversee. giovanni, who took that meaning literally, responded to mr. brown by saying o.k. you tell us where to look! we find one. the funniness occurred when giovanni contributed a response that was related to mr. brown, but conceptually, his response was not appropriate to mr. brown’s utterance. it was because of a different perception between what mr. brown meant and what meaning giovanni was considered. the use of figurative meaning in creating humor was also carried out by taro in example (3). when taro shared his weekend experience in buckingham palace, mr. brown misunderstood the word palace. that was because taro mispronounced that word by saying parace for palace. that incorrect https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 297 pronunciation sounded like pronouncing the word paris. after clarifying, mr. brown understood what taro meant that he attempted to say palace. to confirm, mr. brown told taro that he understood him by uttering i follow you. the word follow means to come or to go after or behind somebody or something. contextually, mr. brown used that expression to convey that he had understood what taro meant. on the other hand, taro considered the meaning literally that mr. brown followed him during his weekend in buckingham palace. it led taro to respond to mr. brown’s utterance by saying i didn't see you then because he presumed that he did not mr. brown there. taro’s incongruent response above also indicated a concept of incongruity theory of humor. taro’s irrelevant response made audiences laughing. (4) mr. brown: ali. ali: yes please. mr. brown: can i see you please? ali: you are seeing me now. another polysemous meaning to create humor was found in the dialogue (4). when mr. brown came to ali in the classroom, mr. brown wanted to have a serious discussion privately with ali in miss courtney's office by uttering can i see you, please. mr. brown used that utterance figuratively that there is something quite important he wanted to talk to ali in eyes on eyes. hearing mr. brown’s utterance, ali perceived mr. brown’s utterance literally and responded by saying you are seeing me now. the funniness occurred because mr. brown and ali perceived different meanings for the word see. mr. brown used that word figuratively while ali used that word in the literal meaning. that incongruent perception led ali to produce an irrelevance response which triggered humor. based on the example (2), (3), and (4), it can be seen how manipulation of literal and figurative meanings can be conducted to elicit humor. an irrelevance utterance represented the incongruent meaning between the speaker and the hearer. homonymy nearly all languages, in general, have words that present various meanings even though they are realized with similar speech sounds and similar spelling. those concepts in constructing meaning in linguistics are called homonymy. as rowe and levine (2016) underline about homonymy, an ambiguity caused by a similar sound, and sometimes the same figure is utilized to create humor. fromkin et al. (2011) presume that homonyms are good candidates for confusion as well as humor. in more specific terms, homonyms are an unrelated sense of the same phonological word. saeed (2003) highlights that some authors distinguish between homographs, sense of the same written word, and homophone, sense of the same spoken word. some examples of homonymy use in the humor creation process can be seen in some examples below. (5) miss courtney: go down the corridor. ali: down the corridor. miss courtney: good. turn left. ali: turn left. miss courtney: right. ali: you are confusing me. (6) giovanni: there is glasgow rangers, glasgow celtics, football. miss courtney: i was not referring to football, i was talking about the race. giovanni: no, no, no, is not a race, it’s football. i see them play at milano in the cup. a conversation in example (5) occurred between ali and miss courtney. ali visited miss courtney's office to ask english class for immigrants. after giving some information, miss courtney gave ali a direction to get to the classroom. miss courtney also advised ali to wait for his teacher in the classroom. when miss courtney was giving instruction, ali’s gesture seemed as if he understood what miss courtney was saying. the funniness occurred when miss courtney used the word right to confirm that what ali said was true. meanwhile, ali interpreted the word right as a hint to go to the right side the opposite of the left. that similarity of the spelling and sounds of the word right presents a different meaning that is perceived differently by miss https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 298 courtney and ali. it indicates a concept of incongruity theory of humor which is characterized by an inappropriate response from the speaker. a similar case was also found in example (6) on giovanni’s utterance. miss courtney was explaining the history of the english language. finding a word celtic in miss courtney's utterances, giovanni who minded celtics as one of a football club in scotland conveyed his opinion about celtics. those different perceptions of the meaning of celtic between miss courtney and giovanni led them to a misunderstanding situation. miss courtney had clarified that she did not talk about football, but she talked about race. the word race was perceived differently by miss courtney and giovanni. miss courtney used the word race to refer to any of the groups into which humans can be divided according to their physical characteristics, culture, history, language, etc., while giovanni interpreted that word as a contest between runners, horses, vehicles, etc. to see which one is the fastest. those contradictive meanings are manipulated to construct humorous utterances by demonstrating an irrelevant response. that homonymous word led miss courtney and giovanni in an awkward situation that triggered funniness. a different conception of one word that has a similar sound and spelling was also found in the example below. before starting the meeting, mr. brown gave a simple question about a term used to describe the valley between two mountains. juan who seemed to be confused and did not know the answer responded to the question by saying pass. juan used that word to say that he did not know the answer to a question, especially for the quiz. in another context, the word pass is also used to refer to a valley between two mountains. unconsciously, juan's intention to say that he did not know the answer by saying pass made his answer correct. the different meaning of the similar word served by juan and perceived by mr. brown made mr. brown received juan’s answer. that ambiguous word portrayed the incongruity between what juan meant and what he did to respond to the question. a similar word perceived differently by juan and mr. brown demonstrated how homonymous words could be manipulated to evoke laughter. (7) mr. brown: here is your question. what is another name for a valley between two mountains? juan: valley between two mountains? pass. mr. brown: correct. another example of homonymy which happened because of naming as sukardi et al.’s findings (2018) could be seen in example (8). it illustrates the use of personal names ambiguously to express lexical words related to a sort of color. (8) mr. brown: i am brown. ali: oh, no. you are committing a mistake. mr. brown: mistake? ali: yes, you are not brown! we are brown! you are white. mr. brown: my name is brown! i'm your teacher. mr. brown introduced himself the first time he met his students in the classroom by saying i am brown. hearing mr. brown's utterance, one of his students looked surprised. he then corrected mr. brown's utterance by saying you are not brown! we are brown! you are white. based on that example, it could be seen that there was an ambiguous meaning of the word brown. mr. brown used that word to refer to his name. besides, a different meaning was perceived by ali who considered that the word brown was used to refer to mr. brown’s skin color. their incongruent meanings of the word brown were employed to construct humorous utterances by showing the concept of lexical ambiguity as what becker and bieswenger (2006) and o'grady, dobrovolsky, and aronoff (1997) presume. ali and mr. brown expressed different meanings to a similar word, brown, that made audiences laughing. that different perception also led ali to produce an irrelevance response. homophones the term homonym is used to refer to the concept of the same sound and spelling or it may spell differently which has different meanings. yule https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 299 (2014) and finch (2003) use the term homophones to refer to the concept of a word which has a similar sound but it has different and unrelated meaning. the concept of homophones also refers to the same sound but different in spelling. in short, it can be said that homophones are different words that have the same sound speech or pronunciation (see also becker and bieswanger, 2006). some examples of using homophones as a strategy to create humor can be seen in the conversation below. (9) mr. brown: max, question five! quite a hard one this one. construct a sentence using the word indisposition. max: sure! every saturday i play the football and i am being the goalkeeper! because i like playing in this position. (10) mr. brown: max, desk doesn't begin with the letter a! i want a word beginning with a. max: a door. mr. brown: good, adore! well done. ali: excuse please! mr. brown: yes ali. ali: i am not understanding why you are saying a desk is not right but a door is right. mr. brown, in example (9), asked max to make a sentence using the word indisposition. max responded to the question with a sentence that did not contain the word indisposition as mr. brown expected. however, in max's sentence construction, there was a speech sound that had a similar pronunciation as the word indisposition. that was in this position. phonologically, those two speech sounds are pronounced in the same pronunciation. max perceived the sound of the word indisposition as the pronunciation of in this position so max made a sentence containing that expression. those homophonous speech sounds are completely different in writing, but indisposition and in this position illustrate a similar sound. that different perception of the same sounds also led max to produce an irrelevance response to answer mr. brown's question. an identical case was also found in max's utterance in example (10). mr. brown asked max to give him an example of an english word beginning with the letter a. at the first chance, max responded to mr. brown by giving the word a desk that was no relevance to the question because a desk was not a word and the word desk began with the letter d. on the second occasion, max responded to mr. brown’s question by giving the word a door. conceptually, max still gave a similar response to the first one. nevertheless, mr. brown perceived the sounds of a door as adore so he received max’s answer right. the word that max meant was a door not adore. that homophonous word unconsciously led the speaker and hearer to perceive different words that evoke laughter. that was because the sound of the word adore was similar to a door. based on the example, it clearly can be seen how the concept of homophone led the speaker and hearer to construct humorous utterances by showing an irrelevance response. (11) mr. brown: if you want to be pedantic about it ranjeet, write your surname and forename. ranjeet: i am not having four names also. (12) mr. brown: anna, c. anna: red. mr. brown: red? what's that got to do with c? anna: red sea. a conversation between mr. brown and ranjeet in example (11) also indicated the use of homophones as a humor creation strategy. when mr. brown briefed all his students before they had an examination to get a certificate, he asked his students to fill their name column first. mr. brown used the word forename to refer to the first name. one of his students, ranjeet, considered that mr. brown uttered four names so he responded to mr. brown by saying i am not having four names also. although they have different meanings and spellings, the word forename and the phrase four names share a similarity in pronunciation. ranjeet’s word choice in his utterance represented phonological manipulation of those words to construct funny meaning. he seemed conscious to exploit that homophonous expression to evoke laughter. ranjeet demonstrated the concept of incongruity theory of humor by providing two https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 300 incongruent words that have similar sounds in pronunciation. another example of homophones use was found in example (12). mr. brown asked anna to give him an example of an english word beginning with the letter c. because of their resemblance sounds, anna supposed that the sound of the letter c was the word sea. she responded to mr. brown’s question by uttering red, a kind of familiar sea's name. even though they are orthographically different, they share a homophonous sound of two unrelated sense of a letter c and the word sea. a conversation between anna and mr. brown indicated the use of those homophonous words to produce an ambiguity to elicit humor. anna responded to mr. brown’s utterance with her misperception that led her to make an irrelevant response. hyponymy more specific words that constitute a subclass of a more general word are called hyponyms (rowe and levine, 2016). saeed (2003), finch (2003), and cruse (1986) highlight that hyponymy is a relation of inclusion which means that a hyponym includes a meaning of more general meaning with more complete expression. an example of a hyponym provides meaning in more complete words or expressions. yule (2014) underlines that hyponymy can be identified when the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another. as riemer’s differentiation of hyponym and meronymy, becker and bieswenger (2006) draw the basic concept of those lexical semantics, meronymy refers to terms for parts of real objects, whereas hyponymy refers to a hierarchy. one example commonly used to describe the concept of hyponymy can be seen in the use of the words cat and animal or grasshopper and insect. cats are a hyponym for animals, as well as grasshoppers which are a hyponym for insects. based on the category, the word animals and insects in a wider context are called hypernyms because they are superordinate or a more general term. a distorted concept of hyponymy is also able to construct humorous utterances as in the findings below. (13) mr. brown: and before you discovered this secret of eternal wealth, what did you do? ali: i worked at the taj mahal. mr. brown: in delhi? ali: no, putney. the taj mahal tandoori restaurant. (14) mr. brown: giovanni, what were you and juan quarrelling over? giovanni: he was making fun of santa maria. mr. brown: santa maria, the virgin mary? mr. brown: no, louis g santa maria, the italian foot baller. a conversation between mr. brown and ali in example (13) took place when mr. brown was fulfilling one of his students’ identities, ali nadim from pakistan. mr. brown asked ali about his job. before he came to london, ali said to mr. brown that he worked at the taj mahal. taj mahal is widely known as one of india's most popular icons in delhi, so mr. brown interpreted that ali worked in delhi. however, what ali meant about the taj mahal was not referring to india’s icon located in delhi. the taj mahal meant by ali is the name of a restaurant in putney, the taj mahal tandoori restaurant. ali’s utterance illustrated that he produced incomplete meaning through his utterance. semantically, the meaning of what ali meant laid in another more complete utterance. the use of hyponym could be seen in how ali only mentioned the taj mahal at first without mentioning the complete name of a place where he worked to construct the hearer’s perception. when the hearer presumed that ali worked in delhi, ali said that he did not work in delhi, but in putney, at the taj mahal tandoori restaurant. what ali meant about the taj mahal was the name of a restaurant in putney, not the taj mahal in delhi. a quite similar case was also illustrated by giovanni in example (14). mr. brown assumed that giovanni's utterance about santa maria as the virgin mary. unfortunately, in a more complete meaning, santa maria that giovanni meant referred to louis g. santa maria, an italian footballer. involving incomplete meaning in the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 301 previous utterance for more complete meaning potentially lead the speaker and hearer have different perception that can cause humor. that was the realization of the hyponymy concept as the humor creation strategy with irrelevance response. (15) anna: then i had to prepare a meal for the bitch. mr. brown: anna, she may be a hard taskmistress but i don't think you ought to call her that. anna: who? mr. brown: mrs. valker... walker. anna: i vas meaning the dog bitch. mr. brown: oh i see. the use of hyponymy to produce humorous utterance was also found in the example (15). anna was telling mr. brown the reason why she did not have time to finish her assignment. as an immigrant who worked as a household assistant, anna told mr. brown how busy she was. after completing her housework, anna also had to prepare food for her employer’s female dog. the funniness arose when anna, at her first utterance, did not convey what she meant completely by only saying then i had to prepare a meal for the bitch. this made mr. brown assumed that anna was complaining and insulting her employer by calling her a bitch. hearing anna’s utterance, mr. brown attempted to reprimand anna for not referring to her employer as a bitch. that word, in english contexts, is classified as a vulgar word. however, at a more complete utterance, anna then clarified that the word bitch did not refer to her employer, but she was referring to her employer’s dog bitch. before anna explained what meant, it could be seen how the first utterance brought partial and uncomplete meaning to drive the hearer’s perception. then she produced the more complete meaning and utterance in the second utterance to explain what she meant. (16) mr. brown: no, i was engaged once! as a matter of fact, i proposed marriage but it didn't really work out. there was quite a lot of opposition. miss courtney: her father? mr. brown: no, her husband i didn't realize she was married. hyponymy usually provides a partial meaning to build the first hearer’s perception that is potentially broken by the speaker at the second perception to create incongruity. mr. brown, in the example above, was in an attempt to construct miss courtney’s first perception by uttering that he faced quite a lot of opposition to his previous marriage proposal. the case of rejection in a marriage proposal is usually designated by one or several family members. therefore, hearing mr. brown’s explanation about his marriage proposal opposition, miss courtney considered that one of the people who oppose mr. brown’s proposal was mr. brown’s girlfriend’s father. a person who denied mr. brown's proposal was his girlfriend’s husband. it means that the woman whom mr. brown wanted to married was a married one. the unexpected response by mr. brown was not only incongruent literally, but it also opposed the social norms. he cannot marry a married woman. a language practice that distorted partial meaning found in the previous examples was often employed to construct humorous utterances. a partial meaning in the first expression is used to form the hearer's perception and the second one which contains a complete meaning is used to reverse the initial perception of the hearer. the incongruity between the first perception at the first utterance and the overall meaning conveyed at the second utterance is one of the humor creation strategies involved in the mind your language situation comedy series. generally, this strategy is also widely utilized to create humor in daily conversation. synonymy fromkin et al. (2011) assume that the best-known lexical semantics are synonymy and antonymy. synonymy is the use of some words to express the same meaning in some or all contexts while antonymy is the use of some words to express the opposite meaning gradably or complementarily. phonologically, saeed (2003) defines synonymy as different phonological words that have the same or very similar meanings. akmajian et al. (2001) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 302 underline that one of the central meaning relations in synonymy is the sameness of meaning or paraphrase. this kind of lexical semantics is also found as a strategy to construct humorous utterances in mind your language situation comedy. (17) mr. brown: su lee chung. su lee: plesent. mr. brown: ali nadim. ali: gift. mr. brown: gift? (18) mr. brown: good evening everyone. nice to see you all are bright and early. i expect you're feeling a bit nervous. jamila: i am not nervous. mr. brown: good. jamila: i am putrified. mr. brown: petrified. two examples above illustrate how synonymy was used to produce humorous utterances. in example (17), mr. brown, who had just arrived at the classroom, asked his students to say present when their name was mentioned by him. after calling su lee's name, mr. brown then called ali nadim’s name. hearing his name was mentioned by mr. brown, ali did not follow what mr. brown asked. ali did not say present to confirm his attendance, but he said gift. ali presumed that the word gift and present are similar in various contexts. the word gift uttered by ali, in a certain context, has a synonymous meaning with the word present. both can be interpreted as a thing that you give to somebody especially on a special occasion or to say thank you. however, in that context, the word gift was not synonymous with the word present. that inappropriateness was conducted by ali to elicit humorous utterances. jamila’s utterance in example (18) also indicated how humorous utterance can be constructed by manipulating synonymous words. before mr. brown’s students took their examination for english proficiency certificate, mr. brown entered the classroom just to greet and motivate his students. mr. brown considered that his students were nervous about the exam. jamila who was sitting in the frontline seat stated that she did not feel nervous. mr. brown looked very happy to hear that. the funniness occurred when jamila stated that she did not feel nervous, but she felt very scared by uttering i am putrified. the word petrified means much more than nervous or feeling extremely frightened. it means that the word nervous semantically has a synonymous meaning with the word petrified. it implied that jamila felt very nervous or extremely frightened of the examination. she even pronounced that word incorrectly by sounding putrified for petrified. conclusion humor construction is semantically probable by indicating incongruent meaning. based on the discussion above, by manipulating meaning, people simply can provide humor. a meaning of a word manipulated by a speaker commonly opposites hearer’s perception of the meaning of the similar word. it means that the humorous utterance can be constructed by utilizing a word that has more than one meaning as it shows by lexical semantics. because lexical semantics provides more than one meaning, it certainly works to elicit humor by manipulating those multiple meaning. focusing on lexical semantics investigation, five kinds of lexical semantics was found as humor creation strategy in mind your language situation comedy. those are polysemy, homonymy, homophone, hyponymy, and synonymy. the humorous utterances are created by presenting the incongruity concept of the theory of humor. a mismatch meaning perceived by the hearer and produced by the speaker is the basic concept of humor in the incongruity theory of humor. in other word, hearers presume an incongruent meaning with what the speaker means which then lead them in misleading or misunderstanding condition. multiple meanings in lexical semantics and incongruity theory of humor are employed in humor creation to evoke laughter by demonstrating strange, unpredictable, and irrelevance response. references https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 303 akmajian, a., demers, r. a., farmer, a. k., & harnish, r. m. 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(2016). penyimpangan makna dan perubahan konstituen dalam humor cak l ontong. adabiyyāt, 15(2), 110-135. wijana, i. d. p. (1994). pemanfaatan homonimi di dalam humor. humaniora,1, 21-28. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 304 wijana, i. d. p. (1995). pemanfaatan teks humor dalam pengajaran aspek-aspek kebahasaan. humaniora, 2, 23-30. wijana, i. d. p. (2004). kartun: studi tentang permainan bahasa. ombak. yule, g. (2014). the study of language. cambridge university press https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 151 children speaking skill based on the birth order henny puji astuti hennypa@yahoo.com semarang state university abstract speaking is one of the language skills. it becomes an important means of communication, from which interlocutors can understand the intended meanings. the children speaking skill is influenced by many factors, one of which is the birth order. it describes how a particular child is born from the same mother such as the eldest, the middle, and the youngest child. this will actually shape character and ability of the children. based on its function, a language is a means of communication used by individuals in their interaction or relationship with others. the speaking ability is not only related to the birth order, but also some other factors such as intelligence. the middle child usually has more speaking skill compared to the eldest and youngest child. he/ she can communicate from different directions, and his/her position gives its benefits. the middle child can develop the speaking skill from parents, older brothers/ sisters, and younger brothers/ sisters. no matter the position of the child is, his/ her speaking ability can optimally be achieved if the parents provide opportunities to communicate and practice based on his/ her needs. keywords: introduction language is humans‘ means of communication. without language, the different perception between a speaker and an interlocutor will occur. speaking is an individual‘s ability to convey meaning orally, so that the interlocutor can receive the intended meaning. speaking ability is a part of language processes the use of expressive language to produce meanings. the earliest speaking development is mumbling. the children have already recognized the language before they are able to speak actively. bromley (1992) mentions four kinds of language skills namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. language skill is different with speaking ability. language is a complex and semantic system, meanwhile speaking skill is expression of words. the language can be either receptive or expressive. for example, a receptive language can be seen from how to listen and read information, and expressive language can be seen from how to write information to convey meanings to the readers. the significant difference between language and speaking is identified. language covers both spoken and written communication, gestures, body language, face expression, and pantomime. meanwhile, speaking is a spoken language mostly used as the most effective way of communication. language development is always increased related to the child‘s age development. parents should always pay attention to this development which affects his/ her learning process. it can be achieved by giving motivation for him/ her to practice. mailto:hennypa@yahoo.com 152 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 speaking skill is the ability to express, explain, and convey ideas, thoughts, ideas, or heart feelings to others using spoken language that can be understood by others. two activities which can be done by the children are interaction and communication with others in order to train the children speaking skill. the children speaking skill needs to be trained in their early periods so that they can pronounce articulation sounds or words to express, state, and convey ideas, thoughts, opinions, and heart feelings to others. the children can practice how to speak by the help of adults through conversation. from it, they will find experiences and knowledge improvement as well as the language development. the children need reinforcement, reward (present, praise), stimulation, and a good model from the adults for their optimal language development. birth order has attracted researchers in general and child development researchers in particular. it contributes to the children‘ development such as behavior, personality, and development aspects. most parents give more attention toward the first child related to his/ her childcare behavior. the parents also have higher demands and standards to the first child. this leads to the first child to have a satisfactory academic and professional career. this has become the reason why they have a high sense of guilt, anxiety, and difficulty toward unpleasant situations and they often go medical clinic and child counselor (santrock, 1983). speaking skill is closely related to the birth order. this attracts researchers to conduct studies on investigating how the children‘ speaking skill is different one another based on the birth order. in general, speaking skill of the second child or the middle one is higher than the first or the last child. the same pattern of care is supposed to produce the identical speaking skill. the parents‘ attention is given mostly to the first and last child; however, why those who have better speaking development are the eldest and youngest child. in general, we have a paradigm on how the birth order influences the children‘ speaking skill. we need to find out whether the birth order does influence the children‘ speaking skill. children speaking skill language is acquired at a remarkable pace especially after the child has pronounced his/ her first word (mussen et al, 1994). language skill is comprehensive. it includes listening, speaking, reading and writing. chomsky in papalia et al. (2002), states that the only human who possesses the language. then, animals are not able to communicate by using humans‘ language based on the following assumptions: 1) speaking is inherited (genetic). all language development is the same and universal, and the environment has minor contribution toward the language success. 2) language acquisition can be achieved in very short period of time, a four-year old child is able to speak as the adults do. 3) the children language settings can not provide sufficient data of the adults‘ complex language. language is one of the fundamental factors that distinguishes humans from other living things. it is a system of symbol to communicate with others that include creativity and system rules. the human beings can produce many meaningful sentences of limited words and rules by their language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 153 creativity. hence, the language in a society consists of the individuals who express thoughts, feelings, and desires. according to chomsky in hetherington (1999), children are born equipped with language acquisition tool (language acquisition device) known as lad. this is biologically gifted which is programmed to specify information coming from grammar. lad is considered as a physiological part of the brain specialized to process language, and it is not linked to other cognitive skills. the children can not master the complex language in the short period of time without lad. lad also enables a child to differentiate which is language sound and which is not language sound. vygotsky in santrock (2002) states that the children‘ cognitive and language development are closely related with culture and society where the children have been growing up. vygotsky uses this term as zone proximal development (zpd) for difficult tasks to understand by the children, but the children will have skills to perform the tasks by the guidance and help from adults. the children need model from the adults in how to use correct sentences or vocabularies. speaking is not just how to pronounce words or sounds, but it is a means to express, convey, and declare words or to communicate thoughts, ideas, or feelings experienced by the children such as sadness and happiness. role playing activities give significant benefits toward the children speaking skill as long as the adults can be the model and involved in it (weisberg et al, 2013). the given model is to provide material and communication way in the role playing activities. then, the adults provide guidance so that the children can interpret the activities taking place. the adult supervision benefits the children, and it can be a good reference for the children. according to vygostky, the children have three speaking development stages which are related to their thinking skills as the following. 1) external stage: it happens when the children speak by using thinking materials outside of them. these thinking materials provide guidance, information and responsibility. 2) egocentric stage: the children speak according to their thinking and speaking behavior of the adults. 3) internal stage: the children thinking process has achieved the whole speaking skill. speaking is is one of the most effective means of communication. babies in their early periods have realized that they can convey their intended meaning through body language. furthermore, it is not that easy to understand those meanings. hence, the babies and children always try how the adult understand. this encourages people learn to speak and prove that speaking is the most effective means of communication compared with other forms of communication used before they have good speaking skill. yusuf (2000) says that the development of language is influenced by five factors namely health, intelligence, socioeconomic status, sex, and family relationships. some factors influencing the language development are elaborated as follows. 1) cognition (process of gaining knowledge): individuals‘ cognitive skill will affect how quick or slow their language development is. it is relevant to the previous discussion that there is a significant correlation between thoughts and language. 154 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 2) role of communication in the family: communication roles from many directions will accelerate the development of language of the families. 3) number of children: in a family having many family members, the children language development is faster due to varied communications compared to those who have only a single child and no other member instead in the nuclear family. 4) birth order: the eldest child has higher speaking skill compared to the middle or the youngest child as the parents have more time to be with. 5) bilingual family: the children who grow up in a bilingual family will have better and faster language development compared to those who use one language as most children are accustomed to utilizing varied languages. the birth order the eldest, middle, and the youngest is a nickname in a family. this is commonly called as the birth order. it has an impact on various aspects of children development. adler in roberts (1975) considers the birth order in the family has an important role in shaping an individual's personality; this birth order has differences in interpreting any gained experience. the eldest child gets undivided attention from the parents, and this attention will be divided when the parents have another child. most first-born children usually have accuracy, ambition, and aggression compared to their younger brothers/sisters. they tend to get and have higher education. the attention of parents encourages the first-born children to have a deep feeling to be superior/ stronger, high anxiety and feeling of high protection. by the birth of younger brothers/ sisters, it produces traumatic effect of the first-born children as a single child. this changes situation and view toward the surrounding environment. this also shapes responsibility and protection to others; otherwise, it produces insecure feeling and less social interest. the second or middle child usually begins his/ her life in a more comfortable situation to develop cooperation and social interest. he/she can easily adapt and have a higher sense of solidarity. at a certain stage, this child‘s personality is formed by observing his/her elder brother/ sister‘s attitude. the second or middle child will have a very high competition and little-heart feeling if his brother/ sister‘s attitude is full of anger and hatred. the second or middle child can develop these two-way directions. he/she will have willingness to be better than his/ her brother by good encouragement of competition. if he succeeds in achieving this competition, the child will develop revolutionary attitude and he feels that the authority can be replaced. the youngest child tends to be the most creative and interesting. he is often spoiled, so it can produce a high risk of becoming a problematic child and having a feeling of inferiority, and he can not be an independent child. however, the child has many advantages, he is motivated to always surpass his older brothers/ sisters and he becomes an ambitious child. in other word, the birth order in a family has impacts on personality, behavior, ways of learning, and skill to earn a living. the birth order is explained by some experts as the following. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 155 children speaking skill based on the birth order in the child development process, the child improves in terms of quantity and quality (flexibility and complexity). his speaking skill gradually improves started on how he uses his facial expression to communicate. he also uses his body language and gesture to express his need through communication by clear and precise teachings. it can be seen from the beginning of child development where the babies babble sound into meaningful sound system. piaget in hurlock (1978) states that the language is not as a separated natural characteristic, but as one of the skills derived from cognitive maturity. language is formed by reasoning; language development should be based on more fundamental and common changes in cognition. thus, cognitive development stages determine the language development. piaget asserts that the complex structure of the language is not derived by nature, and is not learned from the environment. the language structures occurs resulted from continuous interactions between the child‘s high cognitive function and linguistic environment (also in other environments). this structure occurs inevitably following a series of interactions. hence, the structure does not need to be provided by nature. the birth order is associated with variations in a sibling relationship. the firstborn child is expected to have abilities in controlling themselves and to have more responsibilities compared to other siblings. the eldest child will demonstrate his/ her responsibility and always practice how to control himself/ herself. if a conflict happens, most parents tend to protect younger children. in one hand, this precisely forms a sense of independence of the first child, and on the other hand, it forms an envy feeling and hostility. the first child is more dominant in the family, competent, and powerful than other siblings, so he is expected to help and keep the younger ones. based on an assumption, the eldest child receives full attention from the parents for a while until the mother comes home from the hospital by bringing a new baby. in addition, most fathers and mothers have a very high expectation for the first child, and he/she tries to perform it. in another theory, the first child has more responsibility and he/ she is expected to support his/her younger brothers/ sisters from which it strengthens his/her brain. according to bornstein and lamb (1992) nativism views that the language skill of an individual is determined by genetic factor of the parents. if the parents have good and fast language skill, the child‘s language skill will improve well. otherwise, if the parents‘ language skill is slow and insufficient, the child‘s language skill will be slow and poor. rahmawati et al describes in her research that the child's speaking skill is influenced by some factors including age, sex, and family environmental condition. different inputs of vocabularies will be greatly affected by the child‘s speaking fluency. in general, the middle child speaking skill is better compared to the eldest and youngest child, but with some treatments they will have the same speaking skills based on their needs. the language skill of the middle child will be faster than the eldest or the youngest one. this is due to the eldest child who has only downward communication direction and the youngest child who only has upward communication direction. if the parents give equal and fair 156 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 attention, the language skill will develop optimally no matter the birth order is. meanwhile, yusuf (2000) considers that the eldest child has higher speaking skill compared to the middle or youngest child because the parents have more time to give more attention. this condition will change after the parents have other children. the parents must divide their attention to their children, so that each child will not receive more attention compared to the eldest and youngest child. this proves that the previous communication form is more intensive and undivided, so it helps the eldest child in achieving his/her speaking skill. zhang et al (2008) states that the language teaching at schools is also conducted at home. the teaching at schools as well as interaction with other students also influence the child's speaking development; the child develops imitation. females have higher speaking skill compared to males. de rosnay et al (2013) states that the interaction between peers can influence the child's speaking skill. they do speaking activities every day. they establish similar language skill and complement with the others. broad and complex interactions with the society will enlarge speaking skill. the children speaking skill is potential by the following factors: 1) completeness of speech organ 2) speaking readiness 3) good model for the children 4) opportunities for speaking practice 5) motivation for learning and practicing 6) counseling a child regardless of the birth order will undergo language development, especially speaking skill. it is affected by many factors. to help the children speaking development, the parents can also provide appropriate stimulation based on their uniqueness. by the development and physical maturity especially related to the process of speaking, the communication has increased and expanded such as doing communication with the people nearby and new people they have just met, and friends. conclusion based on its function, language is a means of communication used by an individual in the interaction or relationship with others. language is a means of interaction which consists of listening, speaking, reading and writing. the children speaking skill is influenced by many factors such as the birth order, age, sex, and intelligence. related to the birth order, the second or middle child usually has higher speaking skill compared to the eldest and youngest child. he/ she can communicate from two-way communication which gives benefits for him/ her. he can also develop speaking skill from parents, older brothers/ sisters, and younger brothers/ sisters. no matter the birth order is, speaking skill of any children can be optimally achieved if the parents provide opportunities to communicate and practice based on their needs. the parents are expected to give attention and communication activities to the children by understanding their position. the children speaking skill will develop related to the proper stimulation based on qualitative and quantitative of the parents. references bornstein, m. h. & lamb, m. e. 1992. developmental psychology: an advanced textbook (3rd ed.). new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates publishers. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 157 bromley, k. d. 1992. language arts: exploring connections. boston: allyn and bacon. de rosnay, m., fink, e., begeer, s., slaughter, v., & peterson, c. 2013. talking theory of mind talk: young school aged children everyday conversation and understanding of mind and emotion. journal of child language. hetherington, e. m. & parke, r. d. 1999. child psychology: a contemporary viewpoint (5th ed.). boston: mc graw hill. hurlock, e. b. 1978. perkembangan anak (1st ed.). jakarta: erlangga. hurlock, e. b. 1980. psikologi perkembangan: suatu pendekatan sepanjang rentang kehidupan (5th ed.). jakarta: erlangga. mussen, p. h., conger, j. j., kagan, j., dan huston, a. c. 1994. perkembangan dan kepribadian anak. jakarta: arcan. papalia, d. e., olds, s. w., dan feldman, r. d. 2002. a child’s world: infancy through adolescence (9th ed). boston: mc graw hill. rahmawati, d., sunaryo, & widodo. penguasaan kosakata dalam bahasa indonesia pada anak pra prasekolah. laporan penelitian. malang. roberts, t. b. 1975. four psychologies applied to education. new york: schenkman publishing company, inc. santrock, j. w. 2002. life-span development: perkembangan masa hidup (5th ed.). jakarta: erlangga. weisberg, d. s., zosh, j. m., pasek, k. h., golinkoff, r. m. 2013. play, language development, and the role of adult support. american journal of play. volume 6. no. 6. yusuf, s. 2000. psikologi perkembangan. bandung: remaja rosda karya. zhang, y., jin, x., shen, x., zhang, j., & hoff, e. 2008. correlates of early language development in chinese children. international journal of behavioral development. 158 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 language circle: journal of language and literature xi/2 (april 2017) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x simile & metaphor in translation: a study on students’ translation of amy tan’s “two kinds” short story esriaty s. kendenan universitas kristen satya wacana salatiga e-mail: esriaty.kendenan@staff.uksw.edu) received: 30 december 2016. revised: 28 ferbruary 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract similes and metaphors are two forms of figurative language which are very familiar in literary works. one factor that arise some common problems faced by translators in translating simile and metaphor is the cultural difference between the source language and target language. therefore, translators would apply certain strategies or procedures to find the equivalence of similes and metaphors in the target language. in “two kinds” short story, it can be found that amy tan also uses several similes and metaphors. for student translators in literary translation class, it is a challenge to translate similes and metaphors in “two kinds” into indonesian. thus, this research aims at describing how student translators of literary translation class deal with the translation of those similes and metaphors. hopefully, this study would give worth contribution to the development of literary translation and particularly for student translators in translating any literary works. by comparing students’ translations and the source text, it is found that students mostly applied reproducing the same image in the tl procedure to translate similes and metaphors from english into indonesian. key words: simile, metaphor, figurative language, literary translation how to cite: esriaty s. kendenan. 2017. simile & metaphor in translation: a study on students’ translation of amy tan’s “two kinds” short story. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. introduction simile and metaphor are still interesting to study about and always be challenging to analyze. they are not only found in literary texts but also in the texts from other genres or areas. in translation studies, the translation of simile and metaphor has often been studied due to their peculiarities as the part of figurative language. “two kinds” is an interesting short story that was chosen as one translation project in the literary translation class. this short story has some similes and metaphors that have arised difficulties for students to cope with in completing their translation project. thus, this research would strive to answer two research questions, as follows: 1. how do students translate some similes and metaphors found in amy tan’s two kinds short story? http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 108 2. what procedures do students apply in translating similes and metaphors in two kinds? this study aims at helping student researchers to identify common problems student translators face in translation, to have deeper understanding about metaphor & simile, and to assess the translation quality of metaphor and simile by choosing or determining one or two translations considered as the most equivalent and/or natural version(s). methodology this study is a comparative analysis of target texts with its source text. the data of this research are taken from students’ project translations in literary translation class on amy tan’s short story “two kinds”. there are 12 students in the class, so there are 12 versions of translation that will be compared in this study in terms of the translation of simile and metaphor from english into indonesian. in choosing the data for this research, the researcher identify all similies and metaphors found in the source text. after having identified the data from the source text, the researcher compare each simile and and metaphor and their 12 versions in indonesian to determine the most equivalent translation for them. by analyzing different versions of translation, the researcher would understand whether student translators have managed to identify the existence of metaphors and similies in the text as well as to translate them well or not. therefore, the researcher would analyze students’ translations on english metaphor and similes in order to determine certain procedures they used and to assess their success in producing the most natural and equivalent translation. knowles & moon (2006) said that metaphors “are instances of non-literal language that involve some kind of comparison or identification: if interpreted literally, they would be nonsensical, impossible, or untrue.” therefore, it might be saying that translating metaphor as well as simile are more difficult than other kinds of translations. similes are very like metaphors, but there is one important difference: the comparison in metaphor is implicit while in similes is explicit. similes could be easier to identify because it is introduced by some signalled by words such as like, as, compare, resemble, and so on. indonesian also has a list of words which can be used to indicate the existence of similes such as seperti, laksana, bagaikan, bak, etc. the example of metaphor in comparison with simile in english is: “to say that someone is a fox is to use a metaphor; to say that they are like a fox is to use a simile.” (knowles & moon, 2006) the other differences between simile and metaphor are : “while metaphors typically transfer the meaning of an expression, similes rather proposes transference, ... while metaphors use the qualities from one object to describe another object, similes show a more visual relationship between the objects (waldau, 2010:8). to sum up, simile and metaphor are similar ini many aspects, but still can be distinguished especially in form of sentence and the use of some signalled words or phrases. there are many ways to translate metaphors and similes. ideally, metaphor and similes should be translated using equivalent metaphor or simile in the target language. however, it does not that easy to find the equivalent metaphor in the target language, therefore translators need some techniques, strategies, or procedures to translate them. esriaty s. kendenan. 2017. simile & metaphor in translation: a study on students’ translation of amy tan’s “two kinds” short story. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 109 larson (1984: 254) proposed five ways to translate metaphor and/or similes, i.e: 1. the metaphor may be kept if the receptor language permits (that is, if it sounds natural and is understood correctly by the readers); 2. a metaphor may be translated as a simile (adding like or as); 3. a metaphor [or simile] of the receptor language which has the same meaning may be substituted; 4. the metaphor [or simile] may be kept and the meaning explained (that is, the topic and/or point of similarity may be added); and 5. the meaning of the metaphor [or simile] may be translated without keeping the metaphorical imagery. whereas, machali (2000) suggested two tehniques of translating metaphor, i.e. by using the equivalent metaphorical imagery in the tl or by using functional equivalent as in translating idiomatic expression with semantic and communicative methods. in translating metaphor (and simile), newmark (1988) proposed seven procedures, as follows: 1) reproducing the same image in the tl 2) replace the image in the sl with a standard tl image which does not clash with the tl culture 3) translation of metaphor by simile 4) translation of metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense (or occasionally a metaphor plus sense) 5) conversion of metaphor to sense 6) deletion 7) same metaphor combined with sense in order to limit the analysis, this study would apply newmark’s procedure for translating metaphor and simile. results and discussion this research would discuss students’ translations on two metaphors and 12 similes from the source text. in discussing the metaphor and simile in the source and target texts, this paper would analyze three main things: object, image, and sense by referring to newmark’s procedure (1988). metaphors metaphor 1 i was a dainty ballerina girl standing by the curtain, waiting to hear the music that would send me floating on my tiptoes. object : i image : a dainty ballerina girl sense : a beautiful, admiring girl with a perfect body when the main character identified herself as a ballerina, she just imagined how proud it was to be a ballerina. being ready to perform before the audience must be a challenging situation, but it will turn immediately into satisfaction when the performer succeed to perform well. a ballerina has made a testimonial that “i love the feeling of accomplishment that comes from dancing a show for three hours with seven costume changes. i love performing for the audience; when i smile under those lights, that's genuine joy.” http://www.cosmopolitan.com/career/a45009/ what-its-really-like-to-be-a-ballerina/). many people also see ballerinas as having the 'perfect body'. the world of ballet cannot be separated from the sequins and feathers, the bright lights and clapping audiences, or everything that's pink (https://storify.com/dancer523/eatingdisorders). in translating the metaphor, most students applied reproducing the same image in the tl procedure. to be ‘was’ was translated into http://www.cosmopolitan.com/career/a45009/what-its-really-like-to-be-a-ballerina/ http://www.cosmopolitan.com/career/a45009/what-its-really-like-to-be-a-ballerina/ https://storify.com/dancer523/eating-disorders https://storify.com/dancer523/eating-disorders language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 110 adalah by two students, seorang by four students, adalah seorang by four students. the rest two of the students failed to get the right meaning by translating it as sebelumnya and pernah that means ‘have been’ or ‘have become’ due to their misinterpretation of the sentence. only two out of 12 translations which well transfered the meaning from english into indonesian, although they also used reproducing the same image in the tl procedure like the other versions. the translations are: “aku seorang balerina mungil berdiri di balik tirai, menunggu musik yang akan mengiringiku mengambang di ujung jari kakiku” and “aku seorang ballerina cantik yang sedang berdiri di balik gorden, menunggu suara music yang akan membuatku menari menjinjitkan kakiku”. metaphor 2 i was cinderella stepping from her pumpkin carriage with sparkly cartoon music filling the air. object : i image : cinderella sense : a kind, gentle, sweet girl who is ready to get her dream comes true cinderella is portrayed as a girl with a down-to-earth attitude, but she is also a daydreamer. she maintains hope through her dreams and remains a kind, gentle and sweet person. she has faith that someday her dreams of happiness will come true and her kindness will be repaid. (https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/cinderella_%28disney_character%29 #characteristics). to translate to be ‘was’ six out of 12 students chose to use seperti, one used seperti seorang, another used bagaikan. it is surprising that there are four students who translated ‘was’ into pernah menjadi seperti due to the misunderstanding of the sentence. two out of 12 translations are considered equivalent in meaning with its source text, i.e., “aku adalah cinderella yang melangkah keluar dari kereta labunya dengan gemerlapan musik kartun mengalun diudara” and “aku adalah cinderella yang keluar dari labu ajaibnya dengan iringan musik gemerlap mengelilinginya.” similar with the metaphor 1 above, this metaphor was also translated well by those three students by using reproducing the same image in tl procedure. the misinterpretation of the sentence structure has led most student translators failed to translate the metaphors. the tendency of student translators to maintain the images, i.e., ballerina and cinderella, in their translations might be because those images were familiar enough for them as well as for indonesian people as the target readership of the translation. simile the source text author seemed prefer to use ‘like’ to indicate similes found in the source text instead of choosing other words with the similar meaning. simile 1 "you look like a negro chinese," she lamented, as if i had done this on purpose. object : you image : negro chinese sense : white complexion with curly hair the classification of three main divisions of mankind may be distinguished into the negroid,the caucasoid, and the mongoloid. according to ashey (1951), “the classification is made based on the skin form and character of the hair and its distribution, form of the head and proportions of the body.” https://en.wikipedia.org/%20wiki/cinderella_%28disney_character%29#characteristics https://en.wikipedia.org/%20wiki/cinderella_%28disney_character%29#characteristics https://en.wikipedia.org/%20wiki/cinderella_%28disney_character%29#characteristics esriaty s. kendenan. 2017. simile & metaphor in translation: a study on students’ translation of amy tan’s “two kinds” short story. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 111 the chinese character in the story is definitely different with negro based on her physical characteristics. the author of the short story compared the main character with negro only because of her new curly style hair to show her disappointment. the phrase ‘look like’ in the simile was translated into indonesian become terlihat seperti by eight students, tampak seperti by two students, seperti by one student, and another with kayak as the informal form of seperti. most students translated the simile using reproducing the same image in tl procedure, except three of them who were using the simile plus sense procedure. “negro” as the image used by the author was translated by those three students by adding its sense become cina-afrika, orang cina setengah negro, orang cina berkulit hitam. simile 2 i was like the christ child lifted out of the straw manger, crying with holy indignity. object : i image : the christ child sense : holy, majesty, indignity ‘the christ child’ was depicted as holy indignity to represent the situation where christ who is majesty in nature should be placed in an unrespected situation. the image was used to compare the main character’s feeling with the christ condition. ‘was like’ in the simile was translated by six students with seperti, one with seperti seorang, one with bagaikan, and four students with pernah menjadi seperti. most students used reproducing the same image to translate the metaphor but they still challenged to produce the natural translation. although it also used reproducing the same image procedure, the translation of one student was more natural than other, by transferring the metaphor into indonesian become “aku seperti bayi kristus yang diangkat keluar dari palungan dari jerami, lalu menangis.” the image “the christ child” was translated using translation of simile by simile plus sense procedure become anak allah and anak tuhan in order to give the sense of “christ”. simile 3 the girl had the sauciness of a shirley temple. she was proudly modest, like a proper chinese child. object : she was proudly modest image : a proper chinese child sense : a chinese child is modest in general the word ‘modest’ is defined by longman dictionary of contemporary english (ldoce) as the characteristic of a person who unwilling to talk proudly about their abilities and achievements because they are easily embarrassed. as a chinese origin, the mother of the main character is really proud about the chinese girl on television who could show her chinese identity well. the girl even can be compared with shirley temple, an american film and television actress, singer, dancer, and public servant who was famous as hollywood’s number one box-office star from 1935 through 1938 in her very young age. some students tried to translate the simile with simile plus sense procedure. nevertheless, there are two translations which can be considered as the most natural one by using reproducing the same image in tl. the translations are: “dia rendah hati, seperti anak-anak cina pada umumnya” and “dia sederhana, seperti seorang anak cina pada umumnya.” language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 112 ‘like’ in this simile was translated into indonesian become seperti by 11 students and sebagaimana by another. simile 4 and she also did a fancy sweep of a curtsy, so that the fluffy skirt of her white dress cascaded to the floor like petals of a large carnation. object : the fluffy skirt of her white dress cascaded to the floor image : petals of a large carnation sense : elegant and innocence according to the information on http://www.auntyflo.com/flower-dictionary/ white-carnation, because of its pure color, white carnations mostly mean innocence. the image of white carnations was compared with the chinese girl’s performance. the attraction of the chinese girl on television was very impressive especially to the main character and her mother. that is why the main character could understand if her mother admired the girl so much. by using the reproducing the image in the tl procedure, one student translator had managed to translate the metaphor into indonesian become “dan dia membuat gerakan membungkuk, sehingga gaun putihnya jatuh ke lantai seperti kelopak bunga anyelir.” similar with simile 3 above, the number of students who translated the word ‘like’ into seperti in this context was also 11 and only 1 student who chose to use terlihat seperti. simile 5 she had a peculiar smell, like a baby that had done something in its pants, ... object : old lady chong’s smell image : a baby that had done something in its pants sense : bad odour all 12 student translators translated the word like in this simile with seperti. to translate the image “a baby that had done something in its pants”, most students prefered to tanslate the simile by replacing the image in the source language with a standard target language image which does not clash with the tl culture procedure. to apply the procedure, one student chose to soften the expression, perhaps for the sake of politeness in the target culture, by translating the simile become “dia memiliki bau yang aneh, seperti bayi yang ada sesuatu di celananya.” for the same purpose, another student translated it become “dia memiliki bau yang khas, seperti bau seorang bayi yang celananya kotor”. simile 6 ... and her fingers felt like a dead person's, like an old peach i once found in the back of the refrigerator: its skin just slid off the flesh when i picked it up. object : old lady chong’s fingers image1: a dead person sense : cold image2: an old peach whose skin just slid off the flesh when it was picked up sense : too old the word ‘dead’ which is used to refer to a part of body means that the certain part of body has no feeling or energy in it. the image ‘dead person’ is attached to the old lady chong’s fingers to impress the reader about how old she is. the second image to describe her, more obviously clarifies how ‘fragile’ or weak she is. all students used reproducing the same image in the tl procedure to translate the simile. the most natural translation among others are “jari-jarinya seperti jari-jari orang mati, seperti buah persik tua yang dulu http://www.auntyflo.com/flower-dictionary/%20white-carnation http://www.auntyflo.com/flower-dictionary/%20white-carnation esriaty s. kendenan. 2017. simile & metaphor in translation: a study on students’ translation of amy tan’s “two kinds” short story. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 113 aku temukan di belakang lemari es, yang kulitnya mengelupas dari dagingnya ketika kuangkat” and “jemarinya terlihat seperti jemari orang mati, mirip seperti buah persik yang telah membusuk yang pernah aku temukan di dalam lemari pendingin: kulitnya melorot dari dagingnya ketika hendak kuambil.” although the phrase ‘felt like’ is literally more close in meaning with terasa seperti, there was only one student who chose that indonesian phrase in their translation. most students, i.e., seven out of 12, translated it become terlihat seperti and four of them used seperti. whereas, the word ‘like’ in the second simile was translated into indonesian become seperti by nine students, mirip seperti by two students, and the rest 1 student by berwarna seperti. simile 7 i would play after him, the simple scale, the simple chord, and then just play some nonsense that sounded like a rat running up and down on top of giraffe cans. object : the sound of some nonsense scale and chord image : the sound of a rat running up and down on top of giraffe cans sense : to bang out, to play a tune or song loudly and badly on a piano in describing how loud and bad is the sound, the author compare it with the sound of a rat running up and down on top of giraffe cans. students applied various procedures to translate the simile. most of the students applied reproducing the same image in the tl procedure, three with translation of simile by simile plus sense, and one with deletion procedure. two most equivalent translations made by the students are: “aku bermain setelahnya, skala sederhana, kord sederhana, kemudian hanya memainkan nada kosong yang terdengar seperti seekor tikus berlari kebawah dan keatas di atas kaleng yang besar” and “aku akan main setelah dia, skala yang mudah, kunci yang mudah, dan kemudian memainkan musik seperti tikus yang sedang berlari naik turun di atas atap.” ‘sounded like’ was translated into indonesian with terdengar seperti by seven students, seperti by four students, and bunyinya seperti by only one student. simile 8 he had me curve my hand around an apple and keep that shape when playing chords. he marched stiffly to show me how to make each finger dance up and down, staccato, like an obedient little soldier. object : each finger dance up and down, staccato image : an obedient little soldier sense : neatly arranged, orderly, controlled staccato in this simile is compared to an obedient soldier to describe the way the main character’s fingers play the piano. staccato is a form of musical articulation to signify a note of shortened duration separated from the note that may follow by silence. (https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/staccato). merriam-webster's learner's dictionary, defines staccato as short and not sounding connected (in music) or sudden and brief. (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ staccato). it is like the way an obedient soldier does their job as their commander told them. the word ‘like’ was translated into indonesian by 10 students become seperti, one student with seperti seorang using reproducing the same image in the target language procedure, while one student omitted the image of this simile in the target text. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/articulation_%28music%29 https://en.wikipedia.org/%20wiki/staccato http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/%20staccato http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/%20staccato language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 114 simile 9 i kept thinking my fingers would adjust themselves back, like a train switching to the right track. object : my fingers would adjust themselves back image : a train switching to the right track sense : placed in proper order all 12 student translators translated ‘like’ in this simile with seperti. the position of a pianist’s fingers while playing notes in this simile is compared to the position of train on its right track. most students applied the reproducing the same image in the tl procedure to translate the simile. however, there were two students with identical translation who translated the simile with translation of simile by simile plus sense procedure become “aku terus berpikir dan mengatur tanganku agar mau menyesuaikan kembali, seperti kereta kembali ke jalurnya yang benar”. the most natural translation of this simile is “aku terus berpikir jari-jariku akan menyesuaikan permainan mereka kembali, seperti kereta kembali ke jalur yang benar.” simile 10 and the eleven-year-old boy who was first prize playing a tricky violin song that sounded like a busy bee. object : a tricky violin song image : a busy bee sense : buzz, a continuous noise like the sound of bee the way a bee produces sound is compared to the sound of a violin song played by the boy according to the main character, that might be refer to the unclear sound produced by the violin. in translating the simile, most students used reproducing the same image in the tl procedure. there were four students who translated the simile with translation simile with simile plus sense procedure. the translation which has the closest meaning with the source text is “dan anak laki laki berumur 11 tahun mendapatkan juara pertama dengan memainkan teknik biola yang terdengar seperti suara lebah.” different from the simile 7 above, the phrase ‘sounded like’ in this simile was translated into indonesian with terdengar seperti by 10 students and yang menyerupai by two students. simile 11 it felt like worms and toads and slimy things crawling out of my chest, but it also felt good, that this awful side of me had surfaced, at last. object : feeling image : worms and toads and slimy things crawling out of my chest sense : a very bad feeling, disgust, filthiness, anger to describe the very bad feeling and anger of the main character, the writer used some animals that usually make people in general felt disgusted. all students chose reproducing the same image in the tl procedure to translate the simile. from 12 versions of translation, the translation which has the closest meaning to the source text is “aku merasa seperti ada cacing, katak, dan bendabenda berlendir merangkak keluar dari dalam dadaku, tapi aku juga merasa senang karena sisi burukku akhirnya terungkap.” bendabenda berlendir is actually best translated with hal-hal menjijikkan. but considering that the things are ‘crawling’, it might be also translated into binatang. the phrase ‘felt like’ is also used in simile 6 but its indonesian translation varies in number and word choices. seven out 12 students translated it become rasanya seperti, two of them with merasa seperti, one with esriaty s. kendenan. 2017. simile & metaphor in translation: a study on students’ translation of amy tan’s “two kinds” short story. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 115 seolah seperti, one with merasa seolah-olah, and one with seolah-olah. similes 12 ... she backed out of the room, stunned, as if she were blowing away like a small brown leaf, thin, brittle, lifeless. object : she were blowing away image : a small brown leaf, thin, brittle, lifeless sense : shock, disappointed indonesian translation for the phrase ‘blowing away like’ in this simile has many variations. three students translated it become melayang pergi seperti and two students used bagaikan. the rest seven students have seven different ways of translation, i.e., sedang meniup seperti, tertiup angin layaknya, sedang tertiup seperti, seperti, diterpa angin seperti, and tertiup seperti. “she were blowing away” is actually a metaphor because the subject is described using the qualities of wind that is ‘blowing away’. the author compares the character’s feeling and reaction with a small brown leaf, thin, brittle, lifeless to show how depressed the character at the time. all students used reproducing the same image in the tl procedure to translate the metaphor and simile. conclusion it can be concluded from this study that students had some difficulties to interpret and identify the sentence structure of source language. it has become the main reason why student still struggled to transfer the metaphors and similes into more idiomatic expression in target text as figurative languages. both metaphors found in the source text were translated into the target text using reproducing the same image in the target language procedure. all but simile 5 were translated also using reproducing the same image procedure. in translating ‘like’ as a signalled word to indicate a simile, student translators mostly used seperti. students might be more familiar with the word, although there are other alternative words could be used, such as bagaikan, bak, laksana, etc. the number of students who applied reproducing the same image in tl procedure is always higher than other procedures in each metaphor and simile. besides, students also applied translation of simile plus sense. replacing the image in the sl with a standard tl image which does not clash with the tl culture and deletion procedures were applied once each. while, procedures of translation of metaphor by simile, conversion of metaphor to sense, and same metaphor combined with sense were not applied by students. this finding hopefully can give worth contribution to the researchers and readers to improve their skill in translating figurative languages, especially similes and metaphors in literary works. it is also expected that teachers would be inspired by the result of this preliminary study to guide their students either in doing their translation projects or in conducting the further research on this field. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 116 references ashley, montagu. (1951). an introduction to physical anthropology – second edition (pdf). charles c. thomas publisher. pp. 302–312. knowles, murray and moon, rosamund. (2006). introducing metaphor. london & new york: routledge taylor & francis group. larson, mildred l. (1984). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence. boston: university press of america machali, rochayah. (2000). pedoman bagi penerjemah. jakarta: penerbit pt grasindo. newmark, peter. (1988). approaches to translation. london: prentice hall international. newmark, peter. (1988). a textbook of translation. london: prentice hall international. waldau, therese. (2010). “a study of figurative language in the works of astrid lindgren”. metaphor and translation. mid sweden university. pdf. williams, jenny and chesterman, andrew. (2002). the map: a beginner’s guide to doing research translation studies. manchester: st. jerome publishing. cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary & thesaurus © cambridge university press) (http://www.auntyflo.com/flower-dictionary/white-carnation [accessed 6/30/2016 at 07.56] (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ staccato [accessed 6/30/2016 at 9.29] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/staccato [accessed 6/30/2016 at 09.24] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shirley_temple) [accessed 6/30/16 at 10.05] https://archive.org/download/introductiontoph033240mbp/introductiontoph033240mbp.pdf http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ http://www.auntyflo.com/flower-dictionary/white-carnation http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/%20staccato https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/staccato https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shirley_temple teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 85 analysis of esa teaching sequences applied by the english teachers for junior high school students: a case study abdul ayiz sultan agung islamic university, semarang abstract up to now the results of teaching and learning process related to the students’ engagement and readiness to study as perceived by junior high school students have not been satisfying yet. the students’ engagement and readiness are not considered as important elements before going through the lesson. students are mostly considered as empty vessels who are ready to be filled with knowledge by english teachers. as a matter of fact, students need encouraging since at the beginning of the lesson in order to achieve their maximum capacity in learning. regarding with those important elements, there is an interesting teaching sequence namely e-s-a teaching sequence proposed by harmer (2007) which can create a very interesting and succesful teaching and learning process. this paper therefore discusses the application of e-s-a teaching sequence which includes the students’ engagement during the teaching learning process, and the kinds of e-s-a teaching sequences for teaching junior high school students. the engagement indicators indentified five criteria such as body language, consistent focus, verbal participation, student’s confidence, fun and excitement. the data were taken from the two english teachers as the subjects of this study. the two english teachers’ performance towards the application of e-s-a teaching sequence were analyzed and compared. the result of this study presents the students’ engagement during the teaching and learning process and various kinds of e-s-a teaching sequence which were employed by english teachers to teach students as appropriate. keywords: e-s-a teaching sequence, teaching and learning process, students’ engagement. introduction teaching a language as a second or foreign language is not an easy job, especially in teaching english subject at junior high school level in which the students are mostly adolescents at the ages of about 12 to 17 (harmer 2007: 15). the english teachers have to know many things related to the characteristics of the junior high school students in order to have the successful teaching learning process. adolescents are teenage students usually called older children who are able to develop greater capacity for abstract thought as they have grown up. in other words, their intellects are somehow starting to take effects and are able to talk about more abstract ideas, respond positively to opportunities and participate in real life situations. besides, teenage students can comprehend and accept the need for learning kinds of more intellectual things. the other characteristics of adolescents are they are in the process of 86 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 searching for their identity and self-esteem and these are many times the result of the student’s position in their peer group. for some years, many experts who have been working on the language teaching methodologies have tried to develop the best teaching method to achieve the best result of learning a language, either for second or foreign language. yet, talking about the best method in teaching language for either second or foreign language is quite difficult to determine since there are many language teaching methods offered by the experts where every language teaching method has its own characteristics, either the strengths or the weaknesses of which many experts are arguing. what the language teacher must do is as simple as what murcia (2001: 10) suggested in her book, teaching language as a second or foreign language, that a language teacher learn more about the various approaches and methods available as well as to figure out which practices have proved successful in teaching language. because there are still many language teachers who don’t have a sense of history about their profession and they aren’t attentive to the details of the historical bases of the many methodological options they have in teaching language subject, especially in teaching english subject, they finally neglect those methodological options when teaching students in english classes. there are some elements for successful language learning and teaching which an english teacher needs to take into consideration. those elements are called e-s-a which stands for engage, study, and activate (harmer 2007: 51–57). an english teacher has to involve these three elements in his teaching practice. they are very essential in english classes for the teacher to think of and construct carefully in designing the english teaching sequence as well as the materials given to his students. the esa teaching sequence also needs to be adjusted with the students’ age, background as well as their motivation in teaching english classes. in other words, these three elements also determine how the output of the language teaching will be. the use and design of esa teaching sequence may vary. there are three common kinds of esa teaching sequences, namely straight arrows, boomerang and patchwork teaching sequences (harmer 2007; 51–57). the english teacher may choose one which he thinks is useful and endorses his successful language teaching in the english classes. if the english teacher doesn’t involve the esa teaching sequence; for example, the result of the teaching learning process in english classes may not be as successful as when the esa teaching sequence is involved. it is often heard that the students are seemingly not engaged in learning english in the classroom. the students are not language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 87 interested in joining english lesson possibly because the english teacher’s way of teaching is not interesting for them. thus, the students tend not to pay attention to what the teacher is teaching because they are not engaged emotionally. it is also perhaps the result of what the teacher does at the beginning of the lesson. the teacher may fail in getting the students’ interest since at the beginning minutes of the lesson. as teachers we do not want to see our students sleeping in the class when the teaching learning is lasting. a good teacher must be able to make the students open their eyes rather than close their eyes because of not knowing what is happening in the class or what the teacher is explaining. esa teaching sequence may benefit the teacher since it helps the teacher try to design the best teaching sequence for a particular purpose of teaching so that the students become more interested in learning and participating not only in the classroom, but also learning by themselves further after school. english as a second and foreign language when teaching a language, it is very essential that teachers know the use of the language itself in a particular area in which the language is used whether as a second or foreign language so that they can adjust the kinds of appropriate teaching methods based on these backgrounds. teaching english in indonesia is categorized as teaching the english as a foreign language which refers to the learning of english in a country where english is not the native language and the students are learning english mostly at high school, university or a language school in their own country. in contrast, teaching english as second language means that the learning of english done by immigrants moving to a country in which english is the native language (paul 2003: 1-2). for example, an indonesian child who has moved to america with his family is an esl learner in his english class. in esl, learners commonly have more opportunities to use english naturally outside class rather than in efl, such as when playing with friends, shopping, chatting, discussing, or when living their lives in the english speaking countries. learners may also have more exposure to english which has very significant effect in fostering their abilities when performing the language, such as when watching tv, listening to radio or just hearing conversations happening around them. in general, when esl learners have moved to a particular english speaking country and see that many people there speak english whenever and wherever they are, they start to be deeply aware of the importance of english and feel it is natural and extremely necessary to learn it. yet, efl learners, on the other hand, seldom feel whether english is either natural or necessary to learn since they tend not to have more opportunities to use english 88 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 and in many cases, they have lack of exposure to english because english is not the native language in their country and many times they find it difficult to get exposure to english after the english class dismisses teaching english at junior high school teaching english to teenagers can be fun, but can also be annoying. it depends on how the teacher views and manages the students regarding with their activities in classroom. that’s why english teachers need to know and consider the characteristics of their students. english as a subject matter is managed for developing the four skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing, so the students are hoped to be able to communicate using english in certain levels. junior high school students who are in year between eleven up to fourteen or often called teenagers are characterized as adolescent students. harmer (2001: 3839) states that there are at least five characteristics of adolescent learners. first, they seem to be less lively and humorous than adults. second, identity has to be forged among classmates and friends: peer approval may be considerably more important for the students than attention of the teacher. third, they would be much happier if such problem did not exist. fourth, they are likely to be disruptive in class. the last but not the least, they have great capacity to learn, have a great potential for creativity and a passionate commitment to things that interest them. yet, the students cannot learn as much as they can if the teacher is unable to provide engaging and meaningful learning experience for them. if they are engaged since at the beginning until the end of the lesson, they will have a great capacity to learn, a great potential for creativity and a passionate commitment to things which make them interested. thus, the cooperation between the teacher and the students is really needed in teaching learning process in order to make it successful. one of the teacher’s jobs is to provoke the adolescent students in their intellectual activity and creativity so that they are able to express their ideas, thoughts, and feeling freely. remembering that adolescent students are still in period of change, new experiences, instability, learning many things and often making disruptive behaviour life school, the teacher is required to be more creative and skilful in managing the classroom as well as the learning experience. in this case they need something special in their education. schools and teachers should provide adolescents with opportunities to explore and experiment in a stable, engaging and supportive atmosphere because they learn new experiences, new roles, and this range of age is one of the most challenging times in life. so they are able to resolve their problems themselves together with the teacher’s guidance. after all, they still need the guidance in living their lives until they can stand on their own. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 89 teaching method a teaching method is a set of procedures which a teacher employs when teaching. there are at least seven language teaching methodologies the english teacher can choose from as krashen (1982: 125) states; they are the grammartranslation method, the audio-lingualism method, the cognitive-code method, the direct method, the natural approach, the total physical response and the suggestopedia. each of those approaches has its own characteristics; therefore, careful consideration is necessary before it is applied in the classroom. in short, the english teacher needs to know and understand about the characteristics of each teaching method before applying it, both its own strengths and weaknesses which can be adjusted with the students’ needs in his english class. ppp and e-s-a teaching sequence every lesson taught in the classroom contains different stages, including english lesson. many english teachers might have known and used ppp teaching sequence which stands for presentation, production and practice when teaching in the classroom. ppp sequence is one of the teaching sequences english teachers may choose from. but, this ppp teaching sequence seems old-fashioned for nowadays need in learning a language. regarding with that issue, an alternative teaching sequence is demanded. e-s-a teaching sequence can be one of the alternative to ppp. we can see that this teaching sequence seems old-fashioned for the present need to learn a language from the following criticisms. the first, the ppp teaching sequence concerns its focus too much on structures which emphasizes on the accuracy or correctness of forms (the precise delivering of structures and vocabularies) (lewis 1996 cit. sanchez 2008: 89). this criticism results in two interconnected consequences which can result in the nonfulfillment with naturalistic learning principles and in a brake upon learners’ experimentation with language (sanchez 2008: 91). the two interconnected consequences contain the learners’ embarrassment and avoidance of risktaking, just as similar as stated by willis (1993), that these consequences, learners’ embarrassment and avoidance of risktaking, are crucial for the development of their own creation of hypothesis of language system as well as to make them confident to use the target language. lewis (1996: 14) also says that ppp gives learners a misleading feeling security with its focus on well-formed sentencelevel utterances. he encourages students to use even insufficient linguistic resources to try to communicate real meaning. then, willis (1996b) also argues that this model pursues the student’s automatic response to the stimulus given by the teacher in which it leads students to believe that the target language is a joint of discrete items which can be assimilated and added to previously learned elements. the rigidity of 90 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 ppp’s learning path assumes that knowledge is solely acquired through the succeeding phases of presentation, practice, and production. however, as sanchez (1993) suggests, we have to consider the fact that sometimes we are capable of assimilating new knowledge without any need of practice and without help of explicit explanation. the next criticism comes from the practice phase which is associated with mechanical drills (dekeyser 1998 cit. sanchez 2008: 90). mechanical drills are the object of disapproval due to their lack of similarity to real-life communication because they solely focus on forms at the expense of meaning. they do not allow learners to create form-meaning relationships, which are the foundations of language processing (dekeyser 2007b cit. sanchez 2008: 92). the last comes from pedagogic criticism. it has two aspects. the first is related to the ppp teaching sequence’s unnecessary development of teacher control which usually decides what learners can actually do in class because it tends to strengthen teacher’s leadership. this can be seen from both in their instructors’ management of the class and the way the syllabus objectives are achieved (sanchez 2004a). the teacher’s control is increasingly enhanced due to their role as an informant in p1 and as a corrector in p2. the second is related to its faulty efficiency in its application to real-life communication as stated previously. towards this issue willis (1993) argues that the focus on discrete items presented in isolation as offered by traditional ppp sequences disable learners to cope with real life communication at both perceptive and productive levels. esa teaching sequence tends not to be teacher-centered, but student-centered, different from the ppp which emphasizes too much on teacher talk or control to the class. it can also provoke more real-life communication based on particular topics which will encourage students to master the target language as they are engaged with a particular material given to them. the other thing which makes it more interesting to use when teaching english as the target language is the flexibility in using the different kinds of e-s-a stages which differs from ppp teaching sequence that seems to be inflexible because every lesson taught is supposed to follow presentation, practice and production stages. meanwhile, in the esa teaching sequence there are some modifications when employed in teaching. the esa stages are only the default stages. the language teachers may choose one of its modifications he thinks is suitable for their students. to make the students engaged and interested in english classes is very important. thus, when the english teacher comes to the english class and is about to start the lesson, he needs to get the students’ attention in order for him to be easier to transfer his knowledge of english language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 91 to students, contrasted if he doesn’t get the students’ attention at the beginning and later on will find it more difficult to deliver the material to the students. making the students interested in learning english means making the students engaged with the lesson. the teacher has to be able to make the students engaged emotionally so that they can get the maximum benefit from the learning experiences. there are some activities and materials which usually engage the students. for example, the english teacher can use games (depending on the age of the english learners and the type of game), music, discussion, stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, anecdotes, and etc. (harmer 2007: 52). besides, the teacher can use a more specific game like language game which also has aims to engage and encourage students to use the target language with enthusiasm (karjo 2011: 3). we can see some of the characteristics which can show us whether students are engaged or not during the teaching learning process as stated by jones (2009: 10). the first, to measure whether the students are engaged or not is by looking at their body language. those who are usually engaged will show positive body language which refers to students exhibit body postures, including eye contact, positions of arms, head position, leaning forward or backward, that indicate listening and attention to the teacher or other students. in other words, those body movements can show a student’s level of interest and attention. the second is from the consistent focus in which students are focused on the learning activity with minimum disruptions. if we talk about the consistent focus, we need to consider some of these conditions whether students’ attention is changed because of lack of interest to the topic, or lack of knowledge of how to proceed, frustration, or some outside distraction. the third is from the verbal participation. verbal participation means that students verbally participate during the teaching learning process by answering and asking questions and even sharing opinions or arguments on complex problem. the fourth is from student’s confidence. here students exhibit confidence to initiate and complete a task with limited coaching and can actively participate in team-based work or individual one. the fifth we can see from students’ fun and excitement whether students exhibit interest or enthusiasm and perhaps use positive humor during the learning activity. study activities are those in which the students are asked to focus on the construction of something whether the language itself, the ways in which it is used or how it sounds and looks. the purpose of study here is to make the students understand about the material given to them. for example the teacher shows students the pictures of some professions like a doctor, a teacher, a farmer, a 92 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 businessman, etc., the teacher then has the students say things repeatedly like ‘a doctor works in a hospital and he cures sick people’. the purpose in the study stage is the teacher tries to make sure the sentences are pronounced correctly and that the students use accurate grammar for example. activate is the element for successful language learning which describes exercises and activities which are designed to get students using language as freely and communicatively as they can (harmer 2007; 53). the activities which are usually used in activate stage include roleplays, advertisement design, debate and discussion, story and poem writing, email exchanges, writing in groups, etc. thus, to activate the students’ knowledge, an english teacher needs to construct interesting learning experience which the students can take advantages of in order that they can apply what they have learned. to sum up, the indicators of esa teaching sequence proposed by harmer (2007) can be seen in table 1. table 1. teaching sequence and engagement indicators teaching sequence indicators engage 1. positive body postures. 2. consistent focus 3. verbal participation 4. student confidence 5. student fun and excitement study 1. focus on the construction of the language 2. focus on how it sounds. activate 1. students use language in speech. 2. students use language in writing. 3. read/listen for pleasure. 4. comprehend the reading text 5. comprehend listening text. the designs of esa teaching sequence there are three designs for e-s-a teaching sequence; they are straight arrows, boomerang, and patchwork. the english teacher may choose one of which he thinks that it is good and appropriate for students in his english classes. here are the examples of the designs of the three language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 93 esa teaching sequences the teacher may take advantages. the use of straight arrows esa teaching sequence when teaching english in the classroom can be seen from the following example. first, in engaging the students, the teacher shows a picture, or a video about some interesting places to visit for spending their holidays and the teacher then asks the students whether they like or not to have holiday in the interesting places they’ve seen. second, in study stage, the teacher shows students the picture of a particular interesting place, a beach for example. the students are introduced to ‘can’ and ‘can’t’ (how they are pronounced and constructed) and say things like ‘in the beach, we can see beautiful views around it’ and ‘we can swim and play sand’, and ‘but we can’t swim too far if the waves are big’. the teacher tries to make sure the sentences are pronounced correctly and the students use accurate grammar. third, students work in pairs to discuss about the interesting place they want to visit for their holiday. they make a presentation to the class saying what they can or can’t do there. the use of boomerang esa teaching sequence when teaching english in the classroom can be found out in the following example. first, in engage stage, students and teacher discuss about some kinds of foods the students like to eat. the possible questions might be appropriate to discuss are ‘when does student usually eat that food?’, ‘where does student buy that food?’, ‘how much does student pay to buy that food?’ by asking those questions, hopefully the students get interested in the topic. second, in activate stage, the teacher describes a purchase situation which the students are going to act out in a role-play. the students plan the questions they are going to ask and the answers they might want to give (not focusing specifically on language construction, etc., but treating it as a real-life task). they then role-play the purchase situation between a seller and a buyer. while they are doing this, the teacher makes a note of a language difficulties they have and particular mistakes that can be worked on later. third, in study stage, when the roleplays are over, the teacher works with the students on the grammar and vocabulary which caused them trouble. for example, students can compare their language with more correct usage and try to work out (discover) for themselves where they went wrong. the teacher may explain what the problems were or refer students to grammar books, etc. they might do some controlled practices of the language. fourth, the teacher goes back to activate stage. here, for some time later, students role-play another purchase situation about buying not only a kind of food, but also some kinds of foods after they have absorbed the corrections to the language they used last time round. 94 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 the use of esa patchwork teaching sequence is described in the following example. first, in engaging the students, the teacher tells students about a famous person they might have known. have the students answer orally the questions related to the description given to them. second, in activate stage, they act out a dialogue in pair and the dialog is about their favorite idol. the idol could be an actor, actress, athlete, or other. here the students are asked to describe the idol they like. third, in study stage, the teacher does a vocabulary work on words such as ‘tall/short’, fair-skinned/black skinned, ‘long/short hair’, etc, ensuring that students understand the meaning and the hyphenated compound nature of some of them, and that they are able to say them with the correct pronunciation in appropriate contexts. fourth, the teacher goes back to activate stage in which students are asked to describe themselves or people they know in the same kind of ways as the reading text. fifth, the teacher goes back to study stage in which the teacher focuses the students’ attention on the relative clause construction used in the text (e.g. ‘i’m a kind of person who always enjoys movie….’). the use of ‘who’, functioning as adjective clause, is discussed and students practice sentences, saying things like ‘they’re the kind of people who like to help others.’. in addition, the use of patchwork esa teaching sequence is usually used for intermediate or advanced level. thus the english teacher needs to choose the kinds of appropriate esa teaching sequences wisely before using it method the research design used in this study was a descriptive qualitative research. according to creswell (1994: 147) a descriptive qualitative study is a kind of interpretative research in which the biases, values and judgment of the researcher become stated explicitly in the research report. in the same line, best (1981: 93) also stated that descriptive qualitative study is aimed to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon that exists, opinions which are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends which are developing. it is in line with the purpose of this study which aimed to describe, analyze and interpret the phenomena and the processes related to the e-s-a teaching sequence applied by english teachers in english classes that happened during the study. thus, in conducting the research, the writer used descriptive qulitative method. the two english teachers at mts darul ulum were observed as the subeject of this study and and their speech related to e-sa teaching sequences were transcribed. in order to support the data, this paper also provided video recording as documentation during the application of e-s-a teaching language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 95 sequences in the classroom towards the students. during the video recording, students’ engagement were recorded as necessary. the observations were conducted for three meetings to get the complete description of e-s-a teaching sequences applied by the english teachers. the duration of teaching and learning process took sixty minutes per meeting. the video recording was also used to catch unpredicted phenomena during the application of esa teaching sequence in the teaching and learning process as well as to complete the data after the observation. findings and discussion the e-s-a teaching sequence applied by the english teachers was analyzed based on harmer’s esa teaching sequence (2007). the students’ engagement was analyzed by using jone’s rubric of students’ engagements. this study showed that during the observed three meetings, both respondent 1 and respondent 2 applied e-s-a teaching sequence elements in their teaching learning processes differently in every meeting. even respondent 1 once applied 2 different kinds of e-s-a teaching sequence in her class. it happened in the first meeting. she applied boomerang and stright arrows teaching sequences. she did so because the first teaching sequence had been finished and needed to start a new e-s-a teaching sequence to avoid the students’ boredom. the elements of applied e-s-a teaching sequences in this study had met the requirements suggested by harmer (2007:52-53). in engage, there are some materials which can be used to attract students attention such as games, music, discussion (stimulating quesstions), stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, amusing anecdotes, etc. even when those activities are not used, the teacher can deploy written exercise or language students are going to be dealing with by asking them to make predictions, or relate classroom materials to their own lives. respondent 1 was better in terms of engage and activate stages. to engage and give the students learning experiences, she used more varied activities. for example in the engage stage, she used stimulating questions which required students’ understanding about meanings of english words in indonesian and the students’ answers or ideas towards the topic being discussed. besides giving the students stimulating questions, she used reading aloud together for the engage stage. but respondent 2 only gave stimulating questions which required only the students’ understanding towards the meanings of particular english words. for the study, the two respondents had applied it well where they had the students focus on the construction of the 96 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 language, the ways it was used or how it sounded and looked. in the activate, r1 also gave the students more varied activities and sufficient time to activate their language skills rather than r2 did. for example, r1 gave the students learning experiences to practice speaking using role-play and reading aloud individually. in contrast, r2 only gave the students mostly practiced understanding written texts by translating them. the different activities used during the teaching learning process also affected the students’ engagement. in r1’s class, the rate of the students’ engagement tended to be more stabil. the students showed high engagement from the first meeting up to the third meeting. but in r2’s class, the rate of the students’ engagement was lesser and lesser. it was caused by the same activities given by r2. r2 gave translation activity very often. even in the last meeting, there was one student putting her head on the desk while her friends were paying attention to the teacher. but the teacher could overcome this situation well. he came close to the student and had her perform the dialogue he had chosen. finally she lifted her head and continued to pay attention to the activity. in addition, the effect of different learning experiences given by r1 could make the students have more abilities in using english. for example, r1 gave roleplay in the first meeting. the students could practice speaking and enhance their ability in both pronouncing particular english words and socializing with their friends by using role-play because they were also required to mimic the situation in the dialogue. that was also why the students got excited when they were required to mimic the situation in the dialogue. they laughed when they saw their partner’s mimic when speaking. the next learning experience given by r1 was reading aloud acitivity performed individually by the students in the third meeting which was meant to know more personally and in detail about how good the students’ ability was in pronouncing particular english words. however, r2 only gave translating activity during the three meetings. as the result, this activity only gave the students learning experiences to understand written texts and caused the students’ boredom during the teaching learning processes. conclusion based on the result of the analysis in the previous chapter analysing the e-s-a teaching sequences applied by the english teachers at mts darul ulum demak, the writer concluded that the teachers have applied the elements of e-s-a teaching sequence during the teaching learning process. they could engage the students during the classes since at the beginning of the lesson and maintain their attention up to the last minutes of the lesson. the teachers applied varied activities in their teaching sequences. they not only language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 97 focused the students on how the language sounded and looked, but also on practising using the language. during the teaching learning process, they could engage the students and overcome the students’ boredom effectively. as the result, the students’ participation was noticable proven by their body languages, verbal participation and language performance when the students were asked to do some instructions. for the activate, the two respondents used different learning experiences given to the students. respondent 1 used role-play and reading aloud performed individually which resulted that the students got more time to perform and enhance their ability in learning english. on the other hand, respondent 2 gave only translating activity during the teaching learning processes from the first meeting to the last one. as the result, it caused the students’ boredom during the teaching learning process which also decreased the students engagement during the classes. from the conclusion above, there are some suggestion can be drawn when applying e-s-a teaching sequence. first, since the subject matter of engaging and maintaining the students’ attention has important role in learning, there are some other interesting activities and materials to engage students such as games, music, discussion, stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, anecdotes, and etc. which can be applied during the teaching learning process. teachers may choose one of which he thinks is approriate for students so that the teaching learning process will be more varied and attractive for students. second, in giving learning experiences to students, teachers should avoid applying the same activities very often when teaching english because students will tend to have less attention because the same activity which are used many times can make them bored and less interested in participating towards the lesson, especially when the activity is applied quite often in short time. third, every teacher should know e-s-a teaching sequence as recommendation and consideration before teaching in the classroom. it can be very beneficial for teachers because it helps them improve the stages of the activities in the teaching learning process and reminds teachers that students also needs engaging by considering the junior high school students’ characteristics. references best, w.j. 1981. research in education. new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. bryman, a. and r.g. burgess. 1994. analyzing qualitative data. london: routledge. cresswell, j.w. 1994. research design qualitative and quantitative approaches. california: sage publications, inc. harmer, j. 2001. the practice of english language teaching. (3rd ed.). essex: pearson education limited. 98 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 harmer, j. 2007. how to teach english. essex: pearson education limited. karjo, carla h. 2011. “teachers’ and learners’ accounts of teaching learning strategies in multi channel learning system”. indonesian journal of applied linguistics. vol. 1/1. jones, r.d. 2009. student engagement teacher handbook. new york: international for leadership in education. krashen, d.s. 1982. principles and practices in language acquisition. california: pergamon press inc. lewis, m. 1996. implications of a lexical view of language. in d. willis & j. willis (eds.), challenge and change in language teaching (p.10-16). oxford: heinemann. paul, d. 2003. teaching english to children in asia. hong kong: person education asia limited. sanchez, a. 1993. hacia un metodo integral en la ensenanza de idiomas. madrid: sgel, s.a. sanchez, a. 2004. ensenanza y aprendizaje en la clase de idiomas. madrid: sgel, s.a. sanchez, c. raquel. 2008. patterns of activity sequencing in the teaching of english as a foreign language and their effects on learning: a quasiexperimental study. doctoral thesis of university of murcia. willis, j. 1993. preaching what we practice – training what we teach: task-based language learning as an alternative to p.p.p. the teacher trainer, 8(1), 17-20. language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 257 unmasking of the president joko widodo’s ideolgy stances realized in his political speech towards the people of indonesia. suswanto ismadi megah s.1 megah76@yahoo.co.id siti noor mohd. noor 2 azmi abdul latif 3 123university tun hussein onn, malayisa abstract this paper aims to unmask president joko widodo (jokowi, henceforth)’ ideology through his presidential speech. using a combination of cda and sfl as an analytical tool of appraisal system, particularly the subsystem of attitude to dismantle ideological stances behind the speech text toward the people of indonesia. the data was obtained from the first state speech of jokowi in 2015. further, selecting the first state speech was the parameter of his leadership in ruling the nation. the results show that jokowi employed all subtypes of attitude to the people of indonesia. the subtype of judgment mostly with positively-invoked capacity employed by jokowi indicates that he has an ideological inclination to judge the people's character as the capable people who can overcome the worst condition. therefore, jokowi implicitly shows his ideological inclination toward the people that he inclination to prioritize the indonesian people. keywords: ideology, political speech, jokowi, and people of indonesia introduction in the last decades, indonesia has practiced a democratic country after more than three decades of experienced banned political participation (santoso, 202; agustino & agus yusoff, 2014; santosa et al., 2014; komara, 2015). after the resignation of president soeharto indonesian people experienced euphoria to channel their political desire. this time political freedom has produced various kinds of political discourse. it emerges politicians more freely build their political expression. politicians deliver political intentions to get their political goals logically and emotionally to push the people to follow them (abdulameer, 2019). this political expression has produced freer political discursive speech (bayram, 2010; santosa et al., 2014; sharndama, 2015). to realize political intention through language is considered more effective. political speeches are employed by some nation leaders to manifest their political goal by disseminating ideology inserted political speech texts, for instance, a president as a nation and political leader normally deliver their political goal through speech. the speech is a manifestation of the spoken text read to influence people directly or indirectly. speech is normally employing language as a medium realized via text, whereas the text is influenced by a context (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the context which influences text is related to the text users, for instance for political purposes. thus, language is used to express semiotic reality which is a relationship with text and context (martin,1992; halliday & matthiessen, 2004). thus, language is a crucial medium used in political speeches for the president to impart their ideas, thoughts, programs, policies, etc. in line with (brognolli,1998; latupeirissa, 2019) language is a medium to arise a certain political goal for the president to make people understand what they deliver via political language. through language political speech is a way to open and widen hidden https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:megah76@yahoo.co.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 258 ideology (mustafa, 2014). besides, (abdulameer, 2019) observed recently all politicians include the president have attempted to influence the people through political speech as an effective way to make the people influenced by the speeches conveyed in terms of presidential speeches' texts, these affect a great impact and which also disseminate and mystify ideological contents when one listens or reads the texts. those results to find the ideological stance inside the texts, which pushes it to make policies in a period of his national service. in this situation, a president may manipulate and use language to result in hegemony in the society. political speech is an important medium to send ideas, thoughts, wants, and ideology. the text which is sed by an influenced person will give a great impact on people and the world due to it makes a policy recognized either nationally or internationally (mustafa, 2015; abdulameer, 2019). when a person says or writes, they produce text (halliday & matthiessen, 2004, 2014). political speeches are media for presidents in indonesia after the fall of soeharto to attract the people as the main purpose since the fall of soeharto indonesian president is voted directly by the people. therefore, the people of indonesia are the main social actor should be inserted in the presidential speech texts. people are the main social actor mostly used by indonesian presidents to show their alignment toward the people who have supported them in the presidential election. it is similar to president joko widodo has ‚ the grassroots or known as the term of wong cilik who is the basic political party that has supported jokowi to be president. to find the gap in this current paper, prior researches of the indonesian presidents had been conducted by some researchers. by using critical discourse analysis (cda) and systemic functional linguistics (sfl) to see how language and power are bounded in a text to investigate power abuse and ideology used in the text. kusumaningrum (2014) cda incorporates with sfl to see the ideological stance of president yudhoyono (sby) through his political speech text. suharto (2016) examined the political language of the presidential speech texts of president sby. then rangga (2016) studied president jokowi’s ideology through his political speech. he applied van dijk's critical discourse analysis to unmask jokwois' intentional ideology inserted in the state of jokowi's ideology. this paper has the objective to reveal the hidden ideology of jokowi realized how he evaluates the people of indonesia to identify his political direction via the appraisal analysis system of martin (1992), martin and white (2005), noor (2015), particularly the subsystem of attitude is the correct way as the framework rather than two other subsystems ( alsanafi, 2018, 2019). this paper reviewed applied systemic functional linguistics (sfl) theory since language cannot be separated from the social function by halliday and hasan (1976). he introduced systemic functional linguistics (sfl) with three systems of meaning, known as metafunction which consists of ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions. on the other hand, [24] focuses on investigating text structure to explore power and ideologies. noor (2015) channels the cda of fairclough and incorporates sfl in doing cda to analyze text structure. this study employs an analytical tool of the appraisal aspect of sfl to explore the ideological inclination of jokowi. appraisal analysis is obtained from sfl systemic functional linguistics (sfl), in terms of interpersonal meaning (martin, 1992; alsanafi et al., 2019a, 2019b). appraisal has three subsystems; attitude, engagement, and graduation. attitude deals with feelings, including emotional reactions, judgments of behavior, and evaluation of things"( martin, 1992). attitude is viewed as the most applied and crucial subsystem within appraisal analytical theory (alsanafi, 2020). attitude has three components as the sub-systems which are: affect, it concerns with emotion which consists of un/happiness, in/security, dis/satisfaction. and dis/inclination (alsanafi, 2019b). while, judgement indicates the evaluation of human characters which consists of tenacity, capacity, normality, propriety, and veracity (martin, 1992). appreciation deals with the evaluation of things which consist of reaction, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 259 composition, and valuation (martin, 1992; alsanafi, 2019b). methodology this paper employed a descriptive-qualitative research type. it is an amalgamation of qualitative and quantitative research to emphasizes the outcome of this paper. according to (alsanafi, 2020) used both research types, qualitative and quantitative may arise more contributive-dynamic multiplicity research. besides descriptive qualitative research type is appropriately used to analyze the lexical utterance of the texts (santosa, 2003; santosa et al.,2014). the data set was obtained from one prominent presidential speech in the first year of jokowi on the occasion of the indonesian independence day. the data was retrieved officially from www.setkab.go.id data analytical procedure was done by using fairclough's (1995) critical discourse analysis within systemic functional linguistics (sfl), particularly appraisal analysis of martin and white (2005). this analysis is framed based on fairclough cda's model which consists of a. text description based on formal properties, interpretation of the text how text is produced and consumed, and socio-cultural analysis is to relate between discourse and society. on, and culture, where the text is being explained. result and discussion as already noted previously the indonesian president after the fall of soeharto is voted directly by the people of indonesia. therefore, how the president evaluates the people to disseminate his ideological stance to maintain and reach political power toward the people thus, the people of indonesia is the main social actor to be evaluated through the subsystem of attitude, particularly judgmental analysis. as stated in the previous section that attitude has three sub-systems, judgment, and appreciation. that subsystem of attitude is used to explore the semiotic and linguistic units by examining all attitudinal utterances to study successively (alsanafi, 2020). in this section, we focus on the selected data set from attitudinal items. the data findings are shown as in the results got are indicated in the form of quantity numbers or percentages and tables, which cover all occurrences and portions correspondingly. to make all comparisons between all judgmental categories. this enables us to get a clear value of the ways how jokowi appraises the people of indonesia and what are the reasons jokowi behind his lexical choices. the result shows that some quotations are taken from the speech texts with the description to draw the main intention of this study as can be seen in table 1 table 1 kinds quantity percentage https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 260 affect 8 1.3% judgment 27 51.2% appreciation 14 28.5% total 49 100% it is clear as can be shown in table 1 that significant results shows the judgment category has dominated applied rather than the other two attitudinal categories with large occurrences in his whole political speech text conveyed to evaluate the people of indonesia. the total number of occurrences is 49 occurrences and the judgmental categories placed more than half of the total data found. it 5.2% of all the texts. attitudinal propositions evaluated applying the appraisal subsystem of judgement. the table pinpoints the appreciation placed the second position after the judgment with a lace of analysis to almost 14 occurrences (28.5%) of all attitudinal analysis in the whole speech text. the effect is at the least position with only 8 (16,3%) of the whole attitudinal utterances employed by jokowi. it is a more detailed description of attitudinal choices for each as the following examples. (1) … 300 thousand schools, and almost 40 million students, … appreciation (2) … we immediately responded, … judgment (3) ... let us together express our gratitude to god the almighty … affect the examples indicate how jokowi evaluates the people of indonesia through three subsystems of attitude, but as the data findings that judgment category is mostly preferred by jokowi to appraise the people indonesia, over the two other types of attitudes; (affect and appreciation). referring to political speech, jokowi disseminates his ideology realized by evaluating the people of indonesia through lexical utterances. the judgmental category is mainly put as the main concern in the spreadsheet (alsanafi, 2020). jokowi judged the people of indonesia via various types of judgmental categories to investigate the indonesian people’s behavior being appraised occurred more than half of the total number (51.2 %). it shows how jokowi’s inclination toward the people of indonesia as the main priority in his government as he comes from a grassroots family. besides political party which has brought to be the top leader in indonesia is the people party is known as ‘wong cilik’(the grassroots party) (jaya, 2017). it is a more detailed explanation and description of how jokowi evaluates the people of indonesia using judgmental analysis as can be seen in table 2. table 2 judgmental categories kinds quantity percentage tenacity 6 22.2% propriety 7 25.9% capacity normality veracity 11 2 1 23.4% 4.3% 2.15% total 27 100% as can be seen in table 2 that jokowi evaluates the people through the judgmental categories as the results are tenacity 6 (22.2%) using positivelyinscribed evaluation, then propriety positively-inscribed with a number of 7 (25.9%). capacity has the hugest number rather than the others with 11occurres (22.2%) using positively-invoked evaluation. and then normality comes to 2 occurrences (4.3%) with positivelyinscribed evaluation. whereas veracity is the least occurrences with only 1 occurrence (2.15%) by using negativelyinscribed. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021. p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 261 it can be described that jokowi mostly evaluates the people of indonesia using positivelyinvoked capacity, it can be interpreted how jokowi has the most interest to evaluate toward the people of indonesia as in his official speech and distributed to all audiences who watch or listen to the speech. it can indicate that how jokowi evaluates the people of indonesia as his main priority due to some reasons such as he is elected directly by the people of indonesia, it is proper to prioritize them. secondly, he is supported the party people-base. thirdly, he comes from the ordinary people, not like most of the indonesian presidents who come from the javanese-indonesian elites is a more detailed description and explanation can be seen in examples as follows. (4) ... critical young voters who have strong motivation to safeguard the running of democracy and governance. (5) ... in addition, currently, indonesia also has a significant number of middle-class people... as can be seen, example 4 indicates that the people of indonesia who are capable people as shown by ‘young voters they have ‚strong motivation’. ‘the strong motivation’ implicitly shows that they have the capability to uphold the democratic and good government. the judgmental category of the capacity conveyed by jokowi indirectly to appraise the people of indonesia. therefore, the lexical choices of ‘the strong motivation’ indicate that the people of indonesia who are represented as the young voters have the strength in terms of their motivation. this lexical choice is interpreted when jokowi conveyed in independence day to all audiences who attend in the house of parliament or via television live program at home. the use of invoked positive capacity can be explained that jokowi as the leader he appraised the people's work. besides, as the honorable javanese gentleman he cannot expose something directly. example no. 5 shows how the people of indonesia are dominated by the middle class. the middle class can be described as the class which has an equal position in economic status. it can be interpreted that the middle class means that the people of indonesia can do something significant to arise their economic position higher. it explains that jokowi can make the people of indonesia achieve a better position to arise the capability through his programs offered to the people. to sum, the way how jokowi transfer ideological stance inserted the speech text using more indirectly and invoked rather than directly is motivated by two reasons. the first his sociological background of jokowi as javanese tends to say something more indirectly. as stated that the javanese tend to express indirectly (handayani, 2009). second, his political background as the people base party (pdi-p, struggle indonesian democratic party) drives him to prioritize the people. jokowi has an ideology inclination to be pro-the people (jaya, 2017). the ideology is brought by jokowi to align the people is to persuade the people that he is capable to make the people better life in order for the people to support him and to make easier handling his leadership. conclusion this paper can be concluded as a detailed description and explanation of how jokowi inserts his ideology through political speech text. by adopting the subtype of attitude, the judgment category to make it possible to draw jokowi’s political position to rule the nation named indonesia how he reaches and maintains his power by inserting his ideology through political speech. he is described as a grassroots leader who is closed to the people and has a commitment to make people prosperous. as the 'grassroots' or 'wong cilik’s president, he shows how he concerns to prioritize the people as the main intention. he persuades people through his political speech that the people of indonesia are the capable people who are able to achieve high achievement as he manifested in the political speech text that the middle class is rising. it shows the capability of the people to achieve a higher level of economic status. most occurrences of using the judgmental category show his motivation and ideological https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 262 inclination inserted his presidential speech text toward the people of indonesia. by using the judgmental category through positive invoked evaluation of capacity indicate jokowi’s ideological inclination as depicted in his speech text. it proves that he is able to mystify the people to work hard to achieve their prosperity. using mostly positive-invoked evaluation toward the people is influenced his social background as javanese who tends to express his ideas more implicitly and directly. there are two main reasons behind his political speech. the first refers to the social background as javanese who high consideration to say frankly or directly, he probes through invoked appraisal toward the people. second, he is supported by people base party that has basic supporters from the ‘grassroots’ enables him to align the indonesian people. references abdulameer, a. et al. 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(2014). bahasa politik dalam teks pidato presiden susilo bambang yudhoyono, [online]. available: http://repository.um.ac.id/64315/ https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 264 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４０ １４０ poststructural feminism to fight kyriarchy: a case of black widow (2021) nur alifia putri saptiadi1 nur.saptiadi@mhs.unsoed.ac.id ririn kurnia trisnawati2 ririn.trisnawati@unsoed.ac.id mia fitria agustina3 mia.agustina@unsoed.ac.id 1,2,3universitas jenderal soedirman abstract black widow is a sci-fi superhero movie directed by cate shortland. this movie narrates the lives of the black widows under the control of a secret crime organization called the red room academy. in black widow, natasha romanoff as the main character and ex-black widow is shown taking down the red room academy and its male leader, dreykov. this current study utilizes a poststructural feminism approach and the concept of kyriarchy in literature to reveal the poststructural feminism inclination and the portrayal of kyriarchy in the movie. this study uses poststructural feminism and susan fiorenza's concept of kyriarchy as the theories. in analyzing the data, this currrent study uses visual narrative approach. the analysis reveals the postructural feminisim inclinations portrayed by natasha romanoff in two categories, those are infiltration and act of self-sacrifice. moreover, the portrayal of kyriarchy is revealed through the red room academy's system and dreykov's sexist belief. this explains how sexist belief and the practice of kyriarchy by dreykov affects the women as the target of oppression. thus, no matter what the situation is, women are always at a disadvantage. keywords: black widow, feminism, kyriarchy, poststructural feminism, sexism introduction the discourse about female characters in males focused superhero movies have always been about them being the cherry on top, the sweetener, or the object of male gazes. dating back to 2002, when the first marvel superhero movie, spiderman was released; mj is portrayed solely as peter parker's love interest and a typical damsel in distress, so is with pepper pots (iron man’s love interest) and elizabeth ross (bruce banner’s love interest), as the other earliest female representations in the marvel cinematic universe (mcu). when natasha romanoff was introduced as black widow, a member of s.h.i.e.l.d, and later became the only female avenger, many fans had hoped that this portrayal of a female superhero would be better, but that does not seem like the case. as barranco (2021) stated in their article 'sexy, sterile, sacrificed: black widow in the marvel cinematic universe', natasha is introduced to the mcu as a sex object, and it is clear that her character is crafted by the male gaze, her first appearance in the franchise showed her dressed in a professional outfit with a low-cut shirt that emphasizes her breasts, her fight choreography introduction, too, has a sexual element through the use of her thighs. in gerard and poespel's 'black widow: female representation in the marvel cinematic universe' (2018), they stated that natasha engages in romantic relationships with more than one of the other avengers; in captain america: the winter soldier (2014), natasha is shown kissing steve rogers the captain america, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４１ １４１ whilst in another movie, avengers: age of ultron (2015), relationship blooms between bruce banner (hulk) and her. lastly in ameter's 'gender portrayal in the marvel cinematic universe' (2019), where she discussed the more progressive side of mcu's female representations which the franchise had added another powerful main female superhero, captain marvel. she stated, while black widow and captain marvel are generally accepted by the avengers as part of the team, there are still moments where their strength, power, and capability come as a shock to male characters. as the previous studies have proved, natasha romanoff’s portrayal as the only female avenger is still limited to the roles of sexual object, love interest, and when she finally shows some lethal moves, the male characters take it by surprise. this portrayal of natasha as a character is still using the dominant narrative of female portrayal, as in, the women do not take the spotlight at all. this is in line with r.w connell’s theory of gender hierarchy in which femininities take the last place, while hegemonic masculinity takes the first place. thus, concluding to black widow is not the feminist figure in the franchise, at least not yet. in the most recent movie, black widow (2021), where it takes the timeline before natasha sacrificed herself in avengers: endgame (2019), a progressive addition in the discourse is born. the movie is about natasha’s story on the run, after the avengers "broke up" in captain america: civil war (2016) and she comes across one of her sisters (yelena belova) in her old organization before s.h.i.e.l.d and the avengers. while she got entangled in an old business, natasha discovers that the red room academy, the place where she used to be trained, is still running. the red room academy is a secret soviet-russian training program that involved taking young women and turning them into elite spies and assassins known as black widows by the usage of psychological conditioning and mind control led by a male leader, dreykov. a male led secret crime organization that imprisoned and weaponized young women is a practice in flesh of kyriarchy which is a social system built around domination, oppression, and submission (fiorenza, 1992). kyriarchy is still a part of feminism theory but with an intersectional extension beyond gender (pui-lan, 2009). unlike patriarchy that is often limited to familial unit led by the oldest male by definition, kyriarchy encompasses sexism, racism, ableism, ageism, antisemitism, homophobia, transphobia, classism, xenophobia, adultism, adultcentrism, economic injustice, prisonindustrial complex, ephebiphobia, gerontophobia, colonialism, militarism, ethnocentrism, anthropocentrism, speciesism, islamophobia, anti-catholicism, and other forms of dominating hierarchies in which the subordination of one person or group to another is internalized and institutionalized. it emphasizes a more comprehensive view of how oppression functions. (stichele, caroline vander; penner, todd c. 2005). the branch of feminism theory that counters kyriarchy is poststructural feminism because it explores the relationships between languages, sociology, subjectivity and power relations as they impact upon gender in particular (prasad, 2005). black widow (2021) portrays the practice of kyriarchy precisely in the militarism aspect, for the red room academy is built over dreykov’s bloodlust and hunger for power. the involvement of young women, seen as objects turned weapons, shows how power-relations in term of poststructural feminism are implemented in this movie. thus, with these issues in mind, this current study has found the subtle inclinations of poststructural feminism in the movie’s plot. while underlining the power-relations and militarism from both theories, this current study aims to unpack the said inclinations of poststructural feminism within the plot, furthermore wishing that this current study could serve as a progressive addition to the natasha romanoff discourse that has been postulated by numerous previous studies. methodology http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４２ １４２ this current study employs one of the branches of feminism theory, which is poststructural feminism as the major theory and elisabeth schussler fiorenza's (1992) theory of kyriarchy as the supporting theory. both major and supporting theories are used to support the analysis of the data in the movie. this current study exercises an approach in gender studies to literature to reveal the inclination of poststructural feminism concept and kyriarchy hidden within the plot of the movie. in this study, the subject as well as the primary data for the analysis is the movie black widow (2021). the length of this movie is 02:13:00, and this current study only takes several scenes related to the issues. in analyzing the data, this current study uses compilation of information extracted from various books and existing studies about poststructural feminism and or kyriarchy theories, mainly chris weedon's and elisabeth schussler fiorenza's collection. all sources including books, journals, and articles are collected to gain information in order to be able to thoroughly analyze the issue in this current study. in analyzing the data, this current study describes data by using a narrative approach to deliver the meaning of each dialogue and each screenshot of several scenes, afterward, relating it to the theories. narrative aspect includes the story and the plot (ida, 2015) and in other cases, the story itself becomes the raw data of an analysis (bleakley a, 2005). this current study, however, specifically used visual narrative analysis, which is a broad area encompassing words and images and it incorporates images into narrative analysis alongside written or spoken text (reissman ck, 2008). hence, the usage of several dialogues quotation and several screenshots of the scenes. there are several steps to identify the inclination of poststructural feminism concept and kyriarchy in black widow (2021). firstly, as depicted in the movie, dreykov built the red room academy which operates through robbing the freedom of young women in order to satisfy his power hunger can be related to the militarism aspect in the practice of kyriarchy. secondly, the act of natasha romanoff fighting the red room system to free the other young women from dreykov's control depicts the inclination of poststructural feminism concept relating to its power-relation aspect, thus adding a progressive argument to the discourse of natasha romanoff as a character. lastly, the conclusion is provided by concluding the results of data based on analysis and interpretation. result and discussion this part discusses how fiorenza's kyriarchy and poststructural feminism are implied by the red room academy and how natasha romanoff attempts to take it down in the movie. this current study has found two poststructural inclinations performed by natasha romanoff in order to take down the kyriarchal system of the red room: they are by infiltration and by self-sacrifice. the infiltration that natasha does depicted how women are hardly noticeable and are rarely seen as a danger. thus, she utilizes the brand that is closely associated with women, being underestimated, to take down the red room and dreykov. while self-sacrificing, as evans (2010) argued, feminists may find that they need to endorse certain forms of self-sacrifice in order to be consistent in their feminism. the example of self-sacrifice that women often go through is explained further by jones (2000), stating particularly in cases of women who are in abusive relationships, are poor or marginalized, or in other ways disempowered. one of the situations described by jones, which is disempowered, fits the life of dreykov's black widows who are imprisoned since young and then were raised to be weapons with no humanely identity. since natasha romanoff was once a part of the red room, she went through the same oppression. in this analysis, the researchers found natasha's selfsacrifice as another one of the feminist tools that she uses to take down the red room and dreykov. infiltration: because women are hardly noticable http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４３ １４３ the red room academy is the central of kyriarchy practice in the movie. dreykov employs the kyriarchal system in several ways, from imprisoning them, controlling them, and taking their free-will. dreykov is shown as the male leader of the red room academy, where the organization takes confine of "selected" young girls to be raised and trained as skillful assassins. since the beginning, dreykov sees these girls not as human but rather referring them as an object as he said, “remove all the defects.” (shortland, 2021, 13:46). calling the women defects implies dreykov’s sexism as he considers women’s position is lower and thus he has control over them. at this point, sexism as the basic ideology shown by dreykov is in line with what is believed to be the underlying concept of what fiorenza dubs as kyriarchy. another concept of the kyriarchy is described by boochani (2017) as a system where different forms of oppression intersect where oppression is not random but purposeful, designed to isolate and create friction amongst prisoners, leading to despair and broken spirits. in timestamps 01:20:05, a scene where natasha and yelena’s childhood figures album in the red room is shown, followed by a dialogue recited by natasha romanoff that goes: “i remember this day. we shot christmas, thanksgiving, easter, and summer vacation in one day. different backgrounds. i knew all the presents under the tree were empty boxes but i didn’t care, i wanted to open every single one so just it can ever feel real,” (shortland, 2021). as boochani described kyriarchy’s oppression as purposeful and often leave the oppressed in despair and broken spirits, the exact same thing happened to young natasha and the other young girls who grow up in the red room. dreykov altered their version of what a normal childhood is, while some older girls like natasha, feels the shift in reality but is still unable to do anything. moreover, as the girls grow older and of age, dreykov proceeds to use physiological conditioning and mind control to make them unable to rebel against him, in which is proved by what yelena said in timestamps 47:28: "what you're experiencing is a psychological conditioning; i'm talking about chemically altering brain function. you're fully conscious but you don't know which part is you," (shortland, 2021). the control dreykov has over his widows is not only limited inside the red room. dreykov employs his network of widows all over the world and put killing chip in each of the widow's brain so when a widow fails to carry her mission, dreykov can easily terminate her on duty. just as shown in the figure below. figure 1. dreykov pushing “terminate button to kill a defected widow dreykov is shown handling a high-tec gadget that displays a figure of one widow, alongside with her defected part which is the fracture on her leg, colored in red. the color red in business term often means bankruptcy and in the programming term, the color red often means there is an error in the program. thus, the fact that the fracture on the defected widow’s leg is colored red, while dreykov monitors and handles everything from a gadget, can be depicted as how he sees the widows no more than a business or a program. once one of them goes red, he can terminate them anytime anywhere. this argument is further supported by a dialogue played by yelena in timestamps 48:11: “maybe one in twenty survived the training, becomes a widow, the rest he kills. to him we are just things, weapons with no face that he can just throw away because there is always more,” (shortland, 2021). the depiction of one widow’s reluctance and helplessness under dreykov’s hand is also shown in early minutes before the scene shows dreykov pushing the “terminate” button: “i don’t wanna do this. he’s making me.” (shortland, 2021, 38:20). dreykov maintained his status-quo as the leader through brute violence and malestream http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４４ １４４ (fiorenza, 1992), as shown in the movie how he makes sure the widows know that there is no escape by controlling even down to selecting which woman deserves to live by judging it on their sole purposeness. another thing dreykov controls other than the widows’ lifetime is their sexual organ functions. this is shown in the scene where alexei, the red room’s ex-super soldier and natasha’s foster father asked, “why the aggression? is it your time of the month?” (shortland, 2021, 01:02:20), in which yelena countered with: “i don’t get my period, dipshit. i don’t have a uterus ... that’s what happens when the red room gives you an involuntary hysterectomy.” (shortland, 2021, 01:02:24). dreykov guinea pig-ed the women he forcefully took as hostages by cracking open their brain to put chemicals in it and by sterilizing them. he takes away exactly the one biological feature that makes woman a woman, completely making them see themselves not as a woman, let alone human, but as a weapon and weapon only. another instance to support dreykov’s tendencies to sees and treats women as objects slash weapon is shown in the scene where natasha finally confronts dreykov’s office in red room academy. she asks dreykov: “you don’t feel anything? you feel anything when i killed your daughter?” (shortland, 2021, 01:34:19), in which he answers with: “... thank you, natasha. you gave me my greatest weapon.” (shortland, 2021, 01:34:42). these dialogues quotations between natasha and dreykov implies how militarism has run deep in dreykov’s blood, adding a linkage to a comparison of the real life situation where military family also involves their children in the practice of militarism (frains, 2020), dreykov also turns his daughter into one of his weapons by putting a chip at the back of her neck, still controlling her against her will. figure 2. dreykov’s daughter/taskmaster in figure 2 above, dreykov’s daughter is finally revealed as she takes off her helmet, before her true identity is revealed, natasha and yelena knew her as taskmaster. taskmaster is an intelligent android weapon that can mimics its opponents’ fighting style. dreykov weaponized his daughter even more than he did the black widows by making his injured daughter’s body a new identity as a weapon, dresses her up in iron suits and gears, and treating her as a half-machine. as a true twisted leader, dreykov planned his widows’ project meticulously and without flaws. the last thing dreykov has control over is about to be shown in the series of evidence below: figure 3.1. natasha struggling to fight dreykov http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４５ １４５ figure 3.2. natasha struggling to fight dreykov in figures 3.1 and 3.2, natasha was shown having difficulties to harm dreykov. from her expressions, it can be seen that she knows something is wrong but she does not know what it is, the franticness is shown more in the lines where she asked, “how are you controlling me?” (shortland, 2021, 01:37:16) in which dreykov discloses: “... there is a pheromonal lock. smelling my pheromone prevents you from committing violence against me.” (shortland, 2021, 01:37:22). the pheromonal lock that dreykov instills in the widows’ sense of smell could be an implication of how women are naturally vulnerable against men and that even just from a pheromone of the male species, it is able to make women forced into submission. figure 3.3. natasha being forced to submission figure 3.3 above serves as a restatement that dreykov meticulously planned his widow project for even natasha, who have long broke free from dreykov’s controls (physical conditioning that makes her work under him), still reacts to the pheromonal lock. this could still be in line with what fiorenza meant by using malestream in the practice of kyriarchy, by instilling a pheromonal lock in his widows, dreykov is able to commit violence and abuse them but on the other hand, they cannot fight back. in timestamps 01:46:04, dreykov finalized his bloodlust and powerhunger by saying “… my widows can start or end wars,” (shortland, 2021). this shows how militarism in the base of kyriarchy is practiced by dreykov, oppressing women and turning them into weapons that can help him reach his objective to rule the world. also, putting emphasize on how he says ‘my widows’, it can be depicted as dreykov fully takes ownership of the women he imprisoned. followed by “… using the only natural resources that the world has too much of. girls,” (shortland, 2021), the statement dreykov uttered further proved how he never sees women as human beings, by referring to them as natural resources depicts his sexism belief of men’s higher status than women, because in his eyes women are equal to objects that can be obtained and controlled. the kyriarchal system of the red room led by its bloodlust and hungry-of-power leader dreykov are disclosed and natasha found out the secret behind why dreykov are still able to stay off the radar all this time, is because the red room’s building is built up in the clouds. in timestamps 01:32:56 to 01:33:20, a series of scene show natasha and melina, her foster mother and one of the girls who is forced to work for dreykov but not as a black widow, are planning to infiltrate the red room. they switch their fighting suits and gear and wear a high-tech masks that can mimic each other’s faces and voices perfectly. just like the network of widows that dreykov disperses all over the globe as spies, the spies that dreykov intended to be off the radar, because women in their initial role were never meant to be lethal. natasha romanoff infiltrated the red room academy using the same way. self-sacrifice: because men can hardly do it right self-sacrifice as described by evans (2006) is something that some women do to maintain her http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４６ １４６ feminism. it is a mean to breakthrough from the oppression or to leave the powerless state. thus, this is a section where natasha’s self-sacrifice becomes a tool to fight dreykov and the red room’s kyriarchal system through a stream of poststructural feminism. after being unable to harm dreykov due to the pheromonal lock, natasha starts provoking dreykov by calling him cowards and make fun of his network of widows, starting from timestamp 01:39:30 to 01:40:41, she keeps cornering dreykov with degrading words. two of the lines that particularly makes dreykov angry are: “if no one’s noticed, then why even do it? you’re nothing, you have nothing.”,“you’re weak, bet it’s easier to act tough in front of defenseless little girls,” (shortland, 2021). in the timestamp 01:40:03, dreykov is shown throwing repeated punches to natasha and dreykov’s fast succumbing to rage upon natasha’s degrading words highlights his toxic masculinity and how insecure he is inside, his sexist belief rejects being called ‘nothing’ and ‘weak’ by a woman. thus, driven by insecurity and temper, dreykov clumsily reveals the secret to take down the red room, which is a plan wellplayed in natasha’s side. natasha is purposely making dreykov lost his temper by using the best feature that women have, their body. body is a tool for women to communicate (cixous, 2018), which is ironic since women are often defined by and trapped inside their body but natasha utilizes it so she could have the upper-hand of the situation. she drives dreykov mad by women’s signature petty remarks rather than violence. the act of natasha’s self-sacrifice other than purposely driving dreykov’s mad and then getting punched is breaking her own nose in timestamp 01:43:49. natasha breaks her own nose in order to finally be able to commit violence against dreykov. women are often forced to sacrifice something personal to them, or even themselves, in order to break-free from the gender gap and or to fight back the oppression. comparing it to the real-life situation, in which patriarchal environment is more common, many women have to sacrifice their freedom and education so that they can marry and build a family, involving caretaking and domestic obligations to be carried out by women (mitra & knottnerus, 2008). in the next scenes, natasha is able to attack dreykov, he fast succumbs to defeat but seeing as they are in the red room academy, and the black widows are still coming to dreykov’s aid as shown in the figures below. figure 4.1. the black widows in the red room figure 4.2. the black widows coming to help dreykov in figure 4.1, the black widows are seen gathering in a dark room where they repeatedly practice uniformed fighting moves in unison. while in figure 4.2, the black widows are seen coming towards dreykov for aid, their expression filled with rage but soulless at the same time. the uniformed movements and soulless look that the widows have are emphasizing how these women have fully became emotionless weapons, only know how to fight and only reacting to danger. in timestamps 01:46:04, dreykov orders them to “nobody leaves the room until she’s dead. make her suffer,” (shortland, 2021). the widows, still under dreykov’s control, obey his order and start to attack natasha. this scene is similar to the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４７ １４７ phenomenon where woman is often seen turning against other woman under the cause of a man rather than supporting each other, they fight each other. brainwashed by the societal dictum, women even in their fiercest form, seem to be subconsciously seek validation from men (mohapatra, 2019). although in the movie, the widows are doing it against their will, however the chemically altering brain function that is in their head makes an equivalent to the real-life practice of women subconsciously seeking men’s validation that often makes them fight another woman. dreykov chooses girls, as he claimed as the world’s most abundance resources, to be weaponized is rooted deep in the bigoted and sexist belief that women are equals to object. they can be controlled and disposed when defected. the said belief is a product of social structures and processes that shape our subjectivities, which are situated within discursive fields where language, social institutions, subjectivity, and power exist, intersect and produce competing ways of giving meaning to and constructing subjectivity (de lauretis, 1986; kondo, 1990; weedon, 1997). dreykov’s subjectivity towards women is related to his belief of men naturally controls over women. however, poststructuralist feminism of subjectivity reject the humanist notion of a unified, fixed self that has a stable, essential core and instead propose the self as a site of disunity and conflict that is always in process and constructed within power relations (weedon, 1997). hence, the lines in timestamp 01:48:27 where natasha goes, “you get to make your own choices now,” (shortland, 2021) which identify the end of dreykov’s regime and the start of women’s union under the same sense of freedom, counters the unified identity as widows that dreykov forced onto them ever since they were young. natasha’s lines serve as a mean that they can finally be a woman, whatever kind of woman they want to be without having a unified subjectivity forced onto their identity. the acts of infiltrating and self-sacrificing as the implementation of all the trainings she got from the red room, including manipulating and deceiving male opponents, helped natasha romanoff take down the red room. all the while dreykov perceives himself as a higher being, more powerful than the enemies he had defeated with his widows. however, natasha puts him back to his place, making him realize his position as the same male target as the others she had easily defeated in the past. natasha reminds him that he is still a man with sexist and bigoted vision towards women, that he is a man who is about to be defeated by the weapons he had created on his own. towards the end of the movie, the acts of women supporting women are seen as shown in the figures below. figure 5.1. natasha romanoff and yelena belova figure 5.2. one black widow and dreykov’s daughter in figure 5.1, the close-up shot of natasha and yelena touching their foreheads together shows how intimate the scene is. after defeating dreykov and destroying the red room together as sisters, natasha and yelena are not shy to display their sisterly affection towards each other, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４８ １４８ showing relief and gratefulness upon knowing that they both survived. while in figure 5.2, one black widow is taking the hand of dreykov’s daughter who is lying on the ground. the full shot of this scene is meant to show the black widow helping dreykov’s daughter, despite her being dreykov’s daughter. this scene further elevates the act of women supporting women because even though taskmaster is dreykov’s daughter, that one black widow is still willing to help her because she knows that taskmaster is also a victim of dreykov; being mind-controlled and turned into weapon. however, as both of them are free from dreykov’s control, they are able to help each other as a fellow woman. thus, as figures 5.1 and 5.2 suggest, the movie ends with a clear notion that natasha romanoff, though a little bit late, finally becomes and or represents a proper feminist figure or character in the mcu franchise. black widow (2021) portrays natasha romanoff’s feminist growth as a character in a way that, this time, natasha fights as a woman and as a sister for a cause that brings justice and empowerment to women with the same fate as hers. the writings of her character in the movie this time debunk the older writings that portrayed her as a sexual object, a love interest, and a hero whose power comes as a surprise to her male colleagues. conclusion through the findings of the portrayal of fiorenza's kyriarchy and the inclination of poststructural feminism in black widow, this study reveals that natasha romanoff fights off the kyriarchal system of the red room led by dreykov by utilizing two elements of poststructural feminism concept, which are through infiltration and self-sacrificing. the infiltration was done by natasha by using the label that is often associated with women: weak and unnoticeable. the self-sacrificing was done by natasha as a mean to breakthrough from the oppression that cages the other female black widows. the success that natasha romanoff achieved countering the unified subjectivity and or identity of women by dreykov's sexist belief is able to dub her as mcu's feminist figure, debunking her earlier character writings which have been progressed from a sexual object, a love interest, a hero whose power comes as a surprise for her male colleagues to a female hero who fights as a woman and a sister for a cause that brings justice and empowerment to other women sharing alike fate. moreover, through black widow, we could see the counter roles of women placed in an environment that is thick with militarism and power-relations. the mainstream discourse about women with said environment is always about them being the oppressed, either by violence or discrimination. however in this movie, the women are portrayed doing what the men usually do in a militant environment, albeit in the end these women are still controlled by men. finally, this movie shows that no matter how the situation is, women are still more likely to be in the side of disadvantage. references ameter, j. (2019). gender portrayal in the marvel cinematic universe. urj-uccs: undergraduate research journal at uccs, 12(2), 53-59. barranco, p. (2021). sexy, sterile, sacrificed: black widow in the marvel cinematic universe. bleakley a. stories as data, data as stories: making sense of narrative inquiry in clinical education. med educ. 2005;39:534-40. boochani, behrouz (2017). translated by omid tofighian. "a kyriarchal system: new colonial experiments/new decolonial resistance". 9th annual maroon conference magazine. charles town, jamaica: charles town maroon council: 20–22. issn 0799-4354. retrieved 17 february 2019. de lauretis, t. (1986). feminist studies, critical studies. bloomington: indiana university press. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １４９ １４９ evans, c. s. (2010). exploring kenotic christology: the self-emptying of god. regent college publishing. fiorenza elisabeth schüssler. (2006). wisdom ways: introducing feminist biblical interpretation. orbis books. frain, s. c., & frain, b. (2020). “we serve too!”: everyday militarism of children of us service members. childhood, 27(3), 310–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568220914709 gerard, m., & poepsel, m. (2019). black widow: female representation in the marvel cinematic universe. polymath: an interdisciplinary arts and sciences journal, 8(2), 27-53. ida, r. (2011). metode penelitian kajian budaya. surabaya: airlangga university press. kondo, d. k. (1990). crafting selves: power, gender, and discourses of identity in a japanese workplace. chicago: university of chicago press. marvel studios / walt disney studios; motion figures. (2021). black widow. usa mitra, aditi & knottnerus, j.. (2008). sacrificing women: a study of ritualized practices among women volunteers in india. voluntas. 19. 242-267. 10.1007/s11266-008-9063-y mohapatra, r. p. (2020, november 27). 4 reasons why women subconsciously seek validation from men. linkedin. retrieved march 24, 2022, from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/4reasons-why-women-subconsciously-seekvalidation-from-mohapatra prasad, p. (2018). crafting qualitative research beyond positivist traditions. routledge, taylor & francis group. pui-lan, k. (2009). elisabeth schüssler fiorenza and postcolonial studies. journal of feminist studies in religion, 25(1), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.2979/fsr.2009.25.1.191 reissman ck. 2008. narrative methods for the human sciences. thousand oaks, ca: sage. stichele, c. v., & penner, t. c. (2006). her master's tools?: feminist and postcolonial engagements of historical-critical discourse. brill. weedon, c. (1996). feminist practice and poststructuralist theory. cambridge, ma: blackwell. wortmann, s. (2012). the concept of ecriture feminine in helene cixous's "the laugh of the medusa". grin verlag gmbh. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568220914709 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/4-reasons-why-women-subconsciously-seek-validation-from-mohapatra https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/4-reasons-why-women-subconsciously-seek-validation-from-mohapatra https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/4-reasons-why-women-subconsciously-seek-validation-from-mohapatra https://doi.org/10.2979/fsr.2009.25.1.191 language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １ an investigation of papuan english teachers' emotional management during teaching abel yohanis romrome1 giovannymoreira10@gmail.com concilianus laos mbato2 cons@usd.ac.id 1,2sanata dharma university, yogyakarta abstract emotional management is one crucial skill that the teachers should acquire. in this case, the teachers should be able to regulate their emotion to succeed in the teaching process. this study aimed to investigate how papuan english teachers manage their emotions during teaching based on two research question: 1. in which situation do papuan english teachers experience positive and negative emotions? 2. to what extent can papuan english teachers manage their emotions during teaching? the four participants who contributed to this study were experienced english teachers from two junior high schools in timika, papua, indonesia. in this study, the researchers employed a qualitative method, specifically a descriptive case study. in collecting the data, the researchers used two types of instruments namely open-ended questions and semi-structured interview. meanwhile, the researchers used the thematic analysis method to analyze the data. based on the findings, the positive emotions consisted of four elements such as happiness, motivating, confidence and pride. the negative emotions also encompassed four elements: anger, stress, sadness and anxiety. in addition, the findings suggested that most participants had regulated their emotions properly and appropriately by employing several strategies such as, avoiding harsh words during anger, self-relaxing, self-talking and reflection. they also treated the students with care and love in building teachers-students relationship (professional empathy). keywords: emotional management, negative and positive situations, papuan english teachers. introduction in academic context, emotion has been considered as crucial element in determining teachers’ decisions, attitudes, actions and reactions (benesch, 2017). it indicates that emotions can influence teachers’ actions because emotions cannot be separated from action (alhebaishi, 2019). according to puurula et al., (2001) emotions can be divided into two types: positive and negative. positive emotions refer to pleasant situations such as happiness, confidence, optimism, and so on. meanwhile, negative emotions relate to unpleasant situations such as anger, mad, afraid, shame, and so on (petchauer, baker-doyleet, mawhinney & ciarkowski, 2015). it is undeniable that teachers work in highly complex environment that includes students, colleagues, administrators, parents, and stakeholders with different perspectives and backgrounds. therefore, teachers might experience various pleasant and unpleasant emotions. for example, teachers will feel happy when their students or the school staff show them care, love, or appreciation. they will also feel ‘loved’ when their students sincerely express feelings of love or exert significant effort in studying. on the other hand, they will be angry if their students do not do homework. thus, the teachers must know and regulate their emotions during teaching. according to rahmawati, abdullah, fatimah, hidayati, and saputra (2021), http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:giovannymoreira10@gmail.com mailto:cons@usd.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２ in language teaching, emotions influence how teachers act in certain situations, so the teachers should understand and manage their emotions in order to be successful in the teaching process. besides that, coping and managing their emotions during teaching can enable the students to engage in the learning process (frenzel, daniels & buric, 2021). in addition, understanding and coping emotions can also shape teachers’ professional identity (avraamidou, 2018). it indicates that teachers should be able to regulate their emotions during teaching. however, in a reality, there are some phenomena that show teachers’ incapability of regulating their emotions during teaching. for instance, there was a case in one elementary school in buton, south east sulawesi, indonesia. at that time, one school teacher forced the student to eat the garbage. this occurred because the students made too much noise during class, the teacher was then angry and punished them (cited in kompas on january, 29th 2022). another case from one junior high school in camplong, east java. on september, 9th 2021, a teacher beat ten students because they were noisy during class (cited in petajatim on january, 29th 2022). these phenomena reveal some pieces of evidence about the teachers’ incapability to manage their emotion. there have been several studies that have investigated this topic around the world. aykac, ulubei, celik, and korkut (2019), conducted their study in western turkey. they found that many pre-service teachers have realized that the affective domain development was crucial because it can enable them to give better empathy with students, and love and respect them more. besides that, it can develop their professional identity for those who have well managed their emotions during teaching. meanwhile, bahia, freire, amaral, and estrela, (2013) found that portuguese teachers lack of capability to manage their emotions during teaching, so they need to make some breakthroughs in developing selfawareness and emotional control in order to shape their professional identity. furthermore, puurula et al. (2001) investigated teachers’ affective domain during teaching in england, finland, germany, greece, hungary, ireland, israel, italy, the netherlands, northern ireland, portugal and spain. in this study, they found that many teachers in europa have realized that the affective domain as a crucial and central element of their professional responsibilities. in addition, avraamidou (2018) investigated elementary teachers in a southern european country based on their lived experiences. the results revealed that the teachers who regulate their emotion can empower their sense of self. it indicates that, the teachers have learned from their experiences to be well prepared to deal with the same emotional situations and it can enable them to construct their professional identity. other studies have been conducted in indonesia regarding this issue. for example, kuswandono (2017) in his research, found that mentor teachers have perceived the importance of emotional affection and interpersonal involvement, so they always emphasized that these aspects must be learned, developed and acquired by pre-service english teachers in order to be accepted by their students in the classroom. meanwhile, rahmawati et al. (2021) investigated emotional management of one english teacher of vocational high school in tasikmalaya. they found that managing emotion can contribute to develop teacher identity. in this case, participant has realized that managing her emotion during teaching would benefit her and the students as well. therefore, she always tried to do some strategies to overcome emotional situations during class, such as self-relaxing and avoiding harsh words when she was angry. in addition, another study that has been conducted in yogyakarta, indonesia by wardhani, ena and mbato (2021). the results revealed that the participants could manage their emotions during teaching. they also found that experiencing emotional situations during teaching can motivate and prepare teachers to be better because they would be more aware of anticipating the same situation. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ３ in such conditions, the researchers were interested in investigating how teachers regulate their emotions during the teaching and learning process in the papuan context. the researchers chose this topic because none of the studies has investigated this topic in the papuan context. therefore, this study needed to be done to provide an image of the situation encountered by papuan english teachers. the researchers investigated the issue based on two research questions. the questions were as follows: 1. in which situation do papuan english teachers experience positive and negative emotions? 2. to what extent can papuan english teachers manage their emotions during teaching? literature review emotional domain as a part of teacher identity construction in the academic context, teachers are expected to shape their professional identity. it implies that they should improve their personal and professional identity to be better. according to han (2017), yuan and lee (2004), and zembylas (2003), there are three essential components namely cognitive, emotion and action that can shape teachers’ professional identity. cognitive components refer to the knowledge and skills that teachers have. meanwhile, emotional domains contain interests, attitudes and values (bloom, furst, hill & krathwohl, 1956). in line with the emotional domain, gable and wolf (1993) defined it as the ways of feeling and expression. in this case, the emotional domain is key in shaping teachers’ professional identity (van veen & sleegers, 2006; ledoux, 2006). furthermore, huang and guo (2019) add that there is a significant correlation between emotions and teachers’ identity construction because emotions can trigger teachers’ actions. in addition, emotional acting can be seen as a glue of identity (leigh, 2019). it indicates that, teachers’ emotions’ maturity could be measured by their attitude, thoughts, decisions, actions and character in the classroom. following this, some experts asserted that teaching is “emotional work” (van veen & sleegers, 2006; day, 2018). it refers to the process of teaching in which teachers face various situations that can stimulate their emotions in the relationship between their peers, students, staff, students’ parents, and stakeholders. in line with this, mills and satterthwait (2000) emphasized that teaching is primarily a personal or emotional act. it indicates that in the teaching process, teachers will encounter an emotional situation that can influence their strategy and action. in other words, teachers’ work involves other people’s feelings (riele, mills, mcgregor & baroutsis, 2017). therefore, teachers need to make some effort to deal with people’s emotions because they affect their teaching performance (barcelos & ruohotie-lyhty, 2018). furthermore, hong, dionne and francis (2018) and day (2018) suggested that teachers must have professional empathy in their relationships with others. it can be inferred that in the relationship with others, teachers should be able to integrate others’ feelings to become theirs and take actions based on their consideration with it. by doing this, they will be able to build a good relationship and connection with others so that the care relation will be created effectively (shoffner, 2009). according to rogers and webb (1991), good teachers care about their students. it means that teachers must be the people who can understand, be patient, and do all the things with authentic love and care for their students. thus, it can help them construct their personality and professional identity to improve (fuller, 1969). coping and managing emotions numerous studies have investigated the importance of emotional management during teaching. as one crucial element, the teachers should manage the emotional domain well to be successful in the teaching process. according to alhebaishi (2019), lee and yin (2011), the teachers http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ４ should be able to regulate and manage their emotions with challenging situations to ensure the teaching process’s effectiveness. it indicates that the teacher should be able to control emotional experiences and expressions of their interaction with surrounding environments (gross, 1998). thus, by coping and managing emotions, the teachers will reach successful learning goals such as improving teaching effectiveness, creating activities, building a conducive atmosphere, and motivating the learners to engage in learning activities (rahmawati et al., 2021). furthermore, hong, francis, and schutz (2018) asserted that teachers should understand their own emotions and others because it can provide feedback that can enable them to reflect on their success in the teaching process. besides that, the emotional experience can be used as guidance in developing their sense as teachers. in this context, teachers should balance their emotion between pleasant and unpleasant situation they encounter in the relationship with the surrounding environment as suggested by flores and day (2006). therefore, the teachers must be able to regulate their emotion during teaching to achieve learning effectiveness. methodology research design in this study, the researchers used a qualitative method, specifically a descriptive case study. the descriptive case study is a qualitative method used to describe a phenomenon in a reallife context (yin, 2003). this method was chosen because this research aimed to investigate the phenomena that papuan english teachers have encountered in regulating their emotions during teaching. setting and participant this research was conducted from two junior high schools in timika papua. the number of participants was four english teachers consisting of three english teachers from one school and one english teacher from another junior high school. these participants were chosen because they have experience in teaching english for more than five years. it means that they were experienced teachers and have encountered various situations regarding emotional management while teaching english in the classroom. thus, they were able to answer the questions based on their experiences. the demographic data of participants can be seen in the following table. table 1 demographic data of participants initial name gender age working time ym female 52 27 years l female 47 22 years chs male 32 8 years mrk female 35 11 years data collection in collecting the data, the researchers employed two types of instruments: open-ended questions and semi-structured interviews. according to barriball and while 1994), semistructured interview is one appropriate strategy or method for analyzing people’s opinions and perceptions toward the complexity and sensitivity of phenomena to get more valid information and clarification. in this case, the researchers collected data that focuses on the participants’ meaningful situation during teaching. after getting the permission letter from two junior high school headmasters, the researchers contacted each participant to answer the openended questions and allocate the interview time. because of the pandemic era, the participants were then gathered into zoom application to be interviewed. the interview section consumed thirty to forty minutes. during the interview, the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５ researchers used bahasa indonesia so that participants could freely give their responses to gain the objectives. ten questions were delivered by the researchers to get the information from participants. those questions consist of five questions about participants’ experiences with positive and negative emotions and five questions containing participants’ strategies for managing their emotions. the questions about the positive and negative emotional experiences were adopted and adapted from alhebaishi (2019) by measuring four aspects of the positive emotions such as happiness, motivating, confidence and pride. meanwhile, this study also measured four aspects of negative emotions: anger, stressed, sadness and anxiety. in answering those questions, each participant was given the time and opportunity to respond is based on their perceptions and experiences. data analysis the researchers analyzed qualitative data by using the thematic analysis method. according to braun and clarke (2008), thematic analysis is a method that can be used for identifying, analyzing, and reporting the data based on the theme pattern. therefore, to identify, analyze and report the data, the researchers employed six stages as proposed by them (2008). the stages can be viewed in the following figure. figure 1 the analysis stages after gaining the data from the interview, the researchers listened to and watched the video recording three times to become familiar with the data, and it enabled them to transcribe the data into written form. according to xu and zammit (2020) the data recording from interview must be transcribed first so that the researchers can familiarize the data. in this study, the first stage that should be done was to familiarize with the data by listening, watching and transcribing the interview data into written form. the second stage was to generate initial codes. in this case, the researchers generated initial codes based on inductive and deductive coding. according to braun and clarke (2008), inductive codes refer to the transcription data and deductive codes were taken from theoretical frameworks. so, in determining the codes, the researchers used two types of coding: coding based on the theory of teachers’ emotional management and coding based on the transcription data of interview. the third stage was to determine the themes. after coding the transcription data of the interview, the researchers determined the themes based on initial codes that had been made before. in determining the themes, the researchers combined the several codes by considering the relationship among them. it means that, if some codes that had close connection, so they would be put into one theme. in determining the themes, the researchers also tried to pay attention with the research questions in order to avoid irrelevant themes. after that, the researchers reviewed the themes whether they were appropriate or not. if the themes were relevant with the research questions, then they could be entitled. thus, the data were ready to be reported. result and discussion in this part, the researchers provided the results from open-ended questions and interview section to answer the study’s aims. in providing and reporting the data results, the researchers familiarizing the data generating initial codes determining the themes reviewing the themes entitling the themes producing the data report http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ６ divided it into two main topics based on the two research questions. each topic was then reported and discussed by highlighting some previous studies relevant to the findings. rq1: in which situation do papuan english teachers experience positive and negative emotions? in answering the first research question, the researchers divided the results into two subtopics: pleasant situation during teaching and unpleasant situations during teaching. thus, the readers can gain an image of the situations regarding positive and negative emotions or pleasant and unpleasant moments that had been encountered by papuan english teachers during teaching. pleasant situations during teaching in the context of teaching, it is undeniable fact that english teachers always face various situations such as pleasant and unpleasant situations that could influence their feelings, emotions, strategies and effectiveness in teaching. based on the results from open-ended questions, papuan english teachers often encountered several pleasant situations during teaching, such as happiness, motivating, confidence and pride. the findings can be seen in the following table. table 2. pleasant moment code affective domain situations pm1 happiness the participants would be happy, when their students were able to follow their instructions during teaching, respected them, greeted them, shared their personal problems, told their dreams and interests, expressed their love and appreciation to the participants. the most important thing that could make the participants happy was that they helped the students in enhancing their english skills to be better. pm2 motivating the participants felt motivated, when their students were interested in learning english, the students engaged and participated actively in the learning process, the students did not have background knowledge of english subject. pm3 confidence the participants felt confident when they could prepare the learning materials meticulously, they were able to design enjoyable learning activities and they could answer students’ questions. pm4 pride the participants were proud, when they could help their students to be successful in enhancing their english skills, they were able to encourage and motivate their students to be more creative in the learning process, they could stimulate their students’ interests in learning english, they could change students’ bad attitude into good attitude, and they could be the role model for their students. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ７ from table 2, it can be seen that four positive situations that were mostly faced by the participants during teaching. in accordance with the “happy” moment, all the participants admitted that they usually experienced this moment in certain phenomena. in the interview section, they shared their experiences regarding this issue. one teacher claimed that: “the moment that makes me happy is my students can follow my instructions. for instance, they do the tasks or homework as instructed by me. although sometimes my students tend to procrastinate in accomplishing all tasks, i can understand their situation if they can give the reasons that make sense to me. the point is, that i always try to give them another chance to do their tasks. by giving an opportunity to my students, it will enable them to get many things from the tasks”. (ym, interview) another teacher also added that: “in my experience, i usually try to approach my students personally. when they realize that i treat them well with all my heart, they will be comfortable sharing their problems with me, either their learning problems or personal problems. it is a memorable moment that makes me happy in the learning process”. (l, interview) looking at such situations, it could be inferred that the happy or joyful moment that the participants faced could be viewed as part of students’ participation and engagement during class. this finding was similar to winograd's (2003) findings. he found that the teachers would feel joy when the students showed their progress in the learning process and obeyed the rules that had been set. in line with this, wentzel (1996) asserted that students who are cooperative and able to follow the classroom rules and norms will enable their teachers to be happy during teaching. moreover, alhebaishi (2019) also found that the teachers felt happy when the students trusted them by sharing their personal problems. thus, it can be seen that the teacher's happiness experiences could be obtained by students’ participation or engagement during the teaching and learning process. based on the results, all the participants also faced other positive situations during teaching such as being motivated, confident, and proud. in the interview section, they argued that those positive moments could influence their actions during teaching. about the motivating moments that they experienced during teaching, one participant shared that: “the students can make me more motivated if they are interested in the learning materials that i teach. it can be seen from their participation in the learning process. when i notice their willingness to engage in my class, i feel that my efforts are respected by them. thus, i will try to do my best in helping them to improve their english skills”. (chs, interview) being motivated during teaching could be useful for the teachers to encourage students’ interests in the learning process. according to sutton and wheatley (2003), the teachers who are motivated in teaching can stimulate students’ interests in the learning process. in other words, motivated teachers could display positive emotional expressions during teaching and be able to provide enjoyable learning materials (tejeda et al., 2016). in line with this, in the interview section, the participants also claimed that they became motivated because of the lack of students’ background knowledge. it indicated that the teachers must make some breakthroughs to promote students’ interests in learning english. another element of positive emotion that was encountered by the participants was the feeling of confidence. according to participants, the preparation of the materials and learning activities could increase their confidence in teaching. when they tried to prepare the materials properly, the learning process could run well and the students would enjoy it. one teacher shared her experience regarding the way she prepared the learning materials. “in my experience, i usually prepare the learning materials based on the students’ interests. in this http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ８ case, my students really love korean pop, so in designing the learning materials i must combine english materials and k-pop. it actually spends a lot of time because you know, i have to memorize all things that are related to k-pop such as the name of the group, the name of each member of the group, and even their date of birth. for example, when i teach reading, the materials should consist of k-pop content such as pictures, personal data, and so on. but you know, my students really like it. they also show their interest in the learning process”. (ym. interview) this strategy also provoked another positive emotion for the teachers which was the emotional experience of pride. it was undeniable that when teachers were able to encourage their students to be interested in the learning process by providing enjoyable learning materials, then the teachers would be very proud of themselves and their students as well. according to keller et al. (2020), the emotional experience of pride might derive from teachers’ accomplishments and student achievements. in this sense, feelings of pride could be viewed as the accomplishments of the teachers in identifying their students’ needs and wants (hargreaves, 2000) or when students show their progress in the process of learning (darby, 2008). based on the findings, they shared some additional positive moments during the interview, such as enthusiasm and optimism. however, these emotional moments had been combined into motivating moment. unpleasant situations during teaching during teaching, negative emotions could not be separated from teachers’ lives. it indicated that the participants also encountered negative emotions during teaching. the results suggested four negative emotions namely anger, stressed, sadness and anxiety. it can be viewed in the following table. table 3 unpleasant moment code affective domain situations um1 anger the participants felt angry when the students did not do their tasks or homework, the students neglected their instruction and the students showed bad attitudes during the teaching and learning process. um2 stress the participants felt stress during teaching when they had many tasks to do and could not do appropriately and properly, their teaching partners did not support them, and the students did not show their progress in the learning process. um3 sadness the participants felt sad when they were not respected by their students or teaching staff and the school infrastructure did not support their teaching strategies. um4 anxiety the participants felt anxious, when they did not prepare their learning materials well, they could not answer the students’ questions, they could not help the students to overcome their problems in learning, they made a mistake during class, they could not regulate their emotions appropriately and they could not be the good model for the students. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ９ from table 3, it could be seen that the teachers sometimes felt angry when their students showed a bad attitude during learning. one participant admitted that: “in the process of teaching and learning, i sometimes felt angry at my students. they tend to ignore my instruction, uncooperative and unappreciative. for example, they are lazy to do their homework”. (mrk, interview) according to chang and davis (2009), teachers’ emotional experience of anger was linked to students’ misbehavior. in this case, misbehavior referred to the students’ incapability in showing a good attitude in the learning process (sutton & wheatley, 2003). furthermore, hargreaves (2000) emphasized that the teachers experienced feelings of anger arose from uncooperative and unappreciative students in the classroom. thus, it could be inferred that most of the participants felt angry because of students’ attitudes in the learning process. the second moment that the participant often encountered was feelings of stress. based on open-ended and interview responses, the papuan english teachers felt stressed when they had many tasks and could not do them appropriately and properly. chang (2009) asserted that the stress of overload tasks might affect teachers’ burnout. besides that, it could also make the teachers drop out of their professions (zembylas, 2003; shoffner, 2009). however, the participants confirmed that although they had many tasks to do, it did not make them leave their professions. one participant clarified that: “being a teacher is a wonderful job. although i have lots of tasks to do in this field and sometimes, i am overwhelmed in dealing with those tasks, i have never thought to leave this job. i enjoy working as a teacher because i love this profession” (l, interview). on the other hand, they became stressed when their teaching partners did not support them well. according to walkington (2005), the supportive school staff could be accommodating for the teachers to reduce their stress level. in this sense, when the teaching staffs could support their partner by showing love and care, it could help him/her in dealing with classroom problems (alhebaishi, 2019). another situation that could make them stressed was when the students did not show their progress in learning. in accordance with this, darby (2008) stated that students’ learning outcomes could influence teachers’ emotions. similarly, sutton and wheatley (2003) emphasized that the level of stress that the teachers underwent could be seen as the result of students' achievements in the learning process. the more successful the students, the lower the teachers’ stress level. furthermore, in the teaching and learning process, the participants also encountered sadness when they were not respected by their students or teaching staff. as mentioned by wentzel (1996) above teachers’ negative emotional experiences could be triggered by unsupportive students and teaching staff. in this case, the unsupportive students and teaching staff might disrespect to the teachers in a particular situation. therefore, leigh (2019) emphasized that in order to create a powerful students-teacher relationship, the teachers must be able to treat the students with love and care during teaching. moreover, they must build solidarity and emotional understanding between them and their teaching partners (zembylas, 2003). another reason that made them sad was the unsupportive school infrastructure. from the interview section, the participants pointed out that the school facilities did not support their activity in teaching. in addition, the participants often felt anxious during teaching. they became anxious when they did not prepare their learning materials well and they could not answer the students’ questions properly. moreover, they also encountered “anxious moment” when they could not help their students to overcome their learning problems. another situation that could make them anxious was when they made a mistake http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０ during class and they could not regulate their emotions appropriately. in accordance with this finding, one participant in the interview clarified that: “anxiety is one of the biggest problems that i usually have when dealing with the students in the classroom. therefore, i usually try to prepare all things regarding subject matter, learning activities, and so on. when i prepare all things appropriately, i become more confident in teaching”. (chs, interview) according to sutton and wheatley (2003), teachers’ anxiety might derive from the fear of making mistakes while teaching. in other words, they could not ensure whether they were doing a good job. in line with this, keller et al. (2020) also emphasized that teachers’ anxiety could arise because of the lack of subject matter knowledge. furthermore, nias (1996) pointed out that the unsupportive school environment and students’ behavior could increase teachers’ anxiety. thus, it could be seen that papuan english teachers felt anxious when they were not able to maximize their teaching strategies and their relationship with the students. rq2: to what extent can papuan english teachers manage their emotions during teaching? in this part, the researchers provided the data results regarding how papuan english teachers manage their emotional situations during teaching. teachers’ emotional management during teaching a variety of positive and negative emotional situations that papuan english teachers had undergone were valuable and memorable experiences. it could make them love their profession but at the same time, it could also make them drop out of their job. the teachers’ decision to resign could be influenced by several reasons. based on the findings of several studies, the biggest reason that made them quit their job was because of incapability to manage their emotional experiences, especially when dealing with negative or unpleasant situations (nias, 1996; hargreaves, 2000; sutton & wheatley, 2003; zembylas, 2003; day, 2018). thus, it indicated that the teachers must be able to manage their emotional experiences to keep their teaching motivation on the right track. during the interview, the participants spontaneously gave various of strategies regarding how they managed negative emotional situations during teaching. one participant shared that: “when my students make me really angry because of their attitudes, misbehaves, or their progress of learning, the first step that i usually do is, take a deep breath and try to be more relaxed, so that i can avoid harsh words such as stupid, idiot and so on”. (ym, interview) based on the argument above, it could be seen that there were three important things that the teachers did when they were dealing with negative emotional situations during teaching such as taking a deep breath, self-relaxing, and avoiding harsh words. according to pashupati and dev (2011), taking a deep breath and selfrelaxing were the appropriate strategies to control the feelings of anger. in other words, when the teachers get angry at their students, taking a deep breath and self-relaxing could make them think critically and reduce the level of anger (makhwathana et al., 2017). furthermore, rahmawati et al. (2021) also found that taking a deep breath and self-relaxing could prevent the teachers from saying uncontrolled words during anger. when the teachers cannot regulate their emotions appropriately and control their emotional expressions, they might shout or say harsh words to the students. by shouting and saying harsh words, the students would feel guilty, sad, ashamed, uncomfortable, and humiliated toward their classmates (sutton & wheatley, 2003; makhwathana et al., 2017). in such situations, it could decrease students’ motivation in the learning process (hargreaves, 2000), the studentshttp://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１ teachers’ relationship would be fractured, and the teaching goals could not be reached effectively (leigh, 2019; barcelos & ruohotie-lyhty, 2018). therefore, the teachers must make some breakthroughs or approaches to reconciliate with the students to rebuild a powerful studentsteacher relationship. in this sense, the teachers must treat the students with care and love. based on the findings, the participants admitted that they had tried to teach the students with their hearts. two participants clearly answered it. “when i am getting angry at my students, i will punish them. but the punishment that i give is not contradictory to the rules and norms. if there is a student who comes late to my class, i always ask him/her first about the reasons that make him/her late. the reasons that they give can determine the type of punishments, whether difficult or easy. the most important thing that i want to emphasize here is the personal approach. for example, after they do the punishment, i always call them to talk personally. in the beginning, i apologize to them for giving the punishment. after that, i asked them about their problems in learning, and what they want and need. that’s why many students like me so much”. (chs, interview) another teacher also gave her response: “during teaching, i always try to treat my students with love and care. for instance, when i give some questions, and my students cannot answer correctly, it does not make me angry at them. however, i will thank them and appreciate their efforts by saying positive words like, wow… that’s a great answer…. you are smart… and so on”. (mrk, interview) in such ways, it could be seen that the participants had tried to build a caring and loving relationship between themselves and their students. thus, it indicated that they had shown a sense of professional empathy. this finding was similar to hong et al. (2018) and day's (2018) recommendations in which the teachers must have professional empathy in building a powerful students-teachers’ relationship. according to rogers and webb (1991), good teachers care about their students. it could be inferred that the teachers must be the people who can understand, be patient, and do all the things with authentic love and care for their students. thus, it can help them construct their personality and professional identity to improve (fuller, 1969). furthermore, another strategy often employed by the papuan english teachers in managing their emotions was self-talk and reflection on their emotional problems. in the interview section, one of them explained that: “when i feel angry at my students, i will go out of the classroom to calm myself down by talking to myself, thinking and reflecting on the problem that i encounter in order to find out the reasons and solution. when i feel better, i will get back to the class”. (l, interview) self-talk refers to how someone talks to himself/herself. thus, when the participants talked to themselves personally, they tried to encourage themselves to find the reasons and appropriate strategies for overcoming the emotional situation they encountered. tejeda et al. (2016) asserted that self-talk could be considered one of the appropriate strategies to enhance our motivation to overcome the problems. in this sense, when the teachers talked to themselves, they would be aware of the situation and motivated to cope with the problems they faced. furthermore, from the participants’ argument above, it could be seen that she tried to make a reflection on her emotional experiences. according to kuswandono (2014), when the teachers make a reflection, it would enable them to negotiate and overcome the difficult situation they faced during teaching. in line with this, zembylas (2003) also emphasized that the teachers must reflect on their teaching experiences to enable them perceive and make meaning of their emotional experiences and themselves as teachers. therefore, wardhani et al. (2021) asserted that reflection could positively impact the teachers’ perspectives or interpretation of their personal and professional identity based on their teaching experiences. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １２ in accordance with teachers’ professional identity, flores and day (2006) defined it as a dynamic and ongoing process during teachers’ careers. it indicated that the teachers could undergo a shift during their lives based on the interpretation and meaning-making process of their teaching experiences. this was similar to papuan english teachers’ experiences. one of them argued that: “when i was a preservice teacher, sometimes, i could not regulate my emotions appropriately. but i learned many things when i made mistakes at that time. well, now, i think that my identity has been transformed. i can regulate my emotions well”. (ym, interview) thus, it could be seen that papuan english teachers had tried to manage the emotional experiences by employing several strategies. those strategies enabled them to keep their teaching motivation on the right track. conclusion based on the findings above, four positive emotional situations are usually encountered by papuan english teachers: happiness, motivated, confidence, and pride. meanwhile, from openended questions and semi-structured interviews, the participants also undergo four negative emotional experiences: anger, stress, sadness, and anxiety. however, they have tried to regulate and manage those situations to succeed in the teaching process. in managing their emotional situation, they employed strategies such as avoiding harsh words during anger, self-relaxing, self-talking, reflection, and treating the students with care and love to build a powerful teacher-students' relationship (professional empathy). those strategies are very useful in overcoming their emotional problems during teaching. thus, it could be concluded that emotional situations, either positive or negative, cannot be separated from teachers’ lives. by managing those emotional situations, the teachers can shape their personal and professional identities to be better. this study is very useful for the teachers to help them manage their emotional situations during teaching. however, it is undeniable that this study is also limited to the number of participants. in this case, the researchers only used four participants to investigate teachers’ emotional management during teaching. therefore, future researchers can investigate teachers’ emotional management by using a large number of participants in order to provide other teachers’ perspectives and experiences regarding emotional management during teaching. references alhebaishi, s. m. 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(2003). interrogating “ teacher identity”: emotion, resistance, and selfformation. teaching and teacher education, 53(1), 39–53. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaafd9db10b7 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaab3f7210dd • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaae2fcb1078 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 143 the use of comic strips as an english teaching media for junior high school students atik rokhayani atiec_ca3m@yahoo.com muria kudus university aisyah ririn perwikasih utari aisyahririn@yahoo.com muria kudus university abstract nowadays, teachers have to be creative in delivering materials to the students. ideally, teaching media are needed to support the success of teaching and learning processes. in english classes, teachers have to create a good atmosphere using interactive teaching media. the objectives of this paper are (1) to know whether printed material in the form of comic strips can improve the english vocabulary of the students of smp 2 bae kudus, (2) to describe the strength and the weaknesses of comic as a means of teaching english. this is action research was conducted at class viia of smp 2 bae kudus consisting of 30 learners. before conducting the research, the writers administered a prtest to know the students vocabulary. the result of the pre-test shows that the mean score was 68.27, while the standard score (kkm) is 75. then, the writers in collaboration with the english teacher did cycle i using comic strips. the mean score of a test proceeding cycle i was 76.97. so, the writers continued to do cycle ii. in cycle ii, the writers also gave evaluation to the students. the mean score of the test proceeding cycle ii was 85.10. in delivering the materials, the teacher felt it easier to deliver teaching materials using comic strips. keywords: teaching media, printed material comic strips introduction english is defined as foreign language in indonesia. nowadays many people learned english as a need to communicate broadly. students start to learn english at early ages. all levels of education use english as a communication tool. the skills of english are absolutely needed to master the language. they are integrated one to other. the four english skills are listening, reading, speaking and writing. there are various levels of learners which are considered as the key from the lower to highest level. the requirements of communicating well become the main components of using the four skills to communicate. some additional english language components also need to be learned; they are grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciations. those components are important because they are the keys of understanding utterances spoken or written by english speaking people. teacher becomes the main key in the classroom during the of teaching-learning processes. students are facilitated to think 144 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 and improve their mind or thought about the material delivered by the teacher. professionalism is absolutely needed by all teachers in this world. being professional is compulsory to maintain the condition, plan, and teaching process in the classroom. students need to comprehend the materials and the teachers share the materials using appropriate media which aims to make the students feel comfortable and easy to understand the materials. teaching media is developed nowadays. people use sophisticated media to do everything, including teaching and learning. multimedia is one of the most commonly used media for teaching and learning process. in the middle of the usage of multimedia, conventional media is still needed and useful. using multimedia means that there must be a connectivity of electricity or even internet connection. printed materials are still used as appropriate media if there is no electricity connection. it can be used anytime and anywhere. the visualization through pictures and text can support the sharing of the materials from teacher to students. successful education can be measured by the result or the output of the teaching and learning process itself. the four competences of a professional teacher should be fulfilled to make education successful. they are pedagogic, personal, social and professional. efficient and effective teaching and learning process is the aim of the four competences. they support students in and out of the classroom. teachers facilitate the students using teaching and learning media. the strategy determines the successful process. if a teacher does not use any media, there will be no interesting teaching and learning process. students need something new in their process of learning, especially when they are at school. improve their english language ability. if they fulfil all of the required skills, the result of the teaching and learning process planned and applied by the teacher can be considered learning process is the matter of their motivation. if they are motivated and interested in learning english, they will be able to master the language easily. printed material comic strips comics with colourful illustrations, the story and the realistic as well as interesting characters can motivate students of all age levels (sudjana and rivai, 2009: 69). pictures are identical to fun, interest, and concrete things. it can attract the reader to read the story further. if the reader is motivated to read the whole story, then the implicit aim of reading the comic (entertainment or education) can be reached easily. colourful comic can be a very interesting thing for readers especially children. as printed materials for the teaching and learning processes in the classroom, comic strips are considered as teaching language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 145 media. teachers use comic strips as both materials and media. comic consists of a story which describes concrete things about the environment at school. the utterances uttered by the characters can be imitated by the students to make their english wellspoken. teacher can be the main key to maintain the pronunciation. interesting materials and attractive media can be shared in the classroom to lesson plan is made by considering the effective usage of comic strips. for young learners, comic strips should consist of short and life-like utterances so that the students can understand the meaning without any significant difficulties. the characters in comic strips are also familiar to the students because the setting is at school. teaching media various teaching media are used for their values or benefits. the same teaching materials can also be used. media must contribute to creative contents of the materials so that the students learn the materials unconsciously. unconscious learning is better in language learning because the students will not consider the english lesson as a burden due to its difficulty. sudjana and rivai (2009:2) describe the value and benefits of teaching media into the followings: (1) teaching will attract more attention to foster students' motivation to learn (2) teaching materials will be clearer meaning that can be understood by the students, and allow students to master better teaching purposes (3) teaching methods will be more varied , not merely verbal communication through the narrative of words by the teacher, so students do not get bored especially when teachers teach to every hour lessons (4) students are doing more activities to learn, because they not only listen to descriptions of teachers, but also do other activities such as observe, demonstrate, etc. lesson plan is prepared and applied by teachers. they should make the lesson plan by themselves because they know the exact environment. organizing the class and the process of teaching and learning seem to be a complex thing for teachers. the teaching process is limited by time allotment while they have to deliver the materials which are needed by the students. the effective teaching media has some particular criteria that should be fulfilled by the teacher. the way of fulfilling the criteria is considered to be done to determine appropriate teaching media for a particular teaching material. according sudjana and rivai (2009:4), there are several things to note about the teaching media. first, teachers need to have an understanding of teaching media for instance types and benefits of teaching media, using the media as a teaching aid and follow-up the use of media in the teaching and learning process. second, teachers are able to make simple teaching 146 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 media for the purposes of teaching, especially the twodimensional media or graphic media, threedimensional media, and projections media. third, knowledge and skills are needed in assessing the effectiveness of the use of media in the teaching process. creating an appropriate media for particular teaching materials should consist of these criteria; a. is it suitable with the teaching subjective? the chosen teaching media should be suitable with the instructional teaching subjective. it consists of the components of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis. they are possibly to use teaching media; b. does it support the content of the teaching materials? the teaching materials which are based on fact or true story, principles, concept, and generalizations need teaching media so that the students can understand the materials easily; c. is it easy to find or create? the teaching media can be easily to get, to create by the teacher by the time of teaching and learning process. graphic media generally can be created by teachers without any expensive thing to pay. it is simple and more practical to use; d. is the teacher skilful to use the media? no matter what kind of media is used by the teacher, the main requirement is whether he/she can use it appropriately or not. the value and benefit that are required are not considered from the media, but it depends on how the teacher uses the media. if the teacher fails to use the media to share the materials, the teaching and learning process can also fail; e. is the time allotment enough to deliver the materials?; f. is it suitable with the way or process. one of the important elements in learning english is vocabulary. mastering vocabulary is needed for the students. from the four skills in english (listening, reading, speaking and writing), vocabulary considered to be the highest level in comprehending the meaning of the text. so, someone who learn english have to master vocabulary well. vocabulary occurs before grammarians found the language structure or features that make the people feel easier in learning target language (mccarthy, 2008:1). according to mccarthy (2008:1), there are some elements to be considered by the teachers in teaching and learning vocabulary: (1) composing vocabulary and elements of the words (2) organizing vocabulary of the words (3) using the structure of vocabulary in the higher level e.g. phrase, sentence etc (4) mastering vocabulary is more dominant than people thinking the guideline in mastering english using appropriate media in delivering the materials based on the contexts in the process of teaching and learning in the the teaching and learning process of vocabulary also takes the high portion to language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 147 research method based on the purpose of this paper, the writers did classroom action research. the writers collaborate with the english teacher to do action research. in this research, there are procedures which consist of two cycles. each cycle involves four steps. they are planning, acting, observing and reflecting. in the planning phase, the teacher prepared lesson plan and the instrument of teaching. after doing the planning, it is continued to do action in the class. the next phase is observation. it is the description about recording procedure and interpretation of data concerning process and product. then, the last phase is reflecting. reflection is the analysis and reflection of the data. this classroom action research was conducted at smp 2 bae kudus. this school is located on jl. kampus umk gondang manis bae kudus. it is not far from the central kudus regency. this classroom action research was vocabulary of class vii a in smp 2 bae kudus. the teacher used printed comic strips in delivering the materials to the students. there were 30 students in the classroom. results this research implemented the use of printed material in the form comic strips to improve the before conducting cycle i, the writers conducted pre-test to know the ability of the students in mastering english vocabulary. pre-test is done on wednesday, 4 september 2013. based on the result of pre-test, the mean score is 68.27. there are 2 students reached standard score (kkm) since kkm is 75. pre-test score can be categorized into fair. so, the writers considered that the use of interesting media is very needed in teaching vocabulary. then, the writers collaborated with english teacher of class vii a of smp 2 bae kudus to conduct research on learning english by using printed material comic strips as a media to improve students' vocabulary. after doing pre-test, the teacher did cycle i. it was on monday and wednesday, 9 and 11 september 2013. the teacher used printed material comic strips media in delivering the material to the students. students were active in the discussion. the students never used comics in learning english especially vocabulary in the classroom. then, the teacher gave an oral vocabulary. the mean of the score is 76.97. the improvement is only 1.97 with the pretest. so, the writers decided to continue to cycle ii. in cycle ii, the students were more active than in cycle i because they had already interested in comics. cycle ii is done on wednesday and monday, 25 & 30 september 2013. the teacher also gave an vocabulary. the result of the mean score of 148 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 cycle ii is 85.10. all students have reached kkm. it is categorized into good. strength and weaknesses the strength of printed material comic strips comic strips have a very exciting potential to help the teachers in achieving the learning objectives. attractive graphical visualization, short dialogues, simple and easy to understand making everyone from different ages like reading comics. when the readers are interested on the image and character of the comic, they want to know more deeply into the contents of the comic story. this is what is expected of a teacher to the students to be interested in what will be delivered in the classroom. student motivation to learn and study the contents of the comic strip as an attractive visual design can be a primary basic of students' interest towards english subject. based on some research and relevant sources, comics can increase student motivation to be able to complete the task given by the teacher. teaching and learning process will be the focus, smooth and comfortable in accordance with the criteria of the ideal class standards. visual media found in comic books can stimulate students' senses to process information presented through setting and story situation. it is undeniable that nowadays there are more media development that lead to audio visual, but comics are still able to survive because of its advantages are permanent and comics can be taken and read anywhere and everywhere. for the students, they do not only learn the content of comics in schools through teacher guidance, but can also learn independently at home comic strips also have closely links with the entertainment. in a newspaper or magazine column usually contained comic strips with a different theme and edition. readers get the amusement and exciting atmosphere after reading serious news in the mass media. english comic is not only the media of learning but also indirectly be refreshment and entertainment for students in the classroom. comics aimed at education course contain the values and moral messages that can be delivered to students. in addition, learning materials, soft skills or behavioural are also can be taught while the teachers using comics. most of the teachers think it is easier in teaching english by using media or comics that make the comics remain focused students' attention and focus on the learning process. the weaknesses of printed material comic strips good learning media is media that can help teachers and learners to follow the process of learning to achieve learning objectives. each media has strength and weaknesses. comic is a visual medium that consists of a graphic design and characters. for pronunciation or pronunciations, automatically, students rely on examples from the teacher, the comics cannot be the additional language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 149 form of media supported audio conversantions with native speakers. therefore, teachers can use other supported media besides just using the comics as a media of learning in the classroom. comics will be weakened if there are students who do not enjoy or are not able to follow the learning styles of visual media. then the teacher must adjust to the level of willingness and ability of students. conclusion based on the description above, the writers can conclude that the use of printed material comic strips can be used as an english teaching media to improve vocabulary for the junior high school students. this improvement is based on the test in cycle i and cycle ii. the mean score of cycle i is 76.97, while in cycle ii is 85.10. in addition, comic strips is appropriate and effective as teaching media because it gives an easy way for the teachers to deliver the materials. it is also effective understanding the expression delivered by the characters in comics. references arends, r.i. 2008. learning to teach. jogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. ariani, n. and haryanto, d. 2010. pembelajaran multimedia di sekolah. jakarta: prestasi pustaka raya. brown, d. prinsip pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa. jakarta: pearson education, inc. harmer, j. 2007. the practice of english language teaching. 4th ed. harlow: pearson education limited. indriana, d. 2011. ragam alat bantu media pengajaran. jogyakarta: diva press. mccarthy, m. 2008. language teaching: vocabulary. china: oxford university press. mcniff, j. 1992. action research: principles and practice. london: routledge. munir. 2012. multimedia: konsep dan aplikasi dalam pendidikan. bandung: alfabeta. scott, w.a. and ytreberg, l. 1990. teaching english to children. new york: longman. sudjana, n. and rivai a. 2009. media pengajaran. bandung: sinar baru algesindo. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 158 intercultural communicative competence (icc) in teaching speaking material used in english department of universitas negeri semarang girindra putri dewi saraswati universitasnegeri semarang girindraputrids@mail.unnes.ac.id received: 30 december 2016. revised: 28 february 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract this study aims at finding out a concrete picture of intercultural-bound english speaking material used in english department of universitasnegeri semarang. specifically, this study deeply examines the intercultural component attached in english teaching material used in speaking classroom by employing intercultural communicative competence theory. this study uses qualitative method, and case study design. the data was collected by using observation, interview, as well as documentation study techniques; and was validated by using triangulation method which encompasses data source triangulation, researcher triangulation, theory triangulation, as well as methodology triangulation. results show that the teaching material in form of textbook used by lecturers in english department of universitasnegeri semarang has implicitly and explicitly embedded the aspect of intercultural communication in a form of politeness. it was shown from the explanation, practices, as well as degree of formality provided in the textbook that the speaking material attempts to emphasize the teaching of culture in terms of politeness acceptable in the target language. future research needs to be conducted focusing on kinds of politeness which have to be mastered by the students. key words: intercultural communication; teaching material; speaking how to cite: girindra putri dewi saraswati. 2017. intercultural communicative competence (icc) in teaching speaking material used in english department of universitas negeri semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. introduction in teaching english, nowadays, approach used by most teachers worldwide has tended to emphasize the use of communicative approach rather than employing classical method, like, grammar translation method (gtm), direct method (dm), and audiolingual method (bourke, 2006; efrizal, 2012; ahmad & rao, 2013). the use of communicative approach here has been more or less in line with the theory delivered in 1980 by canale and swan about placing communicative competence as the goal of teaching english for modern teachers. this communicative competence, according to canale and swan (1980), is divided into three major strands: grammatical competence, which encompasses the knowledge needed to girindra putri dewi saraswati. 2017. intercultural communicative competence (icc) in teaching speaking material used in english department of universitas negeri semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 159 understand and express ideas accurately through language; sociolinguistic competence, which includes discourse; and strategic competence, which emphasizes the need to understand the context, meaning, and strategy behind delivering utterances in order to achieve successful communication. flashing back to the earlier theory of english, the approach has also supported the theory of hymes (1972), emphasizing on the importance of socio-cultural knowledge to be taught to learners besides the grammatical knowledge. with the emergence of thoughts and theories, claiming that english is now used as a lingua franca in which english is seen as a means of communication between people who come from different first language backgrounds (jenkins, 2012, p.486), baker (2012) argues that “english is used most commonly not by native speakers but as a contact language between interlocutors with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds (p. 63)”. with the appearance of elf in a huge range of different cultural contexts, english is claimed to be used as a means of intercultural communication. intercultural communication endows people from different cultural backgrounds with the potential to enter into a dialogue, go beyond their cultural boundaries, and contribute to enriching cultural practices (holliday, 2011). culture is thus seen as one of the central aspects in teaching language. as hofstede, et al. (2010) argues, culture is always a collective phenomenon, because it is shared by people who live within a social environment. however, culture itself needs to be learned, it is not innate. therefore, the school or college, as one of language learners’ most important environments, plays a role in introducing culture to learners. especially in the context of teaching a second language (l2), an awareness and knowledge of intercultural communication needs to be given to learners in a classroom. in response to the issue of teaching culture in l2 classrooms, a specific conception of culture develops. culture is distinguished as the big ‘c’, which comprises the arts, music, and literature of the l2, and small ‘c’, which focuses on the everyday communication and rules in the l2 (gill&čaňková, 2002). with the emerging awareness of cultural issues in language teaching, the close correlation between english and intercultural language learning is clearly visible. intercultural language learning attempts to show that beyond the importance of teaching a linguistic knowledge of the target language (l2), teaching a socio-cultural understanding of the l2 is also highly beneficial to students – one can thus make learners aware of the existence of different cultural values held by l2 speakers when communication occurs. the goal of teaching communication thus becomes broader, aiming to not only enable students to grasp the meaning of sentences in an utterance, but also aiming to give them the ability to understand the differences between the learners’ l1 culture and the l2 culture, which are reflected in the communication practices. corbett (2003) proposes the term ‘intercultural approach’, to refer to teaching intercultural knowledge in english language teaching (elt). he explains that the ultimate goal of an intercultural approach in elt is no longer to help students gain the competence of a native speaker, but more to help them attain intercultural communicative competence (icc). icc includes the ability to understand both the language and the behaviour of the l2 community. the theory of icc was put forward by byram (1997), who attempted to differentiate the term ‘intercultural’ into two different language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 160 competences: intercultural competence (ic), and intercultural communicative competence (icc). ic is interpreted as the ability to interact with people from another country and culture in one’s own language, drawing upon one’s knowledge of intercultural communication, one’s attitudes of interest in otherness, and one’s skills in interpreting, relating, and discovering. as an example, he employs the ability to translate another country’s historical documents, to draw the understanding towards this conception. on the other hand, icc is the ability to interact with people from another country and culture in a foreign language. in other words, icc is “the ability to ensure a shared understanding by people of different social identities, and the ability to interact with people as complex human beings with multiple identities and their own individuality” (byram, gribkova& starkey, 2002, p. 10). people with this competence are considered to be able to negotiate a model of communication and interaction which is satisfactory to themselves and the other, and they are able to act as a mediator between people of different cultural origins. for the sake of this study, the discussion will mainly be related to icc, since it focuses on how to teach learners to maintain successful spoken communication with people from different l1 backgrounds. in order to support his work, byram (1997, pp. 70-71) proposed three basic features of the model of icc. first of all, this model proposes an attainable ideal, i.e. the intercultural speaker, and it rejects the notion of the native speaker as a model for foreign learners of the language. second, this is a model for the acquisition of icc in an educational context, and it therefore includes educational objectives. third, because it has an educational dimension, the model includes specifications of locations of learning, and of the roles of both the teachers and the learners. moreover, to support the acquisition of icc, byram also proposed three main types of locations in which icc is presumably acquired. these three locations are: the classroom, fieldwork, and independent learning. therefore, in my perspective, the teaching materials provided by teachers or instructors for efl classroom teaching have a significant role, not only as the source of linguistic knowledge of the l2, but more to give students a model for the application of the l2 in intercultural communication. it is further argued by troncoso (2010) that language materials may become influential artefacts which mediate transactions between different cultures. the subject of this study is highschool students, who are relatively capable of independent learning through any kind of materials. the materials thus have a powerful role in mediating the students’ learning of both the linguistic features of the l2 and the l2 culture, as well as how to mediate between the l1 and l2 cultures in intercultural communication. in addition to the application of icc in elt classrooms, byram proposed four aspects of interaction across the frontiers of different countries, which need to be taught in the classroom. they are: knowledge, attitudes, skills of interpreting and relating, and skills of discovery and interaction. knowledge is considerably important, as it may influence the upbringing which is attached to individuals while interacting with someone from a different l1 and cultural background. it may also affect the way learners treat the addressees in a polite way. the next aspect is attitudes towards people who are perceived as different with respect to the cultural meanings, beliefs, and behaviours they exhibit, which are implicit in their girindra putri dewi saraswati. 2017. intercultural communicative competence (icc) in teaching speaking material used in english department of universitas negeri semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 161 interaction with interlocutors from their own social group or others. the last two aspects are skills, which are described as skills of interpreting and relating, and skills of discovery and interaction. it is argued that a person can obtain both skills if they have enough knowledge about the culture itself. in particular, the skill of interpreting and relating draws upon one’s existing knowledge of the culture, while the skill of discovery and interaction involves interaction with an interlocutors or addressees. to sum up the theories proposed above, i would like to argue that the idea underlying the conception of icc is the need to respect one’s own as well as others’ culture when communication occurs. it is seen as important in teaching english for communication (oral english) since inappropriate grammar errors are considered to be more tolerable than inappropriate language, since the latter has the risk of being seen as rude or insulting to the addressees (bardovi-harlig, 1991; crandall &basturkmen, 2004).considering the urgency of teaching inter-culturally acceptable english to the learners, this study is aiming at finding out the intercultural communicative competence, as part of an attempt to embed intercultural knowledge in teaching english, contained in the teaching material used in teaching speaking in english department of universitas negeri semarang. methodology this study employs qualitative method which basically attempts at examining people in particular living environment, interacting with them, and trying to understand the language and interpretation they have in facing the world (nasution, 1996, p.5). in particular, this is a case study three second-year-teaching speaking classes in english department of universitasnegeri semarang indonesia, attending interpersonal and transactional conversation class. the teaching speaking textbook used in the classroom will be evaluated using the theory of byram (1997) of intercultural communication competence, comprising: knowledge, attitude, skills of interpreting and relating, as well as skills of discovery and interaction. data was collected through study document in form of textbook analysis, and combined by observations and interviews with three teachers and three students involved in the teaching process. results and discussion generally, the textbook currently used in the lecture is composed based on communicative approach in which there are different themes for each unit in the textbook. in each unit, the learners are required to master the language function provided besides practicing conversation and understanding the dialogue that shows how english is used in different social contexts. knowledge cross cultural communication knowledge contained in textbooks is an interpretation of the author of a textbook on the communicative approach. this is seen in the language role that is taught by language function (richards & rodgers, 2001). in addition to this, there is also explanation of the cultural context and the level of formality in accordance with the principles mentioned in the communicative approach. cross cultural communication knowledge contained in teaching materials can be applied in everyday life of the learners because the theme is a manifestation of the expression or function commonly spoken language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 162 language daily. cross cultural communication knowledge contained in teaching materials, further, can be applied when learners are communicating face to face with native speakers. the contents of the main language function embedded in the teaching materials are provided based on what considered polite and acceptable in native country. cross cultural communication needs to be assessed for possible inclusion in the teaching materials as in the era of globalization and communicative as it is today, the mastery of grammar is no longer critical success factors of an oral skill. decency that determines the success or failure of communication in a foreign language as one's ignorance of grammar owned another language can be understood as a learning process, while the misused of language because of ignorance of a speaker in decency target language can be considered as something very offensive and is considered inappropriate (bardovi-härlig, 1991; crandall &basturkmen, 2004). therefore, in the era of communicative mastery, knowledge needs to be loaded on cross cultural communication. the form of an explanation and/or tables regards the level of civility, formality, or gesture in speaking in the target language. on the other hand, it is also considered implicit because the doctrine of the cross-cultural communication specifically focused on politeness embedded in the conversation samples. attitude attitudes in communicating cross-cultural contained in the textbook is exemplified in conversation or dialogue, explanation and table of degree of formality. attitudes used communication may include politeness and the predominance in interacting with foreign speakers include gesture and intonation of the word stressing. attitudes in communicating across cultures contained in textbooks are based on the interpretation of the author of textbooks in terms of politeness of native speakers. attitudes in cross-cultural communication in the text book can be applied in everyday life, especially in the target language country for socio-cultural patterns described is acceptable in the target language country. attitudes in cross-cultural communication contained in textbooks can be applied when there are situations listed in textbooks are reflected in the actual life of learners. the contents contained in the text book itself are patterns of general conversation of a beginner level. attitudes in cross-cultural communication, which focuses on the understanding of politeness, about how to give and answer greeting, thank, apologize, etc., considered to be included in the textbooks so that learners can have the basics knowledge of cross-cultural communication with the target language and to open opportunities for foreign speakers to be accepted in the community of the target language (locastro, 2012). attitudes in communicating across cultures contained in teaching materials in textbooks are equipped in the explanation of the customs or habits of people in the country of the target language, conversation, and table degree of formality. emphasized by nguyen (2011) that the skills of foreign speakers in using the target language will be considered accomplished when the speakers can understand when, where and to whom is an utterance worthy to be delivered. skills of interpreting and relating aspects in the ability to interpret and relate contained in textbooks through the activities girindra putri dewi saraswati. 2017. intercultural communicative competence (icc) in teaching speaking material used in english department of universitas negeri semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 163 of a small group practice or, more specifically on activities cued dialogs. in these activities, learners are given the opportunity to interpret the situation given by the author of the book. furthermore, given the clue to link the context of the situation with the outcome expected by the author of textbooks. the ability to interpret and relate is seen from the author's understanding of textbooks. the ability to interpret and relate can be applied in speaking practice for novice learners and to be applied in a general and simple conversations with native speakers. furthermore, the ability to interpret and relate is contained in the text book can only be applied at the beginner level when learner attempts to initiate a conversation or a relationship with a native speaker, to which the relationship belongs to general introduction. the ability to interpret and relate should be included in the textbooks is considered to be essential to be embedded since learner needs to be given with sensitivity in connecting context with speaking practice. the ability to interpret and relate embedded in the textbook through activities that can be done by learners to practice speaking. skills of discovery and interaction discovery and interact capabilities contained in the textbooks through the activities of general discussion and role play. aspects contained in the textbook is the aspect of critical thinking and linking of certain cases in the context in which the skill in language such as vocabulary was also emphasized because learners are required to find ideas in speaking and interacting. the ability of discover and interact in the text book is discussed based on the conception of the book author who use the social background of american culture. the ability of discovery and interaction can be applied in the classroom during the rehearsal talk that may trigger the verbal ability of learners. the ability to discover and interact contained in the textbooks can be applied after the learner understands the theories in cross-cultural communication and has managed to make conversation by clue or after the cue is given. the ability of discovery and interaction should be included in the textbook because this ability can stimulate students' creativity in interpreting theory given by speaking practice. discovery and interacting capabilities contained in the textbooks in form of role-play activities. conclusion this study aims at finding the aspect of intercultural communicative competence (icc) in the textbook used in teaching speaking textbook in english department of universitasnegeri semarang. results show that the textbook used has embedded the cross-cultural competence in four main aspects, i.e. knowledge, attitude, skills of interpreting and relating, and skills of discovery and interaction. in particular, most of the knowledge and practice of understanding of culture is given in terms of politeness and how to be polite in native country. further research is needed to explore about the teaching of politeness. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 164 references ahmad, s. & c. rao. (2013). “applying communicative approach in teaching english as a foreign language: a case study of pakistaner” in porta linguarium. vol. 20. pp. 187-203. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/. [accessed on 9 march 2016]. baker, w. (2012) from cultural awareness to intercultural awareness: culture in elt. elt journal 66 (1): pp. 62-70. bardovi-harlig, k., et al. (1991) developing pragmatic awareness: closing the conversation. elt journal 45 (1): pp. 4-15. bourke, j.m. (2006). “designing a topic-based syllabus for young learners” in elt journal. vol.60. no.3. pp. 279-286. oxford: oxford university press. byram, m. (1997) teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. clevedon: multilingual matters. byram, m., gribkova, b., and starkey, h. (2002) developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: a practical introduction for teachers [online]. available at: http://www.lrc.cornell.edu/director/intercultural.pdf. [accessed 12 august 2014]. canale, m. and m. swain. (1980) theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. applied linguistics 1(1): pp. 1-47. corbett, j. (2003) an intercultural approach to english language teaching. clevedon: multilingual matters. crandall, e. and h. basturkmen. (2004) evaluating pragmatics-focused materials. elt journal 58 (1): pp. 38-49. gill, s & m. čaňková. (2002) intercultural activities. oxford: oxford university press. hofstede, g., g.j. hofstede, and m. minkov (2010) cultures and organizations: software of the mind: intercultural cooperation and it's importance for survival. london: mcgraw hill. holliday, a. (2011) intercultural communication and ideology. london: sage publications. hymes, d. h. (1972) on communicative competence. in: pride, j.b. and j. holmes. (eds.) sociolinguistics, pp. 269-293. harmondsworth: penguin books. jenkins, j. (2003) world englishes: a resource book for students. london: routledge. locastro, v. (2012) pragmatics for language educators: a sociolinguistic perspective. oxford: routledge. nasution, s. (1996). metode penelitian naturalistik kualitatif. bandung: tarsito. nguyen, m.t.t. (2011) learning to communicate in a globalized world: to what extent do school textbooks facilitate the development of intercultural pragmatic competence? relc journal 42 (17): pp. 17-30. richards, j.c. and t.s. rodgers. (2001) approaches and methods in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. troncoso, c.r. (2010) the effects of language materials on the development of intercultural competence. in: b. tomlinson and h. masuhara (eds.) research for materials development in language learning: evidence for best practice, pp. 83-102. london: continuum. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab26b6a111a • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa5daf91139 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare bundel ke 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 77 a comparative study on the use of “keigo” between foreign and japanese students rina supriatnaningsih – semarang state university abstract in japanese there is so called “keigo” (honorific/polite expressions). honorifics (polite expressions) are used to show intimacy with another person and also to distinguish between one’s superiors and subordinates. these forms are an integral part of daily life of japanese people. if we want to adjust to japanese society, in order able to communicate fluently and apropiately, the use of polite expressions is absolutely required. for this reason, polite expressions are very important in communicating with japanese people. therefore foreign studens who are studyng in japan need to understand polite expressions as much aspossible, event if they are not majoring in japanese language and culture. to analize the items above with questionnaires, field data were collected from 50 japanese students and 50 foreign students. the questionnaires consisted of the following items: (1) the difference in the keigo used by foreign and japanese student, (2) the difference in usage of first person pronouns, (3) ) the difference when offering something to another person, (4) the difference in a question keigo usage when asking teacher, (5) )the difference in keigo usage when discussing one’s teacher with another person, (6) the difference in keigo usage with demonstrative pronouns, (7) students opinions about keigo:differences in levels of difficulty in using keigo, differences in the use of keigo in daily life, difference in the use of keigo in daily family life, differences in the use of iscussing past and present conditions, differences in using keigo correctly and incorrectly, differences in reasons for using keigo, differences in processes of learning keigo. foreigners’ opinions clarify that they find difficulties in using keigo as do japanese students. eventhough it is difficult, according to the opinions of the japanese students, the use of keigo expressions is necessary. however, foreign students stated that keigo does not need to be used. their reasons were: because it is very easy to make mistakes, very difficult to memorize, old language/orthodox, seldom use it, requires complicated consideration at status age, etc. and everyone should have the same status. considering the opinions mentioned above keigo education for foreign students, especially for indonesian students, is very much in need. results of the interviews with indonesian students illustrate their difficulties. therefore, in my opinion the following points are most important in teaching japanese keigo to indonesian students: (1) the need to inform student a japanese language has a keigo system and introduce to them the various kinds and forms of keigo, (2) the need to teach keigo grammar (sentence structure), (3) drill, (4) the need to teach appropriate expressions according to context using audio visual materials, (5) conversation practice simulation key: keigo, foreign and japanese students. 日本人大学生と留学生の敬語使用の実態の比較 本稿の目的 日本語には敬語というものがあり、それを使うことより対人関係の上下． 親疎の意識が表現されると言われている。敬語は日本人の生活に密着しており、 日本社会に入ると、日本人とスムーズにコミュニケーションをするために敬語の 78 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 使用が必要になる。そのために、日本語や日本文化を専門に研究している留学生 はもちろん、それ以外の専門とするの留学生達にも日本人の言語生活が理解でき ると思われる。しかし、留学生にとって、日本語に敬語というものがあること、 そして、特に敬語をどう使うかは大きな問題になる。私自身の体験でも、日本人 と接する時にはどのような待遇表現を使うか。どんな態度をとるべきか、悩んだ り、迷ったり、することが多い。他の日本語、日本文化の留学生者、あるいはそ れ以外の学習者に尋ねても、同じような困難を感じる人が多い。又、留学生にと って、敬語の難しい点は表現のパータンを覚えることだけでなく、それらを適切 に使い分けなければならないことであると思われる。 実態のところ、留学生の敬語表現は日本人敬語表現とどのぐらいの差があ るのだろうか。そして、留学生には、敬語というものが、大きな問題にならない ように教えるにはどういう方法がいいのかを考えてみたい。 一方、社会に人になる前の日本人大学生にも外国人と同じように敬語使用 のわずらわしさがあるだろうか。そして、日本人大学生にとって、敬語習得のた め教育はどのように感じられるのだろうか。 以上のような考えて、日本人大学生と留学生の敬語使用の実態の比較調査 のため、敬語のアンケートを調査を行なった。アンケートは日本人大学生５０人 名、留学生 50 人名に対して完成した。 データの分析（日本人大学生と留学生の敬語使用の実態の比較） ここでは日本人大学生と留学生の敬語使用の実態のデータで見られた傾向 に基ついて比較する。 アンケートのデータから、次のことが明らかになった。 (1) 言葉つかいに気を使う相手の違い。 (2) 人にものを勧める時の敬語表現の使用傾向の違い。 (3) 先生に対する質問表現の使用傾向の違い。 (4) 他人に対する場合の自分の先生に関する表現の違い。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 79 (5) 教示の場面で使用する表現の違い。 (6) 一人秒代名詞の使用傾向の違い。 (7) 敬語に対する意見 ａ．敬語使用のわしさについての違い ｂ．日常生活の中での敬語使用についての違い ｃ．家庭内での敬語使用についての違い ｄ．敬語の過去と現在の使用状況についての違い ｅ．敬語使用の…非についての違い f． 敬語使用の理由についての違い ｇ．敬語不用の理由についての違い ｈ．敬語習得のための教育の在り方についての違い ここでは日本人大学生と留学生の学校の教育在り方のことのみ分析 している。家庭教育在り方については分析していない。留学生の親が日本 に住んでいないし、日本語の敬語も関係がないためである。留学生と日本 人大学生の学校教育在り方意見の違いは、 留学生の傾向の意見のは、 ＾留学生に敬語について理解できるように、実態で話せるように、 敬語の使い方がちゃんと教えて、学生はたくさん練習させること。 ＾敬語意識についてちゃんと教えて、その言葉はいつ使えるか、会話の 実習をたくさん行なわせること。 ＾実施させて、間違ったらその時点で直すこと。 ＾敬語の表現のほうから教えて、学生に練習させて会話をする。 ＾話している時に、間違いがあったら直ぐ橋正させること。 というのは、始めに先生が敬語についてちゃんと教えてから、学生 は身につけるように会話でよく練習することを望んでいる。 一方、日本人大学生の傾向の意見は、 80 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 ＾国語の指導に取り入れる、先生の言葉より学ぶ。 ＾時、場合、相手による言葉の使い方をきちんと指導するべき。 ＾場面にふさわしい言葉使いを国語教育で指導する。 ＾教えて、先輩や先生実施させること。 ＾実施させて、間違ったらその時点で直すこと。 ＾先生がこういう時には学生達にこういう表現を使うべきかということ を教える ＾学生は敬語の使い方が慣れるために、敬語について勉強してから、学 校で先生と学生も敬語を使う。 ＾表現のほうから教えて、学生に練習させて会話をする。 ＾授業の中で丁寧語を使って、学生達は敬語を身につけられるように。 ＾ちゃんとした敬語を使わせる。 ＾目上の方に対しての敬語の使い方を教える。 ＾間違い話す時に直ぐ橋正させる。 ＾学校教育（国語の項目）にはきちんと整えること。 ＾（友人）相手に対する敬意（思いやり）を持たせる。 ＾国語の指導に取り入れ、先生の言葉より学ぶ。 ＾場所や相手を想定し、劇をするように教える。 ＾まず言葉に興味を持たせること、それから正しく敬語の使われている 話を読ませること。 ＾先生に対する敬語を教えてやる、又、クラブ内で敬語は身につけられ やすい。 ＾一般の大人に対しては、デス。マス調で話すように教える。 ＾時、場合、相手による言葉の使い分けをきちんと指導するべき。 ＾授業で正しい使い方を教える。 ＾先生に対しては尐なくとも、デス、マス、を使えるように指導する。 ^ クラブ活動したでは自然に先輩、後輩の上下関係ができるので問題は language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 81 ない。 ＾場面にふさわしい言葉使いを国語教育で指導する。 ＾他人に迷惑をかけさせｂない．自分の行動に責任を持たせる。 ＾先生が子供の言葉使いに気を配る（家庭教育の方が大事）。 ＾まず第一に教師が尊敬させる人物であることが大事。 ＾特に小学校において、道徳一つとして教えるべき。 ＾授業だけでなく、普段の生活から敬語を教えていく。 ＾普段から教師に敬語を使わせる。 というのは、始めに、国語の指導に取り入れて、敬語の決まりを教 えて、場面にふさわしい言葉使いを国語教育で指導してから、他人に迷惑 を掛けさせない。自分の行動に責任を持たせて、まず、第一に教師が尊敬 させる人物であることを大事にして、先生に対して尐なくとも、デス、マ ス、を使えるように、クラブ活動したでは自然に先輩、後輩の上下関係が できたら問題がない。これは、特に、小学校において、道徳の一つとして、 という傾向の意見である。 結論 結論として、アンケートの結果から分かることは次のとおりである。 日本人の大学生と留学生の敬語使用の違いは、 (1) 言葉使いによく気を使う相手は、日本人は自分より社会の中で上の立 場にある人（組。。の中で地位が上の人）、そして、自分より経験が 長い人（家庭以外の社会の中）である。しかし、外国人は自分より立 場が上の人にだけ使う。 (2) 人にものを勧める時の敬語表現は、日本人は相手によって言葉の使い 方が違うが、外国人は誰かにでもほとんど気楽な言葉をよく使う。 (3) 先生に対する質問表現の使用傾向は、日本人と外国人と同じように謙 譲語をよく使う。 82 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 (4) 他人に対する場合の自分の先生の呼秒の違いは、日本人はほとんど漢 語をよく使う。外国人は、和語をよく使う。 (5) 教示の場面で使用する指示名詞の使用傾向は、日本人「ー てくださ い」よりなかどめの形「－行って」のほうをよく使う。そして、子供 に親しい易しみ表現をよく使う「－行ってね」。 (6) 一人秒代名詞の使用傾向の違いは、日本人女性は誰に対しても一人秒 としては「ワタシ」を使うが、男性のほうは、非公的な場合には「ワ タシ」よりも「ボク」をよく使う。その理由は、日本人は学校や家庭 での教育及び環境によって男女の区別が意識ずけられるからであろう。 （ワタシは女性の一人秒、ボクは男女の一人秒）それに対して、外国 人留学生は男女とも「ワタシ」をよく使う。その理由は、外国人は日 本語を学習する当初から一人秒代名詞として「ワタシ」のみを指示さ れるからであろう。 (7) 敬語に対する意見から、ほとんどの外国人が敬語に対してわずらしい と考えていることが分かる。日本人のほうにもわずらしさを感じるこ とがあるようだ。しかし、日本人は、敬語は難しいといっても、使う ほうがいいという考えをもっている。一方、外国人は敬語は難しいか ら使わないほうがいいと考える。その理由は、間違えそうだから、い ろいろな表現を覚えるのが難しいから、古臭いから、複雑な人間関係 を考えて上で一つの適切な表現形式を選ぶのがめんどくさいから、余 り使わないから、人は同じ平等だからというものである。 以上の外国人が感じるの難しさから見ると、外国人に敬語の教育の必要性 としては日本人がよく使う表現のことをたくさん指導しなければならない。例と して、先生に勧める時に「どうぞ」だけ、あるいは「どうぞ食べてください」と いう表現を使わずに、「どうぞ召し上がってください」（尊敬の形）を使わなけ ればならないということを練習させる必要がある。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 83 調査の結果を考慮に入れて、留学生、特に、インドネシアの学習者のため に、特にインドネシア語では敬語というものはないので、インドネシア人は日本 語に敬語とあるものが理解できるように、使い方も難しくないように敬語の考え 方を考えてみる。 直接インドネシア人にインタビューをして、いろいろな敬語の難しさにつ いて話したことから、次の方法を提案する。 敬語が学習者に、理解できるための教え方は、次のとおりである。 (1) 始めに、日本語に敬語というものがあることを説明し、敬語の種類もきち ん と説明する。 (2) 文法規則を教える、例として、尊敬の形：食べる ――召し上がる お－ーになる お食べになる ―れる/られる 食べられる 丁寧の形：――ます 待つ＿＿ 待ちます。 ――です 本だ。＿＿ 本です。 謙譲語：する＿＿いたす おーーする 先生のかばんをお持ちします。 (3) ドリル、例として、形式のドリルのドリル。 (4) 実際の使い方を見せる。（例えば、ビデオや映画オーデイォービジュアル教 材を用いて、日本人が敬語を使って場面を示す）。例として、先生に対する 質問する前に「――してください」、という表現でわなくて、日本人がよく 84 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 使う「――いただけませんか」、「――くださいませんか」の表現を含む場 面を示す。 (5) 会話で練習する。 参考文献 平林、浜由美子．１９８８．japanese for foreigners: honorifics. 東京：あらたけ 出版． 金台一春子．１９８８．日本語。東京：岩波書店． 南富士夫．１９８８．現代日本語構造．東京：大修館書店． 南富士夫．１９８９．敬語。東京：岩波書店． 水谷治．水谷信子．１９８．how to be polite and japanese. 東京：the japan times. 堀川忠義．１９７７．敬語ガイド．東京：明治書院。 平林．１９９２．日本語教育ハンドブック。東京：大修館書店。 石田敏子．１９９０．日本語教授法．東京：大修館書店。 language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 349 ideology and power in political news text: appraisal in critical discourse analysis setyo prasiyanto cahyono1 setyo.cahyono@dsn.dinus.ac.id galuh kirana dwi a2 galuh.uness@gmail.com sumarlam3 sumarlam@staff.uns.ac.i 1universitas dian nuswantoro 2universitas negeri semarang 3universitas sebelas maret abstract this study attempts to reveal the ideology and power expressed in the news text entitled “the burning scar: inside the destruction of asia’s last rainforest”. the data of this study were obtained from one of the most famous online newspapers namely bbc. whilst, in doing the critical analysis, systemic functional linguistics specifically the use of appraisal proposed by martin and white (2005) was applied to find out the ideology as well as the power of the text. the findings show that there are three appraisal items found such as attitude, engagement, and graduation simultaneously. affect is the most dominant appraisal found in the text. it represents the feelings of the people who live in papua where their land has been destroyed by the world's largest exporter of palm oil from south korea. besides, they also criticize the indonesian government which sold their land to the company without any notice to the tribe who live there. then, engagement represents the tribe’s voices where they have to move from their land. the last is graduation which represents the tribe’s experience when they were kicked out from their land. meanwhile, the ideology of the text is represented by the use of attitude consisting of affect, appreciation, and judgment. furthermore, the power deals with the tribe’s tenor such as contact, status dan affect. keywords: appraisal, ideology, political news, power, tribe introduction recently, a lot of researches on language refer to systemic functional linguistics (sfl) pioneered by halliday (1925-2018). besides, halliday (1985, p. 15) argues that language is related to the social context because humans can do many things and achieve varied goals by using language either in speaking, writing, listening, or reading. this relates to martin and rose (2003, p. 263) who state that every selection of the meaning of a definite text is motivated by a certain ideology. one of the approaches used in sfl is critical discourse analysis (cda), i.e. a study that is not just analyzing language usage but also seeing language as a social practice. eriyanto (2001, p. 7) states that in cda, there is a relationship between discourse and its situations, institutions and social structures. news texts become the most favorite texts analyzed by using cda. according to eriyanto (2001), the ideology of a news can be observed through language choice as well as the grammatical structure used in news writing. this ideology is usually tailored to the target readers as news consumers. ideological similarities between the news text as well its readers are considered important as part of the legitimacy of media domination towards the reading audience. some studies which analyzed ideology in news texts are ellyawati (2011), mayasari (2013), sumarlam (2015 & 2016), and aili (2018). they used fairclough’s https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:setyo.cahyono@dsn.dinus.ac.id mailto:setyo.cahyono@dsn.dinus.ac.id mailto:galuh.uness@gmail.com mailto:sumarlam@staff.uns.ac.i http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 350 three interrelated analysis processes (i.e. the dimension of text description, the dimension of discourse practice by textual interpretation, and the dimension of socio-cultural by text explanation) in their studies. ideology in news texts can also be analyzed by using appraisal approach proposed by martin and rose (2003) or martin and white (2005). some researchers who used this approach are warsono (2008), oteíza s. (2009), wati (2015), marsakawati (2016), parvin (2017), and nurhadi (2017). based on those reviews of previous literature, the researches will try to analyze not only the ideology of a news text, but we will also want to analyze the power of a news text entitled “the burning scar: inside the destruction of asia’s last rainforest”. the analysis of this study focuses on theoretical approaches of sfl and cda, mainly on appraisal theory (white, 2003; martin, 1997; martin and white, 2005; martin and rose, 2003). critical discourse analysis, herewith cda, is a discourse research analysis which mainly focusing on study about improper social strength, superiority, and imbalance are assigned, duplicated, and rejected in text and talk in social and political context (dijk,1998). cda is one of approaches in discourse studies that offer different mode or perspective of theorizing, analyzing, and application through the whole field. this perspective can be in term of pragmatics, conversation analysis, narrative analysis, rhetoric, stylistics, sociolinguistics, ethnography, or media analysis (arif, 2017). moreover, hart (2014, p. 2) argues that cda is a particular form of discourse analysis which seeks to disclose the ideological and persuasive properties of text and talk. it means that cda sees language as social phenomenon. as cited in santosa (2016), in sfl, fowler introduces cda and its concept which is taken from halliday that language is a form of social and ideological action (martin & rose, 2007: 314). cda views the relation between language and ideology or language and power (fairclough, 1995). furthermore, sfl is a multi-perspectival model, designed to provide analysts with complementary lenses for interpreting language in use (martin & white, 2005: 7). one of the most complementarities is the notion of types of meanings/metafunctions including ideational (experiential) refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place: what it is that the participants are engaged in, in which language figures as some essential components; interpersonal meaning comprises who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statues and roles: what kinds of role relationships obtain, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another, both the types of speech roles they are taking on the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which they are involved; while textual meaning refers to what part language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting language to do for them in the situation: the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context. however, cda may focus on particular metafunctions for example interpersonal metafunctions. interpersonal function constitutes a grammar for evaluation. evaluation is concerned with appraisal, the kind of attitude which are negotiated in a text, the strength of the feelings involved and they ways in which values are sourced and readers aligned (martin and rose, 2007, p. 25). appraisal system is used as the basic theory to analyze the data of this study. martin and white (2005), thompson (2014) and martin and rose (2007) argue that the goal of appraisal is to systematize the set of linguistic resources variety that the speakers and writers use to negotiate evaluations with their addresses and also to construct the solidarity around shared values. martin and white (2005) classify appraisal into three subsystem as described in the figure below. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 351 figure 1 appraisal system (source: martin & white, 2005) as it is shown in the figure above, it can be explained that attitude is concerned with our feelings, including emotional reactions, the judgment of behavior, and the evaluation of things. engagement deals with sourcing attitudes and the play of voices around opinions in discourse. meanwhile, graduation attends to grading phenomena whereby feelings are amplified and categories blurred (martin and white, 2005, p. 35). methodology this study employs a descriptive qualitative research design. the source of the data includes political news text downloaded from an online english newspaper namely bbc. the aims of this study are to describe the ideology and power represented in political news texts entitled “the burning scar: inside the destruction of asia’s last rainforests” written by amindoni and henschke from bbc indonesia. the news was published in 12 november 2020 online at the bbc.com website. meanwhile, the data of this study are in the form of words or phrases of the news text and are analyzed using martin and white (2005) framework on the appraisal. the analysis starts by reading the news text, from the beginning to the last part, to recall the highlight contents. since it is a text-based analysis, it means that the analysis is conducted on each text. afterward, displaying the appraisal items data into table and appraisal categories. as the focus of this study is interpersonal metafunctions of the language used in political news text, it is based on systemic functional linguistics (sfl) specifically on the level of discourse semantic of appraisal which leads to the understanding of ideology and power of the news text. result and discussion in this part, we present data and the analysis. the system of appraisal, covering attitude, engagement, and graduation, is presented in this section focusing on political news text of bbc online newspaper. the following table presents the findings of this study. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 352 table 1 appraisal items of political news text according to table 1, the highest number of appraisal items is attitude with 158 occurrences found including affect with 104, judgment with 24 and appreciation with 30. attitude there are three attitude appraisal found in the data of news text. those are affect, judgment and appreciation. below is the description analysis of each type of attitude. affect following is the example of attitude affect found in the data. table 2 unhappiness: antipathy information affect classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information unhappiness: antipathy "this is our mini market," he says, smiling. "but unlike in the city, negative negative feeling is felt by petrus kinggo, the man who lives in papua where his land is bought by korean oil company https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 353 it can be seen in table 2 that the underlined word is classified into group emotion as affect unhappiness: antipathy. it informs that petrus kinggo, the man who lives in papua, feels unhappy with the situation in his regency. it happened because the biggest company in korea has bought his land. he thinks that his land is just like a mini market because he and his people can freely find food and medicine. another example of attitude affect can be found in the following table. table 3 satisfaction: interest information affect classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information satisfaction: interest that the company was involved in any human rights violations positive positive feeling is felt by korindo that the company involves in any human rights violations. based on table 3, it can be said that the underlined word can be segmented into group emotion as affect satisfaction: interest. it tells the readers that kinggo believes there are human rights violations done by the korean oil company to papua tribe since they stole their land without any notice. the table below is another example showing affect classification. table 4 unhappiness: misery information affect classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information unhappiness: misery "my brother would never have sold his pride or forest before," she said, through tears. negative negative feeling is felt by derek ndiwaen because he feels so stress over the land in his tribe which was bought by korean oil company. this tragedy leads him to death. based on table 4, it can be seen that the datum shows negative affect of unhappiness: misery. it informs the readers of the newspaper that derek ndiwaen passed away because he felt so stress with the situation he experienced. in this case, he has made a deal with the representative of korean oil company named korindo to take some money for the payment of their land. then, derek becomes embroiled in conflict with other tribes over the land deals. as a result, it makes derek frustrated and leads to his death. table 5 is also an example of affect found in the data. table 5 unhappiness: disinclination information affect classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information unhappiness: disinclination he fears future generations will have to "live off money" rather than the forest. negative negative feeling is felt by petrus kinggo that he fights to save his land from korean oil company. the table 5 reveals negative affect of unhappiness: disinclination experienced by petrus kinggo. the realization of lexis above informs that mr. kinggo is afraid of future generations will have to live off money rather than the forest. besides that, he also blames the indonesia https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 354 government because they do not consult it with the villagers before giving the concession to korindo rather than give the people pressure to accept the offer. judgment below are the analysis of attitude judgement found in the news text. table 6 social esteem: capacity information judgment classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information social esteem: capacity a korean palm oil giant has been buying up swathes of asia's largest remaining rainforests. positive positive judgment given by writer of the article according to table 6, it can be seen that the underlined phrase is classified into positive judgment of capacity. it indicates that one of the biggest korean palm oil has bought a huge land in papua to open new palm oil company. another example of judgment can be illustrated in table 7 of appraisal information below. table 7 social sanction: propriety information judgment classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information social sanction: propriety "after our forest has been sold you would think we would be living a good life”. positive positive judgment made by elisabeth that she and her family and other people of her tribe whether they will have a good life or not after their land has been sold to korean company. table 7 describes that the underlined word “good” has a positive judgment. the datum informs that elisabeth along with her tribe wants to live good life without any pressure from the government or the palm oil company after their forest has been sold to korea oil company. table 8 also depicts the example of judgment found in the news text. table 8 social sanction: propriety information judgment classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information social sanction: propriety according to elisabeth, korindo told the community it would build good roads and provide clean water. positive positive judgment given by the korean palm oil company that the compay will build good roads and clean water for the people. the datum gives information that the judgment classification shows the group of social sanction of propriety. the lexis used in good as a sign which has a purpose to give confirmation that https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 355 the korean palm oil company will build good roads and clean water for the people of papua after they bought their land and build the company there. table 9 social esteem: capacity information judgment classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information social esteem: capacity those that can afford it use generators but fuel costs four times as much as in the capital jakarta. positive positive judgment given by nakias residents in the ngguti district that they consider for those who have money can afford to use generator even though it costs much money. according to table 9, it is seen that the judgment classification reveals the group of social esteem: capacity. it indicates that there is a positive evaluation made by nakias residents in the ngguti district of papua towards those people who have money to use a generator for the electricity. it happened because their life did not change the way they hoped. appreciation the tables provided below are the description of attitude appreciation found in the news text. table 10 appreciation: valuation information appreciation classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information appreciation: valuation here food and medicine are free. positive positive appreciation produced by petrus kinggo that he is really appreciate and grateful that what he along with his tribe wants such as food and medicine are free. the above datum shows that appreciation classification is in the group of appreciation: valuation. the lexis used is an adjective free which aims to confirm that petrus kinggo gives positive appreciation about his land where he lives with his tribe in papua. his land does not only give him and his tribe shelter but also free food and medicine for them. a similar example is also shown in table 11. table 11 appreciation: composition: balance information appreciation classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information appreciation: composition: balance the investigation found evidence of fires on one of korindo's concessions over a period of years in patterns consistent with deliberate use. positive positive appreciation produced by the writer of the news text article. she expresses her appreciation to the forensic architecture group because they have found consistent patterns in deliberating burning on the land. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 356 the table depicts the example of appreciation of composition: balance. it shows the writer’s appreciation towards the forensic architecture group at goldsmiths university in london and greenpeace international which have published, in conjunction with the bbc, some evidence about this destruction and land burning in papua indonesia. the result of the investigation shows deliberate consistent patterns. below is another example showing appreciation which is found in the data. table 12 appreciation: valuation information appreciation classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information appreciation: valuation sefnat mahuze, a local farmer, said he saw korindo employees collecting leftover wood, "the worthless stuff". negative negative appreciation produced by sefnat mahuze a local farmer who gives his negative appreciation to the way how korindo employees collect leftover wood. it can be seen in table 12 that the types of appreciation are classified into valuation. it represents sefnat mahuze’s negative appreciation towards what he sees when korindo employees are collecting leftover wood in the land that has been burned by the korea palm oil company. he thinks that this action is impractical because it is their land and they should have more than this. engagement the type of engagement mostly found in the data is monogloss. it is classified into entertain and attribute. those can be seen in the following examples which are provided in some tables. table 13 engagement: entertain information engagement classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information engagement: entertain this suggests that the fires were set intentionally samaneh moafi said. positive positive engagement made by the forensic architecture that they found the pattern, the direction and the speed with which fire had moved matched perfectly. the table 13 gives information that the lexis suggests includes in the group of engagement: entertain. it shows a suggestion made by the forensic architecture that they found a pattern through their satellite imagery which is used to study the pattern of land clearing inside a korindo concession named pt. dongin prabhawa. surprisingly, the satellite gives them a picture of some lands covered by fire in some districts of papua. engagement of entertain is also found in the example provided in table 14. table 14 engagement: entertain information https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 357 engagement classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information engagement: entertain "they piled up long rows, maybe 100-200 metres long, and then they poured petrol over it and then lit them," he said. positive positive engagement made by sefnat mahuze that he considers the palm oil company has piled up long rows and poured petrol over it. as seen in the table above, the lexis maybe belongs to the engagement of entertainment. it describes the possible range of distance of petrol they poured along the rows they want to burn. it seems that the fire in papua had been set intentionally by the company to clear the land and build the company. table 15 is another finding of engagement found in the data. table 15 engagement: proclaim information engagement classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information engagement: proclaim "there was no doubt that korindo had been in violation of our rules. positive positive engagement made by kim carstensen, the fsc’s executive director that she strongly sure korindo breaks the rules. the example shows that the lexis no doubt is segmented into engagement proclaim. this lexis is produced by a woman who works for the forest stewardship council (fsc). she told the bbc at the group’s headquarters in germany. she suspected that korindo had made a mistake and broken the fsc’s rules because they had cleared the land without any notice and neglected forest conservation. they also did not respect the community rights and livelihoods. graduation there are two types of graduation namely force and focus. meanwhile, the type of graduation mostly occurred in the data is force. it can be seen clearly in the table below. table 16 graduation: force: intensification information graduation classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information graduation: force: intensification that was very clear kim carstensen, the fsc's executive director, told the bbc at the group's headquarters in germany. positive positive feeling experienced by kim carstensen that korindo made violation towards the fsc’s rules. based on the table, the underlined word or lexis very belongs to graduation: force: intensification. it indicates that there is a degree of intensity made by the speaker. in this case, kim carstensen gives information that korindo has made a violation to the fsc’s rules. in her statement, kim’s statement “that was very clear” has a meaning that there is a strong statement made by kim if korindo makes mistakes. below is also an example of graduation found in the data. table 17 graduation: force: intensification information https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 358 graduation classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information graduation: force: intensification but in the cases that we were looking at there was a very clear directionality," she said. positive positive feeling reflected by samaneh moafi that the pattern of fire is very clear set up. as seen in table 17, the lexis very is classified into graduation: force: intensification. it gives information that korindo has set the fire intentionally in papua. according to samaneh moafi, the fires were set from outside the concession, or due to weather conditions, they would have moved with a different directionality. in fact, it is very clear that the pattern of fire is made directionally. table 18 is also an example of graduation found in the data. table 1 graduation: force: intensification information graduation classification realization of lexis kinds of feeling descriptive information graduation: force: intensification where are our ancestors' spirits now that our forest has been completely destroyed. and it happened under my watch." negative negative feeling felt by the tribe who lived in papua because their land has been destroyed. according to the table, the realization of lexis completely is realized in graduation: force: intensification. it indicates that the land where the people live in papua has gone. they do not have any space to live. furthermore, the land where their ancestors were buried has now been destroyed. ideology and power the realization of ideology can be done by using the analysis of attitude which includes analysis of affect, judgment, and appreciation. whereas, power can be realized through the analysis of engagement and graduation. as we can see from table 1, the ideology of the news text is realized in 158 occurrences of 104 affect, 24 judgment, and 30 appreciation. affect, which is referred to as an emotion, is dominated by positive feelings with 63 happiness, 17 security, and 8 satisfaction. these positive affects tend to show the feelings of the papua people who love their land very much because it actually can freely provide them with anything they need in life. from the company’s point of view, the positive affect realizes their security in having protection from the state security forces. whereas, the negative affect lexis which includes 7 lexis of unhappiness, 6 lexis of insecurity, and 3 lexis of dissatisfaction realize papua people's sadness of being deceived by the company and the government and the company’s denial of being accused of breaking the human rights. there is 24 judgment lexis found in the news text. the judgment, which is traditionally referred to as ethics, generally realizes papua people’s disappointment because the company breaks their promises to give some facilities to them. in addition, there is 30 lexis of appreciation found in the news text. the appreciation, which is referred to as aesthetics, mostly realizes papua people’s gratitude for having a very useful live needs forest. on the other hand, the realization of power can be done by using the analysis of engagement and graduation. for engagement, there are 20 lexis of monogloss and 6 lexis of heterogloss. whereas for graduation, there are 9 lexis of focus and 8 lexis of force. generally, the engagement is used to realize that there are a lot of statements, opinions, and arguments, given by both papua people as well as the company. it means that both parties have the same position in giving their evaluation to the news writers. as a matter of fact, papua https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 359 people seem to have a lower position compared to the company because they feel that they lost not only their land but also their dignity. conclusion it can be concluded that the ideology represented in the news texts realizes papua people’s feeling of being deceived by the korean biggest palm oil company. while the power realizes that papua people have lower status against the company since they do not have any power to get their land back to their hands. references amindoni, a., & henschke, r. 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(2016). representasi kekuasaan melalui sabda raja pada teks berita mengenai konflik https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54798452 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54798452 http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 360 internal keraton yogyakarta (sebuah analisis wacana kritis). proceeding seminar international prasasti iii: program studi linguistik, pascasarjana uns dan balai bahasa provinsi jawa tengah, surakarta, 2 – 3 agustus 2016. thompson, g. (2014). introducing functional grammar. jw arrowsmith ltd. warsono. (2008). a critical discourse analysis to unmask the ideological stance behind “alqaeda in the asia pacific: origin, capability, and threat.” humaniora, 20(2), 191-199. wati, e.p., tallapessy, a., & diana, s. (2015). bias and power: appraisal in media discourse keberpihakan dan kuasa: penaksiran dalam wacana media. publika budaya, 1(3), 65-71. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa44dd5114a • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa59f661103 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 55 code-switching used by students in a speaking class activity (the case at dian nuswantoro university semarang) irul dwi fitriyani dian nuswantoro university semarang e-mail : irul_twinz@yahoo.com abstract this study is aimed to investigate which types of code switching, to figure out some functions of code switching and to reveal the factors that cause an increasing use of code-switching used by the students. the study belonged to a descriptive qualitative research. the result indicated that the total occurrences of code-switching generated by the 13 students are 73 times. for intra-sentential code-switching, it was found 39 utterances or 53.42 and for intersentential code-switching, it was found 34 utterances or 46.58. the most significant function of code-switching is that to emphasize the message which totally holds the highest percentage: 32.05%. the most significant factor of code-switching is that repetition used for clarification which totally holds the highest percentage: 34.25%. finally, it can be concluded that repetition used for clarification was the most significant factor which causes the occurrence of code-switching. this factor was likely to happen because it was generated to avoid misunderstanding and to add emphasis. key words: code-switching, speaking introduction language becomes a crucial device for the creation of situations and objects. by using the language, people are able to create reality by naming and giving meaning to aspects of experience from a particular experience. it can be said that language belongs to human kind and it could be one of the major distinctions between human kinds and other living creatures in the world. for its importance, language will forever exist and forever used in our daily lives and activities. in a community, people seldom speak only one language. it is like what we encounter in our very own country, indonesia. indonesia is known for its rich and variety of cultures and traditions. having thousands of islands inhabited by different kinds of ethnic groups and society, it makes indonesia indeed as a very rich of local customs and languages country. referring to the statement above, it can be said that indonesia is a bilingual or multilingual country. since the people are able to speak more than one, two or even three languages at once. according to bloomfield (1933:55) the term of bilingualism means ‘native-like control of two or more languages’. while weinreich stated that bilingualism is ‘the practice of mailto:irul_twinz@yahoo.com 56 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 alternately using two languages’ (1953:1). it is absolute that to be able to use both languages, one should master both languages well. first, one should master his/ her mother-tongue language or the first language (l1), and the second one is the other language to be the second language (l2). as we all know that nowadays english plays a very important role in the world in many fields such as politics, business, trade and diplomatic circle. as stated by crystal (1997)) “english is undoubtedly the dominant global language of business, science, and tourism and, as a result, those who speak english can benefit from globalization. while the socio-cultural settings of english language classrooms in indonesia are bilingual /multilingual and multicultural, for both learners and teachers bring their multiple identities into the classroom. in classrooms where teachers have realized and accepted this fact and legitimized the use of the first language (l1), these identities and practices are empowered and explored as ‘resources.’ in classroom where this is not the case, they are positioned as ‘problems.’ unfortunately, in indonesia classrooms, the latter is the most common (zacharias, 2006: 47). we sometimes encounter the phenomenon of code-switching, the mixing of more than one language within one sentence or between sentences in a single conversation in english classrooms. conversation itself constitutes a major part of human interaction. it is through language and conversation that children begin to communicate information through a variety of speech registers and style switching (ervin-tripp 2001, cited in iliana reyes, 2004: 77). from the sociolinguist’s point of view, code switching (cs) is studied to understand why people who are competent in two languages alternate languages in a particular conversation or situation. codeswitching may involve a word, a phrase, a clause, or a few sentences. this paper itself aims to understand the dynamic of multilingualism and globalization among students of english department in the context of indonesia, a multilingual developing country of the global south east asia. set in semarang, central java, the paper will investigate the code-switching use of javanese (a local language), bahasa indonesia or bi (the national language) and english by the students of english department in a speaking class activity. the focus of this study is to investigate how the students from different backgrounds switch between two or three different languages, english and bahasa/ local language at a speaking class of english department, and draw on features of each language to accomplish their conversational goals. in particular, interaction among the students was analyzed to explore how students make use of their l2 (english) in classroom interaction context. moreover, the writer language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 57 intends to reveal the types, functions and factors causing the occurrence of codeswitching. in this study, the writer intends to (1) describe the types of code-switching occurring in the classroom activity; (2) explain the functions of code-switching occurring in the classroom activity; (3) describe the factors that cause an increasing use of code-switching used in the classroom activity. the study investigates and closely examines the types and functions of codeswitching used in a very limited and defined environment. since code-switching is used in various and different situations, this paper will focus on the classroom activity context and factors causing the use of this alternation of different linguistic codes. research methods the method in this research is selected by considering its appropriateness with the research object. in this part, the writer will discuss a research approach, population and sample, unit of analysis, method of collecting the data, method of analyzing the data and method of presenting the data. the study is descriptive and qualitative in nature. methodologically this research uses qualitative approach and particularly i use a case study to get the research data. it tries to describe the data into words form. the data is based on the classroom activity in a form of delivering a presentation done by the english department students at dian nuswantoro in the classroom to achieve the goal of describing the feature of certain phenomena of any individual in the classroom which will be identified. the key instrument of data collection is the researcher herself. the data in this research were taken from 13 students. they are the students of the sixth semester of 3 different classes at dian nuswantoro university. the selection criterion for the subjects is based solely on their bahasa/ local language – english bilingualism. techniques of data collection were by transferring the data from audiovisual recording into transcriptions. the transcription of each student’s presentation is divided into excerpts based on the unit of idea. these excerpts are in the forms of words, phrases, clauses or sentences for unit of analysis that contains code switching. this way, the data analysis of the recordings is expected to be able to be used in order to verify how the use and the functions of code-switching vary in this particular students’ presentation. hence, to get an effective analysis by analyzing the transcription, the study is conducted into five main steps. the steps are (1) identifying and categorizing the types, the functions and the factors of code-switching found in the transcription; (2) coding; (3) tabulating; (4) interpreting and concluding. at last, the writer concluded her finding by describing the types, the functions and 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 the factors of code-switching found in the transcription. results and discussion types of code-switching as it has mentioned before that there are two types of code-switching proposed by are investigated in this study, by poplack and hoffman. the types are intersentential codeswitching, intra-sentential code-switching and tag-switching or emblematic code-switching. but i will only investigate two out of those three types, they are inter-sentential code-switching and intra-sentential code-switching. therefore, the data obtained would be classified into those two types of codeswitching. in the previous chapter, table 1 shows the frequency and percentage of occurrence of inter-sentential codeswitching and intra-sentential codeswitching found in the speech generated by those 13 students. table 1 can be seen on the next page (p.6). table 1 types of code-switching in students’ speech no. reference types of codeswitching &frequency of occurrence percentage of occurrence () types of codeswitching &frequency of occurrence percentage of occurrence () intra-sentential code-switching inter-sentential code-switching 1. student 1 4 10.26 1 3.03 2. student 2 1 2.56 2 6.06 3. student 3 4 10.26 2 6.06 4. student 4 3 7.69 1 3.03 5. student 5 4 10.26 7 21.21 6. student 6 4 10.26 4 12.12 7. student 7 2 5.13 2 6.06 8. student 8 5 12.82 2 6.06 9. student 9 2 5.13 2 6.06 10 student 10 3 9.09 11. student 11 2 5.13 4 12.12 12. student 12 6 15.38 2 6.06 13. student 13 2 5.13 1 3.03 total 39 100 33 100 as we can see from the findings that the occurrence for each type of codeswitching are various. the total occurrences of code-switching generated by the 13 students are 73 times. for intrasentential code-switching, it was found 39 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 59 utterances or 53.42 and for intersentential code-switching, it was found 34 utterances or 46.58. for intra-sentential code-switching, most frequently occurred generated by student 12: 15.38 and for the inter-sentential code-switching found in student 5: 20.59 functions of code-switching as it has mentioned before in chapter ii that in analyzing the functions of codeswitching, the theory used was proposed by gumperz, sert and holmes. those functions are changing topic, emphasizing the message, repetition, expressing feeling, joking, quotation, showing solidarity, translation, equivalence, and interjection. table 2 shows the frequency and percentage of occurrence of function of code-switching found in the speech generated by the 13 students. the table can be seen below: table 2 functions of code-switching in students’ speech no. functions frequency of occurrence percentage 1. changing topic 1 1.27 2. emphasizing the message 25 31.65 3. repetition 24 30.38 4. expressing feeling 14 17.72 5. joking 1 1.27 6. quoting someone or something 1 1.27 7. showing solidarity 2 2.53 8. translation 10 12.66 9. equivalence 10. interjection 1 1.27 total 79 100  the most significant function of codeswitching is that to emphasize the message which totally holds the highest percentage: 32.05%. it was generated by the 13 students. the second position is repetition with the total occurrence 30.77%. on the third position is expressing feeling with 17.95%. the highest percentage of function of emphasizing the message is mostly realized through intrasentential code-switching. factors causing the occurrence of code-switching as it has described in chapter ii, according to hoffman (1991:116), there are a number of reasons for bilingual or multilingual person to switch or mix their languages. 60 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 those are: talking about a particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something (express solidarity), interjection, repetition used for clarification, intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor, expressing group identity, to soften or strengthen request or command, because of real lexical need, to exclude other people when a comment is intended for a limited audience. i added one of four factors which influence code switching occurrences namely the functions as suggested by holmes (2001) the data of the factors causing the occurrence of code-switching obtained are classified into those criteria. the following is the classification of those factors found in the students’ utterances during their presentation activity. the table of factors causing the occurrence of code-switching in students’ speech can be seen below. table 3 factors causing the occurrence of code-switching in students’ speech no. factors frequency of occurrence percentage 1. talking about a particular topic 2. quoting somebody else 1 1.37 3. being emphatic about something (express solidarity) 1 1.37 4. interjection 1 1.37 5. repetition used for clarification 25 34.25 6. intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor 9 12.33 7. expressing group identity 1 1.37 8. to soften or strengthen request or command 2 2.74 9. because of real lexical need 14 19.18 10. to exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience 11. the function; giving information, asking something, etc. 19 26.03 total 73 100 the most significant factor of codeswitching is that repetition used for clarification which totally holds the highest percentage: 34.25%. it was generated by the 13 students. the second position is the function; giving information, asking something, showing emotion, showing a name of a place, etc. with the total occurrence 26%. on the third position is because of real lexical need with 19.18%. conclusion as it can be seen from the finding that the writer analyzes only two out of three that language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 61 types of code-switching. they are intrasentential code-switching and intersentential code-switching. there are 73 data with the occurrences of intrasentential code-switching and intersentential code-switching. the data in this research are as follows: 39 data of intrasentential code-switching and 33 data of inter-sentential code-switching. the total occurrence of intra-sentential codeswitching is 39 utterances generated by 12 students out of 13. in intra-sentential codeswitching, the highest percentage was generated by student 12 with 15.38% and student 8 with 12.82%. on the other side, the lowest percentage was generated by student 2 with 2.56%. while in the type of inter-sentential code-switching, the highest percentage was generated by student 5 with 21.21% and the lowest one was generated by student 1, 4 and 13 with 3.03%. the most significant function of code-switching is that to emphasize the message which totally holds the highest percentage: 32.05%. it was generated by the 13 students. the second position is repetition with the total occurrence 30.77%. on the third position is expressing feeling with 17.95%. the highest percentage of function of emphasizing the message is mostly realized through intrasentential code-switching and it was done because they wanted to give more explanation and emphasizes on what they mentioned before. the writer also found that there are some factors of university students switch their code. the factors are quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something (express solidarity), interjection, repetition used for clarification, intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor, expressing group identity, to soften or strengthen request or command, because of real lexical need, and the function; giving information, asking something, etc. the most significant factor of code-switching is that repetition used for clarification which totally holds the highest percentage: 34.25%. it was generated by the 13 students. the second position is the function; giving information, asking something, showing emotion, showing a name of a place, etc. with the total occurrence 26%. on the third position is because of real lexical need with 19.18%. from all of the discussion above, it is obvious that there is a general recognition of the existence of such linguistic phenomena as code-switching and the use of it in the english department class. based on the conclusion of the study, some suggestions are given here. practically, code switching can still be conducted in a more interesting and challenging field for further research. the research can more concentrate on the investigation of code-switching among bilingual people who use oral language and those who use sign language. the research’s goal is intending to identify and analyze the use of code-switching in the speech of a teacher and his/ her disable students. they interact in a bilingual 62 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 context in which the speech is generated by deaf and hearing interlocutors. the next suggestion is addressed for those who are interested to have a further research on code-switching. it is suggested to observe in a large number of participants from different faculty. as the results of observation from different faculty, the results may be more substantial. references bloomfield, l. 1933. language. new york, holt: rinehart and winston. crystal, d. 1997. the cambridge encyclopedia of language. cambridge: cambridge university press. ervin-tripp, s. 2001. variety, styleswitching, and ideology. in iliana reyes, 2004: 77. hoffman, c. 2001. towards a description of trilingual competence. international journal of bilingualism; 5: 1-17. holmes, janet. 2001. an introduction to sociolinguistics, second edition. london: pearson education limited. reyes, iliana. 2004. functions of code switching in schoolchildren’s conversations bilingual research journal, 28: 1. weinreich, uriel. 1953. languages in contact. the hague-new york: mouton. zacharias, n. t. (2006). native or nonnative teachers: a study on tertiary teachers’ beliefs in indonesia. celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, 6, 47–62. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaac19cf10c3 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 136 the apathy headed for japanese propaganda in idrus’ heiho 1 : a comparative study melania s. harendika universitas brawijaya malang harendika@gmail.com dyah eko hapsari universitas brawijaya malang dyahekohapsari@gmail.com rizki nufiarni universitas brawijaya malang nufiarni_rizki@yahoo.com received: 15 january 2017. revised: 30 february 2017. accepted: 31 march 2016 abstract idrus was a noteworthy writer in indonesian in the course of japanese authority. his fight in being rebellious counter to the regime at that period was noticeable through his writings, which made him familiar as a frank writer. his works were then translated into english. the translated works, nevertheless, do not communicate precisely the analogous implication as they were in the source language. putting on zepetnek’s expressive mechanisms in analyzing idrus’ heihois advantageous in this study in accepting whether the messages in the text to be translated (tt1) are well informed in the translated text (tt2). the results show that the tt2 of idrus’ heihois not able to send detailed apathy headed for japanese propaganda as it was in the tt1. cultural and period gaps are worth mentioning to be reflected in the interpretation process. keywords: comparative studies, idrus’ heiho, expressive mechanisms, apathy, japanese propaganda how to cite: melania shinta harendika; dyah eko hapsari; rizki nufiarni. 2017. the apathy headed for japanese propaganda in idrus’ heiho: a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 1 this article is a part of 2016 dpp/spp research of the faculty of cultural studies universitas brawijaya malang under the contract number 1538/un10.12/lt/2016. mailto:harendika@gmail.com mailto:dyahekohapsari@gmail.com mailto:nufiarni_rizki@yahoo.com melania shinta harendika; dyah eko hapsari; rizki nufiarni. 2017. the apathy headed for japanese propaganda in idrus’ heiho: a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 137 introduction reading literary works is able to take along the readers to a time journey in which the readers are capable to gain information on the language, olden times, sociology, anthropology, natural features, and political affairs at that period. as mahayana stated in idrus (2010), literary works may contain factual records written not only to support the plot, but also to be the sociological and chronological manuscript. for instance, by understanding the story of siti nurbaya, the person who reads will be able to gain the awareness on exactly how unhappy the indonesian womenfolk at that time of being discriminated and unable to be what they actually wanted to be. such comprehension can likewise be perceived in idrus’ dari ave maria ke jalan lain ke roma, in which the readers might be able to be encouraged by the patriotism at that time(idrus, 2010, p. vi). during the course of the japanese power, idrus composed “corat – coret di bawah tanah”, a compilation of short stories in which he depicted indonesians’ day-to-day lifetime by means of his lifelike and satirist style (jassin in idrus, 2010). one of the short stories in the compilation is entitled heiho. heiho was a troop created by japanese colonial government as a means of propaganda for voicing their position as “the older brother” of all the countries in the far east that would help them get rid of the western colonizers from asia. many people at time were trapped into the idea that heiho could be a way for them to show their japanese propaganda. idrus, on the other way around was aware of the fact that it was only the japanese way of getting more people to back up their soldiers at the front lines. in a way, heiho was the tool for idrus to rise his reader’s awareness of how japanese manipulated people by attacking the feeling of japanese propaganda. that is why, in the story idrus sounds cynical about the position. along the way the storyline, idrus portrayed heiho as a lowly respected position. the main character, kartono joined heiho based on his idea that it is a way to fight for his nation. however, his wife considered being a height was nothing to be proud and his boss also showed no enthusiasm when kartono asked him for a testimonial letter. irony is a suitable term to describe kartono’s situation. at the end of the story, it was told that kartono was deceased in a battle not in the name of indonesia, but only as one victim of japanese’s lie. miserably, nearly at the same time, his wife was married to a new man. idrus’ heiho was published in pantja raja. this writing was considered as a controversial script for illustrating heiho as an unfortunate profession, consequently, in november 1946, an ex-heiho directed a letter to the publisher affirming that idrus’ short story humiliated the profession of heiho (prabowo in idrus, 2010). later, idrus’ heiho was translated by d.w. roskies and published in 2015 by lontar foundation. will this translated version be able to transfer the precise apathy towards japanese propaganda as it was seen in the source text? this study is going to respond this question by applying translation as comparative studies. there are two previous studies used in this paper as references. the first is entitled muatan politik propaganda jepang dalam cerpen dan drama karya idrus (a political content of propaganda of japanese colonial in idrus’ short stories and drama). in this study, the practices of japanese propaganda are exposed in idrus’s ave maria and kejahatan membalas dendam (the revenge) by means of gramsci’s hegemony theory. the result of the analysis shows that idrus’s works written in the japanese colonization had many language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 138 of political contents. indonesian had to work hard to assist japan in the war with ally, in order to achieve indonesian independence, as japanese government at that time had promised it. the second previous study has been done by ferdinal (2013). in his study, ferdinal concludes that idrus criticized both the government and the people. heiho, according to ferdinal, satirizes indonesians who joined heiho, an institution consisting of indonesians who supported japanese soldiers for the period of world war 2. the preceding studies are significant in assisting the writers in scrutinizing idrus’ heiho although the approach and the theories executed are not the same. therefore, this study is noteworthy to richen the studies in literature, especially those related to translation as comparative studies. methodology as bassnett (2005) identified, once perceived as a marginal activity, translation has been perceived as a mechanical rather than a creative process. currently, translation began to be perceived as an essential action of human interchange. formerly understood as a sub branch of linguistics, translation at present is observed as an interdisciplinary study and the unbreakable linking between language and way of life has become a vital theme of academic consideration. bassnett (2002) also identified that translation studies is undeniably a discipline in its own right, not simply a trivial division of comparative literary study. what is generally understood as translation involves the interpretation of a source language text into the target language to ensure that (1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structures of the ‘the text to be translated’ (tt1) will be preserved as thoroughly as possible. belloc (in bassnet, 2005), moreover, stated that the researcher should analyze idiom by idiom as well as intention by intention, considering that the meaning of a phrase in one language may be less or more emphatic than it is in another language. expressive mechanisms in translation to understand translation as comparative studies, the definition of expressive mechanisms proposed by totosy de zepetnek is significant. totosy de zepetnek stated that the subsequent techniques done by the translator are important to be considered in analyzing a translated literary work. (1) expressive individualization in which translational transformation strengthening the unique expressive features of ‘the text to be translated’ (tt1), as well as ‘translator’ (tp2)’s individual tendencies; (2) expressive leveling in which the elimination of unique expressive features of tt1 into ‘translated text’ (tt2). some unique expressive features of tt1may not be found in tt2. it might be uninvolved by tp2 for a number of considerations, which might be summed up as the incapability to find the equivalent sense in tt2;(3) expressive substitution in which the replacement of untranslatable expressive elements of tt1 with elements, which approximate these in expressive value in tt2; (4) expressive loss which is impoverishment of the expressive structure of tt1, consequently, it causes a whole loss of particular expressive elements or lines in tt2. in this type of expressive mechanism, the unique expression is not removed, but it is simplified, so that the expression in tt1 can have the identical sense in tt2. results and discussion heiho told about kartono, an employee of an indonesian workplace who got a little fee, which then initiated him to register as a heiho melania shinta harendika; dyah eko hapsari; rizki nufiarni. 2017. the apathy headed for japanese propaganda in idrus’ heiho: a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 139 (this sequence was not overtly indicated in tt1, but it was exposed clearly in tt2). later, he was accepted. as soon as his boss offered him a testimonial letter for his diligence, kartono requested that memo to be written in japanese. his boss was furious at him for the reason that he did not ponder that was essential. after having a clash with his boss, kartono, then, went to the barracks and was given new clothes and shoes. at the street, people seeing he walked with his tootight new shoes, gossiped him. kartono went back home, and found that miarti, his wife did not give the impression to be contented with kartono’s decision to be a heiho. as a closing point, kartono went back to the barrack, joining heiho. eight months later, he was dead in burma, and miarti was fourmonth pregnant by her new husband. although there was no irony portrayed in the title, for it simply stated the core of the theme: heiho, this story actually contained the irony of being a heiho. it told about an underpaid worker who was eager to improve his monetary condition as well as to show his japanese propaganda by being a heiho. in the story, it was only kartono who had a desire to be a heiho, and he believed that it was somewhat to be honored of. none of other characters represented in the story appeared to be contented with that occupation. the clash between kartono and his boss, the way people gossiped on kartono, and his wife’s unfaithfulness became an irony in which idrus indirectly depicted two societal gaps in indonesia: (1) those who were fanatical proindependence and (2) those who were cynical to japanese authority. a different miserable point was shown in the ending of the story in which idrus covertly stated that being a heiho was to some degree a mistaken decision. at the end of the story, it was told that kartono was dead because of being a heiho, while his ex-wife had a joyful life with a new man. in the translation, tt2’s plot did not have various modifications, except on kartono’s motive in registering as a heiho. the other sequences were identical. the tt2 of idrus’hheiho, though, did not deliver the precise degree of irony and cynicism as they were in the tt1 as made known by the subsequent analysis. expressive individualization the first expressive mechanism implemented in the translated version of idrus’ heihois expressive individualization as seen in table 1. table 1 expressive individualization in heiho tt1 tt2 (1) akan tetapi penghargaan orang di atas belum juga kelihatan.beberapa bulan yang telah lalu ia telah mencatatkan namanya untuk menjadi heiho... (p. 105) (2) but was he appreciated by his superiors? apparently not.that was why a few months back he’d put his name down as a heiho, ... (p.14) (3) kepala kantor itu bukanlah seorang nasionalis. ia orang biasa saja yang mengutamakan kemakmuran rumah tangga. (p.106) (4) now this boss of his was no patriot. he was an ordinary man, who cared first food on the table for his family and money in the bank. (p.15) (5) , mengapa bekerja di kantorku? haruskah aku belajar bahasa nippon pula, (6) ..., why the hell are you working here? bust a gut to learn japanese on top of language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 140 membengkok – bengkokkan tanganku, hanya untuk menulis surat penghargaan? kalian semuanya sakit demam, malaria tropikal. (p. 106) everything else, just to write a testimonial letter for you?you nationalists must have brain fever. (p. 15) (7) engkau tidak cinta kepadaku. miarti (p. 109) (8) “i see now that you don’t love me.” he said heavily, “otherwise you wouldn’t let me go (p. 18) source: idrus. dari ave maria ke jalan lain ke roma.2010. jakarta: pt. balai pustaka; lontar foundation. oh, oh, oh!2015. jakarta: the modern library of indonesia. in table 1 (1) and (2), it is comprehended that expressive individualization was applied in tt2. the expression “that was why” was used to underpin the motive why kartono registered as a heiho. this information, conversely, could not be found in tt1 in which idrus in a straight line identified that kartono registered as heiho without clearing up the purpose. this one likewise created dissimilar sequence of event between tt1 and tt2. in tt1, idrus implemented irony in which he let the person who read construct their individual presumption of kartono’s being a heiho. tt2, on the other hand, did not convey an irony for it itemized openly that idrus registered as a heiho for the reason that he desired the appreciation. the additional phrase “that was why” is used to toughen the information in tt2. unfortunately, because of that, the apathy headed for heiho as a symbol of japanese propaganda was found stronger in tt2. by highlighting kartono’s reason on the registering as a heiho because of his financial problem, the tt2 cynically stated the kartono’s motive is not purely as being a nationalist. another expressive individualization is implemented as seen in table 1 (3) and (4) that describe kartono’s boss. ia, here refers to kartono’s boss. idrus depicted him explicitly as someone who was not a nationalist, and idrus categorized him as that belonged to the ordinary man (that mostly was concerned only on kemakmuran rumah tangga (family welfare). from this line, the researcher argues that this is the way idrus wanted to differ kartono from his boss to convey his cynicism against japanese propaganda. the phrase ordinary man, was used as the depiction of the boss as the representative of most people in the society, who struggled to survive from the hardship in the time of japanese occupation. kartono, was depicted as having a different idea; someone who got the touch of patriotism and eventually was mocked as a walking alien at the end of the story. idrus, in this case sarcastically humiliated the occupation of heiho as somewhat illogical as a means of attacking the colonizer’s propaganda for putting the idea on head of the indonesian that it was a proof for their love for their country. in tt2, the phrase ‘cared first for food on the table for his family and money in the bank’ was used, which according to the researcher it is a bit annoying for it does not fit with historical fact that people in indonesia in 1945 almost certainly did not care on the quantity of money in the bank, for banks were customarily used by merchants or rich societies (https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/bank_di_indon esia#sejarah_bank_pemerintah). another thing that makes it bring different degree of cynicism from tt1 is that the phrase modifies kartono’s boss as an ordinary man in today’s https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/bank_di_indonesia#sejarah_bank_pemerintah https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/bank_di_indonesia#sejarah_bank_pemerintah melania shinta harendika; dyah eko hapsari; rizki nufiarni. 2017. the apathy headed for japanese propaganda in idrus’ heiho: a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 141 context, not in the context of indonesia’s situation under the japanese colonialization. it could also be assumed that in this case, tp2 had his personal tendencies to make this sequence clearer for ‘the reader of the translated text’ (rr2). unfortunately, tp2 did not seem to convey the actual condition as the background of the story in tt1. therefore, the degree of irony and cynicism was not the equal between tt1 and tt2. tt2 did not carry as pitiable condition as it was in tt1. once more, an expressive individualization is found in heiho. an expression was added by tp2, as seen in table 4.6.1 (5) and (6). the expression ‘mengapa bekerja di kantorku?’ was translated into ‘why the hell are you working here?’ it is, accordingly, assumed that the level of annoyance carried in tt2 was greater than it was in tt1, exposed by the phrase ‘why the hell...’ of which the original version did not send such saying. therefore, the degree of cynicism shown by kartono’s boss’ anger could not be found in tt1. this expression was added perhaps to preserve societal bound, it was to assist the ‘readers of tt2’ (rr2) to visualize how furious kartono’s boss at that time was. then, in the progression of translation, expressive individualization was applied to reinforce this expressive feature. yet again, expressive individualization is executed in table 1 (5) and (6). it can be grasped from the last sentence, “kalian semuanya sakit demam malaria tropical” that was translated into “you nationalists must have brain fever”. the use of demam malaria tropical is very interesting for idrus wanted to express his sarcastic idea on categorizing those who joined heiho as sick persons, not physically but mentally. however, the type of illness chosen by idrus was typically one that was only found in tropical countries, like indonesia. this kind of disease was considered a fatal illness at that time. thus, the depiction of the mental illness (for choosing heiho as the occupation) was very strong in tt1. the historical context, however, is not found since the translator (once again) used more of his common sense instead of being faithful with the context of the original text. another expressive individualization is found in heiho, as seen in table 1 (7) and (8). there was a translational transformation strengthening unique expressive features of tt1. in tt2, there was an extra clarification on the situation if miarti really loved kartono seen in the expression “otherwise you wouldn’t let me go...,”which could not be found in tt1. the apathy towards being heiho was stronger in tt2 in which heiho, as a “nationalist” was depicted as someone who was always unfortunate, even more, he did not have a true love. expressive leveling besides expressive individualization, which is found in sub-chapter 4.6.1, the translation version of idrus’ heiho conveyed also expressive leveling as seen in the next explanation. table 2 expressive leveling in heiho tt1 tt2 (1) kelihatannya kepala kantor tidak dapat menahan nafsu marahnya. perkataannya yang diucapkannya putus – putus (2) the boss was finding it hard to control himself. (p. 15) language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 142 seperti tulisan nippon (p. 106) source: idrus. dari ave maria ke jalan lain ke roma.2010. jakarta: pt. balai pustaka; lontar foundation. oh, oh, oh!2015. jakarta: the modern library of indonesia. expressive leveling was implemented in the tt2 of idrus’ heiho as stated in table 2 (1) and (2). it was perceived that there was an elimination of tt1’s unique expressive features. the translation of “perkataannya yang diucapkannya putus – putus seperti tulisan nippon,” which we could point out to be one of irreplaceable expressive feature in tt1, could not be found in tt2. there was no further clarification on how “the boss was finding it hard to control himself”, thus the explanation of the boss’ annoyance was simplified in tt2. on the other hand, it was defined clearly in tt1 on how he was so angry that he could not express smoothly. as a result, the point of apathy towards being a heiho could be found in tt1, in which idrus analogized the boss’ madness with japanese handwriting, could not be found in tt2. expressive loss the translated version of idrus’ heiho conveyed also expressive loss as one of its expressive mechanism which can be found in the next table. table 3 expressive loss in heiho tt1 tt2 (1) kartono sedang asyik bekerja. dadanya bengkok seperti akal orang nippon. (p. 105) (2) kartono was hard at work, bent over in a plausible imitation of a japanese. (p.14) (3) tolol dan pandir. (p. 108) (4) you’ve got it all wrong, you’ve got to realize the times we’re living in!” (p.18) (5) kartono mengeluh panjang seperti perempuan hamil. jangat di keningnya berkerinyut pula (109) (6) kartonocomplained long and loud, and his forehead grew furrowed. (p.18) source: idrus. dari ave maria ke jalan lain ke roma.2010. jakarta: pt. balai pustaka; lontar foundation. oh, oh, oh!2015. jakarta: the modern library of indonesia. in table 3 (1) and (2), it is perceived that “dadanya bengkok seperti akal orang nippon” was interpreted into “bent over in a plausible imitation of a japanese.” expressive loss as one of the expressive mechanisms was implemented at this point. “bengkok seperti akal” is a simile; it was then simplified into “bent over in a plausible imitation of a japanese.” literally, in tt1, idrus sarcastically identified that kartono’s chest bent over identical to japanese people’s thoughts. at this point, idrus indirectly condemned that japanese did not have typical mind. it could be perceived as idrus’ ironical way in criticizing japanese authority. idrus’ sarcasm headed for japanese, was not found in tt2. as a result, tt2’s apathy towards japanese propaganda, represented by heiho, was not as strong as it was in the tt1. melania shinta harendika; dyah eko hapsari; rizki nufiarni. 2017. the apathy headed for japanese propaganda in idrus’ heiho: a comparative study. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 143 there is an impoverishment of the expressive structure of tt1 in table 3 (3) and (4). the words “tolol dan pandir”, which could actually be understood as “stupid and ignorant”, cannot be found in tt2. it was converted into “you’ve got it all wrong, you’ve got to realize the times we’re living in!” it is supposed, then, that tp2 was more well-mannered in labeling kartono by means of a more normative expression. unluckily, it caused an entire loss of detailed expressive elements in tt1. at this point, expressive language function, in which language purposes to express speakers’ sense, cannot be found in tt2. the utterer in tt1 openly stated that kartono was a stupid and ignorant individual, but the speaker in tt2 did not do the identical thing. it can be determined that the degree of cynicism was stronger in tt1. thus, the apathy towards being a heiho as a form of japanese propaganda headed for kartono is stronger in tt1. expressive loss was implemented also the tt2 as seen in table 3 (5) and (6) in which there was an impoverishment of the expressive structure of tt1. tt1 described that kartono’s complaint was analogous with a pregnant woman’s. the readers, however, could not notice this saying in tt2. as a result, it caused a loss of expressive elements in tt2. expressive language functions, in which language functions to express speaker’s attitude, cannot be found in tt2. therefore, the degree of irony and cynicism was stronger in tt1. by analogizing kartono’s complaints with an expecting woman’s, idrus ironically stated that kartono’s life was so hard that he grumbles all the time similar to an expecting woman, as commonly recognized that a pregnant woman normally complained for the reason that physically and psychologically it was occasionally hard for her to be active because of her situation. being a heiho is depicted as having a severe life, so that the person grumbles all the time. it can be said that the apathy towards being a heiho as a form of japanese propaganda is stronger in tt1. expressive substitution there is only one expressive substitution found in the translated version of idrus’ heiho as perceived in the subsequent result. table 4 expressive substitution in heiho tt1 tt2 (1) haruskah aku belajar bahasa nippon pula, membengkok – bengkokkan tanganku, hanya untuk menulis surat penghargaan? (p. 106) (2) bust a gut to learn japanese on top of everything else, just to write a testimonial letter for you? (p. 15) source: idrus. dari ave maria ke jalan lain ke roma.2010. jakarta: pt. balai pustaka; lontar foundation. oh, oh, oh!2015. jakarta: the modern library of indonesia. in table 4 (1) and (2), in tt1 idrus illustrated that in writing kanji, one had to bend (membengkok-bengkokkan) his hand, which is converted to be “bust a gut.” the phrase membengkok-bengkokkan sounds mocking instead of what is interpreted by tp2 as a big effort to do something. idrus also used the word bengkok in the same text to describe japanese thought, by which rr1 can assume that the word was meant to be in language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 144 negative meaning. thus, the apathy towards japanese propaganda in tt1cannot be found in tt2. conclusion the apathy towards being a heiho as form of japanese propaganda that was brought by idrus in heiho was not felt exactly the same when it was translated into english. more than a few expressions were not found in the translated version. as a result, the readers might not feel similar sense and tone between tt1 and tt2. this dissimilarity might occur because of the contradictory background between idrus, the original author and roskies, as the translator. there is a cultural and time gap sandwiched between them. idrus as an indonesian who lived in precisely the same era as the setting of heiho must have the experience of being oppressed by japanese government at that time. heiho, as his reflection, of course brought his bitter life into transcription. on the other hand, roskies did not have such experience as felt by idrus since he was not an indonesian. additionally, he was alive in a different era from idrus. references bassnett, susan. (2005). translation studies (3 rd ed). (adobe ereader format). london: routledge taylor and francis group. ferdinal. (2013). abuse of power, oppression and the struggle for human rights in modern indonesian short fiction.(unpublished doctoral dissertation).graduate school of communication and creative arts. victoria: deakin university. idrus. (2010). dari ave maria ke jalan lain ke roma. jakarta: pt. balai pustaka lontar foundation. oh, oh, oh! (2015). jakarta: the modern library of indonesia nitayadnya, i wayan.(2013). muatan politik propaganda kolonial jepang dalam cerpen dan drama karya idrus (a political content of propaganda of japanese colonial in idrus’ short stories and drama). atavisme, 16( 2), 215 – 227). wikipedia.com. (2016). bank di indonesia. retrived 15 september 2016 from (https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/bank_di_indonesia#sejarah_bank_pemerintah). zepetnek, s. t. (1998). comparative literature theory, method, application. amsterdam: rodopi. language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 231 westernised chinese in yu hua’s chronicle of a blood merchant aiqing wang university of liverpool, united kingdom aiqing.wang@liverpool.ac.uk abstract yu hua is one of the most illustrious avant-garde and post-modernist writers in contemporary china, whose chefs-d’oeuvre can be exemplified by a 1995 novel chronicle of a blood merchant. notwithstanding widespread accolades, yu hua’s fiction is excoriated by his peer han han for resembling works translated from western literature. in this research, i scrutinise the language deployed in chronicle of a blood merchant under the framework postulated by yu kwang-chung. i propound that the language in chronicle of a blood merchant bears similitude to westernised/europeanised chinese, in that it involves conspicuous light verbs, nominalisation, bei passivisation, subordinating and coordinating conjunctions, plural forms, as well as premodifiers and particles, a considerable proportion of which are redundant and impinged upon by the english language. keywords: chinese literature, europeanised chinese, translationese, yu kwang-chung introduction after embarking upon his literary career in 1983, 余华 yu hua (1960) has been adulated as an avant-garde, post-modernist, postrevolutionary and post-new-wave writer (zhao 1991, wedell-wedellsborg 1996, liu 2002, xu 2015). yu hua’s chefs-d’oeuvre are exemplified by a bildungsroman 在 细 雨 中 呼 喊 zai xiyuzhong huhan ‘cries in the drizzle’ (1990) concerning a morally degenerate and politically suppressed society during the cultural revolution (1966-1976) (li 2011: 2, xu 2020), as well as award-winning novels 活着 huozhe ‘to live’ (1992), 许三观卖血记 xu sanguan maixue ji ‘chronicle of a blood merchant’ (1995) and 兄 弟 xiongdi ‘brothers’ (2005-2006) (finken 2003, shank 2013). an exemplary paradigm of yu hua’s chefsd’oeuvre is to live, in which he paints a vivid portrait of agricultural life in a sympathetic and realistic fashion, expatiating a quagmire of travails and predicaments prior to the civil war (1945-1949) till the cultural revolution (doll 2014, shao 2021). enriched by confucian, buddhist and taoist precepts, this saga equips the idyllic chronotope with distinct chinese attributes (shi 1999, jennings 2009). in 1994, the narrative was adapted into an award-winning film by a renowned director 张艺谋 zhang yimou (dupont 1994, rayns 1994, kermode and macnab 1996): as ‘a sweeping saga of modern china’, this ‘film possesses both vast scope and intimacy, richness of incident and an awareness of the quixotic role fate plays in all our destinies’ (thomas 1994). notwithstanding plaudits for yu hua’s writings, the language he deploys has attracted animadversions from his peers, exemplified by a writer, painter and art critic 陈丹青 chen danqing (1953), as well as 韩寒 han han (1982), a novelist, essayist, filmmaker and professional race car driver (lao 2012, buruma 2016). chen danqing regards yu hua’s fiction with disdain, in that the way he writes is void of attraction; as for han han, he castigates yu hua’s works for bearing resemblance to those translated from western literature (liu 2008, zhu 2012), as in example (1). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:aiqing.wang@liverpool.ac.uk language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 232 (1) 余华的小说我现在是一本书都没有读下去 , 我家里有他的书,《活着》电影倒是看了, 但是书 就像你说的翻开两页, 我觉得文笔不是我喜欢的 文笔, 你能感受到他是用西方翻译小说的语言在 写。 so far, i haven’t finished reading any of yu hua’s novels, though i have his books at home. i’ve watched the film to live, but for his books, as you said, i don’t like the way he writes—you can tell that his language is like translation of western fiction. (zhu 2012. trans. mine) there is no denying the fact that han han is a contentious writer anathematised for being recalcitrant and for casting aspersions on his counterparts and modern poetry (xu 2006, jiang and mao 2008, zhang 2009). nonetheless, his censure of yu hua is not unjustifiable, in that there are similitudes between yu hua’s early works and translations of western literature (wu 2020). furthermore, i propound that under the framework postulated by 余光中 yu kwangchung (aka yu guangzhong), yu hua’s fiction is featured by westernised chinese. in this research, i hermeneutically scrutinise the thought-provoking novel chronicle of a blood merchant as an example. literature review the construct of westernised/europeanised chinese is inspired by the ground-breaking may fourth movement in 1919 as well as an allimportant translation approach, viz. 硬译 yingyi ‘hard translation’ (han 2005, he 2008, zhu 2011, wu 2014, zhou 2015), the quintessential construal of which is rigid word-for-word rendering and transliteration (ye 2013, shen 2015, sun 2018). ‘hard translation’ is advocated by 鲁迅 lu xun (1881-1936), an iconic figure of modern chinese literature as well as an influential translation practitioner and theorist, who acted as a pioneer of literalism and foreignisation in the may fourth period (chan 2001, harpham 2013, wang 2020). lu xun dubbed the terminology in 1929 in his rendering of the death of tolstoy and the young europe ( 托尔斯泰之死与少年欧罗巴 tuoersitai zhisi yu shaonian ouluoba) composed by anatoly lunacharsky, and he further expounded the ideation in a 1930 article entitled ‘硬译’与‘文学的阶级性’ yingyi yu wenxuede jiejixing ‘“hard translation” and the “class nature of literature”’ (wang 2013, cheng 2015, ruan 2020). europeanised chinese leads to the construal of 翻译腔 fanyiqiang or 翻译体 fanyiti (translationese) (zhou 2015), which denotes ‘formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the content and the impact of the message’ (nida and taber 2003: 13); being perceived as a dialect of the target language (volansky et al 2015), this artefact entails lexical and word order choices impinged upon by the source language (gellerstam 1986, 1996) as well as employment of more explicit and simplex constructions (baker et al 1993, riley et al 2020). translationese is comprehensively defined as a pejorative terminology triggered by a range of factors, exemplified by an inordinately literal strategy, insufficient understanding of target languages and impact from translators’ native languages (shuttleworth and cowie 1997: 187, sun 2003: 95-103, fang 2004: 26). as a consequence, in order to render target text comprehensible and smooth, translationese should be circumnavigated (newmark 1988: 75, liu and chai 2004, yang et al 2009). it is noteworthy that neither europeanisation nor translationese is unanimously regarded as being detrimental to the evolution of chinese (zhang 2013, zhou 2015, wang 2017). lu xun promulgates 宁信不 顺 ning xin bu shun ‘faithfulness rather than fluency’ that gives priority to faithfulness, instead of readability of target text (wang 2004, he 2009, yang 2012), as in example (2). additionally, according to a novelist and cultural icon 王朔 wang shuo (1958) (barme 1992), translationese is indispensable to the chinese language (example (3)). (2) 如果还是翻译, 那么, 首先的目的, 就在博览外 国的作品, 不但移情, 也要益智, 至少是知道何地何时, 有这等事, 和旅行外国, 是很相像的: 它必须有异国情调 , 就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文 , 倘有, 就是貌合神离, 从严辨别起来, 它算不得翻译。 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 233 凡是翻译, 必须兼顾着两面, 一当然力求其易解, 一则保存着原作的丰姿, 但这保存, 却又常常和易 懂相矛盾: 看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子, 当然谁 也看不惯, 为比较的顺眼起见, 只能改换他的衣裳, 却不该削低他的鼻子, 剜掉他的眼睛。我是不主 张削鼻剜眼的, 所以有些地方, 仍然宁可译得不顺 口。 the utmost goal of translation is to allow readers to enjoy foreign writings extensively, not only for entertainment, but also for knowledge. at least readers should be made aware that certain incidents have happened in certain places at certain times. it is like travelling abroad: it must demonstrate exoticism, namely, the so-called foreignness. in fact, a fully domesticised text cannot exist, and even if there is one, strictly speaking, it is too literal to be treated as true translation. translation must balance comprehensibility on the one hand, but features of original works on the other hand. preserving the charm of original works, however, often contradicts with comprehensibility, because the translations become alien to readers. however, since it is foreign, of course it is alien to everybody. to make a person more native, one can change his clothes, but should not cut off his nose or dig out his eyes. i oppose cutting off nose and digging out eyes, so i would rather have some unsmooth translations. (lu 1935. tran. mine) (3) 如果我们现在把外来语和外来的语言影响 ——翻译体、意译及其生造词统统从汉语中剔除 , 我们就说不成话了。 now if we remove all loanwords and foreign influences from chinese, including translationese, free translation and neologisms, we will not be able to speak. (su and li 2018: 527. trans. mine) nonetheless, as pointed out by the celebrated poet and critic yu kwang-chung, one of the pressing crises of chinese lies in its westernisation, which is saliently attributed to impact from the english language (yu 1979, 1987). light verbs ‘light verbs’ (jespersen 1949: 117), alternatively referred to as ‘weak verbs’ (barzun 1976: 112), denote verbs of deficient semantic content, so crosslinguistically, they are parallel to auxiliary verbs in terms of their contribution to full lexical verbs (cattell 1984: 3, grimshaw and mester 1988, guilfoyle 1990, chae 1996, shen 2004, nenonen et al 2017). light verbs manifest substantial event information (lin 2018), in that they are ‘predicates of aspects of eventualities. syntactically they are verbs, with or without phonetic realization; semantically they are predicates of aspects that compose eventualities’ (lin 2001: 77). as stated by yu kwang-chung (1987), contemporary chinese abounds with weak verbs, viz. verbal false limbs or operators in the sense of orwell (1946) (beatty 1982), which is impinged upon by its english counterpart. a typical paradigm of weak verbs in chinese is 作出 zuochu ‘to make’ (yu 1987). as can be seen in example (4) extracted from chronicle of a blood merchant, 作出 这 样 的 决 定 zuochu zheyangde jueding literally means ‘to make such a decision’ (trans. mine), yet the expression 这样决定 zheyang jueding ‘to decide this way’ (trans. mine) is more concise and consistent with conventional chinese grammar. analogously, in the author’s preface, yu hua employs 做出选择 zuochu xuanze ‘to make a choice’ (example (5)), rather than 选择 xuanze ‘to choose’. it is notable that 进行 jinxing ‘to conduct’ in example (5) is also chastised by yu kwang-chung for rendering the chinese language redundant (1987), and the standard expression for 进行思考 jinxing sikao ‘to conduct thinking’ is simply 思考 sikao ‘to think’. in addition to zuochu, ‘to make’ in chinese can be 让 rang, as in example (6). (4) 许三观是在这天上午作出这样的决定的。 xu sanguan shi zai zhetian shangwu zuochu zheyangde jueding de this was the decision he had made that morning. (yu 2008: 75. trans. jones 2003) (5) 这似乎是文学乐意看到的事实, 一个人的品质 其实被无数人悄悄拥有着, 于是你们的浮士德在进行思 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 234 考的时候, 会让中国的我们感到是自己在准备做 出选择。 zhe sihu shi wenxue leyi kandao de shishi yi ge ren de pinzhi qishi bei wushu ren qiaoqiao yongyou zhe yushi nimende fushide zai jinxing sikao de shihou hui rang zhongguo de women gandao shi ziji zai zhunbei zuochu xuanze this seems to be a fact that the literature is happy to see. a person’s characteristics are in fact owned by millions of people secretly, so when your faust is conducting thinking, it will let us in china feel that we are preparing to make a choice ourselves. (yu 2008: 5-6. trans. mine) (6) 它们都在阳光下闪闪发亮, 风吹过去, 先让 瓜藤和瓜叶摇晃起来, 然后吊在藤叶上的瓜也跟 着晃动了。 tamen dou zai yangguang xia shanshan faliang feng chui guoqu xian rang guateng he guaye yaohuang qilai ranhou diao zai tengye shang de gua ye genzhe huangdong le the fruit sparkled brightly in the sunlight. when the wind blew, first the leaves, then the vines, and finally the melons themselves began to sway in the breeze. (yu 2008: 16. trans. jones 2003) apart from ‘to make’, the category of light verbs in english also comprises ‘to become’, the chinese equivalent of which is 给 gei (tang 2008). moreover, the literal meaning of gei is ‘to give’, whereas ‘to give’ is a light verb in english (wittenberg et al 2014), which further justifies that gei is a light verb in chinese. in example (7), the expression 给我吃耳光 gei wo chi erguang is constituted of the light verb gei and 吃 chi (lit. ‘to eat’) that entails metaphorical meanings ‘to suffer’, ‘to obtain’, ‘to destroy’, etc (wang 2000, yang 2007, 2010). that is to say, the word-forword translation of gei wo chi erguang is ‘to give me suffer a slap’ (trans. mine), which can be revised into 打我耳光 da wo erguang ‘to slap me’ (trans. mine). (7) 我一说你就给我吃耳光, 我的眼睛被你打得昏 昏沉沉, 我的牙齿被你打得又酸又疼, 我的脸像是被火 在烧一样。 wo yi shuo ni jiu gei wo chi erguang wo de yanjing bei ni dade hunhunchenchen wo de yachi bei ni dade you suan you teng wo de lian xiang shi bei huo zai shao yiyang as soon as i say anything, you’ll slap me again. you hit me so hard i can’t see, and my teeth hurt, and my face feels like it’s on fire. (yu 2008: 38. trans. jones 2003) nominalisation there is an increasing overuse of nouns as subjects in contemporary chinese, attributed to the influence of english grammar (yu 1987, he 2008). to be more specific, english is disposed to employ noun phrases to achieve a static status, yet chinese tends to deploy verbs in a dynamic fashion (lian 2010: 133); consequently, in stark contrast to their english equivalents, chinese clauses tend to be shorter in length (liu 2006: 262, tang and xu 2019). example (8) acts as a typical paradigm illustrating the conspicuous nominalisation in chronicle of a blood merchant. the latter sentence in example (8) contains two noun phrases converted from a verb phrase and an adjective respectively, i.e. 她在大街上的行走 ta zai dajieshang de xingzou ‘her strolls through the streets’ and 她的漂亮 tade piaoliang ‘her beauty’ (trans. mine). although these two noun phrases appear to be natural in english, they fail to comply with linguistic norms of the chinese language. similarly, 因为身体的肥胖 yinwei shentide feipang in example (9) does not accord with conventional chinese grammar: its literal meaning is ‘because of fatness of the body’ (trans. mine), yet an idiomatic way to convey the same meaning is 因为身 体肥胖 yinwei shenti feipang ‘because (she is) fat’ (trans. mine). (8) 她的衣服并不比别人多, 可是别人都觉得她是 这座城镇里衣服最多的时髦姑娘。她在大街上的行走, 使她的漂亮像穿过这座城镇的河流一样被人们所熟悉, 在这里人们都叫她油条西施… ta de yifu bing bu bi bieren duo keshi bieren dou juede ta shi zhezuo chengzhen li yifu zuiduo de shimao guniang ta zai dajieshang de http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 235 xingzou shi tade piaoliang xiang chuanguo zhezuo chengzhen de heliu yiyang bei remen suo shu xi zai zheli renmen dou jiao ta youtiao xishi in truth, she had no more clothes than anyone else, but everyone thought of her as the girl with the most extensive and fashionable wardrobe in town. her strolls through the streets made everyone feel as if her pretty face were as familiar as the stream that flowed across town. and almost everyone in town knew her as the fried dough queen. (yu 2008: 20. trans. jones 2003) (9) 林芬芳提着篮子走在街上, 因为身体的肥 胖, 她每走一步都要摇晃一下, 在街上走得最慢的 人都会超过她。 lin fenfang tizhe lanzi zou zai jieshang yinwei shenti de feipang ta mei zou yi bu dou yao yaohuang yixia zai jie shang zou de zui man de ren dou hui chaoguo ta when lin fenfang walked down the street with her basket, her body swayed with each step because of her weight, and even the slowest pedestrians were always able to pass her by. (yu 2008: 88. trans. jones 2003) bei passive constructions as a substantially concise written language, classical chinese does not demonstrate grammatical distinction between active voice and passive voice, in that verbs with passive connotations do not have to be explicitly marked (pulleyblank 1995: 35-38). as a consequence, contextual clues and speakers’ interpretations play a preponderant role in distinguishing between active and passive structures (norman 1988: 101, sun 1996: 23-37). in modern mandarin, passivisation can be realised via explicit markers, and passive voice is prominently marked by 被 bei that first appeared in the late archaic (5th-3rdc bc) period (peyraube 1989, 1996, li 2007). despite the fact that bei has evolved into the most frequently used passive marker in the contemporary era and acts as the only one deployed in all registers of spoken and written language use (wang 2006: 19, xiao et al. 2006), bei is non-obligatory and even restricted (li and cheng 2008: 475-476, liu 2010: 262). moreover, passive constructions explicitly marked by bei predominantly entail verbs borrowed or introduced into chinese during the contemporary age, and both the quantity and frequency of bei constructions have been prodigiously increasing (li and thompson 1981: 497, zhang 2013, tian 2019). according to my observation, chronicle of a blood merchant is replete with bei constructions, exemplified by examples (7-8) above and examples (10-12) below. as prescribed and/or described by the vast majority of grammar references, the preferable use of bei is to precede verbs of adverse or disposal meanings and hence intentional and forceful implications, e.g. 打 da ‘to hit’, 骂 ma ‘to scold’, 批评 piping ‘to criticise’, etc (chao 1968: 703, li and thompson 1981: 493, wang 1984: 488, cook 2019). although passivisation entailing bei should be limited to inauspicious emotions and undesirable events, by virtue of the language contact between chinese and european languages, modern mandarin has witnessed the occurrence of bei in propitious episodes (wang 1984: 488, 2014: 96, 405-406, zhang 2013). for instance, in example (10) extracted from chronicle of a blood merchant, it is appropriate to use bei in the former sentence to depict a tragic accident, whereas in the latter sentence auguring well, the employment of bei is unjustifiable. (10) 方铁匠的儿子被丝厂许三观的儿子砸破脑袋 了…方铁匠的儿子被陈医生救过来了。 fang tiejiang de erzi bei sichang xu sanguan de erzi za po nao dai le fang tiejiang de erzi bei chen yisheng jiu guo lai le blacksmith fang’s son was beaten so badly by xu sanguan’s son that he broke his head right open…dr. chen saved blacksmith fang’s son’s life. (yu 2008: 55-56. trans. jones 2003) given the fact that bei passivisation is correlated with negative emotions, when the subject is an inanimate object without volition or mentality, it is conventional to substitute bei with other passive markers, or to resort to active constructions (han 2005, wang 2014: 97-98). nevertheless, as can be seen from example (11), the inanimate subject ‘his chest’ is accompanied by bei constructions. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 236 (11) 这时的许三观解开棉袄的纽扣, 让冬天温 暖的阳光照在胸前, 于是他被岁月晒黑的胸口, 又 被寒风吹得通红。zheshi de xu sanguan jie kai mianao de niukou rang dongtian wennuade yangguang zhao zai xiongqian yushi ta bei suiyue shaihei de xiongkou you bei hanfeng chuide tonghong xu sanguan unfastened the buttons of his cotton-padded jacket, letting the wintry sunlight shine onto his chest. his time-bronzed skin flushed a deep red in the cold wind. (yu 2008: 210. trans. jones 2003) furthermore, under circumstances when it is unnecessary or impossible to mention agents of acts, the passive marker bei is inclined to be omitted (li and cheng 2008: 475-476, wang 2014: 97). i posit that the agents of actions in example (12) have been implied in the previous context, so bei needs to be deleted from the three clauses in example (12). (12) 为什么有人被吊在了树上、有人被关进 了牛棚、有人被活活打死? weishenme youren bei diao zai le shushang youren bei guanjin le niupeng youren bei huohuo dasi why some people have hung themselves from trees, and some people are locked up in ‘cow sheds’ and beaten half to death? (yu 2008: 161. trans. jones 2003) conjunctions conjunctions are constituted of subordinating conjunctions and coordinating conjunctions: the former link subordinate clauses to independent clauses, while the latter connect words and phrases of the identical grammatical type (coghill and magedanz 2003:135-140, anderson 2013, beadle 2014: 50). subordinating conjunctions are alternatively referred to as subordinators, and they can be further categorised into simple subordinators (e.g. if, when, since), complex subordinators (e.g. in spite of, because of, in order to) as well as historically complex subordinators (e.g. because, until, although); as for coordinating conjunctions, they can be divided into simple conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or), complex conjunctions (e.g. later on, and then, so later on) as well as historically complex conjunctions (e.g. however, moreover, furthermore) (givón 1993: 78). the chinese language abounds with subordinating conjunctions, yet they are nonobligatory (wang 2014: 415). moreover, omitting subordinating conjunctions can render the text concise, in that chinese substantially relies on context to imply logic, in stark contrast to its english counterpart that places more emphasis on explicit expressions (yu 1987, han 2005, he 2008). as can be seen from examples (13-14), the cause and effect relation has been illustrated by subordinating conjunctions 由于 youyu ‘because’ and 因为 yinwei ‘because’, whereas deleting the conjunctions does not impede comprehension. (13) 许玉兰这时候的哭诉已经没有了吸引力, 她把 同样的话说了几遍, 她的声音由于用力过久, 正在逐渐 地失去水分, 没有了清脆的弹性, 变得沙哑和干涸。 xu yulan zheshihou de kusu yijing meiyou le xiyinli ta ba tongyangde hua shuo le jibian ta de sheng yin youyu yongli guojiu zhengzai zhujiande shiqu shuifen meiyou le qingcuide tanxing biande shaya he ganhe by now xu yulan’s litany had lost much of its interest for the spectators. she went through the changes several more times, but her voice had begun to weaken with fatigue and, lacking its original bite and elasticity, became dry and gravelly. (yu 2008: 66. trans. jones 2003) (14) 从现在开始, 你们都叫她许玉兰, 别叫她妈, 因 为这是批斗会, 开完了批斗会, 你们才可以叫她妈。 cong xianzai kaishi nimen dou jiao ta xu yulan bie jiao ta ma yinwei zhe shi pidouhui kai wan le pidouhui nimen cai keyi jiao ta ma from now on you have to call her xu yulan. you’re not allowed to call her mom at a struggle session. you can’t call her mom until we’re finished with the meeting. (yu 2008: 172. trans. jones 2003) similarly, 所以 suoyi ‘so’ in example (15) is optional, and its logical implication overlaps with 就 jiu ‘then’ in the posterior context. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 237 (15) 他另外三个叔叔还活着, 可是另外三个叔 叔以前对他不好, 所以他也就不去想他们了。 ta lingwai sange shushu hai huozhe keshi lingwai sange shushu yiqian dui ta buhao suoyi ta ye jiu bu qu xiang tamen le his other three uncles were still alive, but they almost never occurred to him, because they had never been good to him or paid him any mind. (yu 2008: 112. trans. jones 2003) in terms of coordinating conjunctions, the excessive employment of ‘and’ (和 he, 与 yu, 及 ji and 以 及 yiji) is the embodiment of westernised chinese—disparate from english, the chinese language does not require obligatory clause-internal connectives (yu 1987, he 2008, wang 2014: 412-414, wu 2014). therefore, coordinating conjunctions 还 有 haiyou ‘and’ and 和 he ‘and’ in examples (16-17) are redundant elements triggered by the impact from english. (16) 他看了看远处农家屋顶上升起的炊烟, 拍 了拍屁股上的尘土, 然后双手伸到前面去摸胀鼓 鼓的肚子, 里面装满了西瓜、黄金爪、老太婆瓜, 还有黄瓜和桃子。 ta kan le kan yuanchu nongjia wuding shang shengqi de chuiyan pai le pai pi gushang de chentu ranhou shuangshou shendao qianmian qu mo zhanggugu de duzi limian zhuang man le xigua huangjinzhao laotaipogua haiyou huanggua he taozi gazing toward the smoke curling up from the farmhouses, he patted the dirt from his rear and started to rub his stomach, which was swollen with watermelon, goldens, old ladies, cucumbers, and peaches. (yu 2008: 17. trans. jones 2003) (17) 她告诉何小勇, 一个名叫许三观的人请她 吃了小笼包子, 吃了话梅、糖果还有半个西瓜, 吃 完以后她就要嫁给他了。 ta gaosu he xiaoyong yige mingjiao xu sanguan de ren qing ta chi le xiaolongbaozi chi le huamei tangguo haiyou bange xigua chiwan yihou ta jiu yao jia gei ta le she told he xiaoyong that someone named xu sanguan had treated her to steamed dumplings, preserved plums, candied fruit, and half a watermelon, and how, when it was all over, she had found herself obliged to marry him. (yu 2008: 26. trans. jones 2003) plurality as suggested by yu kwang-chung, the marker 们 men should be omitted under circumstances that plurality is implied in the context, so as to circumvent redundancy (yu 1985). as can be seen from example (18), the noun phrase 我的儿子们 wode erzi men ‘my sons’ precedes a determiner 全 quan ‘all’, which means the plurality is self-evident, so the presence of the plural marker men defies the convention of chinese. (18) 你胡说八道, 我堂堂何小勇怎么会上你家倒插 门呢? 以后我的儿子们全姓许? 不可能。 ni hushuobadao wo tangtang he xiaoyong zenme hui shang nijia dachamen ne yihou wode erzi men quan xing xu bu keneng what the hell are you talking about? do you think a man like me would actually agree to take on someone else’s name? and let our sons be named xu? impossible. (yu 2008: 26. trans. jones 2003) analogously, example (19) contains the plural marker men, yet owing to the preceding numerical expression 两大片 liang da pian ‘two big chunks’ (trans. mine), the presence of men is unnecessary. additionally, example (19) reflects the overuse of the third-person inanimate pronoun 它 ta ‘it’ and its plural form 它们 tamen ‘they; them’, which is also caused by the language contact between chinese and english and hence should be circumvented (liu and chai 2004, shen 2011, wang 2014: 422-424). (19) 林芬芳的腿看上去扁扁的两大片, 它们从一条 又红又绿的短裤衩里伸出来, 让许三观看得气喘吁吁。 lin fenfang de tui kanshangqu bianbian de liang da pian ta men cong yitiao youhongyoulü de duankucha li shen chulai rang xu sanguan kande qichuanxuxu her powdery white flesh spread out across the mat, and the way her legs protruded from her undershorts left xu sanguan breathless. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 238 (yu 2008: 91. trans. jones 2003) pre-modifiers and particles according to yu kwang-chung, postmodification, rather than pre-modification, appears more frequently and naturally in classical chinese, while long pre-modifiers preceding a particle 的 de embody the westernisation of modern chinese (yu 1987). the linguistic phenomenon of long premodification can be shown by examples (20-21). (20) 对, 就是一乐说的那个人, 住在城西老邮 政弄, 经常戴着鸭舌帽的那个人。 dui jiu shi yile shuo de na ge ren zhuzai chengxi lao youzheng nong jingchang daizhe yashemao de na ge ren he’s the one yile was talking about, lives on old post office lane on the west side, always wears a duck’s bill cap. (yu 2008: 34. trans. jones 2003) (21) 她笑呵呵地走在别人的后面, 街上的人都 知道她是谁, 都知道她是丝厂的林芬芳, 那个城里 最胖的女人, 那个就是不吃饭不吃菜, 光是喝水都 会长肉的女人, 他们都知道这个一走上街就笑呵 呵的女人叫林芬芳。 ta xiaohehe de zou zai bieren de homian jieshang de ren dou zhidao ta shi shei dou zhidao ta shi sichang de lin fenfang nage cheng li zui pang de nüren nage jiu shi bu chifan bu chicai guang shi heshui dou hui zhangrou de nüren tamen dou zhidao zhe ge yi zou shang jie jiu xiaohehe de nüren jiao lin fenfang she always walked cheerfully behind the rest, and everybody else knew that she was lin fenfang from the silk factory, the fattest woman in town, the woman who would gain weight even if she only ate rice, who could put on pounds just by drinking water. (yu 2008: 88. trans. jones 2003) another function of the particle de is to mark adjectives, as in example (22), whereas its presence encapsulates the europeanisation of chinese. similarly, another particle 地 de is deployed in the chinese language to transform verbs into adverbs, impinged upon by the suffix ‘-ly’ in english (yu 1987, he 2008), as in example (23). (22) 到了八九副, 一乐也有了一件新的线衣…许玉 兰要等到精纺的手套满十七八副以后, 才给自己织线衣 。精纺的手套, 许三观一年里也只能拿回来两三副。他 们结婚九年, 前面七年的积累, 让许玉兰给自己织了一 件精纺的线衣。 daole ba jiu fu yile ye youle yijian xin de xianyi xu yulan yao dengdao jingfang de shoutao man shiqiba fu yihou cai gei ziji zhi xianyi jingfang de shoutao xu sanguan yinian li ye zhineng na huilai liang san fu tamen jiehun jiu nian qianmian qi nian de jilei rang xu yulan gei ziji zhi le yijian jingfang de xianyi once she had eight or nine, she could sew a sweater for yile…xu yulan didn’t sew anything for herself until she had collected seventeen or eighteen pairs of the finer quality gloves. and xu sanguan only brought home three or four pairs of the fine cotton gloves every year. after nine years of marriage she decided to use seven years of gloves to make herself a good sweater. (yu 2008: 43-44. trans. jones 2003) (23) 他们三个人卖完血之后, 就步履蹒跚地走向了 医院的厕所, 三个人都歪着嘴巴。 tamen san ge ren mai wan xie zhihou jiu bulüpanshan de zou xiang le yiyuan de cesuo san ge ren dou waizhe zuiba after the three men finished their transaction, they made their way, step by painstaking step, toward the hospital’s public lavatory. (yu 2008: 12. trans. jones 2003) conclusion in yu hua’s chef-d’oeuvre chronicle of a blood merchant, light verbs and noun phrases are frequently employed, whereas their presence renders the language less concise. the novel is also replete with passive constructions explicitly marked by bei, which could be substituted by active structures or other passive markers. as for conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions are optional in terms of indicating logic, while coordinating conjunctions should be deleted from idiomatic chinese texts. similarly, the plural marker men can be omitted, as long as the plurality is implied in the context. moreover, the tendency of using long pre-modifiers and two particles renders the language less natural, which might be attributed to the influence of english. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 239 therefore, according 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of modern chinese]. journal of pla university of foreign languages 34.2: 7-17. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://www.zgnfys.com/a/nfpl-16152.shtml attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa6892e123d • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 177 the implementation of domestication strategy to maintain bahasa’s role in adopting novel terminologies for scien-tech undertaking yan mujiyanto yanmujiyanto@gmail.com semarang state university abstract the advancement of science and technology (scien-tech) is always accompanied by creation of novel terminologies. the more a language is used as a means of conveying information on new findings the more the language is enriched with new meaning, be it represented in a form of borrowing, new invention, blend, coinage, or common words with new meaning. this has necessitated scien-tech stakeholders to face the challenge of whether to borrow through transliteration or to adopt as well as adapt such terminologies for the benefit of utilizing information to flow effectively. a problem that appears is how to provide counterparts of such terminologies considering that the supply of scientech terminologies in bahasa is relatively limited compared to that in english while borrowing can be inappropriate or even misleading. this paper intends to explain a number of ways in which endeavors to provide tentative supplies of terminologies through domestication strategy have always been made for scien-tech adoption as well as adaptation to proceed appropriately while enhancing the role of bahasa in maintaining its function to deal with scien-tech undertaking. key words: domestication, foreignization, scien-tech terminologies introduction the advancement of science and technology (scien-tech) is always accompanied by creation of novel terminologies. the more a language is used as a means of conveying information on new findings the more the language is enriched with new meaning, be it represented in a form of borrowing, new invention, blend, coinage, or common words with new meaning. this has necessitated scien-tech stakeholders to face the challenge of whether to borrow through transliteration or to adopt as well as adapt such terminologies for the benefit of utilizing information to flow effectively. a problem that almost always appear in the field of scien-tech is how to provide counterparts of such terminologies considering that the local supply in a community in which its members are merely scien-tech consumers or even laymen rather than creative producers. bahasa, for instance, is among languages of developing countries that is relatively left behind in generating novel terminologies compared to that of advanced counties while adoption or borrowing can be inappropriate or even misleading. this paper intends to explain a number of ways in which endeavors to provide tentative supplies of terminologies through domestication strategy have always been made for scien-tech adoption to proceed appropriately while enhancing the role of bahasa in maintaining its function to deal with scien-tech undertaking. domestication strategy the terminologies ‗domestication‘ and ‗foreignization‘ are two foci that have long been exhausetively discussed in the field of translation. to quote venuti (1995; also see among others zare-behtash 2009; yang 2010; schmidt 2013; mujiyanto 2013), domesticating translation refers to the translation strategy in which a transparent and fluent foreign text is created for the convenience of the target-text readers. this style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers. it means making the text recognizable and familiar and thus bringing mailto:yanmujiyanto@gmail.com 178 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 the foreign culture closer to that of the readers. venuti (1995) points out that ―all translation is fundamentally domestication and is really initiated in the domestic culture‖. according to munday (2008: 144), domestication is a translation strategy of using a transparent, fluent, ‗invisible‘ style in order to minimize the foreignness of the target text. machali (2012) suggests that ―unless the foreign elements are ‗domesticated‘, they would not be as accessible to the target readers‖. as opposed to domesticating translation, foreignizing translation refers to the type of translation in which a target text deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining ―something of the foreignness of the original‖ (venuti, 1995). it means to take the reader to the foreign culture and to make him or her feel the linguistic and cultural differences. it encourages a translation practice in which traces of the foreign are left as much as possible within the translated text. schmidt (2013) claims that both domestication and foreignization implicate manipulation of the text. quoting venuti (1995: general editors‘ preface), ―translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. all rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way‖. therefore, from the ethical point of view, both strategies are equally biased. whether one or the other strategy will be applied depends on variables such as the purpose of the translation, the status of the receiving literary system, i.e. the power relations between the source and the target literary systems, and other variables of the historical, social and cultural setting in which the translation takes place. schmidt (2013, quoting wang 2002: 24) suggests that the conflict between domestication and foreignization is cultural as well as political rather than just linguistic. it is domesticating because the target text is rendered in a domestic language of the target culture, and it is foreignizing because what is being translated and presented to the target culture is a text originating in a foreign language and culture. if there are no differences in cultural connotations, translation is then simultaneously domestic ating and foreignizing. in practice, according to machali (2012), power relation is unequal, and the inequality is shown by the fact that english is an international language while indonesian is a language that does not have such a wide readership. therefore, when there are formal correspondences (as in the use of honorifics) between english and indonesian, the forms being used are english (as in the case of harry potter‘s translation). schmidt (2013) views that the dichotomous strategies are comparable to free vs. literal translation although those two dichotomies are not exactly synonymous; while the former concerns whether a source text is adapted to the target culture, or the foreign cultural elements are preserved, the latter refers to linguistic form, according to venuti (1998: 240–241) the domestication strategy has been implemented at least since ancient rome, when ‗translation was a form of conquest‘ and latin poets like horace and propertius translated greek text ‗into the roman present‘. closely related to the concept of domestication and foreignization, house (n.d.) introduces the concept of overt as opposed to covert translation. she points out that an overt translation is not as it were a second original, hence its new addressees are not directly addressed. in this type of translation, according to venuti, ―the original is tied in a specific way to the culture enveloping it; it has independent status in the source culture, and is both culture-specific and pointing beyond the source culture because the original text is also of potential general human interest.‖ a covert translation, on the other hand, is a translation which enjoys the status of an original text in the receiving culture. the translation is covert because it is not marked pragmatically as a translation at all, but may, conceivably, have been created in its own right. it is thus a translation whose original is not particularly tied to the target culture. an original and its covert translation are ―universal‖ in the language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 179 sense that they differ ―only‖ accidentally in their respective languages. in aiming at ―originality‖ in covert translation, the translator employs a so-called cultural filter. with the use of this filter, the translator can make systematic allowances for culture specificity accommodating for differences in socio-cultural norms and differences in conventions of text production and communicative preferences. this cultural filter is thus the means with which the translator tries to compensate for the culture specificity that is foreign to the target community. facts about scien-tech terminology adoption the word ‗terminology‘ is defined as ‗special words or expressions used in relation to a particular subject or activity‘ (cald). this particular word is also used to refer to the expressions and words, or a set of expressions and words, used by people involved in a specialized activity or field of work. microsoft® encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 microsoft corporation. all rights reserved. based on the two definitions, the compound ‗scien-tech terminology‘, can then be defined as terminology that covers special words or expressions used in relation to the fields of sciences and technologies. in the field of translation, both domestication or dynamic or covert strategy and foreignization or formal or overt one are generally implemented to adopt terminologies in the two fields from english or other foreign languages as the source language to bahasa as the target language. the former is implemented when the target language along with its socio-cultural as well as political and ethical background all support the application of cultural filter resulting in second original terminologies in the target language. on the other hand, the second strategy is implemented when stock of terminologies in the target language is inadequate to equalize those in the source language without much deviation or even nonequivalence. hybrid strategy may of course be employed to adopt scien-tech terminologies providing that such strategy matched with the needs for equivalence, naturalness, and readability standard. in the field of information technology, specifically in statistics, suliyanto (2012; also see minasi, 1993 for the use of such terminologies in hard disk maintenance guide) wrote a paragraph as extracted in sample 1. sample 1: … untuk itu, pasang tombol open, save, sort ascending, sort descending, redo, undo, print preview, dan quick print. berikut cara menampilkan tombol-tombol tersebut: (1) klik anak panah di sebelah kanan simbol microsoft excel sehingga muncul pulldown menu customize quick access toolbar, pilih more command; (2) setelah dipilih more command akan muncul kotak dialog excel option, pilih quick access toolbar; (3) pada bagian choose commands from pilih opsi yang tersedia, misalnya popular command … (suliyanto pp. 4-5) in the extract above, out of 71 words, 38 (53%) words are in fact english terminologies while the rest (33 or 47%) are bahasa‘s words. in the extract, the terminologies which are generally used in the field of computer technology are directly borrowed from the source language without any modification. words like ‗open‘, ‗save‘, ‗redo‘, undo‘ etc. are applied as they are in the bahasa. they easily go hand in hand with terminologies that have been transliterated. for example, ‗klik‘ (click), ‗simbol‘ (symbol), ‗dialogue‘ (dialog), and ‗option‘ (opsi). to be more extreme, sample 2 which has been extracted from winotopradjoko (2006) shows a lot number of medical terminologies that had been directly borrowed or transliterated from english or other foreign languages. sample 2: in: keputihan dengan berbagai etiologi, vaginitis,servisitis, ektopia, erosi bagian servikal, hemostatik setelah biopsi, pengangkatan polip di serviks, pendarahan, dekubitus, tukak krusis, kondiloma akuminata, mempercepat regenerasi 180 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 jaringan nekrotik; hemostatik setelah tonsilektomi, polipektomi, epistaktis, stomatis, gingivitis, gingivitis ulceratif, nekrotik akut, osteitis alveolar, herpeslabialis, rhagades; hemostatik setelah ekstraksi gigi … (winotopradjoko et al. 2006:437) in the extract, there are only four out of 36 terminologies that have been translated to bahasa, i.e. ‗keputihan‘ (fluor albus), ‗pendarahan‘ (bleeding), ‗tukak‘ (ulkus), and ‗jaringan‘ (tissue) implying that efforts of domesticating medical terminologies can be in vain; it is hardly possible to keep up with the ever increasing number of novel terminologies in the source language. on the other hand, in suryanto‘s paragraph (in butler 1985), which is actually translation of an english text of statistics in linguistics, it is found that english terminology is capable of going hand in hand with their bahasa counterparts, the translator of which has strived hard to invent terminologies in bahasa to equalize their english counterpart minimizing the potentiality of deviation, mismatch, or nonequivalence in meaning. sample 3: ada kerumitan mengenai perbedaan antara parameter populasi dan statistik terok. simpangan baku peubah dalam populasi dinyatakan dengan lambang σ, dan variansi dinyatakan dengan lambang σ2 (huruf yunani digunakan untuk parameter populasi). namun, sering kita tidak mengetahui ciri seluruh populasi, hanya mengetahui ciri terok. kita mempunyai statistik yang dilambangkan sebagai s, yang merupakan taksiran parameter populasi σ, dan variansi terok s2 … (butler, 1995) in sample 3, english terminologies are used side by side with indonesian terminologies as a result of adopting english terminologies as well as maintaining bahasa‘s role. out of 60 words contained in the paragraph, only 12 words had been transliterated directly from english. in the extract, the words ‗parameter‘ (parameter), ‗populasi‘ population), ‗statistik‘ (statistic), and ‗variansi‘ (variance), which are results of such transliteration, go hand in hand with ‗terok‘, ‗simpangan‘, ‗baku‘, ‗peubah‘, and ‗lambang‘ which are actually the counterparts of ‗sample‘, ‗deviation‘, ‗standard‘, ‗variable‘, and ‗symbol‘ respectively. in sample 4, more terminologies in bahasa have been invented in order to equalize english terminologies no matter whether such equalization causes unfamiliarity to the readers compared to their counterpart in the source text. sample 4: untuk memahami akibat prakiraan itu pada pelaksanaan uji kebenaan, kita perlu menyadari bahwa semua nilai yang mungkin dicapai oleh statistik uji membentuk sebaran kekerapan, yang dirujuk oleh tabel statistik yang digunakan dalam pengujian kebenaan. misalnya, kita akan memerikan uji yang menggunakan sebaran normal dan juga yang menggunakan sebaran t, yang kita jumpai ketika kita membahas penaksiran dari terok kecil… jika kita memilih taraf kebenaan sebesar < 0.05, hal ini berarti bahwa untuk uji berarah nilai gawat statistik uji akan memotong satu ekor yang memuat 0,05 dari luas daerah di bawah lengkungan; sedangkan untuk uji tidak berarah luas daerah yang dipotong akan terbagi pada dua ekor … (butler, 1995: 75) for instance, the words like ‗prakiraan‘, ‗uji‘, ‗sebaran‘, ‗kekerapan‘, ‗ekor‘ can easily be back-translated to ‗assumption‘, ‗test‘, ‗distribution‘, ‗frequency‘, ‗tail‘. meanwhile, it may take a little while to find out the counterparts of such words as ‗kebenaan‘, ‗memerikan‘, ‗uji berarah‘, and ‗nilai gawat‘ in english. noor cholis (2008) listed 337 terminologies which are used in the translation of principles of language learning and teacing (brown, 2007). they are in form of single words like ‗hipotesis‘ (hypothesis) and ‗kefasihan‘ (fluency) or compounds of two words such as ‗kompetensi heterogen‘ (heterogeneous competence), ‗kesalahan global‘ (global error), language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 181 and ‗pandangan dunia‘ (world view) or more words like ‗pembelajaran bahasa komunitas‘ (community language learning) and ‗pembangkit masukan rendah‘ (low input generators). the terminologies can be categorized into three classes, i.e. 129 terms (38.3%) in form of transliteration such as ‗dialek‘ (dialect) and ‗bilingualisme subtraktif‘ (subtractive bilingualism), 91 (27%) terms which are combination between transliteration and direct translation as the counterpart of the source terms like ‗daya ilokusioner‘ (illocutionary force) and ‗kecemasan fasilitatif‘ (facilitative anxiety), and 117 (34.7%) terms which are bahasa‘s terms like ‗gaya pembelajaran‘ (learning style) and ‗lingkar dalam‘ (inner circle). all the facts presented above have led us to consider whether domestication strategy is still a significant tool to equalize foreign terminologies in various fields of study. if we still believe in the strength of bahasa to keep up with the ever increasing advancement of scien-tech throughout the world, the implementation of such strategy may be quite useful to enrich bahasa with invention as well as discovery of novel terminologies. endeavor to maintain bahasa’s role a number of endeavors have been employed to maintain bahasa‘s role in domesticating scientech domain by means of domesticating terminologies commonly used in the domain. using bahasa‘s words which are commonly used in everyday or general situation can be an easy way of doing such effort of equalizing english terminologies providing that both refer to the same entity. for instance, the word ‗bahasa‘ is used to equalize ‗language‘; both of which refer to the same entity. indonesian monolingual bahasa dictionaries such as kbbi can be considered as a relatively rich source of common as well as farfetch words that can be used as counterparts of english terminologies. common words like ‗gegar‘, ‗gawat‘ and ‗asing‘ have been used to match ‗shock‘, ‗critical‘, and ‗foreign‘ respectively. the problem rests on people‘s habit of collocating them with other common words forming compounds with common references. for example, each of the three words collocates with ‗otak‘ (brain) in ‗gegar otak‘, ‗emergency‘ in ‗gawat darurat‘ and ‗bahasa‘ (language) in ‗bahasa asing‘ (foreign language). the formation of such compounds as ‗gegar budaya‘ (culture shock), ‗nilai gawat‘ (critical value), and ‗saling asing‘ (mutually exclusive) has provided new insight and at the same time has encouraged us to think about their appropriate meanings. words may be available in a bahasa‘s dictionary, but a lot may be unfamiliar to the language users; they may even be strange due to their rarity in scien-tech undertaking. words like ‗terok‘, ‗bena‘ and ‗galat‘ may challenge us to guess what do such words refer to. their counterpart in the sourse language i.e. ‗sample‘, ‗significant‘, and ‗error‘ may be more common among us. as a result, the english terminologies are more preferable than their counterparts in bahasa. it is of course possible to generate novel meaning to common words so as to equalize source language terminologies which refer to relatively uncommon entity. for example, the compound ‗nonlinear relationship‘ is translated to ‗hubungan tan-gemaris‘ in which the infix ‗em‘ is inserted to the word ‗garis‘ (line) resulting in new creation ‗gemaris‘ which means ‗nonlinear‘. local languages may also provide a rich source of words that can be used to equalize english words whose counterpart in bahasa is very rare or even unavailable. the words ‗santai‘, ‗begadang‘ have long been used to equalize ‗relax‘ and ‗stay up‘ respectively. ‗gemaris‘ (linear), ‗lamparan (spread), ‗tangkil‘ (file) words that have been borrowed from foreign languages like arabic and dutch may also provide supply counterparts of english terminologies. ‗azas‘ (arabic), ‗khuluk‘ (arabic) and ‗persneling‘ (dutch) may be appropriate to equalize the english terminologies ‘principle‘, ‗nature‘, and ‗gear‘ respectively. if it is impossible to find out any counterpart of foreign language terminologies, transliteration is generally employed. english 182 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 common terminologies like ‗frequency‘, ‗instruction‘, and ‗statistics‘, are commonly transliterated to ‗frekuensi‘, ‗instruksi‘, and ‗statistik‘ respectively. the language center in jakarta has published general guide to the formation of indonesian terminologies which contains rules on how transliteration should better be undertaken in equalizing foreign terminologies (for the complete guide see pedoman umum pembentukan istilah 3rd edition). there can be chances in which it is quite hard or it may be impossible to find out the counterpart of such expression as ‗i am lord voldemort‘ whose letters can be rearranged to create another expression ‗tom marvolo riddle‘. facing his type situation, the only possible way is just directly borrowing it providing additional explanation or creating a new word. an expression ‗erised mirror‘ has been equalized with ‗cermin tarsah‘ in bahasa in which the word ‗tarsah‘, which looks like an arabic word is only the reversal of ‗hasrat‘ (desire). in the effort of equalizing english terminologies with bahasa, a number of problems or constrains may have to be anticipated. such problems as inappropriateness of bahasa‘s term, additional meaning, lost of meaning, deviation, nonequivalence, or even unavailability/limitation in number of bahasa‘s words are common problems which translators have to face throughout their time. besides, such psychological conditions like users‘ attitude, prestige in using bahasa, reluctance to struggle for bahasa enrichment are among the constraints that have to be overcome in order to encourage people to maintain or even enhance the role of bahasa to occur side by side with foreign languages in creating terminologies to support the development of sciences and technologies. conclusion in the field of scien-tech undertaking, experts everywhere in the world are faced with rapid scien-tech advancement. this has brought with it more and more novel terminologies. the inadequacy of stock in bahasa to balance the ever increasing number of scien-tech terminologies english and other languages have hampered the development of scien-tech particularly with regard to its distribution among laymen who are indonesian monolingual. among the efforts of providing the counterparts of foreign terminologies in bahasa have been done by employing common as well as far-fetched words which have already been available in kbbi. local languages as well as a number of familiar foreign languages may also be sources to supply the need of matching english terminologies. if invention of novel terminologies by employing common words with new meaning or engineering novel terminologies is not successful, adopting source language terminologies by means of transliteration or direct borrowing is unavoidable. no matter which strategy is employed to present scien-tech terminologies in bahasa – be it domestication or foreignization – a number of constraints tend to accompany the effort. they can be inadequacy or even unavailability of stock, inappropriateness in meaning, acceptability, etc. availability of monolingual (encyclopedic) dictionary of novel terminologies in scien-tech fields may be quite significant. it may not only be useful to cater the thirst of scientists in this country for domestic terminologies but also enrich the scien-tech domain with native language resources. while inappropriacy of meaning can be overcome by employing additional information, acceptability may be overcome by implanting a new habit of introducing as well as utilizing them. references brown, h. douglas. 2007. principles of language learning and teaching. translated by noor cholis and yusi avianto pareanom. prinsip pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa. jakarta: kedutaan besar ameriuka serikat. butler, christopher. 1985. statistics in linguistics. translated by suryanto. 1995. statistik dalam linguistik. bandung: penerbit itb. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 183 h o u s e , j u l i a n e . n . d . t o w a r d s a l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y o f t r a n s l a t i o n a s recontextual-isation and a third space phenomenon. theory of translation as recontextualisation & third space phenomenon. university of hamburg. machali, rochayah. 2012. cases of domestication and foreignization in the translation of indonesian poetry into english: a preliminary inquiry. journal of language and culture vol. 3(4). pp. 74-82, available online http://www.academic journals.org/jlc minasi, mark. 1991. the hard disk sufvival guide. translated by edi r. widodo. panduan menyelamatkan hard disk. jakarta: gramedia. mujiyanto, yan. 2013. strategi dalam praktik penerjemahan. semarang: unnes press. munday, jeremy. 2008. introducing translation studies: theories and applications. 2nd edition. london – new york: routledge. schmidt, goran. 2013. foreignization and domestication in the croatian translations of oscar wilde‘s the picture of dorian gray. jezikoslovlje. 14: 2-3. pp. 537 – 548. suliyanto. 2012. analisis statistik – pendekatan praktis dengan microsoft excel. yogyakarta: c.v. andi offset. venuti, lawrence. 1995. the translator’s invisibility: a history of translation. london new york: routledge. venuti, lawrence. 1998. strategies of translation. in baker, mona, ed. 2003. routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. london – new york: routledge, 240–244. wang, dongfeng. 2002. domestication and foreignization: a contradiction? china translation 9: 24–26. winotopradjoko, martono. 2006. iso indonesia: informasi spesialite obat indonesia. vol. 41. jakarta: ikatan sarjana farmasi indonesia. yang, wenfen. 2010. brief study on domestication and foreignization in translation. journal of language teaching and research, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 77-80. zare-behtash, esmail and sepideh firoozkoohi. 2009. a diachronic study of domestication and foreignization strategies of culture-specific items: in english-persian translations of six of hemingway‘s works. world applied sciences journal. 7 (12): 1576-1582. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 11 enhancing the students’ ability in story retelling through movies lenny agustina indrawati mondial education semarang abstract the research was based on an experimental design at pre-school of mondial school in the academic year of 2011/2012. the objectives of the research are to investigate (1) the effectiveness of movie as a medium of teaching, (2) the significant deference in using movie as a media of treatment and using discussion strategy as a media of treatment in improving the students’ mastery in story retelling, (3) the students’ socio-cultural background takes part in determining their achievement besides the effect of seeing movies as a means of improving their story retelling ability. the empirical data were obtained from pre-test and the post-test. the data were then measured and analyzed in form of statistical and descriptive analysis. the result of this study showed that the group used movies as medium in story retelling got better improvement in the average scores than those without movies. moreover, it was also found that most of the high achievers, both in the experimental group and in the control group, came from social environment with the more capability to encourage the students to make use of movies for the benefit of their study, especially of retelling story. key words: students’ ability, story retelling, movie. introduction language is a means of communication. it makes people try to find and learn a language which can be understood easily by others. english then, plays an important role as an international language. this is why the indonesian government chooses english as the first foreign language to be taught at schools. introducing english at school means developing students’ skill on using english for communication, whether in written form or in spoken form. the objective above implies that the students must be able to improve their spoken and written ability. however, some problems may appear when the students are learning english. one of the problems in learning english may come from the students themselves. for example, in speaking, they may have the knowledge about the material which has been discussed, but in practice it is difficult for them to speak up. those problems also appear in mondial school, especially in pre-school classes. there are 19 students in that class. they come from different socio-cultural background. some of the students come from social environment with the more capability to encourage them to make use 12 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 of english for interaction and the others come from many different aspects. however, almost all of them are able to speak english. they can communicate with their friends and the teachers using english. they are also able to master the materials which are given in english, but when the teachers ask them to retell the story which has been read by the teachers; it seems that they find it difficult to express the ideas in their mind. they lack self confidence. to build their confidence, students need more practice and the teachers have to create and use interesting method. generally, story retelling is liked by the students, especially pre-school students, because they like stories. however, good media are needed to make story retelling more interesting and enjoyable for students. movie is one of the media that can be used to teach story retelling. using short english movie for kids as means for teaching story retelling can be very pleasing and interesting. by using short english movie, students will be more interested and more active in learning. based on the explanation above, the phenomenon that short english movies can improve students’ ability in story retelling and the possibility that the students’ socio-cultural background take part in determining their achievement in story retelling will be the main issues that need to be seriously investigated. literature review watching movies for young learners is very important as it increases their visual and critical awareness. watching movies in the classroom can be realized if the teachers have the willingness to make his/her class more fun. the teachers have to try making this activity of movie-watching an active rather than a passive one. this can be done in a variety ways as setting questions about the movie, promoting discussions in small groups, asking the students to comment on various things, inviting criticism, etc. the teachers may also stop the movie from time to time and ask the students what has happened so far or guess what might happen next. another way might be turning the sound down and asking the students to imagine or make up dialogues. the teachers may also give assignments to the students, for example retell about the students’ favorite movie. when a preliminary discussion is done before watching the movie the above activities may produce interesting speaking activities. these kinds of activities also contribute to the promotion of critical thinking especially in evaluating movies and improving language skills. other ways of using movies in the classroom are: segmenting the movies, pre-watching, while-watching and postwatching activities, which are very useful as cloze oral exercises, quizzes, games, discussions, etc. teachers should be creative and decide themselves for the language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 13 procedures that they feel that have worked well. nowadays, people have realized the importance of english in communication. they try to learn english in many ways, for example by joining english courses or having english private lesson at home. some people even put their kids in some schools which use english as the first language. these schools are one of the ways out to help parents to improve their kids in using english in their daily activities. one of those kinds of schools in semarang is mondial school. mondial started as an english course. it widely opened for young learners who are interested in learning english for their daily conversation. as it growing bigger, in 2005 mondial is officially opened as a national plus school. it still follows the curriculum of indonesian government but uses english as the first language to communicate. it means that all of the students and the teachers are asked to speak english as long as they are at school. the teachers are also administering the materials using english. here, the materials are taken from english books which are suitable with the indonesian curriculum and culture. mondial school is divided into two levels. the first level is pre-primary. it is a term which is used for “taman kanakkanak”. in that level, they have nursery class which is for 2 – 3 years old kids, playgroup class which is for 3 – 4 years old kids, then pre-school class which is for 4 – 5 years old kids, and the last one is kindergarten which is for 5 – 6 years old. the second level is primary. it consists of grade 1 up to grade 6. for pre-primary, especially for preschool class and kindergarten class, mondial teachers provide a lot of fun activities which will develop the students’ ability in listening and speaking, for example indoor and outdoor games, computer educational games, watching short movies for kids, singing and dancing, listening to stories, etc. one of the students’ favorite is listening to stories. this listening session is held every day for about 10 to 15 minutes. here, the students are listening carefully to the teachers’ story. the story can be from the story books or the teachers create their own story. even, once a while the teachers asked students to retell the story they have heard. by giving a chance for the students to retell the story, it will develop not only their knowledge but also their speaking ability. methods the study is based on a true experimental design at pre-school of mondial school in the academic year of 2011/2012 to investigate the effectiveness of using movie in teaching story retelling to an experimental group of students and to compare it to another control group. this study is also to investigate the relations between the students’ improvement with their socio-cultural background. in this study, the writer deliberately controlled and 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 manipulated the conditions which determined the speaking skill she wanted to investigate, introduced movie as an intervention and measured the difference that it made. the empirical data were obtained by giving treatments to the experimental group, observing the teaching-learning process in both the experimental and control groups, and from which the data were then measured and analyzed in form of statistical and descriptive analysis. the researcher scored the post test result of both groups by using the rating scale modified by david p. harris and walter bartz. it evaluated five categories in speaking assessment; knowledge, voice, accuracy of retelling a story, audience contact, and sequence. the aggregate scores of each group are than categorized into two groups according to their achievement levels, i.e. (1) the scores of high achievers and (2) those of low achievers. as a result, there will be four groups of scores ready for analysis using anova. the main reason for categorizing the scores into high and low achievers is for us to uncover the distinction between the high achievers and the low achievers of the experimental and control groups in perceiving the materials under study. results and discussion during the pre-test, both of groups were given the same movie and they were asked to do the test individually in retelling the story of the movie in 3-5 minutes. the experimental treatment after conducting the pretest, the writer conducted the experimental treatment. the writer taught three times a week for experiment group by using movie as an alternative way of teaching speaking. on the other hand, the control group was taught by their own english teacher without using movie. the procedure of the treatment between experiment group and control group can be seen in table 1. table 1 the procedure of the treatment experiment group control group 1. first meeting 1) the writer asked the students to watch the short movie entitled "the very hungry caterpillar”. 2) the writer explained what the story is about. 3) the writer asked the students to watch it one more time. 1. first meeting 1) the teacher told the short story entitled "the very hungry caterpillar" to the students. 2) the teacher explained what the story is about. 3) the teacher asked the students to listen to the story one more time. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 15 4) the writer explained the difficulty words found in the movie. 5) the writer gave example how to pronounce the difficult words correctly. 6) the writer asked the students to work in group of 2. 7) the students retold the story to their friends in group. 4) the teacher explained the difficulty words found in the story 5) the writer gave example how to pronounce the difficult words correctly. 6) the teacher asked the students to work in group of 2. 7) the students retold the story to their friends in group. 2 second meeting 1) the writer asked the students to watch the same short movie given in the previous meeting. 2) the writer asked the students to come forward and retell the story in front of the class. 3) the writer and the students gave comment to the students' performance. 2 second meeting 1) the teacher asked the students to listen to the story given in the previous meeting. 2) the teacher asked the students to come forward and retell the story in front of the class. 3) the teacher and the students gave comment to the students' performance 3 third meeting 1) the writer asked the students to watch the short movie entitled "the ginger bread man". 2) the writer explained what the movie is about. 3) the writer asked the students to watch it one more time. 4) the writer explained the difficulty words found in the movie. 5) the writer gave example how to pronounce the difficult words correctly. 6) the writer asked the students to work in group of 2. 7) the students retold the story to their friends in group. 3 third meeting 1) the teacher told the story entitled "the ginger bread man" to the students. 2) the teacher explained what the story is about. 3) the teacher asked the students to listen to the story one more time. 4) the teacher explained the difficulty words found in the story. 5) the writer gave example how to pronounce the difficult words correctly. 6) the teacher asked the students to work in group of 2. 7) the students retold the story to their friends in group. 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 4 fourth meeting 1) the writer asked the students to watch the movie given in the previous meeting. 2) the writer asked the students to come forward and retell the story in front of the class. 3) the writer and the students gave comment to the students' performance. 4 fourth meeting 1) the teacher asked the students to listen to the story given in the previous meeting. 2) the teacher asked the students to come forward and retell the story in front of the class. 3) the teacher and the students gave comment to the students' performance. 5 fifth meeting 1) the writer asked the students to watch the movie entitled "the hare and the tortoise”. 2) the writer explained what the movie is about. 3) the writer asked the students to watch it one more time. 4) the writer explained the difficult words found in the movie. 5) the writer gave example how to pronounce the difficult words correctly. 6) the writer asked the students to work in group of 2. 7) the students retold the story to their friends in group. 5 fifth meeting 1) the teacher told the story entitled "the hare and the tortoise" to the students. 2) the teacher explained what the story is about. 3) the teacher retold the story one more time. 4) the teacher explained the difficult words found in the story. 5) the writer gave example how to pronounce the difficult words correctly. 6) the teacher asked the students to work in group of 2. 7) the students retold the story to their friends in group. 6 sixth meeting 1) the writer asked the students to watch the same movie given in the previous meeting. 2) the writer asked the students to come forward and retell the story in front of the class. 3) the writer and the students gave comment to the students' 6 sixth meeting 1) the teacher retold the same story given in the previous meeting. 2) the teacher asked the students to come forward and retell the story in front of the class. 3) the teacher and the students gave comment to the students' performance. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 17 performance. the post-test after the experiment was conducted, the writer conducted the post-test. it was conducted on 8th february 2012.the writer conducted the test at the same time. the writer and the teacher administered the experiment and control group together. the students were asked to retell the story individually in 3-5 minutes and the writer recorded their voices one by one. the computation in order to see the significant deference between the experimental group and the control group, it is necessary to verify them using factorial design. in this design the scores of the experimental group and those of the control group are divided into two factors based on the level of achievement. this results in such distributions as presented in table 2 which contains scores, sum of scores, and sum squares of each group. table 2 the scores, sum of scores, and sum squares experimental g control g e1 e2 c1 c2 95 80 85 70 experimental g control g e1 e2 c1 c2 80 75 80 70 80 75 75 60 75 75 75 60 75 65 75 0 405 370 390 260 164025 136900 152100 67600 based on the scores in table 2, the square of scores and sum of score squares in each group (representing factor) as can be seen in table 3. in order to prove whether there are significant differences among the mean scores of the groups, first of all the writer determined the hypotheses, the critical value, and the variants as follows. 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 ho: u1 = u2 =u3 = u4. h1: at least two of the means are not equal at f table: 3.29. table 3 the scores, sum of scores, and sum squares experimental group e1 95 80 80 75 75 405 164025 e2 80 75 75 75 65 370 136900 control group c1 85 80 75 75 75 390 152100 c2 70 70 60 60 0 260 67600 this f-table was obtained by looking into the following rules. v1: total number of cells – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3; v2: total number of scores – number of cells = 19 – 4 = 15; f table is obtained by seeking the melting point between v1 and v2 = 3.29. if f stat < f table, it means that there is no difference in achievement among the four groups under study. it means that there is no difference in achievement between the experimental and the control groups in perceiving their material be it using movies or conventional. on the other hand if f stat > f table, it means that at least two of the means of the four groups are not equal meaning that the means of the experimental group is significantly different from that of the control group in that the experimental group achieved better that the control group in retelling stories. based on the rules above, it can be presented here that: (3) error sum of square (ess) = tss – tsg error sum of square (ess) = 22081.25 – 1200 error sum of square (ess) = 22087.3 when the results of the computations were put into the anova table, it yielded the performance as seen in table 4.the fstatistics was then consulted to the flanguage circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 19 table as presented above. in this study it was found that f=stat > f-table, i.e. 92.01 > 3.26. it means that hypothesis work stating that at least two of the means are not equal was confirmed. table 4 the results of anova sum of squares degree of freedom mean of squares f-stat f table treatment 23281.3 3 7360.417 92.00521 3.29 error 1200 15 80 total 22087.3 18 the scores could also be presented in graphic 1 based on the results of the anova, it can be inferred that there was really a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in retelling stories, meaning that the group equipped with audio visual aid achieved significantly higher scores than that taught using conventional tools. discussion the aim of the test is to know the students' achievement in speaking through the use of movie as medium for pre-school students. in the pre-test, the average score of the experiment group is 31 and 35.5 for the control group (see in appendix 7). further the result of the post-test of the experiment 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 sum of squares degree of freedom mean of squares f-stat f table series1 series2 series3 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 group is 81.5 higher than the result of the control group 72.3 (see in appendix 8). the result difference indicates that after getting treatment the experiment group got better understanding than control group. it can be seen that there was significant difference in the improvement of students' mastery in story retelling using movie and without using movie. it can also be seen that movie is an effective medium in teaching speaking. there are some factors that are influenced the students in story retelling after they got the treatment using movie. after conducting the research, the writer found that the students in the experiment group really looked excited with the use of movie as medium to teach speaking. they followed the teaching and learning process enthusiastically. the existence of the pictures helped the students to understand the story and to get the meaning of a certain words. thus, movie would not be really difficult for the students. it had not happened to the control group that got little improvement in speaking test. the improvement of the students in the control class was not good. the explanations below show the advantages of using movies as medium for the students. (1) movies gave the students real and exact data of the things they were telling about, such as the pictures. through movie, the students can express their ideas in their story retelling product easily. (2) the students would be more interested in following the lesson since at their age they are curious at anything. (3) the students can enrich their new vocabularies. they are able to know the meaning of a particular word by looking at the pictures. from the researchers’ observation, it was found that most of the high achievers, both in the experimental group and in the control group, came from social environment with the more capability to encourage the students to make use of movies for the benefit of their study, especially of retelling story. such encouragement among other things includes their parents’ habit of speaking and telling their children stories in english, the availability of stories as well as movies at home, the students continual practice of english beyond classes, their frequent exposure to english through such media as international channels on television, books, and other printed english materials, and their higher motivation to use english for interaction. we all know that every technique has its limitation. it also happens to this media. the use of movies also has disadvantages that may give problems to the teacher. the disadvantages are that (1) it spends a lot of time to prepare the equipments. the teacher needs more time for the preparation; (2) not all of the students like to watch movie which is provided by the teacher. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 21 conclusion the main objective of this study is to determine whether there is any significant difference in improvement of students' ability in story retelling between the group using movies and without using movies. based on the results of the anova, it can be inferred that there is really a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in retelling stories, meaning that the group equipped with audio visual aid achieved significantly higher scores than that taught using conventional tools. the difference is shown by the development of the average scores. the group that used movies as medium in story retelling got better improvement in the average scores than those without movies. the writer concluded that the movies helped pre-school students of mondial school to improve their ability in story retelling. such ability may better be achieved by providing certain socio-cultural aspects in their environment encouraging their interest to watching movies and (re)telling stories in english. moreover, from the researchers’ observation, it is also found that most of the high achievers, both in the experimental group and in the control group, come from social environment with the more capability to encourage the students to make use of movies for the benefit of their study, especially of retelling story. such encouragement among other things includes their parents’ habit of speaking and telling their children stories in english, the availability of stories as well as movies at home, the students continual practice of english beyond classes, their frequent exposure to english through such media as international channels on television, books, and other printed english materials, and their higher motivation to use english for interaction. references brown, h.d. 2004. principles of language learning and teaching (4th edition). new york: pearson education, inc. finocchiaro, m. 1974. english as a second language from theory to practice. new york: regents publishing company, inc. gerlach, v.s., and elly, 1980. teaching and media: a systematic approach. new jersey; prentice hall. inc. harmer, j. 1998. how to teach english. england: addison wesley longman limited. harris, d. p. 1969. testing english as a second language. london: mcgrawhill book company. nunan, d. 1992. research methods in language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. tuckman, b. w. 1978. conducting educational research. usa: harcourt brace yovanovich. http://ccvi.wrcervw.org/ccvi/22_pubs/newsl etters/winter1997waevingauthentic assessment/story_retelling-v2no1.html [accessed 09/2/10] 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 163 the mediation of local cultures with global perspective in foreign language learning mohamad syaefudin email: udonk_indo@yahoo.com semarang state university abstract foreign language learning with local culture contents began from the importance of the representation of the roots of the nation in foreign language. foreign language learning strategies which mediate local cultures and cultural values existed in a foreign language generate a global perspective on foreign cultures, not only on the articulation of local messages to foreign languages, but also it compares how the local values are relevant to the values of other nations. eventually, learners realize that by understanding themselves, they will be able to appreciate the wisdom of other nations. french culture which was compared to javanese cultures in this article proved the statement above. keywords: local cultures, global perspective, foreign language introduction will learning foreign language reduce the love to the motherland? it is a thought which sometimes come across the mind of teachers. on one hand, foreign language teachers are responsible for providing students the concept of cultures out of them/ cultures of target language by studying habits, values and beliefs; it keeps learners away from the characters of indonesian nation. on the other hand, teachers are asked to preserve and maintain the cultural heritage so that learners can be the parts of and have the characters of the nation which distinguish them from other nations. in the practice, there is a conflict between those two interests, the local versus the global. is it possible to accommodate them in a foreign language learning design which contains local cultures? this issue becomes the concern of the writer as a french lecturer in semarang state university. after seeing the change of some education policies which sometimes creates conflicts in the practice and therefore executors (teachers) feel that their mission of learning is paradoxical toward the policies. it happens in foreign language learning, which has a global mission to make learners have the understanding of the target language to catch up with the development of knowledge and the contact with other people throughout the world, on one hand, and the spirit to preserve the national identity as a form of cultural conservation as the responsibility of every learner, on the other hand. this preservation is based 164 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 on a condition that every teacher in any places in the world is required to teach students a clear identity which differentiates them from the identities of other nations an aspect emphasized in the policy of curriculum 2013 so that students can preserve and learn the this phenomenon becomes the reason of contemplation for managing foreign language learning with the two missions mentioned above, and therefore the problem statement can be formulated language learning which mediates local the purposes of this article were: (1) to emphasize the urgency of the instillation of local values in foreign language learning and (2) to provide examples of a projectbased learning model which covers local contents in foreign language expressions. it is expected that this article can give an alternative view to foreign language teachers who want to combine local culture elements in conducting the global mission of learning. theoretical review some foreign language experts agree that foreign languages are learned in order to explore the values of life implemented by the people of other nations. when relating to japanese language learning, alwasilah (2010) also states that it is necessary to learn from the ethos of japanese people. hard work, cleanness, tidiness and punctuality are several values which are supposed to inspire learners of that language. the similar thing is also emphasized by rukmini (2012) in the inauguration of professor of english at semarang state university; she asserts that english language learning can be accompanied by local wisdom and become a means of character education for students. according to her, learning and teaching languages are not limited to learning words and sentences but more focused on learning meanings and messages. syaefudin (2012) also finds the values of french cultures either materially or immaterially. essentially, there are lots of things which can be seen and adapted from other nations. how about bringing out local contents and making them equal to foreign cultures being learned, though? firstly, we are going to take a look at the references on local cultural values, foreign language learning in indonesia and the learning model which mediates local values and the global perspective. national identity is closely related to local wisdom. this term comes from two words, namely local and wisdom. generally, the term can be defined as wise local ideas with positive values which are instilled among and followed by members of a society. local wisdom is formed as the superiority of the local cultures or geographical conditions in a broad sense. it is the cultural product of the past which deserves to be continuously preserved as language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 165 life guidance. although it has local contents, its values are considered universal. (http://filsafat.ugm.ac.id). referring to curriculum 2006, there are five foreign languages other than english which are taught at secondary level and some of them are also taught at higher education; they are japanese, french, german, arabic and mandarin. foreign language learning in indonesia has been conducted since the colonial era. sunendar (2010) states that foreign languages are learned in this case foreign languages other than english because of the increasing economic and diplomatic cooperation with those countries. the first contact with foreign languages occurred as the interest of the colonizing countries such as netherland, which implemented its language politics in education limited to only certain people. the ruling noblemen (ningrat) who communicated directly and politically with the dutch received education, and so did the class called priyayi (the nobles of the robe), who worked as clerks and received dutch language teaching for supporting their administrative tasks in the colony. in its development, dutch language was left due to the spirit of nationalism strengthened by the youth pledge in 1928. french language brought by the dutch east indies government was also a foreign language which indirectly related to the dutch because in the daendels era dutch became the part of france. french language lesson was the second foreign language curriculum in indonesia. after that, english language which was firstly used for communication with colonial world in an international relation was popularized by americans through their cultures so that it became well-known widely in indonesia and later became an international language. the influence of english dominates from the earliest level of education to the highest one. next, japanese language taught in indonesia was used for communication in japanese colonial era changed into a language for business communication after the independence day as the japanese investors massively came to indonesia for business purposes. arabic and mandarin languages actually have a long history started before the arrival of european colonialism. the spread of religion, trading and diplomacy of the two cultures contributed to the multiculturalism of indonesian nation. the difference from the previously mentioned languages is that although arabic and mandarin came earlier in the area of culture, the two languages were the last to be in implemented in the area of education. it is proved by the fact that the study programs of the two languages were opened in university level and developed in the last 2 decades besides the pesantren (islamic boarding school) cultures which have been in contact with arabic language since long time ago. for example, the study program of arabic 166 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 language in semarang state university was opened in 2005 and mandarin in 2011. the goal of foreign language learning transformed from merely fulfilling the economic and political needs of the colonial government in one hand and the colonialized people on the other hand to carrying out diplomatic and business relations related to the cultures and economics in the present time. this article does not have any intension to compare which foreign language has the most dominant influence in indonesian education but the contribution in adopting local cultures in the learning process. in order to manage the learning process, the model which can be applied is project-based learning model. according to the university of nottingham (2003: [online]), this model is a systematic model which involves students to learn theories and complex skills, authentic questions and product and assignment design. thomas et al. in strategi pembelajaran inovatif kontemporer (wena, 2009:114) state that project-based learning is a learning model which provides teachers with the opportunity to manage learning in the class by involving project works. project-based learning has a great potential to create more interesting and useful learning experiences for students (santyasa, 2006:12). in project-based learning, students are encouraged to be more active in learning. teachers only facilitate the learning and evaluate the products made by students which are displayed in the project results. discussion accommodating the missions of making students have global skills and able to express and preserve local values in foreign language learning begins from the understanding about the goal of learning itself, whether learners will use the foreign language skills for working with native speakers who requires them to use the language for communication or they will stay in an environment with more contact with speakers of the national language so that the demand of foreign language skills is not so urgent. it is important to understand how to direct students to the targeted professional situations. for example, in learning french, students have been directed to be able to communicate in french with the topic about the condition of indonesia, not the condition of france. this is done because most of those students will work in indonesia. when they talk to french native speakers about the situations related to indonesia, understanding local cultures is a must. in french language learning, the writer described the learning models in the subjects of speaking and writing. the approach which becomes the basis of project-based learning model is action learning approach in foreign language learning which focuses on how the learning can respond to professional language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 167 challenges in the society through the works. the philosophy of the approach is how students as the candidates of social actors prepare themselves to participate in professional world and contribute through their works. they are required to perform reliably in order to respond to professional challenges. this approach is the improvement of communicative approach which has been applied for the last two decades in foreign language learning. this approach focuses on how languages function in the context of communication and how students respond to the challenges to communicate in foreign languages according to the functions and communication partners. the following was the example of project-based learning model which combined local culture elements and information technology usage. this learning was conducted in the subjects of productive skills, namely speaking (production orale) and writing (production écrite) for the students in the beginning of their third year (semester 5). both of them applied project-based learning with the following goals: (1) students can apply the speaking/writing skills in french on cultural contents; (2) students learn other professional competences other than linguistic ones found in daily life; (3) students can collaborate to solve problems and socialize with friends so that there is cooperation and clear task division. the product of this research was the learning model of speaking which emphasized the acquisition of character values in it. there were four stages conducted in the development of the product draft, namely teaching structure, social system, role/duty of the teacher, and support system. the first product was role-play teaching structure, referring to the nine steps designed by joyce (2007). this structure was compacted into five: (1) warming up; (2) choosing participants; (3) arranging performance, (4) conducting performance; and (5) evaluating. another reason was that in the class, the learners were not french native speakers who did not have linguistic problems. they had just started learning foreign language so some of their time was used for deepening their knowledge in structures as well as contents and the way how to express them. after sufficiently mastering linguistic aspects, the learners were directed to a situation which was similar to the reality so that they could recognize and interpret every problem. in social system, the role-play model was developed by using social adjustment system in which the lecturer was responsible for opening the session and guiding the students through activities in every stage. meanwhile, special materials in discussion and role-play were defined by the students by considering the topic being talked about. in the similar stage, the values contained in a story/legend which were used for role-playing were also discussed. 168 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 the role-play model divided the tasks of the lecturer and the students. the without giving judgment. it means that the students might have their own responses for the occurring event. then, the lecturer helped the students explore the problem from various points of view and compare some alternatives for problem-solving. for example, could javanese people who tend to yield follow the openness and dynamism of french people? some students thought that yielding was a negative attitude for it implied passiveness and slowness. in this case, the lecturer could give alternatives according to his experience as the one who had been in contact with french people for a long time. then, the lecturer attempted to raise feelings by making reflections from, paraphrasing, and concluding the responses from the students as the observers. the lecturer also used the concept of role and emphasized that there were many ways of playing roles. this was done to make the students understand more about how to act, whether using confrontational way, persuasive way, or dialogic way, all of which had different results and consequences. as the most important thing, the lecturer emphasized that there were many alternatives for solving problems. it was expected that students could gain character values for living among the society. this model did not have many supporting material results except the problematic situations themselves. in the development of the model, the support system consisted of syllabus and lesson plan which made it possible to internalize values in each topic. the following is the flowchart of roleplay model for the subject of speaking in french. character values internalization lecturing plan meeting i meeting xv meeting ii methods presentation lecturing role-playing realization of character value internalization final project character values content cultural content language content language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 169 from the four products, an assignment which referred to the strengthening of character values achieved in learning through a final project was developed. the students documented their achievement through a collective project in the end of the lecture. the expected result was a video or film whose idea taken from roleplaying activities during the lecture. they had learned to recognize problems and solve them by interacting, making reflection and create relation to the problems in the real life. it was their turn to explore their talents and creativity in making something which could be enjoyed by other learners, especially french language learners. some of the results were (1) ande-ande lumut; (2) dubbed upin ipin cartoon; (3) the story of the lost dictionary. the project of writing about local cultures in french was also conducted in the subject of advanced writing (production écrite pré-avancée). there were five steps which were conducted by the researcher and the students in making the website of javanese cultures in french. first, the researcher planned the project-based learning in the writing subject to produce writing about indonesian cultures in french. in this activity, the lecturer explained the goals of the subject, lesson plans, assignments and evaluation. second, the researcher applied the plans in several sessions, especially in the themes which local cultural elements could be inserted. in order to apply the model, the researcher referred to collaborative writing. it was firstly conducted by selecting themes which could be developed and adapted to local discourse from the textbook entitled campus 2. there were ten themes which were discussed in the writing classes, namely traditional games (parler de jeu), comments on journey (commenter des voyages), javanese traditional music (parler de musique), folklore (composer un conte), traditional technology (parler des sciences), traditional food (parler de nourriture), holiday celebration (connaître ), gender equality (parler des femmes et des hommes), understanding people (comprendre la société), cultural heritage (parler du patrimoine indonésien). third, the researcher observed the process of working on the writing project. when there was a difficulty, the lecturer provided guidance. in every meeting, he explained the selected themes and provided examples of indonesian culture exploration in french writing. after that, he gave assignments either for individual or for group. for group work, he divided the students into several themes which needed deeper cultural materials. the themes were: traditional games (parler de jeu), javanese traditional music (parler de musique), folklore (composer un conte), holiday celebration (connaître un rythme ), and cultural heritage (parler du patrimoine indonésien). then, the 170 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 lecturer asked the students to design a website which reflected their writing. the design process of the website was supported by an it expert so that the students could concentrate more on the content. the process from the design to the finalization of the website took six months. the name of the website was www.java-culture.com and it was published online. the following is the example of the display of the website. this website was made using cms (content management system) called wordpress, which is widely used even by famous companies. the domain is divided into two types; the first is blog, http://wordpress.com/, used for hosting and the domain has been provided. the second is self-hosting http://wordpress. org/. the website www.java-culture.com itself used the second one. this website is open source, meaning that everybody has the right to share and modify as they want. therefore, wordpress is available in many languages. in this website, the homepage/ accueil is displayed using slideshows showing javanese cultures. there are also articles about javanese cultures written in french. conclusion the management of foreign language learning in higher education enables teachers to incorporate local elements through project-based learning method for productive language skills in speaking and writing. the results of this research are: (1) the accomplishment of foreign language productive skills which was measured by giving advantages to (2) local culture conservation with global sense because it was expressed in (3) a collaborative project which demanded language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 171 information technology mastery. thus, the mission of the learning of local culture with global sense could be achieved. therefore, the writer proposes the stages of foreign language leaning in higher education as follow: first, the teaching must be conducted in the sequence of scrutinizing, speaking, and writing. second, the cultural contents are incorporated equally by reflecting to the condition in indonesia. third, the learning strategy is adapted to the professional situations which students will encounter. teachers are required to present potential professional situations based on their experiences and observation on professional world. in order to identify the needs of professional world, institutions can cooperate with alumni association to give suggestions related to the condition of professional world because imbalance between education and professional reality often occurs. fourth, in project-based learning model, learners learn materials and cooperation in solving problems. this model is the improvement of inquiry-based learning, which emphasizes on problem solving through activities centered in learners. references cyr, paul et al. 1996. stratégies de langue étrangère. translated into strategi pembelajaran bahasa asing by mohamad syaefudin and ahmad yulianto, 2012. semarang: cipta media. joyce, bruce et al. 2009. models of teaching. model-model pembelajaran, translation. yogyakarta : pustaka pelajar. nothingham. 2003. model pembelajaran berbasis proyek. online rukmini, dwi. 2012. mengubah kelemahan menjadi kekuatan, optimisme pendidikan karakter dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris. inaugural speech in the inauguration of professors in semarang state university, march 6, 2012. santyasa, i made. 2006. pembelajaran inovatif: model kolaboratif, basis proyek, dan orientasi nos. a paper presented in the seminar of learning in sma negeri 2 semarapura, december 27, 2006, in semarapura. sartini. 2006. menggali kearifan lokal nusantara sebuah kajian filsafati. http://filsafat.ugm.ac.id, accessed on 30 april 2010. sunendar, dadang. 2010. quo vadis pengajaran bahasa asing di sma? an article published in the directory of upi bandung. downloaded at may 19, 2013. syaefudin, mohamad. 2012. internalisisasi nilai budaya dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing. basic research report lp2m semarang state university: semarang. 172 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 syaefudin, mohamad. 2012. proyek penulisan website budaya indonesia dalam bahasa asing sebagai implementasi nilai pendidikan karakter pada mahasiswa prodi pendidikan bahasa perancis. applied research report, faculty of languages and arts semarang state university: semarang. http://www.apakabardunia.com/2013/04/inil ah-10-bahasa-asing-yangberguna.html. teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 57 speaker’s vision and attitudes through deictic expressions ahmad sofwan semarang state university sofwan1589@yahoo.com edmundus bouk timor university edmundbouk@yahoo.com abstract this study addresses how deictic expressions of person, place and time account for vision and attitudes of a speaker in speeches on certain issues. in this qualitative study, the data consisted of four speeches delivered by xanana gusmao of timor leste. the result of the study shows that the speaker used various types of deixis, including person, place, and time deixis. person deixis was used to introduce timorese people, whereas more time deixis referring to present time was used to focus his attention on the present situation and did not want to turn back to the past experience with full of political and social conflicts. the speaker’s vision is reflected in the use of the first person plural ‘we’ more than the first person singular ‘i’ or ‘me’. this indicates that the speaker represents himself as an ‘insertive’ leader. he is also a sort of leader with more future vision, indicated by the use of more time deixis referring to the present and future time than those of past time, so he wanted to bring his people and nation to face the future to develop the nation and to build better relationship with its neighbouring states. keywords: pragmatics; deixis; vision; attitudes. introduction the main function of language is to help people communicate with one another, and it should be used properly in terms of its context. the meaning of any word in an utterance or in a written text will be interpreted from which its context that is called deitic or deixis (mey, 1993). that’s why deixis is the single most obvious way in which the relationship between language and context is reflected (levinson, 1983, p. 54). the term deixis is a technical term (from greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. deixis is a word that its referent moves depending on time and space of uttering the word, and it is a part of pragmatics which has a relationship with the words or sentences that change because of the context. deixis means “pointing” via language. any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called deictic expression. levinson (1983, p. 54) acknowledges that deixis concerns the ways in which languages encode or grammaticalize features of the context of utterance or speech event, and it also concerns the ways in which the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of the context of the utterance. the importance of deictic information for the interpretation of an utterance can 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 be illustrated by what happens when such information is lacking. deixis is deeply grammaticalized that it is hard to think as anything than an essential part of semantics. if semantics is taking to include all conventional aspects of meaning, then deictic phenomena are considered semantic. deixis belongs to the domain of pragmatics because it directly concerns with the relationship between the structure of languages and the context in which they are used related to everything as his point of view. with deixis, the central person is the speaker, the central time is the time at which the speaker produces an utterance, and finally the central place is the speaker’s location at the utterance time. in the literature, there have been three traditionally recognized categories of deixis based on three axes, namely spatial-sociotemporal axes. spatial deixis is based on spatio-axes (e.g. this, that, here and there). personal deixis is based on socio-axes (e.g. i and you). temporal deixis is based on temporal axes (e.g. now, today, and yesterday) but not including before or earlier (jarvella & klein 1982, p. 2). levinson (1983) adds to them, social deixis, that is honorific and discourse (or text) deixis. person deixis concerns the encoding of the role of participants in the speech event in which the utterance is delivered. the category first person is the grammaticalization of the speaker’s reference to himself, second person the encoding of the speaker’s reference to one or more addressees, and third person the encoding of neither reference of persons and entities which are neither speakers nor addressees of the utterance. person deixis operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified by the pronouns for first person (‘i’), second person (‘you’), and third person (‘he’, ‘she’, or ‘it’). in many languages these deictic categories of speaker, addressee, and other(s) are elaborated with markers of relative social status (for example, addressee with high status versus addressee with low status). spatial deixis or deixis of place does not mean in isolation, it is only when you know where the speaker is standing or what the speaker is indicating that it becomes truly meaningful. (thomas, 1995, p. 9). these indexicals, indicated by demonstratives (e.g. this, those) and place adverbials (e.g here, there) are used by (those, there). the deictic devises in a language commit a speaker to set up a frame of reference around him/her. every language carries an implicit division of the space around the current speaker, a division of time relative to the act of speaking and via pronouns. the concept of distance is relevant to spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. english makes use of only two adverbs, ‘here’ and ‘there’. the adverbs here and there pick out places according to their proximity to the location of the speaker; if the speaker moves, the interpretation of the adverbs will change. when the speaker and his/her addressee language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 59 have moved, they can call the shade here and their original place in there. in considering spatial deixis, it is important to remember that location from the speaker’s perspective can be fixed mentally as well as physically. speakers temporarily away from their home location will often continue to use “here” to mean the (physically distant) home location, as if they were still n that location. speakers also seem to project themselves into other locations to actually being in those locations. this sometimes described as deictic projection. the concept of distance already mentioned is clearly relevant to spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. contemporary english makes use of only two adverbs, ‘here’ and ‘there’. one version of the concept of motion toward speaker (i.e. becoming visible), seems to be first deictic meaning learnt by children and characterizes their use of words like ‘this’ and ‘here’. place deixis can be seen from the use of demonstrative pronouns such as ‘this’, ‘that’, and demonstrative adverbs of place such as ‘here’ and ‘there’. the spatial location is relative to speaker’s location. sometimes it can be proximal (close to the speaker) or distal (away from the speaker). adverbs of place ‘here’ mean proximal or close to the speaker’s location, and ‘there’ means distal or away from the speaker’s location. the word ‘there’ can also be proximal to the addressee of speech act. time or temporal deixis concerns itself with the various times involved in and referred to in an utterance. this includes time adverbs like ‘now’, ‘then’, ‘soon’ and so forth, and also different tenses. a good example is the word tomorrow, which denotes the consecutive next day after every day. temporal indexicals concern the ‘when’ of the utterance. the time of an utterance is reflected by the verb-tense (present past future) and adverbs of time (e.g then, now). deixis is divided into three temporal categories of ‘present’ (at the moment of utterance), ‘past’ (before moment of utterance), and future ‘future’ (after the moment of utterance). this division is more complex than it seems. since it is at the time of the utterance that we encounter it, temporal deictic is usually interpreted as present tensed locutions. this article will mainly deal with deixis on the basis of pragmatic perspective that can contribute to the interdiciplinary effort of investigating how meanings and interpretations of deixis in the speech are negotiated. it is sometimes difficult for some english as foreign language (efl) learners, especially for those who are beginners, to understand a word of a sentence because of the meaning of the word. since the word has various meanings, the efl learners often feel unsure of which meaning of the word they have to use. this article will try to bridge the common problem of interpreting the information content of messages and takes into account the process of adjusting how 60 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 deixis categories in the speech are realized. methods on the basis of the nature of data, a qualitative research was applied. best (1981, p. 106-107) states that qualitative research is a nonexperimental because it deals with the relationship between nonmanipulated variable in a natural way, rather than an artificial setting. in other words, a qualitative research uses naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings, such as real world setting where the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest. to obtain data of the research, four speeches of xanana gusmao were selected. the speeches were taken on the basis of a range of considerations including the use of, for example, some social worlds, cultures and events. the speeches are presented in table 1. table 1 speeches of xanana gusmao no. speech topic date of speech delivery 1. the inaugural session of the bali democracy forum december 10, 2008 2. inauguration of the un educational ,scientific and cultural organization’stimor leste national commision – cultural performance and reception april 23, 2009 3. timor leste and development partners meeting april 7, 2010 4. the presentation draft law of the state budget for 2011 january 12, 2011 in this research, the deixis in the speeches of xanana gusmao were classified, described and interpreted on the basis of deictic categories, namely person, place, and time deixis. the analysis took the following stages as proposed by cohen et al. (2007, p. 476-481): (1) defining the units of analysis at different levels: a word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or the whole text; (2) deciding the codes to be used in the analysis to to detect frequencies and patterns; (3) constructing the categories for analysis; (4) conducting the coding and categorizing of the data for further analysis, and (5) conducting the data analysis. results and discussions the use of deixis in xanana gumao’s speeches there are three main types of deixis, namely person, place and time deixis which are found in the speeches. the data in table 2 show the distribution of deixes in four speeches of xanana gusmao. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 61 table 2 distribution of deixes in four speeches of xanana gusmao no types of deixes speech 1 speech 2 speech 3 speech 4 frequency per cent frequency per cent frequency per cent frequency per cent 1 person 59 80 54 87 110 79 76 78 2 time 4 5 1 2 5 4 5 5 3 place 11 15 7 11 24 17 17 17 total 74 100 62 100 139 100 98 100 the data show that person deixis is dominant all four speeches, followed by place deixes, then time deixis. this indicates that the speaker used and manipulated the person deixes to communicate between himself and the audience and to show the interaction with the audience. in addition, place and time deixes are used to support the setting of the speeches. furthermore, the data in table 3 illustrate the use of person deixes. table 3 person deixis no person speech 1 speech 2 speech 3 speech 4 total frequency percentage (% ) 1. 1st singular 5 10 16 15 46 15 2. 1st plural 41 38 70 53 202 68 3. 2nd singular 2 5 2 9 3 4. 3rd singular 6 4 2 1 13 4 5. 3rd plural 7 17 5 29 10 total 59 54 110 76 299 100 the data show that xanana gusmao used more 1st person plural ‘we’ than other kinds of pronominal systems. furthermore, in speech 3, he used 1st person plural pronoun ‘we’ seventy times or 64 %. it is dominantly used in his speech. this shows that he as a speaker at first he used 1st person singular ‘i’ but at another part of the speech he moved to 1st person plural pronoun ‘we’ inclusively. all speeches have the similar patterns for using ‘we’ most of the time in the speech. xanana gusmao used 2nd person singular ‘you’ to refer to the audience. in speech 4, he did not use 2nd person singular ‘you’. it is similar with speech 1 except in speech 2 he used twice and in speech 3 five times. here are the examples taken from speech 1. 1. first, please allow me to thank the government of indonesia and in particular our host for the warm welcome. 62 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 2. i would like to express final words of appreciation to our closest neighbor, indonesia, which provides a remarkable example of transition process from autocratic government towards a pluralistic democracy. speech 1 deals with xanana’s speech at the inaugural session of the bali democracy forum in nusa dua bali. in his speech, he used 1st person singular ‘i’ at the beginning of his speech to show that he attended the meeting as the head of timor leste government. so, the interpretation is that xanana gusmao showed his capacity as a leader who was invited to take part in the event and he wanted to express his appreciation because he thought that the meeting was an important one in the region to establish a good cooperation with other countries in the region. in concluding his speech in example 2, xanana gusmao again expressed his thanks to the indonesian government as shown in the above data at table 1, he mentioned indonesia as the closest neighbor, to let the audience know that actually there was no problem between timor leste and indonesia. it means that timor leste wanted to maintain a good relationship and cooperation with indonesia, and timor leste as a new country could learn a lot from indonesia rather than other asian countries. the following description will deal with the identification of 1st person plural ‘we’ in speech 1 – 4. in his speech he used the 1st person plural ‘we’ to refer to specific group of individual, present either at the speech event or in the discursive context, as in the following example. 3. today we live in a situation of multidimensional threats, which include those posed by energy crisis. on other occasion, the 1st person plural is used to refer to timor leste government, people, or nation as a whole. i can call this ‘collective we’. 4. we have been studying the public sector reform in indonesia and my government is also determined to create an effective, independent civil service. it can also refer to xanana gusmao himself as ‘personal we’. 5. we cannot borrow success formulas from other countries. in speech 2, xanana gusmao used more 1st person plural ‘we’ to denote himself as a speaker and timorese people, as exemplified below. 6. it is one we will celebrate tonight with performances which will highlight our cultural heritage to our people. in his speech, he was proud of different characteristics of cultures of timorese people that showed the identity of the country. he gave more emphasis by using pronominal deictics ‘our’ four times in one clause, this shows that he wanted to language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 63 attract the audience attention that what he was saying was so important about the cultural identity of the people of timor leste including its uniqueness, as exemplified below. 7. our culture is fundamental to our national identity and the strengthening of our unity and our national cohesion. in the example below, xanana gusmao as a speaker at first he used 1st person singular ‘i’ but at another part of the speech he moved to 1st person plural pronoun ‘we’ inclusively. 8. i would like to take this opportunity to announce that today we have the pleasure to open the dili convention centre. the 2nd person singular ‘you’ is used once to refer to the audience, as illustrated below. 9. i ask you to relax and enjoy the cultural performances which reflect the heart and soul of our homeland. 10. it is a mixed feeling of pride and satisfaction that i welcome you all, in my name and on behalf of the government and people of timor leste. the 3rd person plural pronoun ‘they’ to refer to east timorese people as exemplified below. 11. people of timor leste have earned their place in the history of democracy, through their selfless fight for national sovereignty. 12. in 2001, the timorese people were invited to expres their dreams about the independence of the country. with the place deixis, table 4 illustrates the use of place deixes by xanana gusmao. in speech 1, xanana gusmao only used place deixis which are related to outside timor leste. it means that he did not mention any places or expressions denoting timor leste. here are the examples: 13. we present here different cultures, different political options and different states and social development. 14. it is not by chance that this forum is being held here. 15. this democracy forum is at this moment more than timely to the asian region. 16. it is also not by chance that timor leste agreed to take part in this meeting, which seeks democraticculture in our region. examples 13-16 show that in the speech, xanana gusmao used place deixis ‘here’ to refers to nusa dua bali where the speech was delivered, so the meaning of the place deixis ‘here’ in examples 13 and 14 and ‘this’ in examples 15 and 16 denote a given unit of space 64 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 that includes the location of the speaker at coding time. so, xanana gusmao used place deixis ‘here’ and ‘this’ to refer to place or location where the meeting took place. table 4 place deixis no here/there/this/that speech 1 speech 2 speech 3 speech 4 total frequency percentage (%) 1. refers to places in timor leste 1 4 5 10 67 2. refers to places outside timor leste 4 1 5 33 total 4 1 5 5 15 100 in speech 2 xanana gusmao did not use place deixis which refers to the outside world, but he just used once of place deixis which refers to the place in timor leste, as exemplified below. 17. we will also be linking unesco to government ministers, who have responsibilities for education in these areas. example 17 refers to areas or regions of timor leste. meanwhile, in speech 3 he used place deixis four times to refer to places in timor leste, and only once to refer to a place outside timor leste. here are the examples taken from the data. 18. i thank those who came from afar crossing oceans to be here 19. this site where we are today has been built to provide suitable facilities for national and international conferences 20. i feel that my words must include a historic retrospective of this country and its people. the examples above show that in delivering his speech on the occasion on inauguration of the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization in timor leste, xanana gusmao used place deixis which refer to timor leste. in example 18, place deixis ‘here’ refers to the place where the ceremony took place in dili, while in example 19 also denotes the same idea. in example 21, he used ‘this’ to refer to timor leste as a country. 21. do they want us to declare open war on terrorism, to this world phenomenon?(39) the use of ‘this’ as place deixis in example 21 refers to the world, which can be interpreted as any places outside timor leste. in speech 4, xanana gusmao also used place deixis in his speech which refers to timor leste five times but he did not use any place deixis which refer to the language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 65 outside world. the examples are given below. 22. i would like to seize this opportunity to convey the office holders of the nation’s bodies of sovereignty of this great house 23. we believe that we have done in this area and that the clearer definition of the partnership between government and private sector has been most useful in this vital period. in example 22, xanana gusmao used ‘this’ great house which refers to the parliament house in dili, timor leste, when he delivered his speech to the members of the parliament about the draft of state general budget for 2011. example 23 can be interpreted as the region of timor leste. with respect to the time deixes, as illustrared in table 5, in speech 14, xanana gusmao used time deixis which refers to future, present and past events. in speech 1, he used time deixis which refer to future twice, for present seven times and past twice. in speech 2, he did not use time deixis which refer to future, for present five times and past twice in speech 3, he used time deixis which refer to future five times, for present eleven times and past eight times. in speech 4, did not use time deixis which refer to future, for present thirtees times and past four times. in total, 12% of time deixes refer to the future, 61% to the present time, and 27% to the past time. table 5 time deixis no coding time (ct) speech 1 speech 2 speech 3 speech 4 total frequency percentage (%) 1. expressing future time 2 5 7 12 2. expressing present time 7 5 11 13 36 61 3. expressing past time 2 2 8 4 16 27 total 11 7 24 17 59 100 various time deictic expressions were used by xanana gusmao. in speech 1, he used time deixis ‘now’, which refers to the moment of utterance (or inscription) or coding time (ct) from the moment of reception or receiving time (or rt) by using time adverb ‘now’, as in example 24, ‘today’ and ‘this moment’ to refer to the present moment or at the time of speaking, as in example 25 and 26. 24. the timorese people have trusted in democracy. and now expect this to also represent good government, economic progress and justice. 25. and today we live in a situation of multi-dimensional threats, which includes those posed by energy crisis 66 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 26. this democracy forum is at this moment more than timely to the asian region. in text 4, xanana gusmao used time deixis to denote present time, here are the examples: undoubtedly this contributing a great deal to the environment of trust and stability that we enjoy today.(12) it is this government’s policy that these funds be used now and investing strongly in our nation and in our people.(14) we will now be entering a new decade, will be a decisive one for timor leste.(17) there is a similarity of using time deixis in text 3 examples number 14,15, 16, 17 ,18, 19 and 20 which show that xanana gusmao preferred to use time deixis such ‘now’, today’, ‘at this moment’, while in text 4, examples number 24, 25, and 26. to indicate or show past event, xanana gusmao used time deixis once namely ‘last year’, as exemplified below. 27. last year people gave evidence of their collective democratic awareness, after a crisis that shook our institutions. time deixis ‘last year’ consist of a deictic modifier ‘last’, together with a nondeictic name or measure word. the interpretation of such adverbials in english is systematically determined by the calendrical modes of reckoning. last year will refer back a year before the time of speaking. in speech 1, xanana gusmao used time deixis which refer to future time by using ‘then’, as in example 28. 28. people elected first the president and then their representatives in the national parliament. the type deixis ‘then’ contrasts with ‘now’ and indeed then can be glosses as ‘not now’ to allow for its use in both past and future. in speech 3 as well as speech 1, he used deixis time ‘today’, as below. 29. the inauguration today is a significant event in the development of our country. 30. the inauguration today of the unesco national commission in timor leste is a significant event in our country. from the examples above, time deixis ‘today’ refers to the diural span including coding time. speech 2 is a speech delivered in dili on april 23, 2009 on the occasion of the inauguration unesco – timor leste commission. xanana gusmao used ‘today’ in order to emphasize the importance or the significance of the event, that’s why he used ‘today’ again and again in most of his speech. beside using time deixis ‘today’, xanana gusmao used deictic time adverb like ‘now’ as in the following examples. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 67 31. i know that by now some of you may be askingwhat is the purpose of all this world phenomenon? 32. with embargo now placed on timor leste to put us in the list of countries exporting terrorism. the deictic time adverb ‘now’ means a given span including the coding time, where that span may be the instant associated with the production of the speech itself. the interpretation of ‘now’ is referring to the moment or time of the speech delivery. in speech 2, xanana gusmao used ‘tonight’ to indicate time when the event took place. 33. it is one we will celebrate tonight with performances which will highlight our cultural heritage to our people. 34. tonight we have the opportunity to witness an important aspect of our uniquely timorese culture. in his speech, xanana gusmao used time deixis which refers to future time. the data shows that xanana gusmao did not use time deixis which refer to future time such as in speech 2 and 4, except in speech 3, five times or 21 percent, and for speech 1, twice or 18 percent. here are the examples taken from text 3 as follows: 35. believe me when i say that next four days mean a great deal to our country which has the privilege of hosting you. 36. as you all know, in the coming days we will have three meetings.(6) in examples 35 and 36, ‘next four days’ and ‘in the coming days’ are used as time deixis. by using a deictic modifier ‘next’, example 35 refers to a unit of time including the coding time, but it will be ambiguous between the calendrical and non-calendrical interpretation. the same applied for ‘in the coming days’. xanana gusmao’s vision and attitudes xanana gusmao is a prime minister and as the head of timor leste government, so in delivering his speech to his audience, he chose a particular type of deixis because what he was saying would represent his ideas, views or opinions about his country in the past, present and future conditions. it means that what he was saying in his speeches should be linguistically and pragmatically interpreted on the basis of its contexts of situation and context of culture. the most important thing is that how deixis was being used in his speeches could reflect his vision about timor leste. this is in line with chang-qi (2009) suggestion that deixis can be used for rhetorical purposes. the deixis found in his speeches could reflect his ideas or opinions as a prime minister towards timor leste. another important thing is that how deixis in his speeches could represent timor leste as a country or timorese people. it clearly shows that in four speeches, the speaker used 1st person singular ‘i’, forty six times or 15 % comparing to other person deixis such as 1st person plural ‘we’ 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 two hundred and two times or 68 %. by looking at the small percentage in using 1st person singular ‘i’, it means that xanana gusmao did not want himself to be the deictic center, rather than to be a part of the audience or addressee by using 1st person plural ‘we’. by using less 1st person singular ‘i’, it shows that as a speaker, xanana gusmao did not want to focus the attention of his audience to himself as a prime minister. another interpretation is that he wanted to show the audience that to be the head of the government is not everything. it also means that he wanted to express himself inclusively with the audience by using more 1st person plural ‘we’ in most parts of his speeches. the most important thing is that the message that would be conveyed rather than the speaker himself. as a speaker he did not use 2nd person singular ‘you’ in his speeches. the interpretation is that xanana gusmao did not want to address the audience directly by using ‘you’. it is understandable that to some extent, it is not so polite for some non native speakers of english to address the audience directly by using ‘you’ in such a formal meeting. it is a matter of cultural influence the way someone uses the language. it can also be interpreted as xanana gusmao would maintain a balance of addressing the audience on the basis of the social status of the audience since he delivered the speech in a formal meeting. this shows that in delivering his speech, the speaker gave a greater attention and priority to his people and his country. by using more 1st person plural ‘we’ can be interpreted as xanana gusmao had a vision and mission to focus his attention on develop timor leste. another interpretation is that by using more 1st person plural ‘we’ that refers to timorese people, he wanted to introduce his people to the audience. this is reasonable because as a speaker he was also the head of timor leste government, so whatever he was saying would represent his ideas, opinions or views about timorese people. it also means that xanana gusmao was so serious to pay more attention to timor leste and persuade his people its people to have a better life. it means that the use of person deixes has persuasive function (zupnik, 2010). place deixis or space deixis concerns the specification of locations relative to points in speech events. the speaker used more place deixis that refer to timor leste or timorese people, ten times or 67 percent and referring places outside timor leste, five times or 33 percent. as a speaker he used ‘here’ and also proximaldistal dimension ‘this’ or ‘that’ which means the object in a pragmatically given area close to the speaker’s location at coding time (ct). again, by using more place deixis which refer to timor leste, can also mean xanana gusmao gave greater attention to timor leste, it shows that he tended to focus his attention on timor leste. he language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 69 wanted to introduce timor leste and its people to the outside world. another interpretation is that he considered timor leste as something more important to think about. it also means that as a poorest country, he realized that timor leste should be developed during his term in office. it is clearly shown that the speaker used time deixis which refer to future, seven times or 12 %, to show present, thirty six times or 61 %, and to show past event, sixteen times or 27 %. the data shows that time deixis which refer to the present time is still dominantly used in speech 1-4. the interpretation is that xanana gusmao was a realistic leader that he wanted to focus his attention on the present condition in timor leste rather than talking about bitter experience in the past. the question is ‘why the speaker didn’t use any time deixis which refer to the future? in fact, timor leste is a poor country, so as the prime minister of timor leste, xanana gusmao should think about the future of timor leste. by doing so, the audience will judge his willingness to develop timor leste or his audience will get a comprehensive understanding about what xanana gusmao will do in the future. this should be questioned because there are only seven times or 12 % of time deixis found in four texts. as a prime minister, i think it is important to think about the future of timor leste by using time deixis which refers to the future condition. besides, the speaker also used time deixis to refer to the past event. the interpretation is that xanana gusmao did not want to describe the past event in the history of timor leste. it was a sensitive issue. this is reasonable because most timorese people still had bitter experience of a long conflict since 1975 where most timorese people suffered a lot. xanana gusmao would create a balance between the history of timor leste in the past and today’s history without emphasizing more on the past event as he himself experienced more conflicts among the timorese people when he was a guerrilla leader for 17 years fighting against the presence of indonesia in timor leste. another interpretation is that xanana gusmao did not want to offend the timorese feelings by describing the past events or experience, since it could be a source of a new conflict among different ethnic groups in timor leste as a result of a feeling of revenge to be the victims of political conflict. xanana’s ideas or opinions could reflect his vision/attitudes towards timor leste which are realized by using deixis in his speeches. deixis which was used in his speeches would determine or reflect his way of thinking, that’s why whatever he was saying in terms of the selection of a particular deixis should be linguistically and pragmatically interpreted. to show the capacity of xanana gusmao as a politician and as the head of timor leste government, then he used 1st 70 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 person singular ‘i’ or ‘me’. he used 2 singular ‘you’ to refer to the audience who were present at the time of speech delivery. xanana gusmao tended to use ‘we’ inclusively whether with the audience or the timorese people. this shows that xanana gusmao was an ‘insertive’ leader of how to involve people to think as what xanana gusmao was thinking about. so, the speech indicates an inclusive speech (adetunji, 2006). xanana gusmao used place deixis to refer to timor leste by using demonstrative pronouns this and that and also english adverbs here and there. the idea is that when xanana gusmao wanted to denote a place which refers to timor leste, and then he would use demonstrative pronouns and english adverbs. the ideas of denoting future time are expressed by using time deixis such as then, next, in the coming days/months/years, and tomorrow. the data shows time deixis refers to present, (36 times or 61 %) distributed in four speeches such as speech 1 (7 times or 64 %), speech 2 (5 times or 71 %), speech 3 (11 times or 46 %), and then speech 4 (13 times or 76 %) by using this moment, today, now, and tonight. in almost four speeches, he used more time deixis ‘today’ and ‘now’. the past events are realized by using deictic modifiers such as this, next, and last, together with a non-deictic name or measure word or common noun units, like weeks, months, years, and proper name units like december. here are the examples taken from the data, such as: last year, on february this year, in 2003, in the last two days, for the last ten years, the last few years, and ten years ago. conclusion xanana gusmao is a politician and the way a politician chooses deixis determines his views or opinions, so there is a particular choice of using deixis when someone is still in power. deixis in the speeches of xanana gusmao can be classified into person, place and time deixis. each type of deixis which is used in the speeches can determine or reflect xanana’s vision/ attitudes towards timor leste since it portraits his ideas or opinions about timor leste and the timorese people. to express togetherness with the timorese people, he used 1st person plural. to express future time, he used then, next, in the coming days/months/years, and tomorrow; for present, such as this moment, today, now, and tonight. to denote past event, he used deictic modifiers such as this, next, and last, together with a non-deictic name or measure word or common noun units, like weeks, months, years, and proper name units like december. references adetunji, a. 2006. inclusion and exclusion in political discourse: deixis in olusegun obasanjo’s speeches. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 71 retrieved from http://www.jllonline.co. uk/juornal/5_2/ling2.pdf best, j.w. 1981. research in education. new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. chang-qi, c. (2009). on rhetorical use of deixis. us-china foreign language, volume 7, no.4 (serial no.67). retrieved october 13, 2010 from http://www.linguist.org.cn/doc/uc20090 4/uc20090404.pdf cohen, l. 2007. research methods in education. london: routledge. jarvella r.j. & klein, w. (eds). (1982). speech, place and action. new york: wiley. levinson, s. c. 1983. pragmatics. cambridge: cambridge university press. mey, j. l. 1993. pragmatics: an introduction. oxford: cambridge, massachusetts: blackwell publishers. thomas, j. 1995. meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. essex: longman. zupnik, y. j. 2010. a pragmatic analysis of the use of person deixis in political discourse. retrieved from http:// www.sciencedirect.com/science?ob=articleurl&-udi=b6vcw-63pg794f&-user=10&-coverdate=04 october 14, 2010. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab0c9b31263 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab5b8ac1253 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 332 indonesian and thai efl learners’ extensive listening through podcasts: a self-directed english learning intan ambaria andini iain pekalongan intan.andini707@gmail.com ahmad burhanuddin iain pekalongan ahmad.burhanuddin@iainpekalongan.com abstract when language learners regulate self-improvement activities in their spare time, a broader space for exploration emerges. the purpose of this paper is to present a narrative study of two young adult efl learners from indonesia and thailand who routinely schedule extensive listening through podcasts for their self-directed english learning. data for this study were gathered through the use of learners' learning diaries and interviews. they were also subjected to thematic analysis. the researcher claims that this study will provide empirical insights into the lived experiences of independent english learners while also clarifying that learning outside of the classroom is no less meaningful or beneficial than learning in the classroom. some of the factors that motivated learners to engage in this learning practice were the variety, multitasking, and flexibility of podcasts, as well as personal preferences for auditory learning, opportunities to learn other things besides english, and an unwavering future goal toward study and work advancement. vocabulary enrichment, speech pace and accent recognition, fluency and pronunciation improvement, as well as a stronger knowledge of pragmatic skill and natural dialogues were highlighted as six major areas of their practice that had an influence. keywords: efl learner, extensive listening, podcast, self-directed learning introduction learners' ability to govern their own learning is referred to as self-directed learning (loeng, 2020). it also refers to a flexible out-of-class learning strategy in which learners plan their own learning rather than attending teacher-led classes. many studies have demonstrated that learners' success in learning outside of the classroom is typically the basis for their competency (nunan, 1991). self-directed learning can also be conducted through a podcast-based extensive listening. when listening to a spoken text, learners frequently fail to catch sounds, phrases, or even miss the crucial point. many efl learners, particularly novices, regard listening as the most difficult of all the english skills to master (bacon, 1989; farrell & mallard, 2006). extensive listening encompasses all types of listening activities that offer a large amount of understandable and enjoyable auditory input to learners (renandya & farrell, 2010). several studies revealed extensive listening could enhance overall language proficiency such as listening comprehension, vocabulary mastery, speaking and reading skills as well as higher confidence in the language (elley & mangubhai, 1983). to assist learners with listening problems, it involves self-directed learning for fun outside of the classroom that can be accomplished through audiobooks, youtube videos, films, podcasts, and other media. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:intan.andini707@gmail.com mailto:ahmad.burhanuddin@iainpekalongan.com language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 333 initially, podcasts appear to be a promising technology-assisted learning alternative for learning. learners can listen to them freely on any topic of their choice. the use of podcast (abdulrahman et al., 2018) and conducting extensive listening using authentic materials (hapsari & ratri, 2014) can boost learners’ enthusiasm to learn. listening to podcasts can also help learners improve their listening and speaking skills (yoestara & putri, 2019), as they offer meaningful language, real-life dialogues, and fresh material (hasan & hoon, 2013). a study by gönülal (2020) revealed that practicing extensive listening with podcasts and vodcasts for outside classroom learning was extremely effective not only in improving learners’ listening ability, but also to their pronunciation and knowledge of words and phrases. while investigating students’ experience and opinion when using podcasts for independent learning, rosyidah et al., (2021) found that podcasts were preferred due to its ease of use, wide range of topics covered, and authentic conversation. furthermore, a recent study (dwi et al., 2021) suggested that this method helps students to gain better understanding by allowing them to learn summary writing, new vocabulary, and better comprehending native speakers' speeches. unfortunately, self-directed podcast-based extensive listening does not come without drawbacks. its diverse selection of texts from varied levels of complexity may lead beginners to lose confidence when encountering difficult materials. adults are also more likely than youngsters to be successful self-directed learners since their maturity allow them to have greater ability to direct one's own learning (suanmali, 1981). thus, this learning strategy is better suited to adult, intermediate, or advanced learners. the majority of studies on language learning have focused on classroom or school settings, yet there has been little emphasis of adults’ independent learning. in truth, there is no compelling evidence suggesting that studying outside of the classroom is less beneficial than learning in the classroom. studies on language learning need to pay equal attention to both. the major objective of this study is to describe one indonesian and one thai efl learners’ selfdirected learning experience through podcastbased extensive listening. underpinning the exploration on their personal story, three research questions were addressed in this study: (1) why do they choose to conduct self-directed learning through podcast-based extensive listening; (2) how do they learn; and (3) to what extend does such practice help learners with their english learning? two theoretical frameworks namely dimensions of language learning for outside classroom context by (benson, 2011) and metacognitive approach to extensive listening (vandergrift & goh, 2012) will be used to examine their practice. the first intellectual framework for this paper came from a related study on the subject by benson (2011). he created a framework for characterizing the engagement of different types of learners in language learning through a concept of 'setting.' a language learning setting was defined by four dimensions: location, formality, pedagogy, and locus of control. location refers to a physical or virtual space in which a learning activity occur (i.e. out-of-class, after-class, extra-curricular, out-ofschool, distance, etc.). formality relates to whether or not the learning experience is planned and ordered as part of formal education program for which a certification is granted (i.e. formal, informal or non-formal). pedagogy deals with the learning process to which instruction, material progression, explicit explanation and evaluation are set up (i.e. self-instructed, other-instructed or naturalistic). locus of control stands for the extent to which learners discern how learning decisions are made and whether they have control over the process (i.e. self-directed or other-directed). secondly, vandergrift & goh (2012) outline a metacognitive approach to extensive listening that can be used in out-of-class l2 listening settings. variety, frequency, and repetition were proposed by them as three fundamental principles for effectual extensive listening that learners must meet. the principle of variety advises learners to listen to as many distinct sorts of authentic texts as http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 334 possible, on a vast scope of themes and issues; the principle of frequency urges them to keep a predetermined daily or weekly habit of persistent listening for a particular timeframe, ranging from five minutes to an hour; and the next principle, repetition, suggests that learners listen to the text more than once in order to become familiar with it and to be able to verify the information they have received. this study is particularly important in order to better understand how self-directed learners reflect on both participants’ learning as well as how they benefit from extensive listening activity using podcasts. because english is a foreign language in their nations, they implied to have few opportunity to converse in it or with native english speakers on a regular basis. their maturity, as well as their distinguished cultural and personal backgrounds, are likely to provide different results, if not a unique, personal story in language learning. these factors should help to explain why this study merits further empirical inquiry. its goal is to add to knowledge and empirical facts about the practice of self-directed learning. methodology this study sought to illuminate two efl learners' personal experience of performing extensive listening through podcasts by applying qualitative methodologies of inquiry. narrative inquiry was chosen as the research design to recount humans' stories about their experiences (connelly & clandinin, 1990). the researchers was supposed to explore and explain the participants' behaviors, answers, and how they negotiate their feelings. this study involved two female young adults participants: an indonesian efl learner, khadijah (pseudonym) and a thai efl learner, faah (pseudonym). both are college graduates, with khadijah having a diploma in computer science and faah having a ba in tourism industry. they reported listening to podcast for between two and four years, prior to this study. both implied that their english learning in formal institution and beyond classroom contributed to make up the ground in their previous and current englishenvironment job. they believe that learning english will help excel their future careers or education. the data for this study was gathered from july to november 2021. the two participants agreed to keep track of their podcast listening schedules and to share their learning diaries. they were invited for an online written interview at the end of october. it was held twice in english, and it primarily focused on participants' experiences and reflections on conducting self-directed extensive listening using podcasts as learning resources. google docs was used to share both their learning diaries and written interviews. thematic analysis approach was used to examine these data, and the steps were involved ‘repeating reading of the data, coding, and categorization of data extracts and their reorganization under thematic headings’ (barkhuizen et al., 2014:74). major themes are typically covered in various sections of published narrative studies, where they are broken down into subthemes and illustrated by excerpts from the narratives. result and discussion reasons to conduct self-directed learning through extensive listening using podcasts both individuals exhibited a strong desire to learn english. five motivations for performing selflearning through podcast-based extensive listening have been discovered. multitasking and flexibility features unlike reading which requires full attention, listening can be done while doing other things. listening to podcasts not only frees up the hands and eyes of learners, but it can also be carried out everywhere possible. listening technique is more engaging due to its multitasking and flexibility features. it’s convenient, i can listen to a podcast whenever and wherever i want while doing something else such as exercising, preparing for breakfast, ... (khadijah) learners were not bound by the confines of an institution or a classroom, where they must http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 335 adhere to particular regulations in order to study. this sort of learning was a non-prescribed activity that allows learners to expand their knowledge at their own pace and in their own time rather than having to attend a class in a specified location or at a specific time. as a result, in the dimension of language acquisition, this could be classified as out-of-classroom learning (benson, 2011). possibilities to learn subjects other than english khadijah remarked that, in addition to english, she could learn a range of new topics at the same time. she then turned listening for the purpose of learning english into listening for enjoyment. i enjoy it for its entertainment and educational purpose too. it’s indescribably pleasant to understand things that i’ve never known before. (khadijah) on her learning diary reflections, faah expressed enthusiasm for learning new subjects addressed in podcasts. both participants claimed that their learning process was also a type of interest pursuit, and that their language acquisition was thus informal in terms of formality (benson, 2011). furthermore, when they control their self-study in their spare time, they create a naturalistic learning environment by shifting their focus away from language acquisition and toward recreation or something other than language (benson, 2011). wide choice of themes to choose from learners argued that podcasts provided them with access to a wider range of knowledge and opinions. learners' motivation may be boosted if they can include their personal interests into the learning process by choosing the content they wish to hear. podcasts allow me to get access to various discussions particularly ones that people in my country tend to conceal or refuse to openly speak up. (khadijah) ….an important access to knowledge that thai language can’t reach. (faah) learners must engage in self-directed learning in order to gain autonomy, which will help them improve their language learning abilities even more (brown, 2007; al qasim & al fadda, 2013). when language learners' learning was relevant to their life and interests, they become enthusiastic to learn. their ability to choose their own learning materials as part of their pedagogy demonstrated that their learning was selfinstructed, and when they decided to act it out, their locus of control shifted to self-directed (benson, 2011). requirement for education and career advancement both participant felt compelled to improve their english skills since they would need it for future education or employment prospects. they said that continuing to learn will help them achieve excellence in their future aim. i wish to study abroad or work in international environment someday. so, i see it as my way to create my own english environment. (khadijah) i want to be able to understand specific research and academic stuff in english, and i have plan to take a toeic test soon too. (faah) khadijah and faah emphasized the importance of learning with a purpose. the fact that they were still conducting self-directed learning proved that language learning did not necessarily stop when they finished their formal education. they felt obliged to create their own english environment because their environment limited their opportunities to practice. they were not influenced by anyone other than themselves in their decisions to engage in self-directed learning and to develop their skill. as a result, their locus of control could be described as self-directed (benson, 2011). personal preference for auditory learning i want to elevate my english listening skill by being familiar with a lot of different english accents. that’s why i always try to choose podcasts from different countries and speakers. (khadijah) listening really improved me. i don’t think english education system in thailand works http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 336 because the material and the way of teaching focusing only on grammar and text books. (faah) the fifth reason for conducting their learning exercise was their preference for aural learning. they had chosen extensive listening as an approach for strengthening their communication skills since they found it beneficial. their decision to choose and apply a learning method proved that they had self-directed locus of control (benson, 2011). the characteristics of language acquisition identified by benson (2011), namely location, formality, pedagogy, and locus of control, were addressed by both participants' motives for performing self-study through podcast-based extensive listening. they recognized the significance of their performance to attain their long-term professional and educational objectives. they acquired their flexibility and capacity to learn without being confined by time or place since they were not bound to classroom instruction. they saw the characteristic of being hands-free and eyes-free while extensive listening as a very tempting motivation to learn, in addition to their preferred aural input. podcasts have also provided a variety of themes and issues that enabled learners broaden their knowledge and perspectives on both english and other disciplines as their preferred learning medium. authentic materials delivered via podcasts allowed both participants to gain a better understanding of reallife conversations. learning steps the researchers concluded that while both individuals' methods differed slightly, they used some common technique. seven aspects were delineated as their learning steps based on learners' explanations of what they do before, during, and after listening to the podcasts. preparation first, i examine myself, in what level i am now before choosing the right material. i begin with the easy ones first (i should be able to understand about 50-80% of them). after reaching some level, completely understanding them, i would move to another level. (faah) started with self-examination, the thai efl learner emphasized the importance of recognizing one's own level in order to select understandable materials that are appropriate for each learning routine. easy texts may help beginners gain confidence for a short time (vandergrift & goh, 2012) but they can be less challenging or even tedious for more advanced learners. difficulties in a text are required to some extent so that learners can learn something new and improve their listening skills. material selection i usually search my podcast by typing the speaker name or topic as the keyword… i love exploring themes such as spirituality, religion, music, film, literature, education, philosophy, education, feminism, racism, gender, sexuality, mental health, culture, etc.. (khadijah) the main podcast that i listen to is the bbc learning english. the channel is really made for english learners. they have various materials that are easy to understand, get on point, and include up to date information. sentences or words in that channel is what english speakers really use. (faah) it is profound to have a careful material podcast selection as learning resource. there were dozens of accessible, free, or even downloadable podcasts available on the internet, but the ones used as learning material needed to include interesting, engaging, and rich texts. they should provide content with a wide range of structure and language features. in accordance with the principle of variety in the metacognitive approach to extensive listening, both learners had listened to a variety of topics, themes, or discussions from various levels of difficulty that demonstrated a wide range of examples of how language was used in communicative situations (vandergrift & goh, 2012). when asked what length of podcasts they prefer and whether they prefer video or audio podcasts, both learners responded: ….30 minutes to more than an hour. i listen daily or at least once or twice a week. i prefer audio podcasts because they don’t give me any visual http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 337 clues about what’s being discussed or going on. (khadijah) ….5-12 minutes, it’s a good duration for me because i tend to listen to podcasts every day. i prefer both audio and video… video podcasts help a lot with vocab, sometimes i don’t know a word but the video explains everything and i can guess the meaning of the vocab through the video. audio is good for focusing on the accent if you really want to get native accent. (faah) the frequency concept proposed by vandergrift and goh (2012) was met by both participants' podcast lengths ranging from five minutes to more than an hour, as well as their daily and weekly routines. in addition, both efl learners were asked if their national or cultural backgrounds influenced their podcast selection. yes. topics such as gender, religion, sexuality, feminism, gender, childfree, etc. are still considered sensitive or taboo in indonesia. i listen to these discussions on podcasts because i want to know more about what’s truly happen in the real world, be able to independently determine my viewpoints and responses for that matters. (khadijah) thai culture doesn’t affect me on making a choice when choosing a podcast. (faah) their statements revealed distinct tendencies in how their cultural backgrounds influenced the podcasts they chose. their content selection differed slightly in terms of learning pedagogy (benson, 2011) because they each lived in a different type of society and had different goals and interests when listening to podcasts. repetition i always listen to a podcast at least twice. during the first listening, i do it without a single pause to grasp the flow or the general idea from the speakers’ discussion. for the second listening, i may pause and rewind the audio especially on parts where i lost focus or found unfamiliar words or phrases. (khadijah) i try to focus when listening. if i didn't catch something or cannot seem to understand, “relistening” and focus more. (faah) it was discovered that performing listening only when conducting self-directed learning through extensive listening was insufficient. the technique of repetition was introduced to increase participants' exposure to l2 listening. it was especially important for learners to become ‘familiar with the content, vocabulary, and structure of the spoken text’ (vandergrift & goh, 2012:201). it allowed them to validate the information they had obtained by repeating the process and focusing on new areas of the text with each iteration. note-taking and translation learners could pause or rewind the audio while listening to take notes and look up translations for words or phrases. both participants had a distinct practice of taking notes. i take note only on my second listening. i prefer using a notebook and a pen. i would write words, phrases, sentences, quotes, idioms, quotes, lines, etc. that i think are useful, interesting, or unfamiliar. i also give their translation and use signs such as ‘, ~, and / to mark stressed, long, or increased intonation for their pronunciation. ….look up their meaning in digital dictionary. (khadijah) i have my own specific notebook for learning english. i write down new vocabularies that i’ve learnt or not familiar with. i prefer adding their clear definition in english rather than their thai translation only. …search for translation and sometimes google a vocabulary. (faah) nonetheless, the favoured handwriting offered them advantages. more of the brain was activated when self-generated motions like drawing or writing were utilized for learning, leading in the creation of more complex neural networks (van der meer & van der weel, 2017). it was something that could not be encouraged by typing notes on a keyboard, because creating individual handwritten letters provided different consequences, leading to a better understanding (li & james, 2016; james, 2017). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 338 imitation participants' note-taking method was not just for documenting vocabulary and notable phrases; it was also for in-depth evaluation of the pronunciation, intonation, and tempo of a particular speaker's way of speaking. it also aided one of the participants in his imitation practice. i love to be playfully imitating speakers’ pronunciation or intonation, or even repeating after them when they say interesting words or creative sentences. (khadijah) in terms of how the participant presented the knowledge to herself, imitation was considered a component of her pedagogy (benson, 2011). it was also used as a tongue warm-up and to acquaint oneself with new vocabulary. evaluation i would reread my learning notebook and try to recall what i have learn from the discussion in the podcast. i would review the number of vocabularies, interesting phrases or sentences as well as their pronunciation that i had gained. sometimes i try to reimagine how the speakers pronounced certain words or phrases and then i try to pronounce it myself. (khadijah) the bbc learning english included a quiz to test and evaluate ourselves after finish a podcast. (faah) after they had finished listening, they moved on to the next item on their agenda: evaluation. in the language learning dimension, as defined by pedagogy, evaluation was a component of the learning process (benson, 2011). learners assessed or reach a conclusion on their learning by looking into their understanding or reviewing what they had learned thus far. practice i try to employ particular vocabularies or phrases or produce the same pronunciation that i heard when communicating via messages or speaking english in real life. (khadijah) i have no chance to speak english because currently i work with thai people only. but i try to listen to daily news and read english books every day to test myself how much i understand english. (faah) the third but equally important phase in both participants' learning was practice. it was a selfinstructed process that both participants initiated, therefore it was a component of their learning pedagogy (benson, 2011). they believed that putting what they had learned into practice would help them fully develop their proficiency. to recap, the language learning steps introduced by both efl learners differed only slightly. khadijah, unlike faah, did not believe it was necessary to assess her english level before making material selection decisions. her focus was on the speakers or the topic being addressed in the podcasts, so she skipped self-examination. speaking practice as part of the follow-up to their self-learning was difficult, especially for faah, whose surroundings at the time of this study did not include an english-speaking milieu. over time, the environments, personal interests, and life and educational experiences of both participants influenced their distinct learning style and views on their learning goal. they all had one thing in common: they had complete control over what they needed to learn, how they learned it, and when they learned it. on that basis, a self-directed learning pedagogy was developed based on how they carried out their language learning steps. language learning benefits when describing the language learning benefits of doing self-directed learning through podcastbased extensive listening for their proficiency, participants in this study had partially comparable opinions. six key aspects of their practice were identified as having an impact: vocabulary enrichment, speech rate and accent recognition, fluency and pronunciation improvement, and a deeper understanding of pragmatic skill and natural dialogues. enriching vocabulary to begin, both passionate efl learners showed similar gains in their vocabulary mastery and pronunciation. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 339 i’ve got to know more vocabularies and their pronunciation, which in the end they let me have better comprehension when listening or reading. (khadijah) ….gain more new vocabularies (which helps me) understand news and now i can understand most of what i watch and read in english. (faah) the four language skills all relied heavily on vocabulary mastery (alqahtani, 2015). lexical knowledge was essential to communication ability since it was used to both understand and communicate one's own ideas. furthermore, recognizing words in written or spoken material needed distinct skills. in that situation, extensive listening to spoken language may aid learners in developing oral word identification through automaticity in sound-script correlations (li & renandya, 2012). better dealing with speech rate and accents recognition listening might be challenging not only because of the difficult topic or language used in the spoken text, but also because of the speed, which makes it challenging for learners to catch up. according to a study (chang, 2016), extensive listening can help l2 listeners gradually become accustomed to hearing speech at native speaker rate. it helps me to deal with fast speech and patterns of different accents. i’m happy that in the end, i manage to be familiar when listening to speeches beyond british or american accent. (khadijah) (i can) understand british accents easily. (faah) the thai learner admitted to being familiar with the british accent after listening to podcasts from the bbc learning english channel, which is produced by a division of the bbc world in the united kingdom. the indonesian learner, on the other hand, claimed that one of their initial learning goals was to excel her listening skills by comprehending various english dialects. by researching issues and listening to english speakers from many backgrounds and nations, she has expanded awareness of world englishes. in this case, dwi et al. (2021) found comparable evidence that podcast-based prolonged listening assisted learners in comprehending native speakers' talks. enhancing speaking skill listening was regarded to be profound in the development of speaking because it supplied information that could help people talk more effectively. podcast language was rich with meaning-focused and formulaic language (such as lexical phrases, idioms, and collocations), which helped learners improve their fluency. i used to have to think about grammar or tenses’ formula when speaking, and it’s bothersome. i finally manage to have a bank of phrasal chunks, such as: ‘it doesn't really...’, ‘i should have been....’, ‘i've got an...’,‘it might have been…’,‘it feels/sounds/makes....’, ‘she has done…’, etc. they were already in my thoughts, and i sometimes feel mentally prepared before speaking since spilling out subject and verb in accord as a starter has become more automatic and less arduous for me. (khadijah) renandya and jacobs (2016) discussed how extended listening was proven to influence second language learners' spoken fluency. they claimed that frequent exposure to spoken features could aid l2 learners' comprehension of spoken language. as a result, once these qualities have been internalized and assimilated into their developing language system, learners may begin to use them in their own speech. correcting english pronunciation the indonesian efl learner argued, listening to podcasts was a helpful practice for increasing one's understanding of english speeches. she claimed to have developed linguistic awareness, specifically in the area of pronunciation: my pronunciation is getting better. i can easily pronounce sounds that some indonesians find them hard to do such as the /θ/ or /ʃ/ sounds, as well as ending sounds in: guests, asks, mask, text, podcasts, strength, change and so on. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 340 now, i can also tell when somebody has wrong pronunciation too. (khadijah) similarly, the students in gönülal's (2020) study said that listening to podcasts outside of class helped them improve their english pronunciation. one of the most likely outcomes of listening to actual spoken texts on a regular basis was an improvement in english pronunciation. it allowed learners to replicate and speak what they had heard several times in real-life situations. gaining better understanding in pragmatic skill in genuine conversations, speakers' meaning did not always match the meaning of the sentence. the learner was able to comprehend pragmatic skills as a result of being exposed to this. i once heard a speaker say, ‘shut the fridge!’—but indeed it is not literally about closing a fridge door. the speaker was just expressing his/her disbelieve or disagreement in a playful manner. it’s the same like when they say funny words to cuss. i guess, listening to slang or idioms allow me to learn to guess meaning through context. (khadijah) meaning could not be properly comprehended unless it was encountered in a variety of contexts. a great quantity of exposure to varied and natural input was required for the acquisition of a second language. this was a positive finding since podcasts exposed listeners to a wide range of native speaker voices, slang, abbreviated talks, stress, accents, and dialects. indeed, some aspects of speech required to be explored in order to improve listener comprehension (fitch-hauser et al., 2007; richard, 2008). improving comprehension towards natural dialogues finally, because humans are not robots, interpreting actual spoken communication is always more difficult. also, in real life, people do not always produce excellent words. (in podcasts), their conversations are mostly genuine and colloquial… after months of listening, i feel like i’m getting better in conceiving what they were meant to say even when, for instance, they speak with imperfect or unfinished sentences. (khadijah) in spoken conversation, processes such as hesitations, reduced forms, fillers, and repeats were commonly mirrored (richard, 2008). spoken texts were frequently context-dependent and personal, assuming that the audience knew what they were talking about. podcasts contain real-life discussions, which aid learners' comprehension of real-life conversations. this finding backed up rosyidah et al. (2021)’s study, which looked into the opinions of english majors on the usage of podcasts for independent english learning. overall, this study used benson (2011)’s four basic dimensions to define two participants' language learning outside of the classroom. the following is how the researcher summarized them: (1) setting: 'out-of-classroom' and 'postschool' english language learning; (2) formality: informal and independent; (3) pedagogy: a selfinstructed pedagogy was developed (in a naturalistic manner); and (4) locus of control: it was self-directed, with learners making the majority of their own learning decisions. suitable podcasts selection as a learning resource was crucial as a guidance, according to vandergrift and goh (2012)'s metacognitive approach perspective. learners engaged in a broad range of podcasts (i.e. different speakers, themes, speech rate, or even level of difficulty), according to the data analyzed from the participants' learning diaries and interviews, satisfying the first criteria of effective extensive listening, namely variety. then, the length of the podcasts used, which ranged from five minutes to two hours, as well as the participants' daily or weekly self-directed learning technique, allowed them to develop a habit of persistent listening and reflection on their learning, supporting vandergrift and goh's second principle, frequency. finally, learners' ability to pause and replay podcasts indicated the third principle of repetition. it allowed efl learners unparalleled control over the listening text, and it became the go-to method for problem-solving and sustained attention. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 341 individual listening goals were a key role in how approaches were used. both participants desire to learn interesting themes, new vocabulary, phrasal use, idioms, or even accent in particular drove their use of the replay function or second listening. rapid discussion became less of an issue as time went on. instead, it was seen as a natural component of human communication. conclusion this study suggested that larning is not limited to formal education and that out-of-class learning can be equally engaging and fruitful. when practicing extensive listening with podcasts, both participants are satisfied with their daily or weekly independent self-learning routine. to fully develop as l2 listeners, most efl learners require a large amount of aural input. considering this, self-directed learning via podcast-based extensive listening not only allows learners having the freedom to attain their target language exposure anywhere, at any time, but also provides illustrations of real-life english use on a variety of topics. by listening to the real language used in podcasts, they can advance their overall listening comprehension, pronunciation skills, and gain a better understanding of aspects of english linguistics. the current study's positive findings on efl learners' experiences performing selfdirected learning through podcast-based extensive listening in building l2 listening abilities would be a promising beginning point for language teachers and learners to further explore these learning processes. references abdulrahman, t., basalama, n., & widodo, m. r. (2018). the impact of podcasts on efl students’ listening comprehension. international journal of language education, 2(2), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v2i2.5878 al qasim, n., & al fadda, h. (2013). from call to mall: the effectiveness of podcast on efl higher education students’ listening comprehension. english language teaching, 6(9), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n9p30 alqahtani, m. (2015). the importance of vocabulary in language learning and how to be taught. international journal of teaching and education, iii(3), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.20472/te.2015.3.3.002 bacon, s. m. (1989). listening for real in the foreign-language classroom1. foreign language annals, 22(6), 543–550. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.19449720.1989.tb02781.x barkhuizen, g., benson, p., & chik, a. (2014). narrative inquiry in language teaching. new york: routledge. benson, p. (2011). language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: an introduction to the field. in p. benson & h. reinders (eds.), beyond the language classroom (pp. 7–16). basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230306790_2 brown, h. d. (2007). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: pearson longman. chang, a. c. (2016). teaching l2 listening: in and outside the classroom. in w. a. renandya & h. p. widodo (eds.), english language teaching today: linking theory and practice (pp. 111–125). basel: springer international publishing ag. connelly, f. m., & clandinin, d. j. (1990). stories of experience and narrative inquiry. educational researcher, 19(5), 2–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x019005002 dwi, r., camelia, a., yusuf aditya, m., & ridwan, a. (2021). podcasts: improving students’ extensive listening skills. english teaching journal: a journal of english literature, linguistics, and education, 9(1), 54–59. https://doi.org/10.25273/etj.v9i1.8817 elley, w. b., & mangubhai, f. (1983). the impact of reading on second language learning. reading research quarterly, 19(1), 53–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/747337 farrell, t. s. c., & mallard, c. (2006). the use of reception strategies by learners of french as a foreign language. the modern language http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 342 journal, 90(3), 338–352. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15404781.2006.00426.x fitch-hauser, m., powers, w., o’brien, k., & hanson, s. (2007). extending the conceptualization of listening fidelity. the international journal of listening, 21, 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10904010701301982 gönülal, t. (2020). improving listening skills with extensive listening using podcasts and vodcasts. international journal of contemporary educational research, june. https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.685196 hapsari, y., & ratri, d. p. (2014). extensive listening: let students experience learning by optimizing the use of authentic materials. jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra, 14(2), 251. https://doi.org/10.17509/bs_jpbsp.v14i2.723 hasan, m. m., & hoon, t. b. (2013). podcast applications in language learning: a review of recent studies. english language teaching, 6(2), 128–135. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n2p128 james, k. h. (2017). the importance of handwriting experience on the development of the literate brain. current directions in psychological science, 26(6), 502– 508. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417709821 li, j. x., & james, k. h. (2016). handwriting generates variable visual output to facilitate symbol learning. journal of experimental psychology. general, 145 3, 298–313. li, w., & renandya, w. a. (2012). effective approaches to teaching listening : chinese efl teachers’ perspectives tt -. the journal of asiatefl, 9(4), 79–111. loeng, s. (2020). self-directed learning: a core concept in adult education. education research international, 2020, 3816132. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3816132 nunan, d. (1991). language teaching methodology: a textbook for teachers. london: prentice hall. renandya, w. a., & jacobs, g. m. (2016). extensive reading and listening in the l2 classroom. in w. a. renandya & h. p. widodo (eds.), english language teaching today (pp. 97–110). new york: routledge. renandya, w., & farrell, t. (2010). “teacher, the tape is too fast!” extensive listening in elt. elt journal, 64. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq015 richard, j. c. (2008). teaching listening and speaking from theory to practice. cambridge: cambridge university. rosyidah, a., furaidah, & suryati, n. (2021). english department students’ experience and opinions on the use of podcast for learning english independently. jolla: journal of language, literature, and arts, 1(1), 106–120. https://doi.org/10.17977/um064v1i12021p106 -120 suanmali, c. (1981). the core concepts of andragogy. san francisco: columbia university teachers college. van der meer, a. l. h., & van der weel, f. r. (ruud). (2017). only three fingers write, but the whole brain works†: a high-density eeg study showing advantages of drawing over typing for learning. frontiers in psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00706 vandergrift, l., & goh, c. c. m. (2012). teaching and learning second language listening: metacognition in action. new york: routledge. yoestara, m., & putri, z. (2019). podcast: an alternative way to improve efl students’ listening and speaking performance. englisia journal, 6(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.22373/ej.v6i1.3805 appendix http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 343 appendix 1: list of indonesian and thai efl learners’ material selection khadijah’s list of podcasts used no date title length 1 19-jul-21 we dive deeper podcast: billie marten being a musician, seasonal affective disosder, social media 55 minutes 2 22-jul-21 intelligence squared podcast: mona eltahawy on the seven necessary sins for women and girls 55 minutes 3 23-jul-21 are we on air podcast: ep.46 golshifteh farahani 97 minutes 4 26-jul-21 the sunday magazine podcast: khaled hosseini reflects on the taliban takeover of afghanistan, animal author lisa taddeo on female anti-heroes and the utility of rage 50 minutes 5 31-jul-21 the blindboy podcast hozier 111 minutes 6 3-aug-21 chanel connects keira knightley, lulu wang & diane solway: the new heroines 39 minutes 7 7-aug-21 switched on pop: hozier waffling of faith in take me to church 18 minutes 8 8-aug-21 bbc radio 4: philosopy , averroes 42 minutes 9 15-aug-21 cry power podcast with hozier and global citizen: episode 7 hozier with ifra ahmed 46 minutes 10 16-aug-21 iskandar widjaja at radio classical turquise 16 minutes 11 3-aug-21 the funambulist podcast: hana tajima design of a public body: wearing hijab in the west 32 minutes 12 3-aug-21 cry power podcast with hozier and global citizen: episode 1 – hozier with annie lennox 41 minutes 13 6-aug-21 happy sad confused podcast: with daniel radcliffe 52 minutes 14 10-sept-21 experience podcast: the ludovico eunadi story 45 minutes 15 11-sept-21 all songs considered podcast: hozier on why music from the civil rights movement still resonates 38 minutes 16 18-sept-21 meet the musician: max richter via apple podcasts 33 minutes 17 23-sept-21 nature podcast: rosamund pike in radioactive, and the resurgence of russian science 19 minutes 18 3-oct-21 call your girlfriend podcast: borders and boundaries shirin neshat 34 minutes 19 11-oct-21 the history of literature podcast: episode 137 haruki murakami 62 minutes 20 18-oct-21 the women's podcast: ep 507 what does it means to be a transgender in ireland 87 minutes 21 19-oct-21 the women's podcast: ep 492 the muslim sisters of éire 42 minutes 22 22-oct-21 bbc radio 4 podcast: in our time, philosophy averroes 42 minutes 23 26-oct-21 the shift podcast: isabel allende on feminism, anger and being fatally heterosexual 36 minutes 24 18-oct-21 the happy sad podcast: with cillian murphy 43 minutes 25 21-oct-21 the women's podcast: ep 511 women and art identity, sexuality, race, and power 47 minutes 26 29-oct-21 radio x: x-poser playback: alex turner on ‘tranquillity base hotel and casino’ 87 minutes http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/max-richter-meet-the-musician/id593095378?i=1000128294273 language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 344 faah’s list of podcasts used no. date title length 1 03-jul-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_wimbledon: return of tennis tournament 10 minutes 2 3-jul-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_e-scooter rental trials 3 minutes 3 10-jul-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_the queen awards the nhs 11 munites 4 10-jul-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_uk's energy revolution 3 minutes 5 16-jul-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_italy win euro 2020 10 minutes 6 16-jul-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_app-controled cows help protect dunes 2 minutes 7 24-jul-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_pegasus activist spied on 11 munites 8 24-jul-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_foyeco-the togolese stove 3 minutes 9 28-jul-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_tunisia's prime minister fired after protests 10 minutes 10 28-jul-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_could panting trees offset a lifetime's carbon footprint 3 minutes 11 8-aug-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_olympics sprinter seeks asylum 12 minutes 12 8-aug-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_jurassic fossils found in the uk 3 minutes 13 15-aug-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_climate crisis: last waring for humanity? 10 minutes 14 15-aug-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_piano artificial intelligence 3 minutes 15 21-aug-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_afghanistan: taliban retake kabul 12 minutes 16 21-aug-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_the quantum revolution 3 minutes 17 30-aug-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_delay afghan withdrawal uk asks us 10 minutes 18 30-aug-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_meet the robot artist 3 minutes 19 5-sep-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_charlie watts: rolling stones drummer dies 12 minutes 20 5-sep-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_painting for peoplw with visual impairment 3 minutes 21 11-sep-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_abba: pop superstars are back 10 minutes 22 11-sep-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_the world oldest hat shop 3 minutes 23 18-sep-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_emma radacanu wins us open 10 minutes 24 18-sep-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_working on big ben 3 minutes 25 25-sep-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_la palma: volcano erupt 10 minutes 26 25-sep-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_cancer blood test trial 3 minutes 27 3-oct-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_germany elections: centreleft claim narrow win over markel's party 10 minutes 28 3-oct-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_future-proofing stonehenge 3 minutes 29 9-0ct-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_pandora papers: rich exposed 10 minutes http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 345 30 9-0ct-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_uk's first no heading adult football match 3 minutes 31 18-0ct-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_afghan female footballers get uk visas 10 minutes 32 18-0ct-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_dying seabirds mystery 3 minutes 33 22-0ct-21 bbc learning english _news reviews_earthshot prize: prince's new awards 10 minutes 34 22-0ct-21 bbc learning english_lingohack_healthcare robots 3 minutes appendix 2: sample of learning diaries khadijah’s learning diaries sample 1 date : 23 july 2021 podcast title : are we on air podcast: ep.46 golshifteh farahani length : 97 minutes the speaker, golshifteh farahani is a smart, unique iranian artist living in exile, in french. she's very philosophical, reflective person. she often speaks about persian mysticism, and mysticism itself is a topic that i am interested. i listen to this podcast expecting her to talk about this. goly gives her insights on persian mysticism, music, culture, and philosophy. i feel so excited and happy when listening to this podcast. i feel even more ecstatic when in several segments, she recommends a song and the podcast played it. goly then explained what it was about its relation or its representation on life, culture, religion, or mysticism. i really love the cultural and spiritual values content in it. this podcast is a delight. i am addicted to listen to it again and again. i played it several times i’ve lost my count. unfamiliar/interesting vocabularies/phrase/quote: • caterpillar (n) : ulat bulu • moth (n) : ngengat • threshold (n) : ambang pintu, permulaan • catastrophe (n): mala petaka • enigma (n) : teka-teki, ucapan yang membingungkan • there’s no birth without pain • it’s impossible … to do this metamorphosis in a comfort zone. • it’s like i’ve lost an arm. it’s hard in the beginning, then you go to para olympic without an arm, and you became the champion. it’s okay. it becomes your new life. • no matter what, the mongols, the greeks—alexander, genghis khan, arabs… whoever invaded, they always melted in iranian culture and poetry, and etc. sample 2 date : 31 july 2021 podcast title : the blindboy podcast hozier length : 111 minutes http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 346 hozier is my favourite musician. i love listening to him telling his stories about his life experiences or his creative process when writing music. it's also delightful when he talks about his favourite books, musicians, songs, and so on. i think he is smart, critical, empathic, artistic and always full of interesting thoughts. i want to know more about him and learn from him too. both hozier and his interviewer speak in a rather fast phase, that sometimes i lost focus in the middle of discussion. however, i get familiar with irish accent pattern now, for example: • long sounds, such as: pa~per, emo~tion, se~rious, commu~nity, ma~stered, la~beled, ba~sically, co~rd, a~lways, comple~tion, achie~vement, mo~rnin’, ca~pable, sta~yn’inbe~d (staying in bed), the sma~llest, perfo~rmance, etc • distinctive rolling r sound, such as: wear, culture, water, searching for, hard, remember, interpret, irland, • distinctive l sound, such as: cold, myself,, child, well being, mental health, explore digital wilderness, • t sounds that are voiced like s sound, such as about(s), what(s), that(s), letting it(s), figure out(s), how did you find out(s)?, polit(s)e, not(s), at(s), • bold o sound, sometimes with long pronunciation too, such as: work (not werk), bo~dy, ho~se (house), o~cean • u pronounced with o, such as jost (just), poorly (not pu~rly for poorly), bot(s) (but), fonny (funny), etc. unfamiliar/interesting vocabularies/phrase/quote • recoil (v) : mundur, berkecut hati • foulness (n) : kekotoran, keburukan • harrowing (adj) : mengerikan • nuance (n) : nuansa, perbedaan yang sangat sedikit • ambiance (n) : suasana • stumble upon (v): tersandung • lent into (v): dipinjamkan ke • physical discomfort • freezing cold • spike of adrenaline • explore digital wilderness • conscious decisions • super self-conscious • pitch black night • i recoil in the foulness of thee (quoted from randy newman’s lyric) • you kinda see distorted mirror. • i become very protective of my internal life as it were and my immediate external life. i try to keep myself to myself a little bit. • …achieveing that mindful “i’m in my body now” experience • learning to step away • etc. faah’s learning diaries http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 347 sample 1 date : 24 july 2021 podcast title : bbc learning english_lingohack_foyeco-the togolese stove length : 4 minutes i regularly listen to the bbc podcast, it's the latest episode for this week. the invention "foyeco" is a real game-changer for african life especially business owner, because normally they only use open fire to cook, it's take time to prepare the fire, bad for their respire system especially lung and it's cost a lot more money compare to foyeco. basically foyeco it's a stove that got small fan on the side to blow air and use coal scarps. i've got to know new vocab such as: • discarded : thrown away • scraps : small pieces of something, usually waste • residue : substance which remains after something has been burned • toxic : poisonous; harmful • fuel-efficient : not using too much fuel while working sample 2 date : 15 august 2021 podcast title : bbc learning english _news reviews_climate crisis: last waring for humanity length : 15 minutes following my weekly routine of studying english. climate change is now effected all over the world, i've read news recently there's severe flood in the north china and north korea, wildfire in turkey, algeria and north africa and in the thailand where i live the summer is unusual, it's longer that other years . i think the climate change is real enough and we should really do something. new vocabularies: • stark : thrown away • dire : very serious; bad http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 159 language functions and myth in french advertisement ahmad yulianto joeluckyluke@yahoo.com semarang state university abstract advertisement is a form of communication aimed at attracting consumers‘ attention toward a certain product or even influencing the latters to adopt a special behavior. this article views3 advertisements of french magazine elle in terms of their referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic functions. roman jakobson‘slanguage functions and roland barthes‘ theory of myth were used to discover the above-mentioned functions. in short, it is important for us to always haveune esprit critique on what we see in the medias since we live in an era of myth and reality. we have to be able to distinguish which is really true and which is false/fake. this type of analysis helps us to unearth what is hidden in any form of communication and bring the truthto the surface. keywords: language functions, myth, and une esprit critique introduction la publicité est une forme de communication dont le but est de fixer l‘attention de consommateur sur un objet et de l‘inciter à adopter un comportement déterminé vis-à-vis de ce dernier. elle peut concerner absolument n‘importe quoi, par exemple : un bien de consommation (nourriture, électroménager, etc.) ; un service (assurance, banque, tourisme, etc.) le terme de réclame est traditionnellement appliqué à cette branche de publicité, et il revient parfois : une personne, un groupe (par exemple une partie politique), ou encore un projet ou une action (organisation d‘événement sportif, action caritative, etc.) : on parle alors d‘une acte de promotion bien que pour les publicitaires, ce mot ait le sens particulier d‘offre présentée comme avantageuse et à courte durée de vie, visant à provoquer un achat – un concept ou une information, officielle ou d‘origine privée (associations, fondations, etc.) visant des changements de comportement ou la promotion de valeurs considérées comme positives ou bénéfiques au niveau de la société (mise en garde contre les drogue, incitation au respect de l‘environnement, prévention routière, etc. (pateda, 1987 :5) en effet la publicité est une stratégie d‘incitation à la consommation ciblant un public particulier. l‘objet consommable peut être matériel (bien, produit), immatériel (service, événement), ou institutionnel (la marque elle-même). la publicité se donne pour premier but d‘attirer l‘attention du client sur le produit ou la marque, puis de familiariser le consommateur avec lui afin de faire aller de soi, si elle le peut, l‘acte d‘achat. en second but, elle cherchera éventuellement à créer un besoin, persuader que le produit au besoin et parfois convaincre qu‘il le fait mieux que d‘autres produits (publicité comparative). la familiarisation est parfois suffisante à cette fin, un produit dont on a entendu parler mailto:joeluckyluke@yahoo.com 160 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 ayant souvent préférence, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, à un autre dont le nom est inconnu. la publicité est un aspect essentiel de la société de consommation. mais quelle est sa fonction économique et commerciale réelle ? son efficacité ? cette dernière n‘est pas si facile à mesurer, d‘autant qu‘une des fonctions de la publicité est de permettre au consommateur de rationaliser l‘achat après coup, de lui économiser la mauvaise conscience consécutive au choix et à la dépense. réalité économique et commerciale par essence, la publicité entend agir sur notre comportement en prenant appui sur nos représentations. elle correspond à une tendance fondamentale de la société de consommation: créer la demande nécessaire pour une offre surabondante et innovante (pateda, 1987 : 15). la publicité est aussi un service de la stratégie de marketing de l‘entreprise : la communication est en effet l‘un des quatre éléments d‘action sur le marché, avec le produit lui-même, son prix, et la distribution. il s‘agit donc avant tout de faire connaître un nouveau produit et de le vendre ; d‘accroître la consommation d‘un produit existant, de fidéliser la clientèle ou de débaucher celle de la concurrence, de diminuer le caractère saisonnier des ventes. le message luimême a moins pour objet d‘informer sur la nature de la marchandise ou de l‘entreprise que de séduire, d‘amener le client potentiel, convenablement ciblé, à voir dans le produit et surtout dans la promesse de la satisfaction d‘un désir, ou d‘un besoin ; voire un élément de son identité propre. ainsi la publicité doit se confirmer aux attentes du consommateur, aux normes de la société, même quand elle fait mine de les bousculer. elle ne crée pas, elle amplifie et diffuse, note dayan. les « créatifs » s‘interrogent sur le comportement des consommateurs, la modification de leurs styles de vie. ils usent et abusent des sondages. ils ne négligent ni les apports de la sociologie ni ceux de la psychologie, ce qui les conduit à privilégier les motivations inconscientes. ainsi, ils évitent soigneusement de provoquer des phénomènes, c‘est-à-dire de contester les représentations et les modes de vie de la cible (http://fr.wikipedia.org. wiki/publicité.html). dans ce cas on parle de la publicité cognitive (faire connaître), conative (faire bouger : acheter) et affective (faire aimer). le mot « média » désigne le canal par lequel cette incitation est délivrée : annonce dans un journal, spot publicitaire à la radio ou à la télévision, affiche sur la voie publique, etc. la publicité existe depuis plus de 150 ans sous forme d‘affiches, de panneaux publicitaires, etc. la publicité se distingue de la propagande par sa finalité commerciale. la publicité modèle certains comportements sociaux qu‘elle juge bon de propager dans la mesure où elle permet la satisfaction du diffuseur. il est plus difficile d‘évaluer l‘efficacité de la publicité, sa contribution à la demande globale comme son influence sur la répartition de la demande : stimule-t-elle la concurrence, ou bien, plus vraisemblablement, favorise-t-elle la concentration de la demande sur un petit nombre de marque ? les publicitaires considèrent que la plupart des messages ne sont pas même perçue du public, qui élabore des stratégies d‘évitement ou de résistance, encore moins mémorisés. la disposition des produits dans les linéaires est finalement bien plus déterminante dans l‘achat, d‘où le recours à la publicité sur le lieu de vente lui-même. on comprend alors http://fr.wikipedia.org/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 161 le sens des efforts des « créatifs » au sein des agences de publicité. la nature du média utilisé est au moins aussi importante que le message car il s‘agit de ne pas, manquer la cible, l‘acheteur potentiel ou le « prescripteur » (ses enfants, son conjoint, son médecin). il faut aussi rencontrer ses intérêts, concocter un message transparent, concis, qui restera en mémoire grâce à l‘originalité, ou la drôlerie, de la forme. cette article vise à : (1) décrire l‘emploi lexical et son sens dans la publicité française ; (2) dévoiler le thème qu‘envoie la publicité française, (3) découvrir comment le producteur français approche le consommateur à travers la publicité recoursauxthéories théorie de mythe de roland barthes les textes de mythologies ont été écrits entre 1954 et 1956. tout d'abord, roland barthes définit le mythe comme une parole, comme un système de communication ou un message. cette théorie semble correspondre à l'idée que l'on peut se faire du mythe. c'est pour nous une construction de l'esprit qui ne repose pas sur un fond de réalité. l'image qui vient en premier lieu à l'esprit est celle d'un regroupement populaire, où de vieilles personnes racontent aux plus jeunes des histoires, des légendes, qui à force de degrés d'appréciation vont devenir des mythes. selon roland barthes, le mythe est un système de communication, il est un message. le mythe est à la fois un mode de signification et une forme. "la parole mythique est formée d'une matière déjà travaillée en vue d'une communication appropriée", affirme barthes. il dévoile donc que non seulement une parole, un discours ou un langage, mais aussi un son, une image et une photographie, peuvent représenter une unité ou une synthèse ‗‘mythique‘‘ significative. la sémiologie faite part d'un lien entre trois termes qui sont un signifiant, un signifié et le signe. dans la langue, le signifiant et le signifié donnent naissance au signe. de cela découle un autre signifiant prenant forme dans le mythe, et le signifié devient une "forme" associée à un nouveau "concept". c'est par le concept qu'une toute autre histoire naît en mythe. dans le concept, selon barthes, "c'est moins le réel qu'une certaine connaissance du réel : en passant du réel à la forme, l'image perd du savoir ". la sémiologie nous fait donc comprendre que le mythe a pour mission de transformer une intention historique en nature, une continuité en éternité. on associe des sentiments et des valeurs au mythe. il nous fait oublier l'origine des produits. la fonction du mythe est donc d'évacuer le réel, de perdre la qualité historique des choses. la fonction première est de parler des choses, mais en les purifiant, en les innocentant et en les fondant en nature et en éternité. il leur donne une clarté qui n'est pas celle de l'explication, mais plutôt celle du constat, explique barthes. rassemblant des textes écrits entre 1954 et 1956 parus dans diverses revues, ainsi qu'une analyse, un « démontage sémiologique » du mythe, les mythologies de roland barthes constituent un ouvrage aussi essentiel que jubilatoire. en effet, au fil d'exemples a priori aussi divers qu'anodins et tirés du quotidien de l'époque où il écrit, l'auteur dresse un portrait à l'acide de la société française tout en décryptant cette dernière, mettant à bas les artifices dont elle est parée –les signes, les mythes, les représentations collectives. ce faisant, il permet au lecteur de voir sous un jour 162 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 nouveau le monde dans lequel il évolue; le lecteur prend alors conscience de la mystification qu'il subit avec un mélange d'effroi et de jubilation, semblable à l'homme qui sort de la caverne chez platon. effroi parce qu'il découvre quelle dupe il a été, mais aussi jubilation puisque, avec les écrits de roland barthes, il enlève le bandeau qu'il a sur les yeux et entraîne dorénavant son regard neuf. ainsi, à l'aide de tous les exemples qu'il développe comme à travers l'analyse profonde qu'il en fait en deuxième partie, l'auteur s'attache à montrer combien la société est prisonnière de mythes aussi grossiers que dangereux, issus pour la plupart de la « culture petite-bourgeoise » dominante et hostile aux changements structurels qui pourraient intervenir. il dénonce ainsi « le divorce accablant de la connaissance et de la mythologie », puisque les représentations collectives ne suivent pas –et rien n'est fait pour qu'elles la suivent– l'évolution de la science et du savoir. surtout, la majeure partie de ces textes, pourtant écrits en réaction à l'actualité des années 1950, est plus que jamais pertinente au jour d'aujourd'hui. on peut même penser que la survivance de mythes, tout autant que la déformation des concepts stigmatisée par barthes un demisiècle plus tôt, est plus vive que jamais de nos jours. dès lors, lire roland barthes n'a rien d'anodin, et son œuvre parait essentiel si l'on désire s'élever un tant soit peut êtreau-dessus de la forêt de l'obscurantisme et de la manipulation. selon barthes, le mythe transmet un message, une idéologie, sans la transmettre. c'est à dire que le mythe connote une idéologie, il ne l'étale pas clairement. il dit que le mythe vide le premier système sémiologique de son sens pour laisser place au second système. on oublie donc les éléments, peut-être importants, contenus dans le premier système sémiologique. les publicités ne nous parlent jamais des efforts qu'il a dû mettre pour atteindre le sommet. le mythe devient fonctionnel. théorie de fonctions du langage de roman jakobson le modèle des fonctions du langage de roman jakobson distingue six éléments ou facteurs de la communication nécessaires pour qu‘il y ait communication : (1) contexte ; (2) destinateur (émetteur) ; (3) destinataire (récepteur) ; (4) contact ; (5) code commun ; (6) message. chaque facteur est le point d‘aboutissement d‘une relation, ou fonction, établie entre le message et ce facteur. ce sont, respectivement, les fonctions : (1) référentielle (« la terre est ronde ») ; (2) émotive (« beurk ! ») ; (3) conative (« viens ici ») ; (4) phatique (« allô ? ») ; (5) métalinguistique (« qu‘entends-tu par ― krill ‖? ») ; (6) poétique (« schtroumf »). l‘analyse des fonctions du langage consiste à stipuler, pour une unité (par exemple, un mot, un texte, une image), une classe ou un type d‘unités (par exemple, un genre textuel ou imagique), la présence/absence des fonctions, les caractéristiques de ces fonctions, notamment leurs relations hiérarchiques et les autres relations qu‘elles peuvent entretenir entre elles. le célèbre modèle des fonctions du langage du linguiste russo-américain jakobson (1963 : 209-248) est, et à plusieurs égards, contestable d‘un point de vue théorique. nous voulons simplement ici suggérer quelques façons d‘exploiter le potentiel analytique de ce dispositif. l‘analyse des fonctions du langage consiste language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 163 à stipuler, pour une unité (par exemple, un mot, un texte, une image), une classe ou un type d‘unités (par exemple, un genre textuel ou imagique), la présence/absence des fonctions, les caractéristiques de ces fonctions, notamment leurs relations hiérarchiques et les autres relations qu‘elles peuvent entretenir entre elles. facteurs de la communication et fonctions selon jakobson, toute communication verbale comporte six éléments, six facteurs (les termes du modèle) : (1) un contexte (le cotexte, c‘est-à-dire les autres signes verbaux du même message, et le monde dans lequel prend place le message) ; (2) un destinateur (un émetteur, un énonciateur) ; (3) un destinataire (un récepteur, un énonciataire) ; (4) un contact entre destinateur et destinataire ; (5) un code commun ; (6) un message. chaque facteur est le point d'aboutissement d'une relation orientée, ou fonction, établie entre le message et ce facteur. on compte ainsi six fonctions : facteurs de la communication et fonctions du langage no facteur d'arrivée facteur de départ fonction 1 contexte message référentielle 2 destinateur message émotive 3 destinataire message conative 4 contact message phatique 5 code message métalinguistique 6 message message poétique sommairement, on peut présenter ainsi ces six fonctions : « (1) la fonction référentielle (orientée vers le contexte ; dominante dans un message du type : ―l'eau bout à 100 degrés‖) ; (2) la fonction émotive (orientée vers le destinateur, comme dans les interjections : ― bah ! ‖, ― oh ! ‖) ; (3) la fonction conative (orientée vers le destinataire : l'impératif, l'apostrophe) ; (4) la fonction phatique (visant à établir, à prolonger ou à interrompre la communication [ou encore à vérifier si le contact est toujours établi] : ― allô ? ‖) ; (5) la fonction métalinguistique (assurant une commune entente du code, présente, par exemple, dans une définition) ; (6) la fonction poétique (― schtroumf ‖) (où ― l'accent [est] mis sur le message pour son propre compte ‖ [(jakobson, 1963 : 214)]). » autres dénominations plusieurs dénominations concurrentes ont été proposées pour les « mêmes » facteurs et fonctions (un nom différent souvent, indique, revendique, révèle, cache, voire induit, une différence conceptuelle importante). voici des exemples pour les facteurs (la numérotation renvoie au tableau ci-dessus) : 1. référent ; 2. émetteur, énonciateur ; 3. récepteur, énonciataire ; 4. canal. voici des exemples pour les fonctions : 1. dénotative, cognitive, représentative, informative ; 2. expressive ; 3. incitative, impérative, impressive ; 4. relationnelle, de contact ; 5. métasémiotique 164 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 (pour généraliser la fonction à toute production sémiotique, par exemple les images) ; 6. esthétique, rhétorique. critère hiérarchiques plusieurs critères peuvent servir à établir la hiérarchie fonctionnelle. par exemple, arcand et bourbeau (1995 : 35) utilisent un critère intentionnel : « la fonction dominante est celle qui répond à la question : ― dans quelle intention ce message a-t-il été transmis ? ‖ et [...] les fonctions secondaires sont là pour l'appuyer. » l'intention globale est à distinguer de l'intention liée à chaque fragment, c'est-à-dire « une phrase ou suite de phrases qui répond à une intention. » (1995 : 27). comme l‘intention peut être cachée, la fonction dominante en termes d‘intensité de présence manifeste peut ne pas l‘être en termes d‘intention. arcand et bourbeau distinguent également les manifestations directes et indirectes de l'intention, lesquelles sont corrélatives à l'opposition entre les fonctions réelles et manifestes. la fonction incitative (conative) se manifeste directement dans « va ouvrir la porte » et indirectement dans « on sonne » (qui équivaut à « va ouvrir la porte »), dont la fonction manifeste est la fonction référentielle (ou informative) (1995 : 30-33). ajoutons qu‘il faut départager entre les fonctions causes et effets et, pourquoi pas, les fonctions fins (la fin est l‘effet que l‘on cherche à produire) et les fonctions moyens. par exemple, la suractivation de la fonction phatique (cause) peut produire une activation de la fonction poétique (effet), cette suractivation peut être produite, par exemple, à des fins esthétiques : la fonction poétique est alors une fin et la phatique un moyen. fonctions réelles/thématisée les fonctions du langage peuvent être liées aux différentes instances énonciatives possibles : auteur empirique (réel), auteur construit (l‘image que l‘on se fait de l‘auteur à partir de son texte), narrateur, personnage, narrataire, lecteur construit, lecteur empirique (réel), etc. (pour des précisions, voir le chapitre sur la dialogique). pour prendre un exemple simple, la déstructuration de la fonction phatique dans un échange bancal entre personnages (par exemple, lorsque les dialogues ne sont que des monologues parallèles) pourra correspondre, d‘une part, à une dysfonction phatique entre auteur et lecteur empiriques et, d‘autre part, à une activation, par cette dysfonction entre personnages, de la fonction poétique. la fonction phatique est alors thématisée et fictionnelle (elle intervient entre personnages) et la fonction poétique est « réelle » (elle provient de l‘auteur réel et est perçue, en principe, par le lecteur réel). relations entre fonctions l'étude des relations entre fonctions se limite généralement à établir une hiérarchie. allons plus loin. posons que deux types de corrélations peuvent être établies entre deux fonctions. la corrélation est dite converse ou directe si, d‘une part, l‘augmentation de la force de l‘une des deux fonctions s‘accompagne de l‘augmentation de celle l‘autre et, d‘autre part, la diminution de la force de l‘une entraîne la diminution de celle de l‘autre. la corrélation est dite inverse si l‘augmentation de la force de l‘une des deux fonctions s‘accompagne de la diminution de celle de l‘autre et réciproquement. nous esquisserons ici une telle analyse des corrélations. en principe, l'accent mis sur une fonction contribue à diminuer language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 165 l'importance de tous les autres et inversement dans le cas de sa mise en retrait. mais nous formulerons également l'hypothèse que certaines fonctions sont couplées, de manière générale, dans une relation inverse encore plus nette. les couplages les plus évidents sont ceux entre les fonctions expressive et conative et entre les fonctions référentielle et poétique. la frontière entre interaction fonctionnelle et confusion fonctionnelle reste difficile à tracer. klinkenberg (1996 : 61) pose directement la question : « des fonctions bien distinctes les unes des autres ? » la part d‘interaction/confusion entre chaque couple de fonctions possible demeure à établir. klinkenberg (1996 : 6162) fait état de quelques-uns de ces couples. voyons-en un : fonctions référentielle et conative : « toute information — fonction référentielle — modifie le stock de connaissances du récepteur ; on peut donc dire qu‘elle agit sur celui-ci : fonction conative. par ailleurs, pas mal de prétendues informations ont pour aboutissement final un comportement : la mention ― chute de pierres ‖ vise non seulement à informer mais surtout à susciter une certaine attitude chez l‘automobiliste » (klinkenberg, 1996 : 61). la seconde interaction évoquée par klinkenberg, feronsnous valoir, ressortit de l‘opposition entre fonctions réelle/manifeste, ici, respectivement, la fonction conative et la fonction référentielle. corrélations entre fonctions expressives et conatives la parfaite adéquation subjectivité-message se retrouverait, par exemple, dans le cri spontané exprimant une douleur. même si un cri peut être « adressé » au récepteur, il est avant tout associé presque consubstantiellement au destinateur, laissant la fonction conative pour ainsi dire vide. à l‘inverse, le message didactique, voué à atteindre l‘autre, suppose, en principe, l‘atténuation de la fonction émotive (du moins lorsqu‘il y a incompatibilité entre les fonctions). corrélation entre fonctions poétique et référentielle jakobson (1963 : 238-239) semble reconnaître la relation entre fonctions poétique et référentielle, puisqu‘il les place dans une sorte de lutte pour la suprématie : « l'ambiguïté est une propriété intrinsèque, inaliénable, de tout message centré sur luimême, bref c'est un corollaire obligé de la poésie [...] la suprématie de la fonction poétique sur la fonction référentielle n'oblitère pas la référence (la dénotation), mais la rend ambiguë. à un message à double sens correspondent un destinateur dédoublé, un destinataire dédoublé, et, de plus, une référence dédoublée – ce que soulignent nettement, chez de nombreux peuples, les préambules des contes de fée : ainsi par exemple, l'exorde habituel des contes majorquins : ― axio era y no era ‖ (cela était et n'était pas). » nous dirons que cette relation est une corrélation inverse. plus le message « parle » de lui (fonction poétique), réfère à lui, moins il parle du contexte (fonction référentielle), y réfère et vice-versa. fonction émotive ou expressive intégrons l‘élargissement de la portée de la fonction émotive suggéré par klinkenberg (1996 : 53) : « l‘expression de ― fonction émotive ‖ (à laquelle on peut préférer celle de ― fonction expressive ‖) ne doit pas être prise ici dans son sens habituel, qui renvoie à un affect humain. elle n‘a, en fait, rien à 166 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 voir avec l‘émotion. tout message, même le plus froid, met en évidence la condition de son émetteur. » même le grésillement d‘une pièce électrique défectueuse d‘une chaîne stéréo ressortit donc de cette fonction, puisqu‘il indique le mauvais état de cette chaîne. fonction référentielle jakobson (1963 : 213) note que le contexte est « ce qu‘on appelle aussi, dans une terminologie quelque peu ambiguë, le référent ». cela ne l‘empêche pas, étonnamment, de dire « référentielle » la fonction qui prend pour facteur d‘arrivée ce contexte. au surplus, le terme de « contexte » n‘est, en général et dans ce cas particulier, pas moins ambigu. jakobson nous dit du contexte qu‘il est « soit verbal soit susceptible d‘être verbalisé ». quant à la fonction référentielle, dont jakobson (1963 : 214) donne pour synonyme « dénotative », « cognitive », contrairement à toutes les autres, elle ne fait pas l‘objet d‘une présentation détaillée et semble aller de soi. nous croyons qu‘il y a, chez jakobson et ceux qui emploient son modèle, deux grandes façons de concevoir cette fonction : 1) la fonction référentielle relève de ce « dont on parle » (jakobson, 1963 : 216). 2) la seconde façon de considérer la fonction référentielle nous semble plus utile et opératoire que la précédente. la fonction référentielle est associée à un élément dont on affirme (ou interroge) la valeur de vérité (son caractère vrai ou faux), en particulier, voire exclusivement, lorsque cette valeur de vérité est identique et dans l‘univers réel et dans l‘univers d‘assomption ou de référence qui prend en charge cette valeur de vérité. fonction référentielle et valeurs de vérité jakobson (1963 : 216) dit des phrases impératives, liées à la fonction conative, qu'elles ne peuvent, au contraire des phrases déclaratives, être soumises à une « épreuve de vérité » : l‘impératif « buvez ! » « ne peut pas provoquer la question ― est-ce vrai ou n‘est-ce pas vrai ? ‖, qui peut toutefois parfaitement se poser après des phrases telles que : ― on buvait ‖, ― on boira ‖, ― on boirait ‖.» pour peu qu‘on considère que les phrases déclaratives sollicitent fortement la fonction référentielle, « l‘épreuve de vérité » devient une épreuve pour repérer la fonction référentielle. fonction métalinguistique d‘une part, nous proposons de généraliser la fonction métalinguistique en fonction métacodique (ou métasystémique). cela permettra de rendre compte de « messages » non linguistiques. d‘autre part, nous proposons de considérer comme code tout système normé et normant et de ne pas se limiter, pour ce qui est du texte, au code de la langue. rastier (1989 : 49-50, 1994 : 222 et 224) considère qu‘un texte résulte en fait de l‘interaction de trois systèmes : le dialecte (le système de la langue) ; le sociolecte (l‘usage particulier d‘un dialecte propre à un pratique sociale déterminée à laquelle correspond un discours structuré en genres) ; l‘idiolecte (l‘usage d‘une langue et d‘un sociolecte propre à un auteur donné). ainsi des énoncés comme « un sonnet comporte 14 vers », qui traite d‘un genre (production sociolectale), ou « baudelaire aimait les antithèses », qui traite d‘un style individuel (production idiolectale), portent-ils autant sur un code que « comment écrivez-vous language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 167 ― subrepticement ‖ ? », qui touche le système de la langue. analyse la première publicité: produit de beauté l‘image publicitaire [guerlain kisskiss] apparaît dans elle 19 juin 2006. syntaxique un slogan s‘inscrit dans cette image publicitaire qui dit: guerlain kisskiss couleurs précieuses douceur et delice le nouveau rouge à lèvres le mot kisskiss est à la forme d‘impératif et doublé. en plus, il s‘inscrit au rouge qui représente les lèvres. et puis, couleurs précieuses : ca veut vous dire que guerlain vous offre un produit dont la couleur vous convient et de valeur exclusivement manufacturé pour vous. douceur et delice : ca veut dire que ce produit est doux et aimable. le nouveau rouge à lèvres : ca veut dire que c‘est une nouvelle sorte de produit.  sémantique ce publicitaire veut s‘associer à certains sentiments et certaine action en utilisant le mot anglais kisskiss. tout le monde sait que kisskiss, c‘est une action faite par les lèvres. les mots ‗couleurs précieuse‘ impliquent qu‘avoir les lèvres en cette couleur, vous aurez l‘air plus fascinant. ‗douceur et délice‘ peuvent impliquer deux significations différentes : la première – ce produit est agréable à mettre sur les lèvres. la deuxième – si vous voulez avoir un baiser doux, ce produit pourra vous aider à en avoir un. pragmatique il y a quatre fonctions ici : fonction référentielle : pour vous informer l‘existence de ce bon produit. fonction conative : pour vous inviter d‘acheter ce produit fonction expressive : pour exprimer un sentiment particulier : kisskiss fonction phatique : pour attirer attention : kisskiss inscrit en rouge et gras. description de l’image une belle femme en noir démontre ses lèvres rouges. elle est chic, belle et sexy. elle a un regard suscitant. à droite un produit de beauté rouge à lèvres dont la couleur est pareille aux lèvres de la femme. ce produit s‘associe à une belle fille, moderne et élite pour créer une image de beauté et modernité. cela pour dire que la meilleure femme a toujours choisi guerlain. ce produit joue sur le mythe de valeurs des gens et sur le sentiment d‘appartenance à une certaine classe de femme qui gagne tous les meilleur dans la vie. thème la douceur et le baiser vont très bien ensemble. trouvez-les dans guerlain. la deuxième publicité: voiture l‘image publicitaire daimler chrysler smart est publiée dans elle 19 juin 2006. syntaxique dans cette image publicitaire il n‘y a qu‘un slogan simple qui dit : il y a plus simple pourmonter à 5 dans une smart. ce slogan est sous forme de l‘affirmatif qui accentue l‘existence de nouveau produit de petite voiture qui s‘appelle ‗smart‘. en principe, le message se concentre sur le mot ‗simple‘, le mot ‗5‘ et le mot ‗smart‘ sémantique 168 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 dans cette publicité daimler chrysler ne propose pas seulement des produits, mais des produits qui véhiculent une attitude bien distincte. c‘est le mot ‗smart‘. cette voiture est pour ceux qui sont ‗smart’ ou intelligent. daimler chrysler cherche aussi à créer une identification sociale distincte en mettant un rapport entre cette voiture et une petite famille. si on pense à une petite voiture, c‘est une voiture pour le mari, la femme, et une ou deux enfants. ce type-là est d‘habitude n‘est pas assez spacieux. mais, le produit qu‘offre daimler chrysler est tout à fait différent : c‘est une petite voiture qui est simple à conduire et assez spacieux pour tout le monde mais peut accommoder 5 personnes. en tout cas, elle s‘adresse pour les smart gens. pragmatique en principe, on peut dire que ce message publicitaire vise à, dans trois phases successives : (1) attirer l‘attention (fonction phatique) : la phrase s‘imprime en gras et grandes lettres ; (2) convaincre (fonction conative) : le message a pour but de convaincre que ce type de voiture pourrait être un bon choix pour la petite voiture ; par la raison (fonction référentielle) : il a pour but d‘informer le public que maintenant daimler chrysler produit une petite voiture qui est bon et élégant ; et (3) faire passer à l‘action (fonctions conative et référentielle). le troisième objectif est évidemment le plus important et les autres lui sont subordonnés. description de l’image un type de petite voiture se montre en rouge et noir. ce qui est unique de cette voiture est qu‘elle a une partie qui peut s‘étendre (la partie au milieu). tout ça implique que bien qu‘elle soit une petite voiture, mais elle est assez spacieuse. on peut s‘en servir comme si elle soit plus grande. thème un ‗smart’ choix de voiture se trouve dans ‗daimler chrysler smart‘ qui est simple à conduire mais spacieux pour votre famille. la smart voiture pour les smart gens. la troisième publicité: produit alimentaire syntaxique dans cette image publicitaire il n‘y a qu‘un slogan simple qui dit : sweet dog le hot dog c’est trop fort pour vous ? alors découvrez la mi forte de maille, une nouvelle recette de maille plus douce nouvelle mi forte de maille le choix de mots : ‗sweet dog‘ qui s‘imprime en bonne lettre renforce le ‗sweetness =la douceur de ce produit alimentaire. le mot ‗hot dog‘ apparaît deux fois tandis que le marque maille 5 fois. le mot mi forte apparaît deux fois. cette répétition a pour but d‘accentuer le sens. la deuxième phrase apparaît simple et vigoureuse en forme interrogatif : ‗le hot dog c’est trop fort pour vous ?‘ c‘est une question rhétorique qui n‘attend pas de réponse. la 3ème phrase est étroitement lié à la phrase précédente : ‗alors découvrez la mi forte de maille, une nouvelle recette de maille plus douce.‘ elle apparaît sous forme impérative qui incite les clients/ consommateurs. la dernière phrase est répétition de la phrase précédente. ca c‘est pour bien instaurer ce produit au cœur du client. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 169 sémantique on utilise le mot anglais sweet au lieu de doux/douce parce qu‘il a du sens connotativement plus large. sweet s‘applique à l‘apparence et au goût. il s‘applique aussi à la nourriture et à l‘homme. en plus, ce mot est lié aux etatsunis (dû à sa nature) desquels ce produit vient. et ensuite, hot dog est à l‘origine américaine dont le goût, peut-être, n‘est pas toujours convenable aux français. alors, en ajoutant ce produit au votre hot dog, tout est réglé. la suite est claire : le mot ‗alors découvrez la mi forte de maille, une nouvelle recette de maille plus douce.‘ ça c‘est utilisé entre autre quand on a une décision à prendre. c‘est pourquoi maille est produite pour vous. la dernière phrase implique qu‘il y a eu un autre produit du même type : nouvelle mi forte de maille. ce nouveau produit est déjà adapté pour votre goût. pragmatique trois fonctions se présentent dans cette image publicitaire: fonction référentielle : pour informer les clients et futures clients de l‘existence de ce nouveau produit. fonction conative : pour vous convaincre de la convenance de ce produit aux français qui veulent goûter hot dog à la française. fonction phatique : sweet dog s‘imprime de telle sorte qu‘il donne l‘impression de ‗sweet‘ / la douceur. il ressemble aussi à la courbe de la pâte ajouté au hot dog (voir l‘image). ça, ce n‘est que pour attirer l‘attention. description de l’image une image de hot dog apparaît au centre sous laquelle s‘imprime sweetdog . la pâte ajoutée au hot dog et l‘inscription sweet dog vont très bien ensemble et renforcent l‘une et l‘autre. le background qui est noir se contraste avec ce produit qui est blanc. toutes les inscriptions s‘impriment au blanc pour impressionner la douceur et l‘hygiène. en plus, cette couleur ressemble bien celle du produit. thème hot dog à la française avec mi forte de maille. conclusion le monde dans lequel nous vivons est soumis à un nombre de mythes médiatiques en tous genres. ces mythes ont un effet manifeste, la déformation de la vérité. cet effet médiatique ressemble parfois à un objectif : de créer une image et l'identification à un groupe ou à une valeur. ceux qui portent, utilisent les produits publiés font partie de l'élite ou d‘un certain groupe. les autres, ce sont ceux qui ne valent rien. comme ce que dit roland barthes. le mythe est pour nous une construction de l'esprit qui ne repose pas sur un fond de réalité. en effet, la signification implicite première de ce mythe est que pour être "cool" et bien il faut faire partie du groupe. alors il faut aimer les produits publiés. par contre, ce que ce mythe essaie de faire oublier, c'est que les fabricants sont des compagnies capitalistes qui ne veulent rien que faire du profit. simplement, on peut dire que le message publicitaire doit, dans trois phases successives : (1) attirer l‘attention (fonction phatique), (2) convaincre (fonction conative), par la raison (fonction référentielle) ou l‘émotion (fonction émotive), et (3) faire passer à l‘action (fonctions conative et référentielle). le troisième 170 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 objectif est évidemment le plus important et les autres lui sont subordonnés. toutes les publicités analysées font les fonctions citées au-dessus. en principe, la critique médiatique est importante. il est primordial d'apprendre à distinguer le mythe de la réalité. on ne peut rien changer dans un monde où tout ce qui est connu n'est que mensonge. l'analyse des mythes est en fait une façon efficace de les opposer et de mettre la vérité à la surface. bibliographie arcand, r et bourbeau, n,1995.la communication efficace, centre educatif/culturel (cec), paris. jakobson, r,1963.linguistique et poétique, essais de linguistique générale, paris. joannis& de barnier, dunod,2005,de la stratégie marketing à la création publicitaire, paris. klinkenberg,1996,culture etcommunication, le seints, paris. malaval & décaudin, communication, théorie et pratique, pentacom. lendrevie & de baynast, 1992, de la publicité à la communication intégrée, le publicitor. pateda, m, 1986. semantik leksikal, nusa indah rastier, f,1989.triade sémiotique et sémantique linguistique, almen semiotik, aarhus universitet. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/slogan/html http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/pulicité/html elle, ed. 26 septembre 2005 elle, ed.19 juin 2006 elle, ed.31 juillet 2006 language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 21 undergraduate students’ self-efficacy strategies in writing academic papers anne yustica pramesti sumarsono universitas sanata dharma, indonesia email: yusticaanne02@gmail.com concilianus laos mbato universitas sanata dharma, indonesia email: cons@usd.ac.id abstract this study explored the writing self-efficacy of english education undergraduates at sanata dharma university, yogyakarta. nowadays, many students still have not used self-efficacy in their studies. consequently, they may encounter difficulties when working on tasks. as a result, the scores obtained are not the highest. which may make them lack the motivation to learn. the purpose of this research was to determine the application of self-efficacy in writing works for the undergraduate course of english education at sanata dharma university. the research question was: how can undergraduate students of the english education study program manage self-efficacy and writing anxiety to complete the academic writing class? this research adopted qualitative methods making use of the likert scale and interviews. the questionnaire was distributed to sanata dharma university’s undergraduates who had received english courses in reading literary works. the results show that undergraduates have a high sense of self-efficacy, can complete academic writing on time, and we are motivated by their internal and surrounding environments. keywords: academic writing, qualitative method, self-efficacy, undergraduate students introduction writing has attracted the attention of researchers to a large extent because it is an indispensable skill to help learn any language. without it, no further education would be possible (shangarfan and mamipour, 2011). for most people, the writing process is difficult. this takes a lot of time and requires too much attention. besides, writing skills are particularly important for efl (english as a foreign language) students because those are the main factor in achieving successful academic performance in an educational environment. however, learning to write and writing successfully as efl students are usually problematic. in most cases, students often encounter some difficulties when writing. moreover, due to the need to follow various instructions, they may find it difficult to do the task. education is an important role in the millennial generation. education is a conscious and planned effort aimed at creating a learning atmosphere and learning process. thus, students can actively develop their potential and fully develop the religious spiritual power, self-control, individuality, sublime character, skills, intelligence, and wisdom needed by themselves and the society (sisdiknas no. 20 of 2003). based on this understanding, it is clear that education enables students to develop their potential and develop skills that can be used when socializing. not only at the high school level, but higher education students are also required to develop their potential, life skills, as well as academic abilities. the success of students in sharing their potential and balancing between academic and nonacademic activities can be seen from their academic achievements. based on setiawan (2000), academic achievement is an individual learning effort that can show a degree of success in achieving goals. in the learning process in school or college, academic achievements focus on the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:yusticaanne02@gmail.com mailto:cons@usd.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 22 students’ grades. in measuring the learning achievement, the academic scores can be seen from the cognitive aspect to evaluate the mastery of knowledge. the current researchers attempted to investigate how undergraduate students could complete academic writing on time making use of self-efficacy. one of the subjects taught at school is english. as efl students in the english education study program, students should master the four english skills, one of which is writing. writing gives the opportunity for students to express thoughts and synthesize multiple points of view by considering the persuasive communication that emerges from realities that they can use to make good writing (crowhurst, 1990). accordingly, being able to compose texts is a basic ability for scholastic and expert achievement. undoubtedly, college freshmen' writing abilities are among the best indicators of scholastic achievement (geiser and studley, 2001) and even outside the scholarly community, composing aptitudes are significant and a signature trait of expert capability (light 2001). in that capacity, building up a superior comprehension of good and helpless composing is a significant goal, both for hypothetical and applied reasons. based on this conception, efl students should improve their writing skills especially in academic writing which is the compulsory class to graduate from college. wijaya and mbato (2020) stated that to produce more qualified efl students, there should be a large gap between the desires of teachers and students when starting the scientific writing process so that students will perceive seriousness. constraints in completing academic writing assignments include lack of motivation, writing nervousness, and unclear objectives in the writing elements. students in indonesia who study english must graduate with good grades and must work hard to improve their writing skills. writing is a daunting activity, especially for second language/foreign language learners but they must master this skill to achieve excellent results in content courses (especially higher education level). meanwhile, the requirement for completing undergraduate education is to write academic papers, though sometimes students are not able to write good papers. mullen (2006) states that most academics see fresh graduate students as those having advanced writing skills and therefore in no need for extensive guidance. in different words, the students got trouble in utilizing syntax and pick the jargon (pratiwi, rukmini, & faridi (2017). therefore, having that in mind, students must gain self-efficacy to encourage them in overcoming unexpected and difficult things. writing is the most challenging and complex skill in learning a subsequent language. it depends on the utilization of vital language with underlying exactness and correspondence principles (dar and khan, 2015; hyland, 2003; mahboob, 2014). writing anxiety is the overall tactile factor that interferes with or prevents the creative cycle and is followed by a reluctance to write and distorted clarification. for example, “journalists are taken to an uncreated world" and "great writers are considered immoral”. "development and inspiration" exacerbate the stress and unfriendly impact of composition (shunk, 2009). as a passionate factor, composing tension can carry pressing factors and strain to students and make them surrender any composition (katrancı, 2015; blasco, 2016). scientists for the most part allude to the affliction brought about by nervousness. writing is an intellectual interaction that can test memory, thinking abilities, and verbal orders to effectively communicate reflection (kellogg, 2001) because proficient writing shows the success of second language learning (geiser & studley, 2002; hyland, 2003; mccutchen, 1984; nickerson, perkins, & smith, 2014). diasti and mbato (2020) state that lecturers ask the students to work individually in the academic writing class. this means that students are expected to cultivate skills to manage their anxiety in writing. therefore, in the past two decades, learning to write has become very important due to two factors: it is used as a tool for effective communication of ideas (graham & perin, 2007; haider, 2012; hyland, 2003). when students study academic writing, they sometimes feel scared and lack confidence. at such times, the role of the lecturer is very important for https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 23 boosting students' confidence and creating a positive learning atmosphere (such as motivating students and setting an example for students). lecturers are relied upon to have a connection between showing methods and creativity in educating writing (ghufron & hawa, 2015). bandura (1960) pointed out that social cognitive theory (sct) is a kind of learning in a social environment of dynamic interaction and mutual interaction between person, environment, and behaviour. the characteristics of the social cognitive theory are to emphasize social influence and to strengthen external and internal society. bandura (1986) asserts that a supportive learning environment can make students feel fun in learning because all environmental factors can provide positive spirits. according to schunk (1995), a good sense of self-efficacy will guide students to reduce grade anxiety because they can determine their learning goals and make more efforts to achieve them. furthermore, teachers must be able to help students determine learning goals so that students can develop self-efficacy. besides, students will also encounter difficulties in achieving these goals. if students can use their selfefficacy well, they will attain goals more easily. bandura (2001) pointed out that the core characteristics of private agency solve the question of what it means to be humans, which includes intentionality, forward-looking, self-reactivity, and self-reflection. the first one is deliberate. according to bandura (2001), agency refers to purposeful action. individuals can choose to show a tolerant attitude, or use self-influence to show the opposite behaviour. the purpose is to indicate the operation to be performed in the future. the second one is far-sighted. people construct result expectations based on the conditional relationship between the observed surrounding environmental events and the results of actions (bandura 1986). thirdly, the self-reaction ability of a nation must not only be limited to being a planner and thinker but also a motivator and self-organizer. bandura (2001) pointed out that after adopting intentions and action plans, people cannot simply sit down and wait for a suitable performance to appear. therefore, institutions are not only involved in the ability to make decisions and take action but also to provide appropriate forms of action and the ability to incentivize and organize their implementation. these include self-monitoring, self-direction of performance through personal standards, and self-correcting responses (bandura 1986, 1991b). the last one is self-reflection. people are not only agents of action but also self-checkers of their functions. bandura (2001) pointed out that reflecting on one's metacognitive ability and the sufficiency of thoughts and behaviours are the core characteristics that distinguish humans from subjects. through reflective self-awareness, people can evaluate their motivations, values, and the meaning of life pursuits. it is in this higher level of self-reflection that the individual resolves the conflict in motivation and persuasion and chooses to act for others (bandura 1986). a person sometimes has a high belief in selfefficacy; they will feel a strong sense of happiness and high self-esteem (bandura, 1997; flammer, 1990). as an alternative to the view that individual behaviour is entirely a response to the external environment, this basic framework regards the individual as being proactive, self-reflective, selfregulating, and motivating through subjective assessment of their abilities (bandura, 1997). they take the initiative to do something, do your best when necessary, and insist on doing it well. as long as it is good, it can produce positive results. if someone feels stressed, self-efficacy can help relieve stress. bandura (1997) pointed out that if a person does something ambitiously, self-efficacy can also cause stress. besides, self-efficacy can have a positive impact on daily life. it will also increase academic performance in school. on the other hand, perceived failure will also hinder selfefficacy. each person can determine his/her level of self-efficacy. bong and skaalvik (2003) pointed out that academic self-concept can indicate a certain academic field, and self-efficacy can indicate selfbelief that is considered successful when someone completes certain tasks. pajares (2001) pointed out that if students study the same material, selfefficacy can indicate someone's confidence in completing the task. therefore, students who have https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 24 a good sense of self-efficacy can easily complete tasks, especially english reading practices, and can understand what is being discussed. wuepper (2017) pointed out that pse is domain-specific and different from a more general concept. most people have higher pse in some domains and lower pse in others. in some areas, the level of pse has practical and measurable effects. people with higher pse will have higher ambitions, a sense of hard work, and will worry less about their efforts. self-efficacy in the academic field can be interpreted as the ability of students to carry out and organize activities properly. when someone believes in the abilities he has, the business he runs will also get bigger and more active. this is done to prove his ability to help in doing a task and facing obstacles when completing it. while chairiyati (2013) conducted quantitative research, this research will employ a qualitative method to obtain objective test results. chairiyati (2013) described the relationship between self-efficacy and academic self-concept and academic achievement. to fill in the gap, the research would examine students’ self-efficacy in working on academic writings on an ongoing basis. this research proposed one research problem, namely, how can undergraduate students of english education in yogyakarta manage self-efficacy and writing anxiety to complete the academic writing class? methodology this research used a qualitative method. gunawan (2013) pointed out that qualitative research is the study of specific links to social relations related to the diverse facts of the lifeworld. qualitative research aims to understand human behaviour from the perspectives of the actor's authority (how the actor perceives and interprets activities based on its creation). qualitative research is a research method used to express government and private sector matters as well as social issues relating to youth, women, sports, art, and cultural organizations. it can be used as a policy to achieve common welfare (gunawan, 2013: 80-81). the subjects of this research were eighth and seventhsemester students who had already taken the research proposal class in the english education department of sanata dharma university, yogyakarta. because of the pandemic covid-19, many participants could not participate in this research. only eight students agreed to participate. the method of retrieving data was to provide participants with a questionnaire that was distributed through google forms which could be filled out according to their situation. the reason for choosing participants with those criteria was to prepare them to continue writing their thesis and academic papers in the form of a thesis proposal. the researchers wanted to get their perspectives on self-efficacy in completing the final year project from the beginning of writing a thesis proposal. for data collection techniques, the researchers distributed a questionnaire consisting of 10 open-ended questions and interviewed english education undergraduate students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in writing preparation for the final year project. in the questionnaire, some questions contained the main principles covering the entire research question. the questionnaire consisted of 10 questions about the main topics in the research. not only did the questionnaire collect respondents’ responses but the interview also clarified the respondents' intentions and provided reasons as per the aims and objectives of the study. the researchers used an unstructured interview. an interview is a data collection technique to find problems more openly where the party is invited to be asked for information, opinions, and ideas. researchers in conducting interviews should listen carefully and record what is explained by the informant (sugiyono, 2008). in this interview, the researchers collected data from parents of autistic children and english language teachers who taught these autistic children. this interview was carried out until the researchers got thorough information. in analyzing data, four activities including data reduction, data display, conclusion, and verification were done (sugiyono, 2014). data reduction was carried out by summarizing the raw field notes and selecting the main points. besides, the researchers also rechecked and made coding to each unit so that https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 25 the source could be traced. second, data display was done by displaying the overall results of the study in the form of descriptions, charts, and matrices. afterwards, the researcher drew conclusions based on the data obtained. conclusions in qualitative research were expected to be new findings that have never existed before. furthermore, the researchers submitted a complete research report. at that point, the questionnaire data will be investigated utilizing descriptive statistical analysis. the rate calculation equation is as follows. σx / σn. 100% where σx: number of the voters σn: number of all participants results and discussions this part is enacted to summarize all the findings obtained through the likert-scale questionnaire and interview about undergraduate students’ perceptions of their self-efficacy in academic writings. there are two findings that the researcher found. the first is related to the influence of external and internal factors that maintain students’ self-efficacy during academic writing activities. the second finding emphasizes the importance of increasing self-efficacy in leading students to succeed in academic writing. each finding is presented in the following table accompanied by several important quotes from the interview results, related findings from previous research, and related theories to provide in-depth discussion. table 1. the questionnaire results n o statements strongly disagree disagree neutral agree strongly agree 1 . as an undergraduate in english education, i think i must master academic writing skills to make me look more academic. 2 (25%) 5 (62.5%) 1 (12.5%) 2 . i can overcome the anxiety of writing because i believe i have enough ability to produce qualified academic writing products. 4 (50%) 2 (25%) 2 (25%) 3 . by observing the academic writing success of my colleagues, i am deeply eager to improve my academic writing skills. 1 (12.5%) 5 (62.5%) 2 (25%) 4 . when my academic writing product is evaluated and accepted by my academic consultant, i will be more likely to succeed in academic writing. 3 (37.5%) 3 (37.5%) 2 (25%) 5 . if my academic advisors and colleagues always 1 (12.5%) 6 (75%) 1 (12.5%) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 26 encourage me, i will be more confident to complete my academic writing project. 6 . when i classify academic writing projects as fun and interesting learning activities, i believe i will be able to produce excellent writing products. 3 (37.5%) 4 (50%) 1 (12.5%) 7 . when i can build a higher sense of self-efficacy in academic writing, i will find many strategies to complete writing tasks in a challenging writing environment. 1 (12.5%) 5 (62.5%) 2 (25%) 8 . i am confident that if i insist on achieving my goals through writing projects, i will be able to write more qualified academic works. 1 (12.5%) 6 (75%) 1 (12.5%) 9 . i can stay calm, although i will encounter many writing obstacles in the academic writing process because i have done all my hard work, dedication and perseverance to finish my writing. 2 (25%) 5 (62.5%) 1 (12.5%) 1 0 . i am convinced that if my academic advisor also goes all out in the writing process, goes all out to provide me with guidance, then the academic writing activities will be more feasible and enjoyable. 2 (25%) 4 (50%) 2 (25%) table 4.1 above shows the results of ten statements that determine students’ self-efficacy in academic writing. the first statement shows that one student (12.5%) chose "strongly agree" and five undergraduate students (62.5%) chose "agree". based on these findings, it can be concluded that most undergraduates believe that academic writing is very important for academicians to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 27 make them look more scientific in their academic life. this finding is in line with the theory of writing that scientific writing and other elements of professional development are more academic in nature or contain scientific value than other activities that require a high degree of creativity (sudjana, 1991: 6). based on the interview, most students have good self-efficacy in writing papers. the reasons are that they know how to reach their goals in writing papers due to strong determination, and they can manage their time very well to do their best and successfully write papers. in the second statement, two students (25%) chose "strongly agree" and two students (25%) chose "agree". it can be concluded that most undergraduates have more control over writing anxiety because they firmly believe in their writing skills. this finding corresponds to the previous study by dar & khan (2015). they found that writing is the most challenging skill in learning a second language. it is based on the use of precise strategic language with structural accuracy and communication potential. according to the interview, the way and purpose of writing papers are that students can use self-efficacy to motivate themselves. although it is difficult, they still think they can do it. then, they will confidently realize their writing skills and continue to make every effort. in the third statement, two students (25%) chose "strongly agree" and five students (62,5%) chose "agree." regarding these findings, it can be said that a large part of undergraduates can excel in academic writing because they are willing to imitate the effective writing strategies of other learning partners and become excellent academic writers. this finding is in line with moran and mcmaster (2009) research results. they found that verbal persuasion will be useful and meaningful for future writing learning motivation because language teachers can design renewable learning strategies that are compatible with efl students' writing skills so that they can instill a higher level of self-efficacy. according to the interview that the researchers did, some factors can affect students’ self-efficacy in academic writing: they have social role models that can affect someone's self-efficacy by seeing other people’s success, they have ambition, passion, and goals in the academic life, and they feel confident to improve their skills in writing. the fourth statement shows that two students (25%) chose "strongly agree" and three students (37.5%) chose "agree". these findings indicate that if most undergraduates have experienced these positive learning nuances in the past, they can repeat similar academic writing achievements. the fourth finding is congruent with the research findings of mbato & cendra (2019). they found that if a thesis instructor always gives students meaningful and continuous support, then their motivation to write a thesis will be continuously cultivated. based on the interview, the contributions of the academic supervisor towards students’ writing tasks are to remind them to write an accurate and credible paper, to search information from official sites, educational institutes, and agencies (e.g., the jakarta post, mendeley, google scholar, the university's library), and to give feedback and suggestions so the students can improve their writing skills and reduce their mistakes. the fifth statement shows that one student (12,5%) chose "strongly agree" and six students (75%) chose "agree". regarding these findings, students will be more confident in completing the paper if the supervisor and their friends always give words of encouragement. based on bandura's (1986) theory of reciprocal determination and the concept of agency, people’s behaviour and the environment will influence each other; the ability of individuals to use agents is premised on their awareness of their behaviour and the ability to formulate control and organizational strategies. according to the interview, the significance of friends in academic writing is to encourage each other to always write in the best way possible and to exchange information about how to outline the paper. the sixth statement shows that one student (12.5%) chose "strongly agree" and four students (50%) chose "agree". it means that when students write, they look for topics that are relevant to their https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 28 lives, interesting to research so that they can produce good writing products along the way. that is in line with the opinion of graham & perin (2007that technology can cultivate students' writing interest and motivation, and improve their writing skills. similarly, some metacognitive, cognitive, and social-emotional strategies can also be used to enable students to understand and practice the writing process (o'malley & chamot, 1990). also, according to the interviews, the participants' strategies for academic writing were to select topics, create an outline, research the topics, try to use appropriate sentence structure, and pay attention to punctuation, writing style, and grammar. they also made a note to record the key points and read journals to find good resources. on the other hand, keen (2017) explains that currently, most english teachers in primary and secondary schools use a product-based approach and genre-based strategies. sometimes the teachers use one or two elements of the process method (usually from the pre-activity) to teach writing. they do not correct spelling, punctuation, and expressions. the seventh statement shows that two undergraduate students (25%) chose "strongly agree" and five undergraduate students (62.5%) chose "agree". this means that students can find suitable strategies in academic writing which can increase their sense of self-efficacy to complete the challenging writing assignments in writing classes. this is consistent with previous studies by quintero's (2008) and nik, hamzah and rafidee (2010). they claim that students are struggling with the structural components of english because inappropriate structures may complicate the content and make readers hardly understand the text through the participation of psychological processes (quintero, 2008; nik, hamzah, and rafidee, 2010). according to the interview results, the way to improve academic writing skills is that students need to pay attention to basic elements such as grammar, language style, and punctuation. after that, they need to use the correct vocabulary. the eighth statement shows that one undergraduate student (12.5%) chose "strongly agree" and six undergraduate students (75%) chose "agree". this means students have to work hard to be able to produce high-quality academic papers and face many challenges along the way. that is in line with the opinion of bilal et al. (2013) that students may face many challenges, such as the lack of reading motivation and the reluctance to practice. student writers may turn ideas into the text to face psychological, cognitive, social, and language problems. the interview reveals that students can practice writing and reading. the ninth statement shows that one undergraduate student (12.5%) chose "strongly agree" and five undergraduate students (62.5%) chose "agree". it shows that students can overcome the challenges in academic writing activities because they already have good self-efficacy. students can pass these challenges calmly and remain enthusiastic in carrying out academic writing activities. this is in line with the views of haider (2012) and hyland (2003) that student writers face various writing problems at different stages of learning. according to the interview, students continue to write to cope with writing anxiety even if they are unwilling. they think that practicing writing is the best way to overcome writing anxiety. they should be confident and motivate themselves, and then improve their grammar and vocabulary. the last statement shows that two undergraduate students (25%) chose "strongly agree" and four undergraduate students (50%) chose "agree". it means that academic supervisors play an important role in the students’ academic writing process. if the academic supervisor tries his best to help, the students will also have good progress. this is in line with the opinion of ahmad et al. (2013) that lack of confidence in students is also caused by the fact that the teaching strategies do not conform to the students' learning style and cultural background. based on the interview, there are various answers about writing an academic paper. student a said that writing was a fun activity. before she started writing, she always reads a lot of journals, e-books, and papers as her references. by reading books, she gained a lot of knowledge. then, she thought that the paper https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 29 became more credible and accurate because she wrote her paper based on credible and accurate references. the results of this study indicate that the self-efficacy variable that plays a role in influencing students’ interest in completing the academic writing class is congruent with the research results of warsito (2004). students' academic achievement is more due to the direct causality of self-efficacy rather than the indirect causality of academic self-concept. the self-efficacy possessed by students in compiling academic writing is caused by the enthusiasm in themselves, as well as environmental factors that work well together such as classmates who help each other and also academic supervisors who provide feedback and encouragement to always give the best. the success factor of each individual can be felt when one has good self-efficacy. therefore, every student needs to have good self-efficacy to be able to realize the goals that have been planned. conclusion this research was conducted to find out how english education undergraduate students at a university in yogyakarta apply self-efficacy in academic writing. the conclusion obtained is that students can complete academic writing well if they apply self-efficacy in themselves. besides, encouragement from the surrounding also affects how good self-efficacy one has, such as support from classmates and academic supervisors. using good reading and writing techniques, consistency in searching for relevant literature and practicing to write are ways to make academic writing easier. due to the pandemic that is still happening, the authors only use a limited number of students for the interview and questionnaire. this can be a drawback of this research. it is hoped that further research can use quantitative methods to strengthen the research data by involving a bigger number of participants. in addition, future researchers are expected to be able to research academic writing at the elementary level, such as basic writing where english education students usually get the course in the first semester. the reason why this is important to investigate is that many english education students deal with a problem at the beginning of college because they are not used to using english in their daily lives. therefore, this can also affect the basic writing process. acknowledgment first of all, i would like to commend the almighty lord jesus christ for his blessing throughout the writing process of the paper, to complete the research. i want to thank my awed mamah esp handayani for her love, prayers and caring for my future. also, the endless love and endless prayers of my brother antonius vendhy; and my grandparents mbah sunyoto and mbah mintarsih. they are my motivation to complete this paper. they have always supported me and have been there throughout the entire process of writing my paper. i would like to thank my aunt ibu sumarti endah pmm and m.kep for their help and support during the writing of this article. she always gives me a suggestion to improve my paper. she is like my second paper consultant, and i am lucky to have her. i would also like to thank my excellent lecturer drs. concilianus laos mbato, m.a., ed.d. he always gives me motivation, guidance and advice to work hard to complete my paper. when we consulted in class, he provided us with the best service, cited his research examples, and reminded us to stay healthy and eat healthy food. i would also like to thank the undergraduates from batch 2016 to batch 2017 who helped me collect data and worked well together so that i can complete and complete this research on time. last but not least, i would also like to thank my good friend yakobos tri adi susanto for their prayers, support, company and patience so that i still have the energy to complete this paper. references abderraouf, a. (2016). investigating efl students’ writing difficulties and common errors in writing. university of bejaia. (2020, december 6). https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 30 bandura, a. (1977). self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. psychological review, 191-215. bandura, a. (1986). the explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. journal of clinical and social psychology, 4, 359-373. bandura, a. (1997). self‐efficacy: the exercise of control. w. h. freeman and company. bandura, a. (2001). social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. annual review of psychology. bandura, a., ross, d., & ross, s. a. (1961). transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. the journal of abnormal and social psychology, 63(3), 575–582. dar, m. f., & khan, i. (2015). writing anxiety among public and private sectors pakistani undergraduate university students. pakistan journal of gender studies, 10. diasti, k. s., & mbato, c. l. (2020). exploring undergraduate students’ motivationregulation strategies in thesis writing. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(2), 176-183. fareed, m., ashraf, a., & bilal, m. (2016). esl learners’ writing skills: problems, factors and suggestions. journal of education & social sciences, 4(2), 83–94. flammer, a. (2015). self-efficacy. in international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences: second edition (pp. 504–508). elsevier inc. ghufron, m. a., & hawa, m. (2015). the effect of collaborative writing technique in teaching argumentative essay writing viewed from the students’creativity. language and literature, 10, 1. graham, s., & perin, d. (2007). a meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. journal of educational psychology, 99(3), 445. keen, j. (2017). teaching the writing process. changing english, 24(4), 372-385. mbato, c. l. (2020). graduate students’ perceptions on their self-efficacy in writing academic papers. elt worldwide: journal of english language teaching, 7(1), 31-41. mbato, c. l., & cendra, a. (2019). efl undergraduate students’ self-regulation in thesis writing: help-seeking and motivationregulation. jele (journal of english language and education), 5(1), 66-82. nik, y. a., sani, b. b., kamaruzaman, m. n. b. w. c., hasbollah, h. r. b., et al. (2010). the writing performance of undergraduates in the university of technology, mara, terengganu, malaysia. journal of languages and culture, 1 (1), 8–14. o'malley, j. m., o'malley, m. j., chamot, a. u., & o'malley, j. m. (1990). learning strategies in second language acquisition. cambridge university press. pratiwi, y. e., rukmini, d., & faridi, a. (2017). the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters. journal of language and literature, 11(2), 117-126. quintero, l. m. (2008). blogging: a way to foster efl writing. colombian applied linguistics journal, 10(1), 7–49. rusdiana, a. (2019). panduan penulisan artikel jurnal ilmiah. schunk, d. h. (1995). self-efficacy and education and instruction. in j. e. maddux (ed.), selfefficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: theory, research, and application (pp. 281303). plenum press. wijaya, k. f., & mbato, c. l. (2020). graduate students’ perceptions on their self-efficacy in writing academic paper. elt worldwide, 7(1). wuepper, d., & lybbert, t. (2017). perceived selfefficacy, poverty, and economic development. annual review of resource economics, 9, 383-404. (2020, december 7). https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 329 the portfolio assessment to teach writing of opinion essay anjar setiawan1 anjar17@unimus.ac.id dodi mulyadi2 dodi@unimus.ac.id 1,2universitas muhammadiyah semarang, indonesia abstract an opinion essay is a written text to deliver arguments and present supporting evidence to readers. therefore, this writing activity applies portfolio assessment since it is a cumulative collection of students’ work from beginning to the end. this study aims at describing the implementation of the portfolio to teach the writing of opinion essays at the non-english department in universitas muhammadiyah semarang. the data were collected through observation, tests, and questionnaires. the results showed that the implementation of portfolio assessment could help students write opinion essays by considering its structure and writing components. they were able to state their viewpoint and give supporting data to back up the arguments clearly. keywords: portfolio assessment, writing, opinion essay introduction writing is a language skill. it requires a thinking process (brown, 2001 as cited in meiranti, r., 2012). in writing, students need to be able to present their ideas and feelings in a written form. it is in accordance with harmer (2001) as cited in trong (2010) writing is the process of expressing ideas, opinions, thoughts, or feelings. therefore, writing should not be considered a natural gift since this skill can be trained. as one of english productive skills, experience in the writing process is an effective strategy to produce a piece of writing. this practice will reveal the students’ level of spelling, punctuation, word selection, grammar usage, etc. (pourverdi et al., 2016). thus, in the writing process, there are several contexts that represent literacy perspective, knowledge, the technical aspect of writing, characteristics of language, and the difference of linguistic and cultural background (murshidi, 2014, in arifatul and budiman, 2017). the observation and interview results with college students in semarang showed that they got some difficulties in formulating ideas, conveying opinions, and structuring the thoughts and data into an opinion essay. in line with the results of the observation above, suparno (2006) in wangid (2014) stated writing of opinion essay is a communication activity in the form of delivering written messages to other parties. it means that an opinion essay involves the author as the conveyor of the message or content writing to readers. further, this kind of writing is an activity that is productive and expressive. productive and expressive contain the meaning of these two characteristics serves as a conveyor of information. said to be productive because writing is an activity which is to produce a written work in the form of results from the expression of ideas one's mind. while expressive means the right (able) to provide (expression) images, intentions, ideas, and feelings (kamal, 2015). in writing, students are required to be capable apply a number of skills at once. before writing, students need to make a plan for selecting topics, organizing, and organizing ideas (abdulai, 2014). at the time of pouring ideas, he stated there are several things that need attention. for example, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:anjar17@unimus.ac.id mailto:dodi@unimus.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 330 linguistic aspects such as formation words, diction, and sentences need to be arranged effectively. spelling and punctuation are necessarily done appropriately and functionally. a number of these skills prove how the complexity of writing skills. the explanation above concludes that students should have understanding and writing skills, a proper and well-planned writing learning plan with appropriate learning strategies is needed effective and utilizing suitable media with the conditions of students. therefore, a teacher or lecturer must understand the learning approach to writing and how to develop students’ writing skills. thus, this current study is intended to apply portfolio assessment in teaching writing of opinion essays. the portfolio assessment encourages students to reflect on the pieces of ideas, opinions, thoughts, etc. in the writing process. as part of the authentic assessment, portfolio assessment can be used as a tool to assess the students’ writing. further, johnson (1996) in nezakatgoo (2011) defined a portfolio is as a cumulative collection of students’ work. in other words, this assessment shows a student's work from beginning to end. barton and collins (1992) as cited in birin and baki (2007), stated that portfolios should be authentic, forms of dynamic assessment, and explicit to establish a correspondence between activities and life experiences. this means that portfolios show the students’ efforts, progress, and achievement over time, increasing their learning motivation and giving them a sense of autonomous learning. dealing with the positive effect of portfolio assessment on students’ writing ability, it directs them to comprehend the writing aspects such as purpose, content, organization, vocabulary, sentence structure, and mechanics in specific (boumediene et al., 2016). based on the definitions mentioned above, the portfolio assessment can be used to encourage students’ involvement and improvement since it contains a record of concrete examples of students’ work overtime. related to the assessment, the following studies show the implementation of portfolio assessment in the teaching and learning process. abdul (2019); efendy (2017); puverdi (2016); boumediene (2016); and nezakatgoo, t. (2011) conducted similar studies to investigate the problems and challenges of the university students in writing for an international journal and to investigate the implementation of portfolio assessment to improve students’ writing skills and responses. they applied experimental design in their research study. the results showed that the implementation of portfolio assessment could improve the students’ writing skills and also give their positive responses by using portfolio assessment. moreover, another significant aspect of the portfolio assessment is student selfreflection. it can be seen that portfolio assessment can successfully encourage the students to become more active and help them to understand the writing processes. in addition, students are able to improve their writing skills and make their words much worthy as well. those researches contributed to this present study by knowing the implementation of portfolio assessment in teaching writing skills. considering the process of writing and using a portfolio as a method of assessment, this study is aimed to implement portfolio assessment to teach the writing of opinion essays. setyowati (2016) stated opinion essay helps students to sharpen their critical thinking and logical thinking skills. therefore, writing an opinion essay is expected to build the students' critical thinking by writing logical opinions, stating the evidence, and drawing the conclusion. writing process a writer is the center of attention, and the process of writing needs the students to develop a cognitive structure in presenting ideas. seow (2002) in azizah (2017) classified the various activities that occur during the writing and identified six major writing processes, including planning, drafting, responding, revising, editing, and evaluating. firstly, planning involves generating and organizing ideas in mind, and the goal of writing. secondly, the drafting stage encourages the writer https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 331 to focus on the fluency of writing and ignore the draft's grammatical accuracy or neatness. thirdly, responding intervenes between drafting and revising. it is the teacher's job to give a reaction to student's drafts. fourthly, revising is not only to check the language errors but also to improve global content and the organization of ideas in order to make the writer's intention clearer to the reader. fifth, the editing stage gives chance students the chance to edit their grammatical, accuracy, dictation, punctuation, spelling, and add supportive textual material such as quotation marks, etc. last, evaluating is the time to show students an analytical score based on specific aspects of their writing. thus, they need to be aware of the criteria for evaluation that should include an overall interpretation of the task (majid et al., 2012). meanwhile, as the components of writing, jacob et al. (1981) in anamaryanti (2014) stated 5 components include content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. content is the relevant information about the subject of writing. organization relates to the generic structure and the sequences of the sentences. vocabulary is the use of word choices, phrases, or idioms. language use considers the complex construction, tense, number, article, pronoun, and preposition. mechanics is the way of using spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. portfolio assessment of writing in the writing process, a portfolio can be a set of activities taken on overtime in the development of written products. the main concern of a portfolio in writing an opinion essay is the complexity involved in collections of writing. therefore, the writing collections need to serve the appropriate grading guidelines, maintain consistency, and avoid subjectivity. furthermore, yancey (1992) in park (2004) set four principles for implementing the portfolio in writing. 1) collection; a portfolio is a collection of work, and it is the whole of a student’s work. 2) process; the subset process is one of selection, which is the second principle of portfolios. 3) reflection; the process by which students explain their learning. 4) communication; in a sense, a writing portfolio will communicate something about the writer, values, and context in which the writer has worked. in addition, o’malley and pierce (1996) in rukmini (2017) mentioned the steps in assessing students’ writing by using authentic assessment as follows. (1) selecting a topic that is appropriate for the students. (2) selecting rubrics that students can use. (3) sharing rubrics with the students. (4) identifying benchmark papers. (5) reviewing how students write not just what they write. (6) having a conference with the students on their writing results. writing of opinion essay writing an opinion essay requires students to give various arguments or viewpoints on a topic that will defend the thesis statement. every single point of argument or viewpoint must be supported by evidence or data in the form of research, academic paper, or other trustworthy sources. norquist 2015 in setyowati (2016) defined that an opinion essay contains the writer’s opinions or attitudes to influence the readers. meanwhile, the stated evidence and data are to convince the readers. thus, the writer needs to present a logical and valid opinion that is supported by facts to support the main idea. therefore, to write an interesting opinion essay, writers should determine a topic that is related to daily life or things that have been widely known through the mass media such as newspapers, research, tv, online news, etc. methodology the present study used descriptive qualitative since this study concerned with the processes of a portfolio assessment implementation. the subjects of the study were 75 non-english department students of the third semester in universitas muhammadiyah semarang. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 332 the data were collected through observation, questionnaires, and tests. the observation was conducted to know the students’ learning problems in writing an opinion essay to express their ideas and feelings. meanwhile, the data from the test of writing opinion essays measured the students’ writing skills, and the questionnaire was administered to know the students’ responses after implementing portfolio assessment in the learning process. the collected data from observation were analyzed and interpreted qualitatively. moreover, the results of the test and questionnaire were analyzed quantitatively using descriptive statistics based on specific rubrics. result and discussion in the implementation of portfolio assessment, the english lecturer has arranged the guidance on how to embed portfolio assessment into instructional programs (gomez, 1999, in afrianto, 2017). therefore, the following instructions were used as the teaching strategies that lead students to take responsibility for and reflect on their learning, particularly in the writing of an opinion essay. designing the process of portfolio assessment implementation the design of this learning process was the combination steps of the writing process and portfolio assessment. in addition, this design was also considered the results of observation. the observation checklist showed that the students got difficulties formulating ideas and conveying opinions in a written form. other results indicated that the students did not know how to structure their thoughts and data into writing opinion essays. furthermore, based on observation data, in every single meeting, students show their progress as the collections of the writing process. the collections of writing process must be in accordance with the structure of the opinion essay. thus, the lecturer's main role is to check, evaluate, and give feedback to students’ writing process. before formulating ideas, students need to read some reading topics or articles that are being discussed by most people. they also might do observations or even watch videos that contained controversial issues. those activities build their critical thinking to formulate ideas by analyzing the problems that existed there. after that, they try to write their opinions into written form. write several interesting points got from the sources. table 1 structure of opinion essay structure information title ask yourself whether you agree or disagree with the topic. title contains one complete sentence or a question. introduction introduce your essay by giving a brief definition the topic and stating your thesis statement. opinions/ arguments/ ideas  state your reasons why you agree or disagree with the topic.  use phrases such as i think…, in my opinion…, the first thing to consider is…, as far as i’m concerned…, etc. evidence/data/ example give the supporting evidence/ data/ example to back up your opinions. conclusion  conclude the essay by restating your opinions with different words and give the summary for two or three arguments.  use phrases such as to sum up…, in conclusion…, in spite of…, in order to…., etc. in addition, to convey the opinions into written form, students should consider the components of writing skill as follows. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 333 table 2 components for assessing writing skill components information content content must be very in accordance with the title and it states the relevant information about the subject of writing. organization the harmony of text must be very precise since it relates to the generic structure and the sequences of the sentences. vocabulary the selection of vocabularies must be very appropriate by considering the use of word choices, phrase, or idiom. language use the use of language considers the complex construction, tense, number, article, pronoun, and preposition. mechanics the neat and easily readable are prioritized, and it considers the way of using spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. after the structure of the opinion essay and the rubric of the writing process were well prepared, then the next was implementing the implementation of the portfolio assessment in writing opinion essay in implementing portfolio assessment, the steps of writing an opinion essay were obtained from observation results. therefore, implementing portfolio assessment as a cumulative collection of students’ work showed their work from beginning to the end. it was also to encourage them to reflect on their ideas, opinions, and thoughts and present the supporting data in an opinion essay. formulating the title and stating the introduction after gathering information from some sources, the students formulated a title as the topic in their opinion essay. the title consisted of one simple sentence that contained agree or disagree point about the topic. moreover, the title might be a question form since it referred to a controversial issue that fully attracted readers’ attention to read the opinion thoroughly. meanwhile, to state the introduction, students define the main idea that would be being discussed. this part was a roadmap that gave a hook to engage the readers with the topic. after that, they stated one or two thesis statements to emphasize the topic stated in the title. the thesis statements were to prepare the readers to dip into the essay. further, the lecturer checked and gave suggestions to every student. generating ideas/opinions in generating ideas or opinions, the students write several points from some sources of research articles, newspapers, or videos of controversial issues. the opinions should be objectives since the problems had existed there. the ideas stated their reasons why they agree or disagree with the topic. thus, they not only write the information but also convey their expressions to mind. the opinions consisted of three to five points that were related to each other. in other words, the students were allowed to give criticism or praise to the topic. to make sure that all students had clearly expressed their thoughts in a precise manner to provide opinions to the issue with reasonable logic, the lecturer gave comments to their writing and all students collected these opinions as to the process of writing. stating evidence and data to support the opinions stated in the generating ideas part, students gave a logical explanation and showed relevant evidence or examples and data. the logical explanation contained facts taken from some sources. meanwhile, the data might be from the result of analysis by experts or research articles. this part was really fundamental since evidence and data could be used as the validity of the opinion essay. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 334 therefore, the lecturer controlled the students’ writing in terms of content and language use for this part. drawing conclusion in the last part, students draw a conclusion that wraps up their essay. this summary covered all the opinions and data to easily understand the arguments. in addition, the students restated their opinions using different words. further, the lecturer checked all students’ work and made sure that they had completed the writing according to the structure of the opinion essay and the components of writing. presenting the opinion essay this phase asked students to present their opinion essay on online social media as the submission of portfolio assessment. hence, the lecturer did an evaluation and gave scores to the students’ work. table 3 students’ score of writing opinion essay components mean score content 83.12 organization 83.33 vocabulary 77.56 language use 79.42 mechanics 80.81 the table above showed that in terms of content the students got 83.12, which was meant they were able to formulate the title clearly and state the relevant information about the topic of the opinion essay. the term of organization, students got 83.33. they could arrange the opinion essay based on generic structure and the sequences of the sentences cohesively. further, they got 77.56 in terms of vocabulary. most students used appropriate word choices and phrases related to their opinions in their essays. in terms of language use, the students’ mean score was 79.42 and it was meant that they were able to use tense, article, pronoun, and preposition properly to state the opinions and present the supporting data. the last, the students got 80.81 in terms of mechanics. it was meant that their opinion essay was neat and easy to understand since it showed good spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. the findings were relevant to the study conducted by setyowati (2016) that opinion writing can improve a person's thinking ability. through writing, someone can express the feelings and arguments that are desired by the public. an opinion essay may also contain someone's peeling opinion to resolve a particular issue of an actual nature or controversy with the aim to inform the readers. students’ reflection towards the implementation of portfolio assessment the process of implementing portfolio assessment to teach the writing of opinion essay run effectively. it was seen in the results of the questionnaire. the students were enthusiastic to write an opinion essay using portfolio assessment. they showed their efforts, progress, and achievement over a period of time during writing an opinion essay. this learning activity could increase their learning motivation and also give them a sense of autonomous learning. it is relevant to the previous study of portfolio assessment conducted by efendy et al. (2017) that this assessment serves various collections of information or documentation of students’ work taken during the learning process within a certain period of time and stored in a bundle systematically. conclusion in conclusion, the authentic assessment of portfolio has been successfully implemented to teach the writing of opinion essays. its implementation could help students to write opinion essays by considering its structure and the components of https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 335 writing. they could write an interesting opinion essay by determining a topic that is related to daily life or things that have been widely known through the research article, mass media such as newspaper and online news, and youtube video contained controversial issues. further, they were able to state their viewpoint and give supporting data to back up the arguments clearly. in other words, the portfolios can be easily used to document students’ writing progress. it shows a collection of the work of a student, as a result, implementation of performance tasks to achieve learning goals, or achieve competencies specified in the curriculum. thus, realizing the writing process is very important to develop their critical thinking, attitude skills, and their expression towards something. references abdul, i.h, hartati, a., & lestari, z.w. (2019). the use of portfolio assessment of writing skill in descriptive text. journal of applied linguistics and literacy, 3 (2), 75-85. abdulai, r.t., anthony, o. (2014). essential ingredients of a good research proposal for undergraduate and postgraduate students in the social sciences. sage open, 1-15. anamaryanti. (2014). students’ ability and problems in writing review text at vii grade sman 4 kerinci. journal english language teaching, 2 (1), 13-24. azizah, u.a., & budiman, a. (2017). challenges in writing academic papers for international publication among indonesian graduates students. jeels, 4(2), 175-197. birgin, o., & baki, a. (2007). the use of portfolio to assess student’s performance. turkish science education, 4(2), 75-90. boumediene, h. et al. (2016). the effectiveness of portfolio assessment on efl students' writing performance: the case of third year secondary students in algeria. academic journal of interdisciplinary studies, 5(3), 119127. efendy, z. et al. (2017). implementation of portfolio assessment in teaching english writing. english education journal, 8(2), 187189. kamal, a. (2015). effective strategies for turning receptive vocabulary into productive vocabulary in efl context. journal of education and practice, 6(27), 10-19. majid et al. (2017). the effect of process writing practice on the writing quality of form one students: a case study. asian social science, 8(3), 88-989. meiranti, r. (2012). improving students’ writing skills through field trip method. journal of english education, 1(1), 1-8. nezakatgoo, t. (2011). the effects of portfolio assessment on writing of efl students. english language teaching, 4(2), 231-241. park, t. (2004). an overview of portfolio-based writing assessment. tesol & applied linguistics, 4(2), 1-3. pourverdi et al. (2016). portfolio assessment and process writing: its effect on efl students’ l2 writing. journal of applied linguistics and language research, 3(3), 224-246. pusparini, a. (2017). analisis sistem appraisal berita proses eksekusi duo bali nine. paramasastra, 4(2), 1-16. rukmini, d. (2017). the authentic assessment to measure students’ english productive skills based on 2013 curriculum. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(2), 263-273. setyowati, l. (2016). analyzing the students’ ability in writing opinion essay using flash fiction. journal of english language teaching and linguistics, 1(1), 79-92. wangid, m.n., and azmussya’ni. (2014). peningkatan keterampilan menulis menggunakan pendekatan proses dengan media gambar di sdn 3 sakra. jurnal prima edukasia, 2(1), 1-13 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 336 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 198 the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang th. ervina boru rajagukguk universitas negeri semarang, indonesia helena i. r. agustien universitas negeri semarang, indonesia yan mujiyanto universitas negeri semarang, indonesia e-mail: ervina.rajagukguk@yahoo.com received: 20 februaary 2016. revised: 20 march 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract this research was conducted to observe sixteen seven graders of mondial junior high school’ academic literacy in their academic written texts. the participants were accustomed to using english at their school. yet, when they had to produce academic texts, the texts were produced in the level of knowledge-telling, which lacked time to plan and to set the goals. the data of this study were taken from their quizzes and final test of four subjects with different genres of texts. because the quizzes and final test were graded, the quality of the data is ensured. the analysis was observed qualitatively from three dimensions, i.e. the linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions of literacy. to describe each dimension, there were some descriptors to guide the analysis process. the result shows that in general, the sixteen learners’ academic literacy was fairly good. however, some parts of the dimension of academic literacy such as the linguistic and socio-cultural dimensions should be improved in order to master the holistic dimensions of literacy. the learners should be introduced to some genres of texts which were considered new for them such as explanation text. their mastery towards past tense should also be improved. keywords: academic literacy, linguistic dimension, cognitive dimension, socio-cultural dimension how to cite: theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. introduction examining the title of this thesis, the main keyword ‘literacy’ found in the title need to be elaborated. literacy based on kern (2000: 16) refers to “the use of socially-, historically-, and culturally-situated practices of creating and interpreting meaning through texts”. in addition to that, a definition of academic literacy is offered by papashane&hlele (2014: 661) foregrounding the importance of not only reading the information in the text but also communicating ideas using the information found from the texts. thus, based on the aforementioned explanation, this research deals with the reality on how these learners performed their academic literacy in their written texts. comparing the writing issues the subjects have, bereiter and scardamalia (1987: 5-10) have a theory about two models of writing. the theory differs writing as the knowledge-telling model, which mainly theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 199 involves only the retrieving of information from the writer’s memory and puts minimum time of planning and setting the goal; and knowledge-transforming model, which requires the writer to plan and set the goal of the text carefully as well as provide some time to reflect to his/ her written text. the knowledge-telling model is a common thing to be faced and it becomes the main problem among the sixteen-seventh graders in mondial junior high school. as a result, some of the texts produced by the sixteen learners are not well-planned. this causes the texts’ generic structures to be neglected. in addition to that, the texts are also produced spontaneously. it needs to be clear since the beginning that all subjects of this research have been exposed to english since they were in their pre-schools in their daily activity. most of them (56%, or nine out of sixteen) even acquired english as their first language, while the rests (44%, or seven out of sixteen learners) have used english as the delivering language in their primary schools. therefore, this research expects the sixteen learners to master the functional level of literacy compared to those who learn at national secondary schools in the performative level of literacy. relating the situation above to wells’ (1987: 109-111) study, there are four levels of literacy; they are performative, functional, informational, and epistemic. each of which is differentiated by the relationship among speaking, writing, and thinking (wells, 1987: 109); and conceiving all of them is what makes one literate (wells, 1987: 111). the first level of literacy is performative, which considers literate as being able to put a speech as a written message and vice versa according to the language conventions. the second level of literacy is functional, which emphasises on the interpersonal communication or being able to be a part of society. this level of literacy is expected from the seventh graders at mondial junior high school. as in the school, the subjects are mostly delivered in english, they should have been able to fulfil life tasks within the functional level of literacy, such as writing job application letters and elaborating popular knowledge. this demands that they use english as means of communication in english across the curriculum context. the third level of literacy is informational, which deals with communicating the knowledge or delivering “discipline-based” knowledge. the last level, which is also the highest level of literacy, is epistemic. this level requires the ability to generate knowledge so that the knowledge will be available for those who cannot read and write. concerning the gap between the reality and the expectation as elaborated above, i feel the urge to address this issue. in their junior secondary school, the learners are stepping up to a higher level of english competence where they are expected to be able to compose some academic texts. thus, as english is required for them to gain knowledge at school, seventh grade is a significant phase of their study to learn how to deal with academic texts with certain genres. this argument is also in line with gerot and wignell (1995: 226) stating that usually junior secondary school students start their writing “apprenticeship” in this stage. even though the sixteen learners have started learning english since they were in pre-schools, the focus of learning english in pre-schools and primary schools is oracy. therefore, in junior high school it is now important to start moving to literacy. in addition, as seven grade is seen as the site to start writing academically, these learners should be able to understand the idea of literacy. in line with the idea of introducing the learners to academic literacy in their early language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 200 secondary education, texas library association (2010: 6) reveals that it is beneficial for the learners to have an early start as it will help them have a foundation and develop the progress of their academic literacy throughout their education despite the classical writing problems faced by many teachers that students are indeed having difficulties in writing (odell & swarsey, 2003: 38). having academic literacy does not only a matter of one’s ability to use technical or specific terms to write a certain subject. writing should not again be a matter of copying and pasting from the internet or other sources. the learners should be able to read and synthesise the information they obtain from some resources and write it based on certain rules or expectation of the readers. they should keep in their mind that creating a context is not merely understanding a set of facts. nonetheless, creating a context should not be translated into understanding those facts as separated units but an integrated unit which has its context (kern, 2006: 31). the context itself is the one they should provide in their written texts instead of a set of facts without logical relationship among them. because the idea of literacy is still novel for them, those learners might not understand comprehensively or even be literate academically at the time of the research. what makes mondial junior high school differs from other schools is the use of english in all subjects while applying ktsp (kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan or school-based curriculum). the two previous paragraphs state that being able to perform their academic literacy in their written texts is still a challenge for them. besides the problem mentioned, a question on whether indonesian might facilitate them to be literate in english also arose. to answer this question, kern’s (2000: 25) statement about the linguistic dimension of literacy needs to be considered, “literacy has to do, first and foremost, with language and knowledge of how it is used, and only secondarily with writing systems.” it means the learners need to comprehend english, how to use it, and its writing system. curry (2004: 59) advises that learners’ written texts might sometimes seem peculiar or unusual as the effect of the transfer from indonesian. thus, despite the facilitation in some writing systems the learners obtained from mastering their native language, the influence of indonesian resulting the writing errors might not necessarily mean a positive transfer for them (myles, 2002: a1). the learners might have some prior knowledge related to language use in indonesian. however, because of some different features on indonesian and english, they still have to learn “new writing system, new conventions governing written genres, as well as new social practices” (kern, 2000: 60-61). thus, the teachers should make sure the learners’ english academic literacy in spite of their academic literacy in indonesian. being academically literate is not only a matter of applying the language conventions or rules, such as grammars, punctuations, spellings, etc but also what is being delivered or said through the language. language can be seen as the media to communicate their ideas of a certain problem. on one hand, the learners ought to master how to write academically as this is their key to represent their ideas in form of written texts. on the other hand, the mastery of the content or ideas of a certain subject is also needed. this phenomenon is in line with what cognitive scientists believe as found in kern’s (2000: 30-31) study. knowledge is divided into two major categories, namely “declarative knowledge (knowing that) and procedural knowledge (knowing how)”. declarative knowledge theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 201 consisting “the ideas, concepts, facts, and definitions one can draw on to make sense of a text or to write about a particular topic” refers to learners’ knowledge about the facts related to a certain subject, while procedural knowledge “has to do with one’s ability to do things like drive a car, write a letter or speak one’s native language”. the two types of knowledge work as an intertwined system in one’s literacy. an idea suggested by curry (2004: 59) to increase academic literacy is using the instruction of academic literacy in various subjects such as research papers for different subjects, laboratory reports, reflective essays, etc in order to relate academic literacy practices and the subjects for better learners’ achievements. to achieve the goals of enabling the learners to write academically in all subjects, the teachers are suggested to combine writing lesson and the materials (odell & swersey, 2003: 39). thus, this research focuses on language subject such as english, as well as on other subjects such as physics, biology, and social science. odell &swarsey (2003: 50) posed some questions which might arise in the teachers’ thought questioning their responsibility to teach someone else’s subject matter; both the language teachers and the subject teachers might think they are in service for another subject’s sake. in addition to that, this might also be seen as another working burden for the teachers. however, it should be understood that this process is also immensely beneficial for the learners as it will enable them to write not only grammatically correct, based on standard english, but more than that they will also be able to communicate their ideas through their written texts. looking back the definition of literacy proposed by kern (2006: 16), as he mentions that “[literacy] entails at least a tacit awareness of the relationships between textual conventions and their contexts of use and, ideally, the ability to reflect critically on those relationships.”, some people are misled to an understanding that academic literacy is something tacit and therefore should not be taught explicitly (or be better left tacit) so that learners who cannot achieve this tacit knowledge will only be graded accordingly (odell & swarsey, 2003: 49). this argument is contrary to what is proposed by papashane and hlele (2014: 661) pointing out learners should not be considered understanding the academic literacy automatically. therefore, one emphasis on this study why academic literacy has to be done in an educational institution and not in natural settings is because literacy is indeed not a natural phenomenon, instead it is a learned ability. this point is also what kern (2000: 34) argues that “literacy is a socially constructed phenomenon, not a naturally occurring process” and is also supported by agustien (2015: 3) stating the acquisition aspects of literacy, critical thinking ability, cannot be developed naturally but should be fostered by education system in the school. even curry (2004: 57) underlines the importance of teaching academic writing in learners’ native language and english as well as the materials in order to help them master academic literacy. learners should be assisted to master reading academic articles, recognising the vocabulary, and also making use of the vocabulary with the appropriate genres combined with other writing components as this is not available in their natural daily life but indeed can only be nurtured in their academic education (curry, 2004: 58-59). thus, learners “need explicit instruction in academic literacy” (curry, 2004: 59). this elaboration explains why this research should be done in formal, instructional basis. teachers should help the learners express language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 202 something that is worth stated and also at the same time guide them to do what is needed to express it (odell & swarsey, 2003: 40) because writing is considered as the hallmark of being a part of educated society. based on odell and swarsey’s (2003) study, it is believed that writing ability should be nurtured in an instructional context. this idea influences the model of this research to be conducted in instructional rather than natural context. literacy the term ‘literacy’ does not only conceive the activities of writing and reading; instead, it also covers the relationship between “readers, writers, texts, culture, and language learning” (kern, 2000: 2). the focus of literacy involves the social effect of writing and reading itself. based on the scholarly subsets of literacy (colorado state university, 2004 as cited from larsen), there are four types of literacy. they are traditional literacy, basic literacy, functional literacy, and academic literacy. those literacies are ordered based on their skill levels. below are some elaborations about them. traditional literacy is defined as one’s ability to read the written words to gain their understanding and meaning (mancinelli, 2005: 8). however, as literacy evolved further, the function of merely reading the written words started to be questioned because “being able to read does not mean one does read” (bond, 2011: 13) in addition to this literacy, a higher level of literacy is basic literacy that needs more skills to be mastered compared to the previous one. basic literacy skills can be referred as one’s ability to make an inference (wiener, 1992: 16-33). in this level of literacy, the learners move from a point of only being able to read written words to reading those words and making an inference from what is written there. in addition, even higher than basic literacy that only deals with inference, another type of literacy is functional literacy. it is introduced by gray (as cited in concise oxford companion to the english language, 1998) defining functional literacy as one’s ability to read and write, and function their reading and writing ability to perform some actions such as able to read to perform some tasks. however, those aforementioned literacies do not fulfil the three dimensions of literacy (linguistic,cognitive, and socio-cultural). to fulfil the three dimensions of literacy, a specific approach is needed in language teaching process. based on kern (2000: 1516), a literacy-based approach prepares the language learners to answer the demand of “multilingual, multicultural, and multitextual competence”. this approach focuses more on the communication effect of a text given to a specific audience which will help the learners obtain ideas of the language, culture, as well as communication. in practising this approach, learners learn about the grammar and vocabulary of the target language along with the discourse and the process of creating discourse (kern, 2000: 17). to teach learners to communicate, this approach should be given at any levels (introductory, intermediate, and advanced). academic literacy nowadays, academic literacy is seen as the highest literacy. it is believed that literacy should be emphasised in the school curriculum for all subjects and all learners at any ages (wells, 1987: 109 – 123). in this research, academic literacy is defined as the ability to weave the three dimensions of literacy which are linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions to communicate theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 203 through written texts in academic context. academic literacy enables learners to present and connect their ideas to the cultural and social situation around them in an acceptable writing manner based on academic knowledge (curry, 2004: 51). dimensions of academic literacy the main theory used in this part is suggested by kern (2000). based on kern’s framework, literacy is classified into three dimensions: linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions. linguistic dimension deals with how learners use the language to express their ideas through their written texts as well as the writing system of the language. the writing system, in this case, deals with “conventions of usage, syntax, organisation, and idea development” (odell, 1995: 46). a text can be considered as communicative, not because of the use of the words only. its “visual elements” such as the use of headings, bullets, numberings, etc. can help readers understand the organisation of the text better (odell, 1995: 46). it also deals with the conventions of the language. this dimension also requires learners to understand the coherence and cohesion of the texts they create. however, relying merely on this dimension is not enough for learners because mastering this dimension while neglecting the others might lead the learners to an incomplete level of mastery. cognitive dimension of literacy will bring us to pinpoint “existing knowledge” as the centre of our attention. both declarative and procedural knowledge play an important role in one’s academic written texts, both types of knowledge can be improved to enable one to be a better reader and writer. it should also be clear that having both types of knowledge are not sufficient if the knowledge is only considered in a vacuum space. the knowledge should have a context in order to bring it into meaning. understanding and relating the knowledge will help learners master the academic literacy. the process of understanding and relating the knowledge itself that, later on, will be schemata for the learners and to accommodate some unlearned knowledge. learners are expected to access and also synthesise the information for the purpose of communication (papashane & hlele, 2014: 662). besides, learners’ ability to infer the information they receive is also an important aspect of critical thinking (wiener, 1992: 16). wiener (1992: 18) also provides a clear definition of inferring which involves “a complex process of reasoning that balances assumptions, induction and deduction, instinct, prior experience, perception, hunches,... [and] extrasensory perception”. by inferring, learners read the text beyond what they literally receive as they need to connect the information they read and the context (or schemata) they already have in their minds. after all, one of the most important points is to enable the learners to make use of their written texts to achieve certain objectives. the socio-cultural dimension of literacy brings a new layer of understanding toward the literacy. literacy is meant to communicate or create discourse among a certain community. literacy also deals with the knowledge of writing conventions based on the people belong to a certain group. learners should be able to create a link between themselves and others and also assess others’ work. curry (2004: 58) proposes some examples of possible problems that might emerge among the learners dealing with this dimension such as learners finding themselves uncomfortable in taking “objective stance” as they might not yet have been exposed to this kind of academic language features, and their language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 204 lack of knowledge to be persuasive in order to hook the readers using thesis statements, claims, arguments and some evidence. as a result of the combination of the three dimensions above, the expected outcome from the learners is that they can use appropriate strategies to read and communicate their ideas through their written texts (or speech) that are considered as “lingually and technically” appropriate to academic context (papashane & hlele, 2014: 663). they underline their statement that it is important for learners to synthesise the information they obtain as it performs their critical thinking ability. seven graders and literacy level wells (1987: 109-123) proposes a four-level of literacy. they are performative, functional, informational, and epistemic. those levels are based on the relationships between writing and speaking and between writing and thinking. the first level of literacy which is performative level focuses on the skill acquired to decode a written message into speech to understand the meaning as well as to encode a spoken message into written form according to the language rules and conventions. the second level which is functional is where the seven graders are expected to master. in this level, language users are considered literate when they are able to deal or solve everyday problems using written language, such as writing job application letter, following a manual book on how to use a certain electronic device, and completing a form. in academic perspective, therefore it is important to prepare the seventh graders to handle such situations as mentioned above. that is why it is important to highlight this level of literacy for the seventh graders. in instructional context, the seventh graders are expected to be able to write popular science articles and use popular science terminologies. the third level, informational level, perceives literacy as a conduit to communicate knowledge. in this level, language users are able to make use of discipline-based terminologies. the emphasis in this level is reading as reading is treated to obtain more knowledge, while writing is considered as a method of recording information that has been learned. in this level, learners already master the code, causing the assumption that the code is not problematic. therefore, any difficulties faced by learners are considered to relate to the content of the text. the final level of literacy, epistemic, requires learners to generate information (knowledge) and experience, which once is unavailable for those who cannot read and write, become available for them. all the four levels are influential in developing learners’ academic literacy. pedagogically, changing the mode of communication (from spoken to written or vice versa) is not only a matter of a change in channel to express the message. nonetheless, it should be understood that once we change the mode of a message, we have to consider to change the nature of the message itself to serve its function. written message is not merely a speech written down, and spoken message is not merely saying what is written. the reason why this happens is because in the spoken mode the speaker can get some help from the context around the speaker and the listeners. however, in written mode, the writer must build the context for the readers so that the readers understand the context of the message. hence, it is important to teach the seventh graders to have this perspective theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 205 and make use of it to be in the functional level of literacy. writing targets in an english immersion junior high school it is really important for learners to know what the expectations for a certain genre so that their written compositions can be considered as effective texts (kern, 2000: 198). the genre-based approach can help them by exposing and giving specific expectations and standards to their written compositions. in teaching using genre-based approach, the focus is not on the product or the process of the writing only. instead, this approach highlights a more communicative form. therefore, the target of teaching genrebased approach is to enable the learners to communicate based on specific discourse communities (kern, 2000: 182 185). within the process of teaching to communicate among the society members, those learners are also taught the conventions that are held by a certain discourse community. it is to help them fit the community they are involved. by having this genre-based approach, it is expected that learners can fulfil the audience’s expectation. in academic discourse, learners are expected to produce texts with certain genres. they are taught to make them aware of the characteristics and patterns of particular genres. it is expected for the learners to master scholastic genres such as “reports, explanations, summaries, and argumentative essays” (kern, 2000: 183) to help them cope with academic tasks. based on kern (2000: 184), the instructional goals of teaching genre-based approach in an immersion school are to raise “awareness of the conventional parameters of expectations for particular text types within particular discourse communities and the ability to conform to those conventions” and to “understand these conventions in terms of social and psychological contexts.” when looking closer to kern’s (2000: 192 – 199) explanation about situated practice (immersion) and genre-based approach, it seems that there are some similarities between the two practices. both practices have emphasised on the communicative effect of learning the target language. in addition, both practices also expose the learners to have extensive activities to develop the fluency and automaticity in writing. methodology this research was conducted in mondial junior high school, jl. candi golf boulevard no. 2, semarang. there was only one class of 7 th grade at the academic year 2015-2016 when this research was conducted. this research was conducted in the second semester of the year and took about three months to collect the data, starting from april – june 2016. the participants under study were sixteen students of mondial junior high school. they were all in grade seven when the study was conducted. the sixteen students, however, have quite different backgrounds as far as english proficiency is concerned. eleven students graduated from mondial primary school where english was used as the main medium of instruction. under this system, these students had been intensively exposed to english for at least six years before they started mondial junior high school. the other five, however, had quite different backgrounds in that they did not have the same exposure to english learning prior to their junior high school education. generally speaking, the five students had a lot to catch up when it comes to english proficiency. however, as those five students had learned language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 206 for a semester in mondial junior high school, it was expected that when this research was conducted (in the second semester of their study), they had been able to adapt to the use of english as the delivering language in the classroom. in order to give these learners some background knowledge, these learners had been exposed to some writing conventions such as the use of punctuation marks, capitalization, verb conjugation and agreement, text layout, as well as spelling. this research which observed their linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions was conducted. written texts (quiz answers) of subjects delivered in english were observed such as social studies, biology, physics, and english. nonetheless, biology was delivered in both english and indonesian such as biology. the topics of biology being excluded from this research were those materials that were delivered in indonesian. in addition, some other materials such as pendidikan kewarganegaraan (civics), bahasa indonesia (indonesian), pendidikan agama (religion), and kimia (chemistry) were not observed as they were delivered in indonesian. subjects enhancing the learners’ computer literacy such as information and computer technology and graphic design were not observed as the learners’ assignments and tests were in form of graphic or text formatting. mathematics is also excluded from this research as there is only limited data related to learners’ written texts. i collected learners’ written texts as the main data of this research. as this research was under descriptive qualitative research, the data yielded was also descriptive data in form of written texts. the collected data was called soft data. the data of this study was in form of portfolio of several subjects explained before. in controlling the data, the teachers knew that their subjects were under study. however, the learners did not have any knowledge about the research itself. in this study, i obtained the naturally occurring data. the data collected for this study were aquiz and final test answers (in form of essay questions, as also suggested by wiener (1992: 21) that questions with why, how, and what might help learners draw some inferences and therefore foster their critical thinking ability). using those quiz and final test answers, learners were expected to provide some answers or responses to be used as the data of this research. the process of data collection was done in the second semester of the academic year 2015-2016. it took three months from april until june 2016. i collected the copies of learners’ written quizzes and final test and creating a portfolio out of learners’ written quizzes and final test. one of the benefits of having quizzes and final test as the data source for this research is because quizzes and final test affected their scores, and thus the quality of the data is guaranteed as those learners would not have risked their scores in providing low-quality answers (unless they are lack of understanding about the related tasks or questions). the data analysis was done through some steps. firstly, i classified each subject (or chapter of a subject) into technical, science, social science, or humanities (based on gerot and wignell’s (2006: 229) “classification of discourses of secondary education”). secondly, i reduced some subjects or topics presented in bahasa indonesia such as pendidikan kewarganegaraan, bahasa indonesia, and kimia. some subjects, such as biology and physics were presented in both languages. therefore, topics presented in bahasa indonesia were omitted from the discussion. meanwhile, other subjects such as theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 207 mathematics, information and communication technology, graphic design, performing arts, and physical education were also be omitted from this research because those subjects rarely produced written texts. thus, the subjects under study were social science, biology (covering topics delivered in english), physics (covering topics delivered in english), and english. thirdly, i analysed the data qualitatively based on the three dimensions of literacy, i.e. linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions. fourthly, i drew an inference based on the interpretation results yielded from the previous steps; and lastly, i analysed learners’ portfolio when there were some noteworthy details to be described further (learners’ writing progress for the last three months; some spelling, grammar, punctuation, coherence, and cohesive issues). results and discussions the three dimensions of academic literacy are interweaved one to another (kern, 2006:38) so that it is difficult to separate each of them into clear-cut parts. thus, this highlights that the descriptors were arranged as such to help realise observe each dimension closer. linguistic dimension this section discusses the linguistic dimension. first things first, i would like to discuss the layout observed from all subjects. one point that one should have to be categorised as fulfilling the linguistic dimension of academic literacy is “familiarity with writing system and graphic and organisational conventions” (kern, 2006, p. 38). the layout is a part of how a certain genre is arranged in a certain format. the layout of a certain genre should be relevant to what the readers expect. layout or formatting is often used by the readers to deduce the context and content of a text. the layout can be a clue for readers the reasons a text is written (kern, 2006, pp. 72-73). for example, when we look at a poster, we can anticipate what kind of information we are going to find there. it is different from when we read a recipe. learning the layout of a recipe itself, again we also imagine and expect other types of information we may derive from it. this works similarly with learners’ texts under this study. a learner should be able to perform an expected layout for the text in order to fulfil readers’ expectation. thus, how to put a text in a certain format or layout is one of the important keys to developing one’s academic literacy. related to the texts’ layouts, some phenomena, perhaps because of the learners’ carelessness, appeared. for instance, a learner did not indent the first line of the paragraph. although it seems trivial when it is related to a short text, it might have crucial to be noted when writing a long text. how a writer arranges the ideas of the text in each paragraph might significantly influence readers’ understanding. therefore, i believe it is important to accustom those learners to design and plan how to put their ideas in each paragraph. an interesting case was found when learners were asked to do their biology final test. in response to a task to explain an indiscriminate fishing, student 15 provided a list of definition for some terminologies related to indiscriminate fishing. as for how other students answered, it was also expected from student 15 to respond similarly in form of an information report text. as a consequence, it is expected for the learners to write the texts in a run-on paragraph. student 15, as opposed, presented something different. this perhaps was because of his language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 208 lack of understanding towards the task given (cognitive dimension) as well as his lack of familiarity towards the layout of a certain genre of a text (linguistic and socio-cultural dimensions). this phenomenon, in this case, shows the need of improvement for the three dimensions of academic literacy. as a result, the text he produced deviates from the expected rhetorical acts, meaning the text fails to fulfil its socio-cultural functions. other examples of this case were also found in social science quiz addressing the question on the effect of the constantinople fall to the explorations to the east. student 2, as well as student 5, presented some points without any further explanation in respond to this task. similarly, those two learners lacked mastery towards the task given (cognitive dimension) along with the unfamiliarity towards the genre of the explanation text. thus, in their struggle to figure out how to answer the tasks, they decided to present them in such layout with limited information. likewise, the texts they produced does not fulfil the expected rhetorical acts, meaning the texts fail to fulfil the socio-cultural dimension of academic literacy. thinking about this, it is essential to introduce or perhaps re-introduce and make them accustomed to present such texts as expected from the layout descriptor. learners’ knowledge about spelling is also one of the several descriptors of academic literacy’s linguistic dimension. familiarity towards written style is one point in linguistic dimension (kern, 2006, p. 38). in several cases, the spelling problems deal with learners’ familiarity towards written styles. as suggested, it is preferable not to contract the negation of modalities and finites. nonetheless, several practices happened in the learners’ texts despite the information given to them at the beginning of the academic year to avoid contracting words. some obvious examples are “it is” contracted as “it’s”, “cannot” as “can’t”, “will not” as “won’t”. this was deduced as an attempt to make the writing time shorter even though in the school it is highly suggested for the learners to write them completely. misspelt could happen when two words are homophones or pronounced similarly. it occurs when learners were about to produce the words “it’s” (the contracted version of “it is” or “it has” or “it was”) and “its” (possessive pronoun). they did not pay attention carefully towards the apostrophe used to make the pairs different. other examples of this cause are also present in the learners’ text. to demonstrate, i would take the word “than” and “then”, “their” and “there”. as those words are homophone or pronounced similarly, learners became careless in using both words. the pluralization is also a problem dealing with spelling system. when learners produced the plural form of “fisherman”, instead of “fishermen” they wrote “fishermans”. this might happen because of the overgeneralization towards pluralization. as most of the nouns are pluralized by adding a suffix “-s”, then they predicted that the word “fisherman” must be ended by the suffix “-s” as well. however, as the word “fisherman” is exceptional, they misspelt the word. still related to the word “fisherman”, a different case was found when a learner used the word “fisher” instead of “fisherman” or “fishermen”. again, this was perhaps because of the overgeneralization. as he thought many occupation names were ended with the suffix “-er” such as “teacher”, “painter”, “drummer”, “football player”, as well as “gardener” and many other occupation names. he predicted that “fisherman” should have been ended with the suffix “-er” as well, omitting the last syllable. theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 209 the inconsistent use of british and american english also happened several times. understandable, it sometimes takes a lot of memorising and recognising to differentiate the two versions of english. when combining a certain amount and words in a phrase, such as “two-week holiday”, learners tend to write the numerical symbol followed by the words as in “2-week holiday”. in this case, learners might put an attempt to short the writing time. the phenomenon above shows that it is important to first, introducing them to the linguistic knowledge about spelling or refreshing their minds (in case perhaps they had been taught about this but forgot), and second, encouraging the learners to also apply the linguistic knowledge in their written texts. i consider the other misspelt case as a result of carelessness, not linguistically influencing the academic literacy. therefore, some cases, for instance, the misspelt of the word “other” as “othe”, “nowadays” as “nowdays”, “usually” as “ussualy”, are left out of the discussion. however, this emphasises the important of encouraging learners to do reviewing and editing after they are done with their writing process. next, addressing the following descriptor which is still under linguistic dimension, the discussion will be focused on the verb conjugation and agreement. as verb conjugation and agreement are parts of linguistic knowledge learners should have, it is expected from the learners to be able to perform them in their written texts. some inappropriate practices were perhaps only a mistake, meaning the learners have the linguistic knowledge or know the grammar rules, instead they fail to perform their knowledge in their texts. some others performed repeated inappropriate practices so that they can be concluded as errors. for example, the case found in student 10’s text for physics quiz. several times he performed these group of words “will gets up”, “can goes”, and “will goes”. looking at the pattern, it looks like he was trying to put the modalities (“will” and “can”) and the fused form of finite “does” and predicator as if he was trying to perform simple present tense (“gets” and “goes”). the repeated inappropriate practices showed the lack of linguistic knowledge about how to produce simple present tense sentences. a confusion in using the appropriate tense in a text also caused student 2 to make an inconsistent as well as a swift change of tense in her text. she moved from the past to present tenses in her text several times as found in her english quiz. some learners also put a preposition to end a sentence or a clause which is not preferable for written mode. this is deduced also because of the lack of linguistic knowledge about the rules and their familiarity towards writing convention. as a result, they performed such sentences or clauses which are considered as informal rather than academic. this shows the need of improvement for their linguistic knowledge so that the communication they tried to build would not seem defective from the lack of information or knowledge of linguistic aspects. perhaps, the attention should also be given or emphasised for this part as now they learn to produce a lot of academic texts, especially in written mode. the influence of transfer from indonesian into english also influenced some learners’ texts. for example, the missing of finites also appeared several times. i deduced it happened because of the non-existence of finites in indonesian as their native language. secondly, student 8 produced a clause “hot water easy to go up”, which does not follow english language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 210 structure. perhaps it was translated directly from indonesian structure “air panasmudahnaikkeatas” as well as a clause “it make me feel fresh” as if it were translated from indonesian “itumembuatkumerasasegar”. it looks like student 8 has a certain pattern of doing a direct translation from indonesian into english. this shows that because of the differences in one language’s writing system and conventions, learners who are able to write in a language is not necessarily able to write effectively in another language (kern, 2006, p. 64). the non-existence of the noun plural forms in indonesian also caused many inappropriate practices related to the use of plural forms. the examples can be observed in these clauses or phrases “we need to wait for above 5-10 minute” and “when the burners is on”. another phenomenon caused by transfer from indonesian is found in student 2’s text when he produced the word “individu” which is indonesian. an unusual case was found in student 1’s text. as he was asked to produce a historical text which should have been performed in past tense, he seemed not to make any attempt to write the text in past tense. instead, the text he produced was written in present tense. nonetheless, compared to the recount text he produced for english quiz when he had to address the task by re-telling his past experience about his holiday, he could fulfil the tasks despite some grammatical inappropriate practices. it seemed that after learning that linguistic dimension did not affect his score for social science, he performed less effort for this dimension. student 9 also mistakenly predicted the verb form of the noun “exploration” as “explorate”. perhaps it was because he overgeneralized the linguistic rules. some english verbs are indeed following a certain pattern related to the nouns, such as “separate” and “separation”, “dominate” and “domination”, “generate” and “generation, meaning a four-syllable noun with the ending of “-tion” would have a three-syllable verb as well with ending “-ate”. as a consequence, he deduced the word “exploration” which is also a four-syllable word and ends with an ending “-tion” to have a three-syllable verb ended with “-ate” (“explorate”). discussing punctuation, some learners seemed to put minimum efforts for this. this probably was because of the fact that the linguistic dimension did not affect their scores. in fact, punctuation marks as one of the typographical devices are used to convey certain functions (kern, 2006, p. 70-71). for example, question and exclamation marks are to show an intonation or stress such as in spoken language, while commas and periods are to separate an idea to another in written texts; dashes and brackets can emphasise the importance of clauses or phrases (kern, 2006, p. 71). nonetheless, as found in student 3’s physics quiz, there were no other punctuation marks aside from commas to separate one idea to another. thus, it is also important to emphasise the importance of punctuation marks. despite their knowledge about the punctuation marks, they took for granted the use of punctuation marks. some other learners did not master the use of punctuation marks when it co-occurred with linking words. thus, they repeated some inappropriate practices several times. this shows the need of emphasising the teaching of punctuation marks as well to make the learners get used to punctuation marks in written texts. even though punctuation marks are considered as something trivial, it might cause confusion for readers if this is not noted theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 211 properly. since the use of punctuations is perhaps different across languages, it is suggested to teach them about how to use those punctuation marks to avoid their being unaware of the use of punctuation marks (kern, 2006, p. 71). similar to punctuation, capitalization is often seen as something insignificant in written texts. this made the learners miss some uses of capitalization. regarding the issue of punctuation and capitalization above, it is highly encouraged to enforce the postwriting process, one of the suggested ways is by having a peer review so that learners may learn from other learners’ inappropriate practices as well as learning to be more careful in producing written texts. as written texts are permanent, it is a good idea to learn from written texts to facilitate learners noticing and reflecting towards those texts (kern, 2006, p. 61). learners’ problems with the spelling system, the use of punctuation and capitalization, their organisation and planning for the texts is predicted because of the nature of their instant communication (defazio, j. et al., 2010, p. 35). the same problem with this method of communication is that learners find it difficult to differentiate spoken and written mode of communication. as already mentioned before, some learners started their sentences with “so” and “and” that resemble the use of fillers in spoken communication. this leads to an understanding that in their instant communication (which the mode is spoken to be written) is considered as a written mode of communication. therefore, it is predictable that they also tried to perform similar pattern even in the formal written texts such as in the quizzes or final tests. as can be seen from chart 4.1, it is contradictory from the expectation that the linguistic dimension for english quiz score is the lowest among all. this might be because of the psychological state after knowing that linguistic dimension counts for grading in english quiz. as opposed to that, other lessons do not apply a grading system based on linguistic dimension. this might as well influence them. aside from that, both physics and biology tests were supposed to be presented in present tense. meanwhile, english and social science tests were expected to be presented in past tense. their mastery toward these tenses might perhaps affect their scores in linguistic dimension. regarding some inappropriate practices in linguistic dimension that perhaps happened because of learners’ carelessness or learners’ lack of knowledge, it is also essential to start inviting them learning how to assess or evaluate others’ as well as their own written texts (defazio, j. et al., 2010, p. 34, 36; curry, 2004, p. 61). aside from improving their linguistic knowledge, it will help them to improve their critical thinking (defazio, j. et al., 2010, p. 34). moreover, it can also help them to perceive writing as a social rather than individual activity (curry, 2005, p. 61). hopefully, by using this reflection method towards others’ written texts as well as their own written texts, they are able to learn from their mistakes (defazio, j. et al., 2010, p. 41). cognitive dimension considering the cognitive dimension, i had got plenty helpful hands from my colleagues. aside from english quiz that requires me to do the grading, the grading was done by each subject teacher to maintain the grading quality. this because i believe all subject teachers have better competency and capability in grading the cognitive dimension. in all subjects, the learners are considered mastering the cognitive dimension. it is shown by the average scores they obtain that language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 212 can be considered as excellent for physics, very good for biology, and good for english. the average score for social science is rather low. sociolinguistic dimension now, moving the discussion to the last dimension of academic literacy, which is socio-cultural, i would like to address the learners’ knowledge or familiarity towards the genres of the texts they produced. genres are important to be mastered by the learners as genres set the parameters of “appropriateness of language use” (kern, 2006, p. 86-87). for example, the language we use to produce a prose or a poster perhaps is not appropriate when we use it to write a scientific report. it is clear that genres help create communication, but at the same time genres limit it (kern, 2006, p. 89). learners’ ability to make use their knowledge about genres can facilitate them to create texts as well as limit the texts they produce. almost all learners did not follow the generic structure of the explanation text. this is perhaps because they had not learned about this text type in primary school. now, it is an urgent call to introduce them to this text type and how it should be structured in order to help them gain better academic literacy. most learners mastered the generic structure of the information report text. that is why they could produce the texts and at the same time fulfilled the generic structure of the texts. some of them only focused on answering the question, causing them to only fulfil the detailed description and leaving the general classification. apparently, a learner did not comprehend how to produce an information report text so that the text he produced does not address the generic structure at all. the learners seemed to have a good comprehension of recount text as also performed in english quiz. most learners in english quiz followed the generic structure of recount texts. a significant influence on their familiarity towards the text is because they are accustomed to writing a weekly journal. this influences big deals so that almost all learners understand how to produce such texts. only two learners neglected the generic structure of the texts. the similar case to the physics quiz explanation texts also appeared in social science. most learners did not provide complete generic structure, focusing only on answer the question. even a few of them did not arrange the texts as expected. it is not surprising that they also did not structure the explanation texts well. the data tells us that the learners need to be introduced to this text type. it is essential to teach the learners this genre of the text as many of the text they have to produce is in this genre. in line with kern’s (2006, p. 101) statement that when a text is produced out of what is assumed or expected, it causes broken comprehension for the readers, i believe that academic literacy is not something that can be left tacit. it has to be taught in order for the learners to be familiar with the genre in order to improve learners’ writing ability and to avoid the comprehension breakdown for the readers. addressing the expression or language feature used in the texts, first i would like to address the language feature for physics quiz explanation texts. most learners did not use passive voice. in spite of learners’ ability to arrange passive voice, they did not make use passive voice in the physics quiz explanation text. perhaps, this is because the idea of using passive voice did not come across their theodora ervina boru rajagukguk; helena i. r. agustien; yan mujiyanto. 2017. the academic literacy of sixteen-seventh graders of an english immersion junior high school in semarang. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 213 minds. in fact, as the texts should provide an explanation about non-human participants, passive voice is needed. only a few learners used passive voice in their texts. thus, it is important to help them improve how they produce explanation texts. meanwhile, for information report text which appeared in biology final test, all learners could perform the expected language features. for english quiz recount texts, eleven learners could perform the expected language feature. this happened because the learners are familiar with information report texts as well as recount texts. similar to the previous explanation texts presented in physics quiz, there were some learners who did not follow the language features of the texts. in this case, most learners did not use temporal and causal relations as well as conjunctions. therefore, the texts they made only focus on giving information without creating relations among one idea and another. however, a half of the learners performed the use of passive voice, which was in percentage more than the number of learners performed the use of passive voice in physics quiz. it is deemed so because in social science quiz, the texts involved human participants (“the traders”), this helps the learners to think about producing some passive voices. related to the last descriptor of sociocultural dimension, most problems related to relations are that learners did not pay attention to the logical connection to be followed by the readers. most of them saw the teachers as the only readers that would understand even though they did not put much effort in connecting one idea to another. this finding is similar to odell’s (1995, p. 51) study. it is mentioned in odell’s study that learners typically perceive their teacher as the only audience who reads their texts and he/ she should know the acceptable response towards the task. as a result, this leads they did not put many efforts in building a communication with other readers aside their teacher, causing their texts are not as informative as expected by the readers. another issue is that they did not make use conjunctions properly. some conjunctions did not represent the logical connections between clauses. some ideas also were not written completely when they used conjunctions. some dependent clauses were not followed or preceded by independent clauses. the problem that underlays from this phenomenon is perhaps the learners did not understand how dependent and independent clauses can elaborate a relation among them. it is important for the learners, too, to learn to determine main clauses (independent clauses) and subordinate clauses (dependent clauses) and put a relation among those two pieces of information. another thing that is also paramount to be understood here is that the relation among those main and subordinate clauses is not always marked by linguistic markers such as conjunctions and linking words (kern, 2006, p. 62). some conjunctions such as “so” and “and” were not use properly to connect two or more clauses. instead, they are only used resembling fillers as in spoken communication. this is again because perhaps they did not accustom to the written mode of communication. other learners as found in english quiz did not really pay attention to the text arrangement but merely trying to fulfil the task, appearing some irrelevant ideas in the text. a different case related to this descriptor is about the reference. some learners did not use the proper reference to refer to a certain entity. as have been discussed before, the explanation texts which seemed not welllanguage circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 214 mastered by the learners gained the lowest scores among all. this is deduced because the learners were still in the transition process to learn new discourse, in this case, academic discourse (myles, 2002, p. a3). they need to get used to genres, academic vocabulary, and writing conventions which should serve their functions differently from what the learners faced in primary schools. however, as the learners were accustomed to information report text along with recount text, the sociocultural dimension scores are considered as good. conclusion to conclude this study, we can say that learners’ overall academic literacy is fairly good. in general, learners’ linguistic dimension is meeting the expectations. most of the time, the learners could apply correct spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. in addition to that, specifically, the learners’ linguistic knowledge about present tense was also well-applied in their written texts. nonetheless, there is always a room for improvement. it is suggested for the learners to improve their linguistic knowledge about past tense. overall, the learners could accomplish the tasks given by the subject teachers. most of them could give a complete response to the task. mostly, the information they provided is also relevant and accurate. moreover, they could also provide logical interpretation for their responses to the tasks given. this proves that the learners’ cognitive dimension is generally excellent. aside from that, the socio-cultural dimension can be described as fairly good in general. in most of the time, the learners could communicate through the texts effectively. in addition to that, specifically, the learners could compose recount and information report texts well as they are familiar with them. yet, an improvement is needed to help learners’ ability in composing explanation texts. as a consequence, it is very advisable for the learners to develop their mastery towards explanation texts. in addition to that, aside from the three genres of text presented here, there are more text types the learners should be encouraged to be familiar with them. in addition to that, the learners also rarely used various conjunctions to help the readers’ understanding. lastly, we can conclude that in general learners’ academic literacy; including linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions; is meeting the expectations of functional literacy, which means they could communicate the messages to help them solve daily life problems. references agustien, h. (2015). peningkatan literasisekolah: apa implikasinyabagi para pendidik? plenary session of a linguistic seminar in universitas diponegoro semarang, pp. 1-8. bartlett, t. 2003. why johnny can’t write, even though he went to princeton. the chronicle of higher education. 49 (17), a39. bereiter, c. & scardamalia, m. (1987). the psychology of written composition. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates. blaxter, l. et al. (2006). how to research. new york: open university press. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 2 bond, v. (2011). what we talk about when we talk about literacy: a look into the value, measurement, and power hierarchy of literacy. unpublished thesis. brady, k. (2013). towards a university-wide approach to developing first-year students’ academic literacy and professional communication skills. pp. 1-5. chimbganda, a. (2011). discovering academic literacy skills in english of first-year esl students in humanities at the university of botswana. international journal of linguistics. 3 (1), 1-21. creswell, j. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method. california: sage publications. curry, m. (1999). media literacy for english language learners: a semiotic approach. literacy and numeracy studies. 9 (2), 29-46. curry, m. (2004). ucla community college review: academic literacy for english language learners. community college review. 32 (2), 51-68. defazio, j. et al. (2010). academic literacy: the importance and impact of writing across the curriculum – a case study. journal of the scholarship of teaching and learning. 10 (2), 3437. gerot, l, &wignell, p. (1995). making sense of functional grammar. sydney: stabler. ha, m. & kim, h. (2014). e-learning education for academic literacy in computer-mediated communication. international journal of software engineering and its application. 8 (1), 107-118. halliday, m. a. k. & hasan, r. (1976). cohesion in english. london: longman henderson, r. & hirst, e. (2007). reframing academic literacy: re-examining a short course for “disadvantaged” tertiary students. english teaching: practice and critique. 6 (2), 25-38 kasper, l. & weiss, s. (2005). building esl students’ linguistic and academic literacy through content-based interclass collaboration. national council of teachers of english. pp. 282-297. kern, r. (2000). literacy and language teaching. hong kong: oxford. larsen, p. 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(2010). intensive english study and library instruction – strategies for improving academic literacy skills among esl students. pp. 1-8. wells, g. (1987). apprenticeship in literacy. interchange. 18, pp. 109-123. wiener, h. (1992). inference: perspective on literacy for basic skills students. journal of basic writing. 11 (1), 16-33. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa50ec210db • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 115 training the teacher candidates a good classroom management to improve their proficiencies titis sulistyowati sweeties.titis@gmail.com muria kudus university diah kurniati kurniati.diah@yahoo.com muria kudus university abstract teaching practice program (ppl) must be done by the students of english education department of muria kudus university as one of the requirements to finish their study of under graduate program in english education. ppl implementation is done in some schools that have been determined before by the department. ppl is a training program for students which offer an opportunity for the students to apply the theory and their knowledge about education as well as the implementation of english teaching directly in front of the students at schools where they have to do the ppl. as teacher trainees, the english education department students, do not have sufficient experience in managing a class, especially in providing effective instruction in the classroom. providing good instructions is one of the important aspects of the success of the learning process, so it is important for teachers to understand how to organize the lesson and provide classroom interaction in a proper and effective way. the focus of this study is to explain how the classroom management techniques applied by the teacher candidates (ppl) in teaching and learning and the improvements of the students during the lesson. as the ppl program manager, department of english education of umk can use this study as an evaluation by understanding the weaknesses and problems experienced by students teacher during teaching practice program, so the department will be able to make better achievement through the implementation of the program so that students will be well prepared to carry out the teaching process in the classroom. keywords: teaching practice program, teacher candidate, classroom management introduction classroom management is all of the efforts made by teachers which aim to increase positive classroom atmosphere so that the results of the learning process becomes optimize. sejathi in muliani (2011) states that, "management is the organization, administration, use to manage learning resources effectively to achieve the goals/ targets to be desired". in conclusion, management is the implementation or organization of something in order to achieve the goal, effectively and efficiently. in order to achieve effective learning, a classroom teacher must possess the ability to manage the class well. teachers must be able to convey instructions with clear and simple language that can be understood by their students. one indication that the students understand the instructions is they are able to respond the instructions correctly. good classroom interaction is expected to be able to increase student 116 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 motivation and enthusiasm. it is considered as the starting point of effective teaching and learning process which is expected to improve the moreover a teacher should also be able to overcome problems in the classroom wisely and he should have a good attitude towards students who have different characters. as a teacher, sometimes we do not realize if we often make mistakes when giving instruction in the classroom. this is maybe because sometimes teachers use language that is too difficult and complicated for the students, providing more than one instruction at the same time, or because the students do not pay attention to the can cause failure in the delivery of instruction, therefore teachers need selfreflection related to teaching and learning in the class. students of english education department of muria kudus university are teacher candidates, in which during the period of their formal education they have limited teaching experience, especially in classroom management practices. nevertheless, at the seventh semester they should take ppl that is teaching practice as pre service teaching program. in this program, the students are required to undertake teaching practice at some schools. the lack of experience in teaching in the classroom sometimes make some students do not feel confident to go directly into the class. the problem is not only dealing with the mastery of the english, but they are also faced with the problem of how to deal with students that they have never met before. moreover, in fact the students' abilities are also very diverse. some students, who have good academic competence, can quickly adjust to the classroom atmosphere, but the other students still have difficulties so they need a lot of guidance. during my time as a student supervisor i received a lot of good feedback either from the students as well as from the teachers. in general, the problems of the ppl relate to two things, namely the problem of adjusting themselves in school environment and classroom management. smp 1 jati kudus is one of the schools where the students conducted ppl program in 2012. based on the input from the supervisor teacher in smp 1jati kudus, the problems faced by the students in class management are ;the mastery of the english material are still diverse among students, many students are still awkward in the classroom, they are less able to interact with students in accordance with the position as teachers, as well as the lack of media used in the classroom. based on the explanation above, we intend to carry out a research on how the classroom management techniques applied by the teacher candidates (ppl students) of english education department of umk during teaching practice. by involving the supervisor teacher we conducted preliminary observations in the classroom, then the students received feedback from language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 117 both lecturers and the teachers about the weaknesses of the students during the teaching practice and how to overcome the problems they face, after that we did the observations again to check the progress of students. we also conducted interviews with supervisor teacher to determine the strengths and weaknesses of students related to their classroom management implementation. by creating a good classroom management, it will have a positive impact on students' english language skills. hopefully the results of this study will be useful to provide valuable input in the implementation of the ppl in the future, so that the implementation of the ppl will be better. based on the problems described in the background of the research, the objectives of this study can be described as follows; to explain how the class management applied by the ppl students of english education department of umk in smp 1 jati kudus and to find problems faced by the ppl students of english education department of umk in smp 1 jati kudus. literature review teachers have an important role in the success of education at schools. they also play an important role in enhancing the ability of students, so that teachers are expected to create interesting learning to learn. yusnaeni (2009) states there are two things teachers should do in the class is to teach and to manage the classroom. teaching is essentially not only the process of delivering course material, but also the teacher must be able to arrange and organize existing environment around the students. all components of teaching that include in teaching objectives, teaching materials, teaching and learning activities, methods, tools and resources, and evaluation must be performed optimally in order to achieve the goal of teaching that have been decided before. this is what we call later as the ability of classroom management. harmer (2007:34-45) explains that classroom management includes organizing students, whether they study individually or in groups and how we use the time well. teachers in the classroom are also concerned about the appearance in the classroom, and how we organize our voice. how we behave towards students is one important factor in the classroom. the position of the teacher in the classroom and movements performed by the teacher is also a contributory factor in the classroom. teachers must continue to monitor what students do and how they felt during the learning process. the interaction of teachers and students is also very important in learning, for example, whether the language used by the teacher can be well understood by the students. rukmana and suryana in management education (2011) quoted from the director general of the directorate general of primary and secondary education conclude that 118 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 manjemen class is all efforts directed to create an atmosphere of effective and fun learning which can motivate students to learn well according to their ability. it can also be said that classroom management is a conscious attempt to regulate the activities of the learning process systematically. this conscious effort led to the preparation of learning materials, facilities, classroom arrangement, realizing the situation/ condition of the learning process and the timing so that the learning run well so that the teaching objectives based on curriculum can be achieved. according to ahmad (1995:2) the goals of classroom management are as follows: a) realizing the class situation and condition, either as a learning environment as well as learning groups that allow students to develop their abilities as maximum as possible. b) eliminating barriers that can disturb the learning interaction. c) providing and organizing facilities that support learning process and enable students to learn in accordance with the social, emotional, and intellectual students in the class. d) fostering and guiding in accordance with the students social, economic, cultural background. (yusnaeni, 2009) rukmana and suryana in management education (2011) states that the management is essentially class activities (classroom management) includes two aspects, namely the students management and facility management a) student management is an activity that focuses on the activities of students in the class. students are learning objects that move and has potential. movements in the learning process relies on the function of teachers who have a major role in guiding, directing and helping e the classroom. so that management can be defined as how the students how to manage and put students in the class emotional development. b) facility management includes facilities used for teaching and learning process. the physical condition of the classroom environment must fulfill and support classroom interactions so that teaching learning process can run smoothly. rukmana and suryana in management education (2011) describes the factors that influence class management based on physical, socio emotional, and organizational factors. the physical condition refers to the physical environment where teaching and learning takes place that includes the room, seating arrangements, ventilation and light settings and storage settings stuff. socioemotional conditions have big influence on the learning process. these conditions include: a) leadership types applied by the teacher in the classroom, whether the teacher has led the students democratically or not. it will greatly affect on the emotional condition of the students. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 119 b) the attitude of the teachers are very motivation. teachers must be wise in giving punishment if there are students who break the rules. teachers should be able to treat children in warm behavior and be fair dealing with students' problems. creating conditions that make students are aware of their mistakes and trying to revise the mistakes is the duty of the teacher as an educator c) teacher's voice is relatively influential factor in the learning process. let the teacher's voice can be heard by all student, but the teacher should not speak too high. volume must be in accordance with class situation and to be heard clearly for students. d) fostering good relations (report cards) between teachers and students in the classroom is very important. with the creation of teacher student relationships, students are expected to always be excited and feel safe in the classroom so that students would be more open about themselves. organizational conditions is a way of organizing regular activities in schools so as to prevent the problem of classroom management. with the regulation of activities on a regular basis it is expected that the class will be embedded good habits for every student. these activities include the time class starts, changing the class, if the teacher is unable to attend the class, the collection of duties, etc. (rukmana and suryana. 2011) based on the curriculum 20117 of english education department, teacher training and education faculty, muria kudus university, teaching practice (ppl) is a subject that must be taken by students who have met the requirements and the implementation of ppl is conducted in schools that have been determined by the department. ppl is a training program for students to apply the theory and educational science as well as english language instruction directly in the schools. this teaching practice is guided by the ppl field supervisor (dpl) of appointed by the department of english education of umk and supervising teacher who is appointed by the principal. field supervisor (dpl) has the task of providing guidance before, during and after the period of ppl, organize and implement campus orientation program of ppl evaluation . while the teacher is assigned to provide consultation and guidance to ppl students and give evaluations. research method this study was conducted in smp 1 jati kudus as one of schools for teaching practice (ppl). the subjects were ppl students as teachers and the seventh grade students of smp 1 jati kudus. in this case ppl students have little experience in teaching that still need guidance in teaching in the classroom. the seventh grade students are still trying to adjust to the school environment because it is still relatively new for them, so they need 120 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 appropriate guidance to be able to adjust well as soon as possible with the teachers and the teaching pattern applied. in this study, we also involved teacher of smp 1 jati kudus as the observer who observed the class during ppl program was conducted. action research in the implementation consists of several cycles. each cycle consists of several activities that include, (a) planning, (b) action, (c) observation and (d) reflection. the stages in the research in each of the action occurs repeatedly that eventually resulted in several actions in the classroom action research. the steps are elaborated as follows. a. planning at the beginning of the planning process we did observation previously to know for certain about the problems faced by the students of the practitioner in early learning. then we as dpl and teachers gave suggestion in the preparation of rpp (plan learning program) as well as the structures and the media that will be used in teaching. b. acting the action in the form of classroom learning teaching process was conducted by the ppl students. during the teaching learning process, the students were accompanied by the school teacher and advisor as observers. c.. monitoring monitoring or observation was done during the students teaching in the classroom. monitoring was done based on observation sheet and recordings in the form of video shooting. d. reflection reflection is a process of describing monitoring result which included weaknesses found in the process of implementation of the action (action). data collection techniques that we use include, among others ; observation, interviews, documentation, questionnaires and tests. data analysis was conducted by using qualitative and quantitative a) qualitative method was used to process data from observation, interviews, documentation, and questionnaires. b) quantitative method was used to process data from the english language test first grade students, by calculating the average value of the class. results the teaching practice in smp 1 jati kudus started at august 29, 2013. before the students were allowed to teach, the students must have orientation first. during this period the students were allowed to observe the school environment including teachers and students. they should also did observation when the teacher taught in the class so that they would have well understanding about the condition of the class. in the second week they were assigned to teach and they were also trained to prepare the lesson plan. before doing teaching practice, students should make observations and orientation language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 121 related to the physical condition of the school/institution, the organizational structure of the school, the school administration, the condition of students disciplines, the administration of teacher learning, student organizations, intra extracurricular activities, school infrastructure, school academic calendar and school activity schedule. to determine which classes were taken as the class of research we conducted interviewed with teachers. we did this in order to choose classes that have different characteristics so that it will provide different challenges for ppl students. based on the information from the teacher we finally decided to take an active class 7a and less active class 7c. after implementing teaching practice program for 3 months and conducting classroom action research for two months, based on the data that we collected in the class, then we can draw the following conclusion. graph 1 the quality of teacher activity (ppl students) in the second cycle, the teachers (ppl students) could create enjoyable situation and make the class is comfortable, so the teacher activity increased to good level. graph 2 activeness 0 2 4 6 cycle 1 cycle 2 class 7a class 7b 0 1 2 3 4 5 cycle 1 cycle 2 class 7a class 7c 122 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 graph 3 percentage of the number of active students activeness can be seen from the ability of the students in communicating their thinking. they started to be brave in communicating their opinion and they asked questions if they had problems they also tried to explain about the material being taught based on their point of view, although still under the guidance of the teacher practitioner. they also tried to think creatively and critically by giving comment on other students' work, although it was still very simple. moreover they started to arise their confidence in presenting the results of their work or just read in front of the class. however, based on the test result 1 and test 2 it can be seen different value of the results of the class 7a and 7c. the result of the test of class 7a was increasing significantly, that is 0.9 points, while the result of the test of 7c class increased only 0.3 points. so the teacher of 7c still have to work hard to improve the ability of students. graph of increasing score of english subject can be seen as follows. chart 5 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% cycle 1 cycle 2 class 7a class 7c 0 20 40 60 80 100 kelas 7a kelas 7c siklus 1 siklus 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 123 classroom management in the early days of teaching practice practitioner teachers still felt awkward in class and this was because it was the first time of their teaching in the classroom and interaction with the students. the students who became the sample of the research were the seventh grade students who were still adapting with the new environment in the school so that many of them were still passive. the ppl students (practitioner teachers) also still studied the materials which would be given to 7th grade students, because they the material taught is different from the subject that ppl students got in campus. they also had to think about the right method to deliver material so that the class will run smoothly and effectively. at this stage the ppl students tried to use the media to use pictures and power point. however, to motivate students to learn, teachers must also be able to understand the character and pattern of student learning and provide opportunities for students to be able to use english language in the classroom. the use of the teaching aids gives students time to explore themselves by using the media. at this first cycle, the medium used is still limited the aids only use to help the practitioners in explaining the material but not intended to give students the variation in learning activity. sometimes student teachers also need to lead the students to work in groups. teaching media in this phase is the material. due to the use of worksheets as the primary source of learning, it seems making the class more teacher centered and not students centered. teaching media is very important, therefore the teacher practitioner need to use the media as a media exploration for students, so that they will have more opportunities to practice the language as a medium of communication. difficulties the student teachers still have some problems in giving instruction. the language of the teacher candidates is too difficult to understand for junior high school students in grade 7. this condition led to the use of language in the content delivery is still dominated by l1, indonesian. sometimes the example sentences given by the teacher practitioner is less simple, so that students are less able to digest the meaning. the sound system is also an important aspect of teaching in the classroom. the volume of the teacher's voice must comply with the conditions of the class. in a large class volume voice should be loud so that the teacher must be able to be heard by the students in the back row. the teacher oo slow so when the students are crowded, the teacher's voice does not reach all of the students in the class. the position of the teacher candidate is often only in front of the class. the position 124 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 of the teacher in the classroom will determine the effectiveness of the class. teachers should not always be in front of the class because he needs to monitor what students do. teachers also need to communicate directly with students as individuals, so that teachers understand the characteristics of students as individuals and learning styles of each student. it is intended that teachers can provide appropriate approaches to learning for each student. all seating positions as in the general class in indonesia, still facing forward position the teacher as a learning center. this gives the impression that the students always work as individuals. it is necessary also occasionally change the seating arrangement and coordinating students to work in groups and make students themselves as the center of learning. conclusion classroom management performed by the practitioner of english education student of umk, starting from planning the class that is to create a lesson plan, base on the competence and learning objectives. teacher trainees starts the classroom activities from the pre learning that is by doing apperception. in the main activities of learning students must be able to master the material and explain the material by utilizing existing media. in addition the teacher trainee should be able to build rapport with students by showing hospitality. in the closing activity, the teacher trainees try to conclude learning outcomes and implement follow-up by giving assignments to students. in implementing the learning in the classroom, the teacher ppl face many obstacles, especially in growing confidence in the classroom. this is because teaching in a real classroom is a new experience for them, so many things to be learned in order to be able to adjust quickly. they are such a class organization, the use of language that acceptable, voice control, discipline the students, and foster children's motivation in the classroom. the efforts to improve in the learning process that teachers do is by optimizing the use of the media as a source of learning in order to generate students enthusiasm. they also tried to foster self-confidence so that students are willing to present the results of their work in front of the class. developing good relations with students with more intensive guidance in the classroom. learning success is demonstrated by the increasing number of students who are active and the average value subjects english students to a class that is 0.9 points and 0.3 points 7a to 7c class. for students ppl, this study can be used as a reference to get some illustration on how the implementation of the ppl and the obstacles encountered, as well as an example of self-reflection effort to improve the learning process that they should do. department of english education of umk can make this research as a ppl program evaluation. by knowing the weakness and strength in the language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 125 implementation of teaching practice program experienced by students, department of english education will be able to provide better revision through the implementation of the teaching practice program so that students will be better prepared to carry out the teaching process in the classroom. references harmer, jeremy. 2007. how to teach english. edinburg gate: longman. muliani. 2011. penelitian manajemen kelas (file:///d:/penelitian%20baru/manajemen %20kelas.htm) accessed on 20 april 2013 muslich, masnur. 2009. melaksanakan ptk itu mudah (classroom action research) pedoman praktis bagi guru profesional. jakarta: bumi aksara. rukmana dan suryana.2011. manajemen pendidikan. bandung: alfabeta te editor, reflective teaching: exploring our own practice (http://www.teaching english.org. uk/articles/reflectiveteaching-exploring-our-own-classroompractice) accessed on 21 april 2013 yusnaeni, 2009, pentingnya pengelolaan kelas dalam pembelajaran. lpmpaceh.com/download/download.php?filei d=33 accessed on 20 april 2013. language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 52 “listening is hard”: addie model on the development of english listening worksheets dewi furwana iain palopo dewi_furwana@iainpalopo.ac.id andi tenrisanna syam iain palopo anditenrisannasyam86@gmail.com abstract the authors’ pre-observation showed that when students learn listening skills, the students faced some difficulties. the students found difficulty expressing their ideas because they found many complex vocabularies, the audio text uses advanced grammar, and the native speaker speaks too fast. therefore, to solve those students’ problems, the authors proposed to develop the appropriate listening worksheet for the english education study program of iain palopo. then, the authors applied research and development method and used the addie model. 18 students of the english education study program iain palopo were involved as the research subject. the research instruments used were observation and questionnaire. from observing, analysing students’ needs, developing the materials, evaluating expert judgments, conducting try-out materials, revising the product, the final product of this study is listening worksheets stored in a compact disc. the worksheets consist of a course grid, learning objective, language note, pre-activity, whilst-activity and post-activity. the authors expect that this worksheet will be useful for efl teachers whose students' listening skills are still below the expected level of competence. keywords: addie model, listening skill, worksheet introduction listening practices have some benefits in language learning. first, listening provides students with an example of proper english pronunciation. it also makes it easier for them to develop their other abilities. second, by getting a listening skill, the learners can study some language elements indirectly. those elements could be words pronunciation, language speed, language stressing, language accent, and language intonation. those elements will be beneficial to increase learners’ capability to communicate effectively in english. this is supported by yildirim & yildrim’s (2015) statement that “listening is important in both everyday life and academic settings because people need to maintain successful communication.” since listening is so important in language learning and teaching, we must encourage our students to practice their listening skills both within and outside of the classroom. finally, it helps students to learn grammar indirectly. when students are introduced to the english language, they master the grammar without even understanding it. they can learn to know when to use proper grammar if they listen to spoken texts regularly. some students improve their listening skill naturally, but others face difficulty to do it (gilakjani & sabouri, 2016). achieving listening skills may even be stressful for the students of the english education study program of iain palopo. based on pre-observation, they experienced troubles in the listening comprehension course. there are still many unfamiliar vocabulary for students. the textbook used by them has an uncommon theme and contains different cultural topics of learning such as city transportation, celebration, restaurant, and touring a city. those topics are different because the book offers overseas culture and audio rhythm. besides, students’ capability and level of the book are also different. the students challenge to pass the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 53 exercises because the audio materials are inappropriate for them. realizing the statements above, the authors were interested in developing listening materials in the forms of the worksheet and compact disc. according to tomlinson (2011), materials are everything that can be used by teachers and learners to support language learning. the materials can be in the form of tv news, a printable worksheet, a cd room, a dvd, a youtube video, an online audio and video news (peterson, 2011), an e-book, etc. these materials are beneficial to improve students’ listening knowledge. according to hamdani (2011, p.122) “learning material ease teachers to implement learning. the teacher as a facilitator in learning activities will be more comfortable because the learning materials are compiled by themselves and delivered in various ways.” according to ahmadi (2016), teachers must facilitate the students with suitable materials and exercises to comprehend the english language. proper listening comprehension training can minimize listening anxiety and provide a rational framework for students to become independent learners who can effectively use the listening process to learn. amila et al. (2018) argued that teachers must have the ability to create a variety of teaching materials so that learning process does not become monotonous and repetitive for students. a worksheet is a medium for getting students to respond to a teacher. many studies have discussed the effectiveness of worksheets. rahayu et al. (2018), yulkifli et al. (2019) stated that the student’s worksheet is a type of teaching material that can provide students with a useful activity to practice. a student worksheet is a teaching tool that includes a series of exercises aimed at improving students' comprehension, skill, and competence. according to zulyadaini (2017), “students' worksheets are instructional materials printed on sheets of paper that contain materials, summaries, and directions for the execution of learning tasks that must be completed by learners and that relate to the essential competencies that must be attained.” a student worksheet may be thought of as a source of learning that consists of sheets containing brief content, learning goals, guidelines for answering questions, and a number of questions that students must answer (ikhsan & handayani, 2016). the materials writing method, according to tomlinson (2011), have seven stages. the phases are: defining a material requirement, exploring the need, contextualizing materials, pedagogically contextualizing materials, manufacturing materials, student usage of materials, and assessing materials against agreed-upon objectives. sinaga and fitriyani (2019) argued that developing teaching materials need the process of adapting, supplementing, and elaborating them to ensure that they meet the needs of students in learning a subject. the steps in the preparation of worksheets according to the ministry of national education (2008) are as follows: (1) analyze curriculum; (2) compile the needs of the students’ worksheets; (3) determine the worksheet titles; (4) arrange student worksheets, student worksheets can be done in the following steps: (a) formulating basic competencies (b) determine the means of production; (c) compiling materials; (d) paying attention to the structure of teaching materials; (e) taking into account the various didactic requirements, construction, and technical conditions. several scholars have developed listening worksheet such as nawangsasi (2015), qodir et al. (2016), syafi’i (2016) has resulted in the final product in the form of the compact disc, recorded materials, a lecturer’s guide, and a worksheet. adnan (2014) has produced listening materials and she also explored the obstacles faced by ‘ppg sm3t’ on developing it. zaenuri (2008) made a listening worksheet for islamic junior high school students. karim and ciptaningrum (2019) made multimedia-based listening materials for the tenthgraders of man 1 pamekasan. kuswardani et al. (2015) produced learning materials based on ctl approach. considering the statements above, the authors tried to develop a listening worksheet by ensuring that the consistency of the audio material is reasonable, getting the guidance of repetition in each listening activity, publishing remarks words once students have completed the task successfully, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 54 providing different exercises to prevent students from being bored, and recommending some activities that the lecturer can do in the classroom. methodology to develop the listening materials, the authors adopted the addie model. addie stands for analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating. the authors used the addie model because according to syam (2020, p.20), the addie model is a common and compatible learning model applied for development research. besides, it is a model that provides an opportunity to do continuous evaluation and revision in each phase passed. so that the resulting product becomes a valid and reliable product. addie model is very simple but the implementation is systematic. addie is an acronym for the five stages of a development process: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. the procedures of the addie model were described as follows: a. analysis this step is the first schema in the addie model. in analysis, the authors divided a questionnaire that contained lack, wants, and necessity questions. (nation & macalister, 2010). it aims to know students’ learning needs and learning targets. b. design in the addie model, making a plan is called design. in this step, the authors focused on designing a course grid (lesson plan) for the students considering the data gotten in need of analysis. c. development in this step, the authors passed four ways before implementing the worksheet. those are, first, list some activities that could be appropriate for the learners to be learned. second, develop a procedure of delivering the listening material for the students based on learners’ needs and the goals also objectives of the course. third, organizes the materials, fourth, validates the materials to experts to make sure whether the material is matched to the students’ needs as well as the goals and objectives of the course or not. finally, the worksheet is ready to be implemented. d. implementation. in this step, the product is going to be implemented in the class. e. evaluation the authors evaluated the findings of tryout by using two kinds of evaluation. they were formative and summative evaluations. the formative evaluation would be evaluated during and between the addie steps, and summative evaluation would be used in the implementation (try-out) steps. the participants of this research were 18 english education study program students in the second semester. eighteen students also were involved in product try-out. the instruments of this research were questionnaires. the authors gave questionnaires to know their lack, want, and necessity. the expert judgments and the students who joined the product try-out have also filled the questionnaires. in this research, the data collected from need analysis and experts’ judgment would be analyzed qualitatively quantitatively. the data from the expert and try-out were noted well as the attachment for the authors in developing and revising the worksheet. result and discussion the results of need analysis necessities the first question is about what they need in listening skills. 78% of students answered that they want to analyze the sounds they heard so that the information will be understood. then, 11% of students chose to listen to the full sounds from everyday stuff and 11% of students need activities that will improve their english ability. the next question is their purposes in learning a listening comprehension subject. 59% of students need to listen to the english dialogue (59%). they do not need to improve their toefl score. 23% of students need to know the correct pronunciation in every word and 18% of students need to improve their accent ability in english. lacks https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 55 the data relating to the lack of students shows that the mastery rate of english department students is in basic lower 27.8%, basic upper 38.9%, intermediate lower 11.1%, intermediate upper 16.7%, and advanced 0%. the students’ toefl score is less than 424 (33.3%), less than 500 (11.1%), and never got the test obviously (50%). some difficulties faced by the students when they learn a listening comprehension subject, namely, the students were difficulty expressing their ideas because they found many difficult vocabularies (44.4%), the audio text uses idiom language (11.1%), the audio text is too long (16.7%), and the audio text uses advanced grammar (16.7%). the students are difficulty understanding the audio because the native speaker speaks too fast (35%), the sounds spoken by the speaker are unclear (65%), and the students cannot see the speaker's expressions (0%). wants the data shows that 50% of students wanted to improve their listening skill by using “ the fastest the winner” method to gain the higher score, 27.8% of students wanted to answer the questions by turning the text to the students, and 22.2% of students wanted to write or retell the voice. 38.9% of students’ chose study sequences are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. 22.2% of students chose listening, reading, speaking, and writing. 11.1% of students chose speaking listening, reading, and writing. no one chose speaking, reading, writing, and listening. the next question is how long the text they wanted to hear. 25% of students wanted to have a length of the text about 300 words, 25% of students wanted a text that contains 300 words include the pictures or diagram, 25% of students wanted a text that contains 200 to 250 words, and 25% of students wanted a text contains 150 to 200 words include the pictures or diagram. furthermore, the students answered about what is the most difficult thing in listening. 53% of students answered about the most difficult thing in listening is they did not understand what native speaker says because they were lack vocabularies, 47% students prefer to identify the keywords through the oral description, and the other option 0%. 44.4% of students wanted to listen to the monologue and dialog text then they will retell what they heard, 38.9% of students wanted to listen then answer the following questions, and other option 0%. lastly, the students answered about what is their favorite topics in listening. 50% of students wanted to listen to the topics about daily activities, 21% of students chose education, 29% of students chose culture, and other option 0%. result of experts’ validation regarding the language aspect, four aspects were judged. they were: (1) the language level is suitable with the students’ development, language clarity, and comprehensibility, (2) the language suitability used in material explanation, (3) task direction suitability with the student's cognitive development, and (4) the correctness of language used. the results of experts’ judgment were shown in the following table: table 1. language aspect assessment aspects to be assessed means category the suitability of the language level with the students’ development 4.3 excellent language is clear and comprehensible 4.6 excellent the suitability of language used in explanation and tasks direction with the students’ cognitive development 4.6 excellent the language used grammatically correct 3.5 good https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 56 generally, the experts stated that the language used in the worksheet was good for listening activities in the class. regarding the content materials of the worksheet, the experts agreed that content materials were good for the students. according to qodir et al. (2016), “the content should pique the students' attention and inspire them to listen. funny stories and funny illustrations can have a big impact on language learning, but they shouldn't be the only form of material used. furthermore, not only should the content be fascinating to carry out the listening work, but lecturers should also be imaginative so that students enjoy themselves what they do.” the results of experts’ judgment were shown in the following table: table 2. content materials assessment aspects to be assessed means experts’ statement worksheet developed in accordance with learning objectives 4 excellent worksheet developed in accordance with the students’ need in learning listening i course 4.6 excellent the worksheet developed exploring a lot of text related to students’ daily life 4 excellent the worksheet was developed elaborating the text in detail 4 excellent in general, the worksheet provided a clear explanation 4.3 excellent audio-material contains pronunciation 4.3 excellent the texts given in the material can help students understand the main topic 4.6 excellent teaching materials (text, tables, pictures, etc.) were taken from sources relevant to the topic being discussed 4.3 excellent teaching materials (text, tables, pictures, attachments, etc.) are taken from up-to-date sources 4 excellent the material developed consistently presented pre-activity and main activity on each unit 4.6 excellent the forms of tasks in each unit are presented in various ways 4.3 excellent concerning the worksheet layout, the experts agreed that the worksheet was excellent for the students. the results of layout aspects assessment could be seen in the following table: table 3. layout of the worksheet assessment aspects to be assessed means category the placement of the layout elements 4.3 excellent https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 57 (title, introduction, acknowledgment, table of contents) at the beginning of each chapter is consistent the placement of layout elements on the page follow a consistent pattern 4 excellent the illustrations provided can enlarge understanding of the information conveyed 4 excellent the illustration given has a proportional size so that it provides an accurate picture of the object in question 4 excellent in general, the illustrations are shown in accordance with the topic of discussion 3.9 excellent the developed worksheet does not use lots of fonts 3.5 good the material uses letter variations (bold, italic, capital) to distinguish levels and emphasize the text that is considered important 4 excellent first revised product after validating the listening worksheet, then the authors obtained some corrections from the experts. these are the corrections from learning material experts and lay-out experts. table 4. language expert correction point to be revised revision mistyping of words’ spelling. for example: “senteces” it should be sentences improper picture illustration toward the material having another proper pictures and make it relevant toward the material adding some keywords to remind the students about the material put some keywords in the end of material the illustration of the material should be written manually writing and drawing the material by our own the learning strategies should be exist on the worksheet adding some listening strategies on the material background and shape color background must be changed based on content of unit. the color also should be more colorful and not monotone. the details of picture it should be more attractive by adding some details on the picture https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 58 the results of field try-out the worksheet was given to 18 secondsemester english education students at iain palopo. after doing the try-out, the authors spread the questionnaire to assess the true outcome of the worksheet. since the students had limited time, they could merely do some exercises, so the authors examined five of the 18 exercises as a representative of the try-out results. from five exercises, most of the students answered that they understood the material because the worksheet has been well-organized. the students stated that the worksheet has many attractive pictures. besides, the vocabularies used were understandable and the students are easy to find out the meanings of every word because the authors provided the key language in each unit (syafi’i, 2016). discussion according to the authors’ observation, despite english learning, most of the students in the second semester had low english proficiency although they have learned english since they were in elementary school. their lack of english vocabulary, as well as a lack of confidence, may both lead to poor results. english encounters, low desire to learn, low self-confidence, and so on. this research purposed to develop the appropriate listening worksheet for the english education study program of iain palopo because worksheets can help students achieve academic success in a variety of ways. worksheets, for example, may be used as additions to textbooks to provide material for specific classes. furthermore, blanks in worksheets invite students to fill in the gaps; they provide opportunities for information construction. when combined with appropriate instructions, well-designed worksheet questions can pique students' interest (lee, 2014). one of the attempts that teachers make to boost the competence of students is to produce high-quality students’ worksheets (yulkifli, 2019). layout is the foundation for effectively conveying a message to students (lee, 2014). rotter (2006) suggested the cola (contrast, orientation, lettering, and artwork) layout principle to help teachers improve their worksheet design skills. the features of questions are also essential factors in worksheets. calderhead et al. (2006) demonstrated that the order in which objects with varying levels of cognitive complexity are placed can influence students' learning outcomes. educators are often concerned about the information formats, or scaffolds, in worksheets. the authors did some steps to develop a listening worksheet. the steps were described as follows: first, the authors conducted need analysis in the form of questionnaires. the results of the needs survey revealed a clear desire for effective listening materials that taught students how to listen rather than only testing them. second, the authors designed the course grid, and it consisted of four parts namely the title of the unit, warm-up, main activity, and follow-up. the worksheet contains 14 units and each unit consists of fourfive tasks. third, after the authors compiled the course grid, the authors were developing the listening materials. the title of each unit was written before a brief description of the unit content. the page was written at the bottom of the page. some colorful pictures were provided to make the listening worksheet more attractive. the tasks were in the forms of multiple choices, fill in the blanks, match pictures with words, complete the forms, listen to the descriptive texts then number the pictures, classify the words based on their categories, etc. fourth, after the authors developed the listening worksheet, the expert then judged the product. there were three aspects assessed, namely language, content materials, and layout of the worksheet. then, the authors revised the first listening worksheet draft based on the experts’ judgment suggestions. fifth, the authors held a field tryout. 18 students participated. regarding their answers on the questionnaire, the students stated that materials in the listening worksheet expose them to the real language, and it is more closely connected to everyday life activities. hence, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 59 students find the worksheet more beneficial since it can be applied in their social life and more crucial to increase their communication and listening skills in the target language. conclusion based on the research results, the conclusions are then drawn. firstly, the final product of this research is listening materials for the english education study program of iain palopo. learning materials are in the form of students’ worksheets and the compact disc (cd). secondly, the worksheet consists of a course grid, earning objective, language note, pre-activity, whilstactivity, and post-activity. this worksheet has been developed based on the principle of listening material development, namely, relevance and transferability/acceptability. relevance means the worksheet connected with real-life student's things. since the activities are realistic, this worksheet can be used in other classes and/or in out-of-school settings. the knowledge provided by the author's listening materials can be used by students outside of the classroom. this worksheet also discusses the indonesian cultures, and it is supported by some listening tips in every unit. the authors suggested the students practice more to comprehend each material delivered by the lecturer and to upgrade their listening skills through this worksheet. then, the lecturer also should deliver the listening materials creatively by modifying the listening materials and making the learning process more interesting. meanwhile, the other researchers are also expected to design listening worksheets from the basic level to the highest level of listening. so the students will study listening skills completely. references adnan, a. 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(2020). developing writing module for the fourth-semester learners of english department at state islamic institute of palopo. ijeltal journal, 5(1). tomlinson, b. (2011). materials development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. tyagi, b. (2013). listening: an important skill and its various aspects. the criterion: an international journal in english, 12, 1-8. wilson, j. j. (2008). how to teach listening. usa: longman. yıldırım, s., & yıldırım, ö. (2016). the importance of listening in language learning and listening comprehension problems experienced by language learners: a literature review. psychology, 16(4), 20942110. yulkifli, ningrum, m. v., & indarsari, w. (2019). the validity of student worksheet using inquiry-based learning model with science process skill approach for physics learning of high school. jpppf (jurnal penelitian dan pengembangan pendidikan fisika), 5(2). https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 376 digital text comprehension: how to keep it on track with self-regulated learning? ratih laily nurjanah universitas ngudi waluyo ratihlaily@unw.ac.id arif suryo priatmojo universitas negeri semarang arifsuryo@mail.unnes.ac.id armeita rahma wulandari universitas ngudi waluyo armeitarahmaw@gmail.com abstract the era of technology brings some changes including the involvement of technology in the classroom. among of them are reading comprehension activities. with the existence of texts in the internet, digital reading becomes a new literacy form in the learning process. guided activities are considered important to help students deal with digital reading well. this study aims to propose activities based on self-regulated learning strategy to be integrated with digital reading to keep the activities on track. this is a case study involving survey design and in-depth interview. a questionnaire was distributed to lecturers to assess how they conduct their reading classes with digital reading inside. the results can be arranged into 3 phases; forethought and planning phase, monitoring phase, and self-reflected phase. it is important to give students time limitation to help them set their goal of learning. the monitoring of the activities can be reported in form of blog entry or on digital classroom or learning management system developed by institutions. the selfreflection can be conducted by asking students to retell the text they have read, the difficulties found and how they overcome the problems in form of podcast entry. having these activities will help students to get involved more in various forms of technologies assisting them in learning process. these activities highlight the importance of guidance and instructions given by lecturers despite the involvement of technology and independence in learning. keywords: classroom technology, digital reading, self-regulated learning introduction technology development brings changes to many aspects of life including classroom activities. the teaching and learning process nowadays involves technology as media. it includes the process of teaching and learning reading skill. reading no longer needs printed text but digital text becomes trends for students also. they become familiar with digital text more than printed ones. this brings a challenge to teachers related to how to keep the students on track during reading activities with the digital text. the internet or gadgets can become distractors for students in reading their digital texts. this is highlighted by tanjung and gultom (2017) in their study discovering that students are more interested in http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:ratihlaily@unw.ac.id mailto:arifsuryo@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:armeitarahmaw@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 377 spending their time with gadgets to read daily articles or information. this shows that it is very important for teachers to accommodate the shift of interest in order to keep students interested in reading activities in terms of learning activities. this is also supported by a study conducted by satriani (2019) stating that online reading gives positive changes in terms of reading motivation since it turns reading into fun activity besides the support from teachers, parents, and environment. reading habit gives positive effect on reading comprehension which becomes one of the indicators in reading class. this is stated by septiarini and rahmat (2018) who present that students with good reading habit have higher comprehension in reading than those who do not. it is also discovered that students have positive perception to online or digital text as what stated by islami and warni (2020). the use of digital text in reading classroom has been widely implemented. one of them is proposed by handayani, youlia, and febriani (2020) in their study. they use digital reading text to teach reading narrative text. the study revealed that using digital text as teaching media can help students more enjoy reading activities and they give positive perception towards the learning activities and the media. although it states that teacher uses the digital text well, it does not describe how teacher integrate the media in teaching and learning activities. digital texts are mostly used in the extensive reading level where the reading activities are meant to be fun and enjoyable for students. in their study, ng et al. (2019) proposed that extensive reading also needs students’ comprehension while doing it. it also helps students to gain more vocabulary which will support them in other skills of language. it is also believed to support students’ ability in grammar because students acquire the knowledge while reading the story. extensive reading is also mentioned to gain positive perspectives from students since reading story is more enjoyable for them. despite the popularity of digital text in reading classroom, teachers still have problems dealing with how to work with the texts in learning activities. this is stated by laeli et al. (2020) where teachers are said to have positive perspectives on the use of digital reading to teach reading. however, this interest is not supported by any workshops or training that can help them work with digital reading with students. from this study, it is concluded that there is still a need to support or give insight to teachers on how to use of digital texts effectively. it can be quite challenging since students may be easily distracted while working with digital reading. teaching with digital texts requires teachers to break down the phases of learning first. as stated by lim & toh (2020), it is important to develop students’ knowledge in terms of linear and deep reading strategies to motivate students to develop critical questions as part of gathering information. being able to work with digital text also requires students to work with digital devices to allow them access information from online sources. this process includes the understanding on schema or structures of digital environment. digital text may come with audio, videos, or pictures. this causes students to have the knowledge on how the audio, pictures, videos are integrated to convey the meaning or message delivered by the text. this is called multimodal semiotic awareness which works on how students find and produce multimodal text by considering the layout composition, use of text, and images with aspects of colors, size, and so forth. while these aspects are expected to support the text, they can appear as distractions for students. to avoid the distractions, it is prominent to provide teaching strategies that support the reading classroom with digital text. reading class can be conducted with various strategies and techniques. drta (direct reading thinking activity) and kwl (know, what, learn) are used by andriani (2017) to improve the reading comprehension skill. it is stated that effective comprehension instruction includes the use of strategies and engagement in terms of content. students who are considered as good readers need to apply strategies before, during, and after http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 378 reading activities. this shows that students need strategy that allows them to do the sequence of activities. one of the strategies that involves the sequence is self-regulated learning strategy. this strategy implements three phases; forethought and monitoring phase, performance monitoring phase, and self-reflection phase. the first phase is where students are expected to do pre-reading activities. they are expected to be able to set their goal in reading, set their time spent to spend on reading, and comprehend their own goals in reading. the second phase helps students monitor their own reading activities by later identifying their difficulties during reading activities. the last phase helps students to evaluate their activities after reading to then plan the next plans. this phases are proposed by zimmerman (2014) in his theoretical research on self-regulated learning (srl). this strategy has been implemented in various studies especially reading comprehension. a study by sholich (2018) presents that srl is used in teaching reading comprehension for 11th grade students by implementing the three phases. students were required to set their learning goals and select best strategies for their own goals including direct and indirect strategies including memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social strategy. students then monitor their own progress and adjust their strategies when needed. if the progress is not expected, they are encouraged to change the strategies for the next tasks. srl is also proven to be one of the effective strategies to improve students’ ability in reading comprehension. in their study, jafarigohar and morshedian (2014) apply srl in reading comprehension class and found that srl is effective in improving the ability especially in making inferences within text. this study does not describe the clear steps on how to implement the srl in reading classroom so it can improve students’ ability. srl is also considered helpful while conducting a classroom through online learning. this is proposed by wandler and imbriale (2017) who implements srl in online classroom for undergraduate students. this study shows the importance of instructions, instructors and learning media and materials to support the implementation of srl in online classroom. this study also provides the implementation guidelines and empirical evidence linked to improved srl strategy. the limitation of this study is it does not describe which course where it is implemented. the implementation of srl in the classroom should be supported by proper instructions. in their study, nurjanah and pratama (2020) develops the instructions based on srl phases that can be applied in the classroom. this goes along with el-henawy, sayed, and dadour (2010) who integrate srl with learning instructions. in their study, tasnimi & maftoon (2014) also implement the srl strategy to improve students’ reading comprehension. this present study proposes the description of the classroom activities where students implement the srl phases with digital text as the learning media and give instructions based on the strategy used. the purpose of this present study is describing the steps conducted by teacher in teaching reading comprehension with digital text through the online learning conducted especially during pandemic. methodology this present study applies case study design where it is mentioned as taking an example of an activity using multiple method and data sources to explore them and interrogate them. it aims to give rich description of a phenomenon as stated by somekh and lewin (2005) the subject of this study is a lecturer of english literature department of universitas ngudi waluyo who teach reading comprehension on the level of extensive reading. the data are gathered through observation on on-site documents such as lesson plan and learning materials. a questionnaire and in-depth http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 379 interview were also conducted to get more description from the lecturer. the data then analyzed by using data reduction, data display, data conclusion/ verification (huberman & miles, 1984). the procedures of the study were; first, distributing the questionnaire consisting of: q1. how is the use of digital text in online reading classroom? q2. what are the advantages of using digital text in online reading classroom? q3. what are the challenges of using digital text in online reading classroom? q4. what strategy is considered best to use to support the use of digital text in online reading classroom? the second step after transcribing the results of the questionnaire is conducting an in-depth interview. the interview guidelines is presented as follow: 1. why did you choose the specific strategy to use together with the digital text in reading class? 2. what do you give to students to help them get through the first stage of reading (prereading activities)? 3. what do you give to students to help them get through the second stage of reading (during reading activities)? 4. what do you give to students to help them get through the third stage of reading (after-reading activities)? the third step is matching the answers with the on-site documents such as lesson plan and learning materials. result and discussion from the questionnaire, it was found that; q1. the digital text in reading classroom was chosen and used to accommodate the students’ interest on digital stuff and technology. the topics chosen should be vary so students are not bored. digital text is also easy to find and use. q2. using digital text brings more fun in the classroom. students spend more time with laptop, mobile phone, so reading digital text make them do not need to get on their books. digital text brings more chances for them to explore more about a topic given. q3. the challenge in using digital text is making sure students do not explore too far that actually will bring them away from the topic discussed and finally do not get the point of learning. another challenge is to keep them always alarmed that they have something to do with the text. q4. considering the fact that i, as the lecturer, am not always around them, it is important to make sure they know what to do by growing out motivation in learning. self-regulated learning is considered best because it explores and guides students’ competencies in learning by themselves by making use of the materials or guidelines given. the results of the interview show that srl was chosen by the lecturer because it matches the needs of conducting reading activities in 3 phases of pre-reading, during reading and after-reading. the pre-reading activities are given based on the phase of forethought and planning phase. students were shown the materials and they got explanations related to the objectives of the learning, what the text is about, and what they had to do with the text. from the explanation, students were then guided to make their own goal based on the learning objectives. they then related the goals with the time they would allocate to complete the tasks. since it is an extensive reading class where the students are not in their beginner level, the tasks mostly require them to do in-depth analysis like summary, give their opinions based on the text, and analyzing the text with various genre of texts from the internet, e-book, wattpad, and enovels. in lesson plan, the phase is shown by stating ‘planning activities”. the during reading activities are integrated with monitoring performance phase of srl. in http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 380 this phase, students were encouraged to keep monitoring their activities. students were asked to keep their activities in a journal stating the title of a text they read, the link or source of the text, the difficulties they find from reading the text, the fun part of reading the text, what strategy they apply and what results brought by the strategies, how much time they allocate in the planning and how much time they spent in reality. in lesson plan, this phase is stated by including “making journal log” as the activities. students were then asked to retell what they have got from reading activities to their peers related to the content of the text, the interesting part and not-so enjoyable part. in the lesson plan, this is stated as “retell information”. this will help students’ abilities in improving their comprehension about the content of a text. the retelling activities can be done through online conference. the after-reading activities are integrated with self-reflection phase of srl. students were encouraged to evaluate their process of reading extensively by looking at their personal journal. then, they were asked to present their reflection to the peers and lecturer so others can learn from the problems faced by each other. in the lesson plan, this is stated with “evaluation”. based on these results, some contrast and comparison are made based on the previous studies mentioned above. these findings are considered solving the gap resulted from andriani (2017)’s study where strategies that support the three phases of prereading, during, and after reading activities are needed. srl in reading classroom as conducted in present study is implemented in 3 phases. this present study goes along with a study of sholich (2018) but different in terms of the setting of the research. this present study shows that it is possible to integrate the srl phases in extensive reading classroom with students considered as adult students. the present study also goes along with jafarigohar and morshedian (2014) where srl in reading classroom helps students’ reading comprehension. the different part is that this present study highlights the students’ ability in comprehending text shown by how they retell the text. related to the implementation in online learning environment conducted by wandler and imbriale (2017), this present study supports the finding where srl can be implemented via online by keep minimizing students’ chances of getting trouble with technical issues. this is because the students do not need to always have online conference in every meeting of reading class. it is possible for them to have the online conference once in a while to report their progress or their reading journals. the implementation of srl in this study applies the principles and instructions developed by nurjanah and pratama (2020) also el-henawy, sayed, and dadour (2010) where the instructions are given in the beginning of every digital text used in the learning activities. compared to the previous studies where they developed the instructions, the present study shows how the instructions are explicitly given and included in the learning materials and lesson plan. bringing srl into classroom is believed to have some benefits for students. since srl does not require particular level of ability, it helps students to understand and develop. in her book, nilson (2013, p.10) proposed that srl enhances students’ achievement, the depth of student cognitive skill, the students’ focus on learning, and the development of responsibility. conclusion from this study, it is concluded that it is possible to implement srl with digital text in online learning environment. the activities developed based on srl strategy are considered useful in terms of keeping the students on track. the planning and setting goal including time management is useful in preparing students before they work with digital text. they know what to do with the text, and how the text should be involved on their learning activities. the performance monitoring phase is used to help students monitor their progress whether they explore too far or not. the self-reflection phase is http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 381 useful so students can set their next cycles based on their previous experiences. the limitation of this study is that it does not involve students as the subjects of research in terms of observing their reading skill ability and their perspectives. for further researchers, it is expected to work on how srl with digital texts improve their ability in reading skill and how they see srl in the classroom with digital texts. references andriani, d. (2017). the influence of reading comprehension achievement at the eighth grade students of smp muhammadiyah 1 rawa bening by using drta and kwl strategies. the journal of english language stuides, 02(01), 32–45. el-henawy, w. m., sayed, e., & dadour, m. (2010). self-regulated learning in english language instruction. quality and accreditation standards in open education in egypt and the arab world, 1, 825–851. handayani, s., youlia, l., & febriani, r. b. (2020). the use of digital literature in teaching reading narrative. journal of english teaching, applied linguistics, and literature, 3(2), 65–74. huberman, a. ., & miles, m. . (1984). qualitative data analysis : handout. islami, j. d., & warni, s. (2020). efl students’ perceptions of reading electronic books. journal of elt research, 5(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.22236/jer jafarigohar, m., & morshedian, m. (2014). the effect of self-regulation on improving efl readers’ ability to make within-text inferences. issues in language teaching, 3(2), 263–286. laeli, a. f., setiawan, s., & anam, s. (2020). reading digital text as a new literacy in elt: teachers’ perception & practices. eternal (english, teaching, learning, and research journal), 6(2), 312. https://doi.org/10.24252/eternal.v62.2020.a9 lim, f. v., & toh, w. (2020). how to teach digital reading? journal of information literacy, 14(2), 24–43. https://doi.org/10.11645/14.2.2701 ng, q. r., renandya, w. a., & miao yee, c. c. (2019). extensive reading : theory , research and implementation. teflin journal, 30(2), 171–186. nilson, l. b. (2013). creating self-regulated learners. stylus publishing,llc. nurjanah, r. l., & pratama, m. r. a. (2020). selfregulated learning strategy instructions in reading comprehension skill learning during outbreak era. journal of english language teaching and linguistics, 5(2), 191– 201. satriani, e. (2019). online reading resources among efl(english foreign language) students: do they promote reading habit? journal of english for academic, 6(1), 8–17. septiarini, t., & rahmat, a. (2018). the relationship between reading habits and reading comprehension of english department in untirta. 3(2), 178–191. sholich, i. (2018). self-regulated learning in reading of eleventh graders in sma negeri 1 manyar gresik. retain, 6(3), 69–79. somekh, b., & lewin, c. (2005). research methods in the social sciences. sage publication. tanjung, f. z., & gultom, u. a. (2017). reading habits in digital era: a research on the students in borneo university. 20(2), 147–157. tasnimi, m., & maftoon, p. (2014). application of self-regulation in reading comprehension. journal of language teaching and research, 16(3), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.4.844-855 wandler, j. b., & imbriale, w. j. (2017). promoting undergraduate student selfregulation in online learning environments. online learning journal, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v21i2.881 zimmerman, b. (2002). becoming a self-regulated learner : an overview. theory into practice, december. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 382 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 177 english teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in online teaching wanda listyowati1 wiyaka2 entika fani prastikawati3 universitas pgri semarang, indonesia email: entikafani@upgris.ac.id abstract formative assessment is one type of assessment that is commonly implemented in teaching and learning. however, to carry out a formative assessment, teachers need to adjust the conceptions of formative assessment in the online teaching and learning environment. this descriptive qualitative study aimed to determine the english teacher's conceptions of formative assessment in online teaching and learning. to gather the data, the writers used a closed-questionnaire and semistructured interview. furthermore, two english teachers participated as the sample of this study. these two english teachers were selected based on several predetermined conditions; teaching experience and educational background. the result of this study shows that both english teachers have a good conception of formative assessment in online teaching. they consider that the application of formative assessments in the online classroom is easy and does not need complicated requirements in its implementation. in addition, formative assessment can help english teachers monitor the progress of their students so that they can prepare better future lesson plans according to the conditions of their students in the online teaching and learning process. keywords: teachers’ conceptions; formative assessment; online teaching. introduction in english language teaching and learning, teaching and assessments are two crucial things that influence each other, so that they cannot be separated (james, 2006). these two things are related to each other because the teaching and learning process is always followed by an assessment to find out the extent of students' understanding ability in receiving the subject matter (birenbaum, 2007). moreover, the results of assessments in education can be used as a basis for making decisions about students, the learning process, the curriculum, and educational policies. it shows that assessment plays an important role in the education field, especially in the teaching and learning process (prastikawati, 2019). as stated by brown & abeywickrama, (2019), assessment is divided into two kinds, they are formative and summative assessment. both of these assessments are used to evaluate the students in the teaching and learning process. according to wiyaka et al. (2020), summative assessment is a type of assessment that is given at the end of the course and is used to measure students' understanding of the material that has been studied. in contrast with summative assessments, the formative assessment focuses more on ongoing feedback and providing benefits to students (prastikawati et al., 2020). in today’s curriculum, formative assessment is considered one of the most influential assessments that were applied in the teaching and learning process (widiastuti & saukah, 2017). this kind of assessment is performed to assess students’ learning needs, understanding, and improvement in learning concerning a specific unit of learning (karimi & shafiee, 2014). moreover, bailey & heritage (2008) added a critical clarification on formative assessment as the systematic process used to gather evidence and provide feedback as learning takes place. the practice of assessment in the classroom is considered an important factor that is influenced by the teachers’ conception of assessment (arrafii, 2020). what mean by teachers’ conception of assessment is “a teacher’s understanding of the nature and purpose of how students’ learning is examined, tested, evaluated or assessed” (g. t. l. brown & gao, 2015). in https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:entikafani@upgris.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 178 addition, remesal (2011) was explained that conceptions represent various types of ideas kept by teachers behind their explanations of how things in education are perceived. these statements show that teachers’ conceptions of assessment especially formative assessment are important because they will influence how teachers teach and what students learn or achieve in the classroom. adjusting to the current conditions of the covid19 pandemic, the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia issued circular number 4 of 2020 concerning the implementation of education policies in an emergency for the spread of covid19. this circular is explained that the teaching process is carried out at home through an online system. online teaching is a teaching system that is implemented remotely by utilizing internet technology (keengwe & kidd, 2010). point to that, today’s teaching process is carried out online. in the education field, english subject is also one of the school subjects where the teaching system is implemented online (islam, 2011). the use of an online system in teaching english can make teachers and students more independent and able to control things that cannot be done in a traditional learning system (alhabahba & mahfoodh, 2016). the examples of online media that are used in the english teaching process at this time are zoom, google meets, google classroom, microsoft teams, etc. in this case, english adjusts the english teaching and assessment process. in the online teaching process, english teachers still need to measure the students’ needs, abilities, and understanding of the existing teaching and learning process samson & collins (2012). this is in line with the purpose of formative assessment in english teaching and learning to forming or shaping the students during the teaching and learning process (trumbull & lash, 2013). concerning that, english teachers should have a good understanding of formative assessments to improve their quality in teaching english (boston, 2003). some studies have been conducted relating to the teachers’ perspective on the assessment in english teaching and learning. laight et al (2010) investigated the conceptions and practice of formative assessment in higher education. the result revealed the participants’ experiences and practices of formative assessment. the participants felt that the core of their messages can increase feedback from formative assessment results. similarly, widiastuti & saukah (2017) conducted a qualitative study by applying indepth interviews. they found that the english teachers did not follow up properly due to their low understanding of formative assessment. the teachers need more training to be able to implement formative assessments in the classroom properly. a qualitative study was also done by guadu & boersma (2018). they revealed that teachers have a positive belief in the importance of formative assessment in teaching writing, and they applied it at the intermediate level. seeing the importance of the teachers’ understanding towards formative assessment, it is potential to seek how the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment in online teaching. most of the previous studies put a big concern on english teachers in higher education. nevertheless, studies on how the english teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in junior high school, especially in an online way have not been conducted. this study addresses the gaps from the previous studies by providing the junior high school english teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in online teaching, especially in this period of pandemic covid19. therefore, this study is trying to answer the following question “how are the conceptions of english teachers on formative assessment in the online teaching.” methodology this study was a descriptive qualitative study that asked two english teachers in smp n 6 semarang to participate as the sample. these english teachers were chosen for some requirements. table 1. the requirements of english teachers participant sex major age teachers’ degree https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 179 to gather the data on the teachers’ conceptions, the writers used a closedquestionnaire and a semi-structured interview. the closed-questionnaire was given before the semi-structured interview to the english teachers. the closed-questionnaire consisted of six questions relating to the implementation of formative assessment in online teaching. those questions were adapted from arrafii (2020). the details of the closed-questionnaire were presented in table 2. table 2. the questions of closed-questionnaire no questions 1 formative assessment is easy to do in online teaching. 2 implementing formative assessment in english online classes can help the english teachers in getting the students’ attention. 3 there are alternatives to an online formative assessment tool that the english teachers can access in english class. 4 formative assessment in online english class helps the english teachers to control the students’ attention. 5 formative assessment in online english classrooms can monitor the students’ language progress effectively. 6 formative assessment gives useful evidence of the students’ understandings which the english teachers use to plan their next lessons. on the other hand, in conducting a semistructured interview, the writers allowed the participants to ask and clarify the question if they did not understand. the semi-structured interview was intended to gain the supporting data of the closed-questionnaire data. the result of a closed-questionnaire was analyzed in percentage and presented in a graphic. meanwhile, the data from semistructured interviews were analyzed, revised, transcribed verbatim, and translated into the english language to support the data from a closed questionnaire. result and discussion 1. the english teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in online teaching. the objective of this study was to investigate the conceptions that english teachers have about formative assessment in online teaching. to reach the objective, the writers give a closed-questionnaire and semi-structured interview to two english teachers of smp 6 semarang. the obtained data were divided into two findings; the data from closed-questionnaire and semi-structured interview. the finding revealed that english teachers have a good conception of formative assessment in online teaching. as presented figure 1, it presents the level of conceptions, whether it is low/medium/high. the english teachers' conceptions were divided into six conceptions; conception on the ease of implementing formative assessment in online teaching (conception 1/q1), conception on formative assessment in helping english teachers to get students' attention (conception 2/q2), conception on various alternatives of formative assessment (conception 3/q3), the conception of formative assessment as a way to control students' attention (conception 4/q4), conception on formative assessment in monitoring students' language progress (conceptions 5/q5), and conception on the useful evidence of formative assessment in helping the english teachers plan further lessons (conception 6/q6). of teaching experience teacher a male english in junior high school > 40 years old > 10 years bachelor in english education teacher b female english in junior high school > 40 years old >10 years bachelor in english education https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 180 figure 1. the result of closed-questionnaire based on the questionnaire data (q1-q6) in figure 1 shows higher results on the agree scale than on the disagree scale. in responding to the closed questionnaire (q1-q6) that was distributed, the english teachers gave a good response regarding the implementation of formative assessment in online classrooms. this result confirms that english teachers have a good conception regarding formative assessment in online teaching. point to that, these findings are divided into five sections relating to research questions regarding the english teacher's conception of formative assessment in online teaching. first, the data show that formative assessments are easy to do in online classrooms. second, implementing formative assessment in class can help teachers get students' attention. third, there are various alternatives of formative assessment that can be used by teachers to measure students' abilities and understanding. furthermore, in monitoring students' language development, formative assessment plays a very big role in helping english teachers in each process. additionally, the results of the formative assessment can be used by the teacher to properly prepare further lesson plans. the details of the findings in this study are described below. formative assessment as an easy assessment in an online setting classroom. the findings of the first data revealed the result that formative assessment is considered an easy assessment in online teaching. in this case, the english teachers can do formative assessments at the beginning, middle, or at the end of the lesson, and it doesn't take a lot of time to do formative assessments to students. focusing on figure 1, the results of questionnaire 1 (q1) show a positive category. questionnaire 1 (q1) shows that both english teachers agree that the formative assessment is easy to do in an online classroom setting. to support these results, interview data is presented to show how the english teachers’ conceptions of the ease of using formative assessments in online teaching. the writers had translated the interview transcript into english so that it will easy to be understood. ”.... i don’t need a specific task or instrument to do the formative assessment in the online classroom. besides that, the implementation of the formative assessment itself is based on the things that have been mastered or still need to be learned by students. so, i think formative assessment is easy and helpful to conduct in online teaching.” (teacher a) ”formative assessment is not difficult to do, it does not require complicated rules in its implementation so it is easy for us as english teachers to do it in the class. i usually give simple formative assessments to my students. the simple formative assessment can be in the form of words of motivation or praise for those who can answer questions or who are active in class. it is simple but meaningful for students.” (teacher b) the interview data showed that both english teachers did not find any difficulty at all when implementing formative assessments in their class. they only need to slightly adjust the implementation of the formative assessment to the existing online teaching system. formative assessment as a help for english teachers to attract the students’ attention. after portraying the ease of using formative assessment in online teaching, the second theme highlights the formative assessment as help for english teachers to attract the students' attention. as part of the learning process, students' attention is an important thing to get in the classroom. without the attention and focus of students, the process of transferring information https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 181 or subject matter will not be able to run optimally. therefore, teacher a felt that formative assessment is able to help her in getting and monitoring the students’ attention in the online classroom. ”it is clear that students' attention is vital and must be present in teaching and learning activities. by using the formative assessment, i can get and control the students' attention in the class. i usually allocate certain points for each formative assessment activity so that students are more likely to take lessons seriously and make an effort in their learning” (teacher a) the results of the interview from teacher a showed that she considered formative assessment can help teachers get the attention of their students. she allocates points in applying formative assessment so that it is able to attract students to focus and pay attention to ongoing learning. teacher b has a different view of formative assessment. he doubts that formative assessment is able to control students' attention in the classroom. he felt that formative assessment was less effective in gaining or controlling student attention. ”i think as the one type of assessment, formative assessment is not that effective to help me as an english teacher to get or even control my students' attention. sometimes when i apply formative assessment in class, most of the students focus, but some students are difficult to control due to certain factors” (teacher b) the excerpt showed that teacher b doubts formative assessment can help him in attracting the students' attention during the learning process. he was unsure about the benefits of formative assessment. in addition, he revealed that students' focus could be resolved by certain factors so that they did not pay attention to what their teacher explained in class. various alternatives of formative assessment. based on questionnaire 3 (q3) in figure 1, both english teachers agreed and they consider that there are various alternatives of formative assessment that they can access in its implementation. they did not find significant difficulty in implementing formative assessment in their online teaching. ”there are not any difficulties for me to access the various alternatives of formative assessment. the example of formative assessment alternatives that i used in class is google forms and google classrooms.” (teacher a) the excerpt from the interview above showed that teacher a believed that she can access various alternatives from formative assessment easily. she also used several types of assessment forms such as google forms and google classroom. the statement from teacher a is also supported by the statement from teacher b. teacher b also felt that it is not difficult to use or access alternatives from formative assessment. ”well, actually there are some alternatives of formative assessment that i can access in the online teaching. especially during this pandemic, all teaching and assessment systems are conducted online. so like it or not i also have to follow the existing conditions. usually, english teachers here use google classroom to make formative assessments” (teacher b added) the result of the interview from teacher b is almost the same as the result of the interview from teacher a. teacher b also used the same tools as teacher a in conducting the formative assessment. he also stated that it is easy to access alternatives from formative assessment. formative assessment as a tool to monitor language learning progress. as shown in q5, it is indicated that teacher b felt doubt, and teacher a was agreed about the positive effect of formative assessment which can help teachers to monitor their students’ language progress. teacher b argues that using formative assessment as a measure to determine students' https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 182 language development is not enough. meanwhile, teacher a felt that formative assessment is a type of assessment that focused on ongoing feedback so it can help the english teachers to monitor the extent to which their students are progressing in their language skills. here are their responses: ”ya, formative assessment is effective to monitor my students’ language progress. formative assessment helps me to check and control the progress of my students in learning english. besides that, i can also find out what difficulties my students face in language learning so that i can help them overcome these difficulties for their progress.” (teacher a) ”i am a little doubtful because monitoring students' language development is not only sufficient by using formative assessments and that also depends on the extent to which students are able to master something in the classroom, and it is clear that each student is different.” (teacher b) the interview excerpt showed a slight difference of opinion from teacher a and teacher b regarding the ability of the formative assessment tool in monitoring students' language development. teacher a argued that the use of formative assessment can help her overcome the problems faced by her students when learning english so that indirectly formative assessment can also help her in monitoring the language development of her students. on the other hand, teacher b assumed that each student has different capacities in learning something, especially in learning language so that they have different levels of language development from one another. therefore, he revealed that the formative assessment was deemed insufficient to monitor the language development of each student. formative assessment result as an evidence of the next teaching plans. according to questionnaire 6 (q6) in figure 1, teacher a and teacher b agreed that formative assessment gave useful evidence of students’ understanding so that english teachers can use it to plan their next lessons. this study is in line with the study conducted by brink & bartz (2017). they mentioned that formative assessment is a tool used to see and analyze whether students have achieved the expected learning outcomes and to find out whether the learning process is in accordance with the objectives, or still requires development and improvement. the following are the english teachers’ responses in a semistructured interview that supports the results of the closed-questionnaire: ”........by applying the formative assessment in the online class, it helps me to know how far my students understand the material lesson i have given. from that, i can arrange the next lesson plan according to the situation and condition of my students.” (teacher a) ”formative assessment gives me useful evidence of my students’ understanding so i can use it to plan my next lesson.” (teacher b added) the interview results above show that formative assessment has an important role in the planning process and improvement in the teaching and learning process. the two english teachers used the formative assessment result as a basis for them to improve and plan a good teaching plan for the future. 2. discussion this study focuses on the english teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in online teaching. the results of this study indicate that english teachers have a good conception of formative assessment in their online teaching. to find out how the two english teachers gave positive perceptions regarding the formative assessment, several points were generated to clarify it. first, as one type of assessment, formative assessment is easy to do in class. teachers can easily carry out formative assessments in class during learning, such as providing positive feedback to students (havnes et al., 2012) who are able to answer teacher questions in the form of the words "good job!", "good answer!” and so on. also, the formative assessment does not require a specific task or instrument but to assist https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 183 students during the learning process instrument (cotton, 2017). the formative assessment itself is beneficial for both teachers and students because its implementation is based on things that are already mastered or still need to be learned by students (kenyon, 2019). also, formative assessments provide students with sufficient time to obtain information and improve the skills needed during the online teaching and learning process (wiyaka, prastikawati, & adi, 2020). second, formative assessment is really helpful for the english teachers to get the students’ attention. students' attention to the material provided by the teacher in the english online classroom is one of the important foundations for advancing them in their learning achievement (morrissette, 2012; prastikawati & asropah, 2020). in this case, the english teachers considered formative assessment appropriate to be implemented in the classroom because it could help them get and control the attention of their students. by getting students' attention, teachers will be able to minimize existing deficiencies and maximize their teaching process in the classroom (frunza, 2014; kulasegaram & rangachari, 2018; torrance, 2007). regarding the implementation of formative assessment in the english online class, of course, english teachers need to understand what alternatives or tools are used in the online formative assessment. keeping up with current developments, technology, and situations, the average english teacher has been able to access the online formative assessment alternatives in the english class. having the ability to access a good online formative assessment alternative will assist english teachers in providing interesting learning experiences for their students (panero & aldon, 2016). moreover, good digital formative assessment tools will lead the teachers and students to get better learning (gaylard baleni, 2015; gikandi et al., 2011; keengwe & kidd, 2010). some examples of online formative assessment tools include edpuzzle, backchannel chat, plickers, google forms, quizlet, and others. these kinds of online formative assessments support the process of interesting teaching and learning english as a foreign language in indonesia. furthermore, the use of formative assessment in online teaching can monitor the students' language progress. this finding has been in line with the crucial objective of the formative assessment, which is to monitor student learning progress during the teaching and learning process (herman et al., 2010; torrance, 2007). implementing formative assessment in online teaching presents fast and quick feedback. in this case, formative assessment will provide feedback for improving the learning program, knowing and reducing errors in the implementation of teaching and learning that need improvement (berman, 2017). as noted before, monitoring student language progress with formative assessment can provide information to teachers about the extent to which students have mastered language learning targets. it is also able to present data related to who needs deeper language learning, what is the next language learning target, and how the teacher classifies students for language teaching in small groups, and which students need to be observed more for learning interventions. moreover, formative assessment informs instruction to teachers and students during the learning process taking place in the classroom. the formative assessment confirms what knowledge students have acquired and helps better present future learning to students. this enhances learning because the instruction in the formative assessment can be adjusted as the learning progresses before the graded assessment at the end of the unit. further, formative assessment can help english teachers measure their students' understanding in the classroom. similar results to this present study found by menéndez et al. (2019) who explained that if the teacher knows the level of success of students in mastering or understanding the subject matter, the teacher can make a decision, whether a learning material needs to be repeated or not, or even improved. from these results, we can get the point that knowing the extent to which students' understanding of the subject matter in online teaching can help english teachers in designing the lesson plan that will take place at the next meeting. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 184 conclusion in summary, both english teachers in smp n 6 semarang have positive perceptions of formative assessment as one of the parts of an assessment in online teaching. the english teachers considered that the implementation of formative assessment in online classes is easy and able to help them to measure students 'understanding, control the students' attention and language progress effectively. since this research limits the investigation on two english teachers only, further research is suggested to involve larger participants to get richer data on the english teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in online teaching. references alhabahba, m. m., & mahfoodh, o. h. a. 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(2007). assessment as learning? how the use of explicit learning objectives, assessment criteria and feedback in postsecondary education and training can come to dominate learning. assessment in education: principles, policy and practice, 14(3), 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/09695940701591867 trumbull, e., & lash, a. (2013). understanding formative assessment: insights from learning theory and measurement theory. san francisco: wested., april, 1–20. https://www.wested.org/online_pubs/resou rce1307.pdf widiastuti, i. a. m. s., & saukah, a. (n.d.). formative assessment in efl classroom practices. in journal2.um.ac.id. retrieved february 20, 2021, from http://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jbs/articl e/view/677 wiyaka, prastikawati, e. f., & adi, a. p. k. (2020). backchannel as an online hots‐based formative assessment to improve students’ reading skills. 417(icesre 2019), 95–100. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200318.018 wiyaka, w., prastikawati, e. f., & kusumo adi, a. p. (2020). higher-order thinking skills (hots)-based formative assessment: a proposed model for language learning https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 186 assessment. vision: journal for language and foreign language learning, 9(2), 115. https://doi.org/10.21580/vjv9i25859 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 375 “tell me about your day”: portraying student’s reflective practice through diary writing teguh kasprabowo universitas stikubank (unisbank) semarang teguhkas@edu.unisbank.ac.id endang yuliani rahayu universitas stikubank (unisbank) semarang endangyuliani@edu.unisbank.ac.id agnes widyaningrusm universitas stikubank (unisbank) semarang agneswidyaningrum@edu.unisbank.ac.id abstract although commonly understood that diary writing benefits language learners in many ways, the use of diary writing as a medium for reflective practice in higher education is still rarely considered. the study aimed to portray the student's reflective practice through diary writing to display how the student made meaning of her daily life and learning experiences. employing qualitative case study, we observed one of our students’ reflective practice through her diary entries. our study employed rodger’s summary of dewey’s reflective practice (2019) as the theoretical framework. the data of this research was a handwritten diary of a student named lana containing 30 diary entries written from september 6, 2018, to october 22, 2018. the entries were written in the period when she joined a creative writing class. the diary writing activity was mainly aimed to help the students in the class to build their writing habits by writing reflections of their daily activities. the result showed that diary writing provided room for lana to carry out the reflective practice. this practice helped her to see and to understand herself as a learner. also, lana specifically expressed that diary writing helped her to have ideas for writing easily. based on the findings, we argue that in the indonesian higher education context diary writing needs to be incorporated in the learning process to benefit learners in their personal development and their language learningprocess. keywords: diary, reflective practice, creative writing introduction the nature of diary writing as a medium to write freely and independently provides room for the students to build their habits and confidence in writing. it is also believed that diary writing supports students' personal development. however, the use of diary writing especially in the context of indonesian higher education for language teaching and learning tool is still neglected (e.g., jarvis, 2001). the practice of diary writing is still considered a personal activity that cannot be shared. some language teachers that aim for accuracy may not prefer diary writing in their classes. moreover, diary writing also takes time and discipline. this may not be easy for busy teachers and students. this study explored the possibilities of using diary writing as a medium to build student's writing habits and reflection for personal development, especially in the indonesian higher education context. it is important to conduct such a https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:teguhkas@edu.unisbank.ac.id mailto:endangyuliani@edu.unisbank.ac.id mailto:agneswidyaningrum@edu.unisbank.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 376 study as higher education students have more potential to practice writing and reflection independently. this study attempted to answer the following questions (1) how does the student perform reflective practice through diary writing? and (2) how does she perceive diary writing in the context of creative writing class? this study showed that it is important to equip diary writing in the teaching and learning process especially in the higher education context in indonesia in which students are considered adult learners and are considered as more independent in learning. students not only can get an opportunity to build their writing habits which in turn will develop their writing skills but also can perform reflective practice for both their personal and their academic development. despite its popularity that diary writing supports students learning in various ways, the use of diary writing seems to be neglected as one of the effective tools especially in the higher level of education. jarvis (2001) argued that journal writing, often referred to as a learning diary, is a teaching and learning technique that has not received a great deal of attention in the literature of higher education, even though diary writing is an old and established practice. in line with the above discussion, hiemstra (2001) also explained that in spite of more than three decades of use and attempts by a few adult educators to encourage personal reflection in various ways, journaling remains underused as a teaching or learning tool. in the higher education context, and possibly in any other level of education, it is understood that keeping a journal on daily basis can be not an easy task both for teachers and students. both teacher and the students are busy and have their responsibilities of finishing their tasks. however, if planned and conducted very well, diary writing not only can become a learning tool but also can help both teachers and students make sense of the learning process. jarvis (2001) mentioned that journaling can be used more widely than as reflective practice; it can be a teaching, learning, and research instrument in the fields of higher education. few studies, however, had attempted to explore the possibilities of reflective diary in the context of the higher education (see. colomer, 2013; glaze, 2002; lew, 2011; wong 2019). specifically, in the field of writing, diary writing also receives very little attention. this is so contradictory as diary writing should be closely associated with writing itself. dincel and savur (2019) stated that in the literature, there has not been any other research conducted other than the learning journals and teacher journals. although the importance of other types of diaries kept daily regularly in the development of writing skills cannot be denied, there is no research done on the role of diary keeping on the development of writing skills. meanwhile, some studies showed the potential of diary writing beyond a teaching and learning tool. hiemstra (2001) argued that in the adult education classroom, this learning method becomes a tool to aid learners in terms of personal growth, synthesis, and reflection on new information that they acquire. he added that there also is the potential for a journaling technique to promote critical self-reflection where dilemmas, contradictions, and evolving worldviews are questioned or challenged. a study conducted by dincel and savur (2019) involving teacher education students showed that candidates who regularly keep a diary begin to question their lives and try to manage them better. moreover, it was shown that diary keeping, which is regular writing, has an important role in the development of writing ability. they added that the diary-keeping made the participants realize it has an essential role in personal growth in many ways. by diary-keeping some of the participants realized that they were wasting their days, some of them felt relaxed when writing, some felt it is therapy or a friend to whom they express their thoughts, help them put their lives in order. other studies involving teachers and reflective practice are also commonly conducted (see. azizah, 2018; clegg, 2000; kuswandono, 2012; lakshmi, 2014; trif & popescu, 2013) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 377 specifically, for language learning, the use of a diary is strongly recommended for some reasons. ni’ma (2019) argued that students’ perceptions showed positive impact of reflective journal to promote writing skills. klimova (2015) explained diary writing is a very effective and natural tool for both students and teachers since this informal writing enables students to reflect on what they have learned, how they have learned it, what kind of difficulties they have when they have to write in formal english or what helps them to overcome these and other difficulties in the process of learning english. citing rubin in her article, klimova (2015) further explained that more successful learners are in control of their learning; they know what they are doing and what they want to achieve; they know when they make mistakes, and they know how to go about correcting them. and in this process teachers can help their students provided that students allow them to see their diaries, comment on them and make relevant suggestions. the emphasis of writing using diary that makes students feel more comfortable and confident as they write to express what they mean without thinking much about the grammar accuracy is also discussed in taqil et.al (2015). they explained that diaries usually focus on meaning rather than the form where learners send a message about a topic of interest to them. similarly, teachers do not correct linguistic errors but respond to the message in a meaningful way. in line with the above idea, dincel and savur (2019) explained that the participants of their research described diary keeping has been meaningful as they shared a lot of things that cannot be told to others, sharing a connection with oneself in a comfortable and reliable environment, chatting with it as a friend, writing a secret onto it, diary as a secret friend, a reminder of the past, putting the person's past into chronological order, and so on. the freedom of using different kinds of languages in writing the diary can surely help students to just practice writing. fulwiler cited by english & gillen (2001) elaborated the language used in diary writing. the characteristics of diary writing are that students can write in everyday language, use the first-person point of view with informal punctuation, and experiment with their writing such as using specific rhyming. some studies elaborate more about the use of diary writing as a teaching and learning tool. boud (2001) citing moon in her discussion of using journals in learning through reflection identifies many purposes of writing journals in addition to those already mentioned—for example, to deepen critical thinking, to enable learners to understand their learning process and most of all to free-up writing and to promote reflective practice. meanwhile, according to hiemstra (2001) diary writing helps students to do the following: 1) personal growth and development, 2) intuition and self-expression, 3) problem solving, 4) stress reduction and health benefit 4) reflection and critical thinking. diary writing can be one effective tool in teaching and learning. it can even function more than that. from the above arguments, the personal growth and development of the students who write diaries are strongly stated. therefore, it is recommended for teachers and students to utilize diary writing in their teaching and learning process. it has been discussed that diary writing is very useful in the teaching and learning process. one of the aspects that are discussed is diary writing for reflective practice. cited in klimova (2015), race explained: reflection deepens learning. the act of reflecting causes us to make sense of what we've learned, why we learned it, and how that particular increment of learning took place. moreover, reflection is about linking one increment of learning to the wider perspective of learning – heading towards seeing the bigger picture. reflection is equally useful when our learning has been unsuccessful – in such cases indeed reflection can often give us insights into what may have gone wrong with our learning, and how on a future occasion we might avoid it now. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 378 diary writing is suitable as a medium of reflection as it involves some aspects of reflective practice. rogers (2001) explained that reflection as a cognitive and affective process or activity that (1) requires active engagement on the part of the individual; (2) is triggered by an unusual or perplexing situation or experience; (3) involves examining one's responses, beliefs, and premises in light of the situation at hand; and (4) results in the integration of the new understanding into one's experience. to relate diary writing and reflective practice boud (2001) explained that journal writing can be viewed through many different lenses: as a form of self-expression, a record of events, or a form of therapy. it can be a combination of these and other purposes. he further elaborated that as a device for working with events and experiences to extract meaning from them. this perspective views the various forms of journal writing as ways of making sense of the world and how we operate within it. journal writing can be used to enhance what we do and how we do it. as a vehicle for learning, it can be used in formal courses, our professional practice, or any aspect of informal learning. in his study, jarvis (2001) explained that the journal serves two reflective purposes. first, it helps students to become reflective learners, recording data about reading, study habits, and attitudes. students are also invited to write about their personal development; that is, they can record information about their increasing knowledge and their increasing ability to identify and articulate issues, and they can reflect on important decisions that they have taken since they enrolled in the program. second, students can examine their self-development and their feelings of empowerment. this study is a qualitative case study that focuses on how diary writing helps one of my students in creative writing class build her daily habit of writing and how she also practices reflection through writing regularly. by following one of our student’s diary, we expect to be able to unfold her reflective practice through her journal entries and how she perceived diary writing to support her learning, especially in the creative writing context. this study is an attempt to enrich studies in diary writing in the context of creative writing class in which in our case, we have not ever been equipped with before. it is also an attempt to fill the gap of the lack of research on diary writing as a teaching and learning tool in the higher education context in indonesia. this study is expected to show the potentials of diary writing in supporting students’ reflective practice as well as writing habits. methodology this qualitative case study involved a single participant namely lana (pseudonym) who wrote a daily diary with one prompt for the whole semester: tell me about your day. lana joined a creative writing class taught by the first author of this study. creative writing is one of the subjects taught in our english literature study program for the 5th-semester students. in this subject, students are required to produce works of fiction in the form of a short story or short novel. based on rodgers’ (2019) summary of dewey's reflective thinking, this study explored the reflective practice of the students through diary writing. the diary reflected her daily life and her learning activities through narration, opinion, and thoughts. in doing so, the participant wrote the journal entry, as many as she can, every day one entry for one day. she mostly wrote in the evening to tell how her day was. she wrote everything about her journey during her day, especially about her personal and academic activities, with the feelings and the thought she had. she narrated events or incidents that happen during the day. in a certain period, once or twice a week, she handed her diary to the lecturer and allowed him to read and to comment on the entries she had written. she sometimes replied to his comments or just continued with her entry. at the end of the semester, lana submitted her diary with all of the entries. this “final” diary was our main data for this study. we read again the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 379 entries and coded them to figure out the patterns to gain the answer to the research question. then, we conducted a semi-structured interview to gain a deeper understanding from our sole research participant. all the patterns gained from the diary entries and interview were the findings that were discussed in this study. this study was based on rogers’ (2019) who summarized these four criteria of dewey’s reflective practice. she conceptualized that reflective practice was 1) a meaning-making process, 2) a systematic, rigorous, disciplined way of thinking, 3) happen by interacting, and 4) requires attitudes that value the personal and intellectual growth of oneself and others. we used those criteria while coding the journal entries to make the categories of my findings. we grouped the entries with similar themes and labeled them based on those themes. later to further understand her ideas and perspective towards diary writing, we conducted a semi-structured interview. lana's answers were recorded, transcribed, and grouped into themes. result and discussion result kinds of reflections that lana had in her diary based on the criteria of reflective practice by rodgers (2019), from the 30 (thirty) entries written between september 6, 2018, to october 22, 2018, i selected entries that fulfilled the criteria of reflective practice. the finding showed that most of the diary entries depicted lana’s reflective practice. twenty-four out of 30 entries (80 %) were considered involving reflective practice. in the rest of 6 entries (20%), lana only recounted some events and those entries are considered lack of any reflective practice. after making broad categories by separating those that depicted reflective practice and those that did not, i categorized those with reflective practice into 5 (five) more specific categories showing that lana displayed her reflective practice in her diary entries by: 1. reflecting her feeling (26.7 %). 2. reflecting what she learned after having specific experiences (23.3%). 3. reflecting her hopes and dreams (13.3%). 4. reflecting how she identified herself (10%). 5. reflecting her determination to write the entries though confused (6.7%). based on the above findings, diary writing does help my student to practice writing regularly and performing reflective practice. these findings are relatable with the previous studies that mentioned the benefits of diary writing as a teaching and learning tool, especially, in this case, is the practice of reflection by the student. the following is the further elaboration of the five categories depicting lana’s reflective practice: reflecting her feeling lana's entries were populated mostly by the expressions of various feelings that she had after going through some experiences. lana mostly used her diary entries to express her feeling like sadness, boredom, disappointment, comfort, feeling blessed, or even feeling of her missing someone. this is i believe the nature of diary writing. as it is suggested at the beginning of the assignment that she might write freely any of her feeling, thoughts, ideas, or experience that made lana seemed to feel free to express her feeling. lana found a place to express her feeling without worrying about being embarrassed or without worrying other people to get offended. this part of some entries showed how she expressed her feelings: i felt so sad because my friends in a group made me felt annoyed. i didn’t know it was because of my fault or just because of their habit. (entry # 02) i felt blessed today because i had a new experience. i helped professional marketing on their event in semarang. i was tired but i was happy. (entry #03) you know what? i miss my senior (of course he is a man) but don’t tell anyone about this (smiley sign) (entry #05) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 380 lana expressed what she felt about her friends concerning a group work that she did with them. after telling her experience, by recounting the events, lana explained why she had such feeling as she had to go through all the process that was supposed to be a group work by herself. in other situations (entry # 03 and entry # 05) she expressed her feeling of being blessed after she felt successful to get a new experience. so, the feelings she expressed are not always negative. as suggested by the theory, reflection occurs in a community. entry # 02 showed that lana recounted how the incident unfolded and resulted in such feelings after she interacted with her friends. lana did not experience this event and tried to make meaning out of it without involving other people. also, she did not suddenly express her feeling out of nothing. she had facts as the base of her reflection. before she finally ended up expressing her feelings, she recounted some events happening in her days. in some situations, she tried to make herself understand the problem first before she finally stated that she had certain feelings in her days. in the other situations, she expressed her feelings first and later explained the reasons why she has such feelings. this showed that she did not express something without making herself understand why she should express her feelings. from her entries, it can also be seen that although they expressed lana's personal feelings, the reasons why she had the feelings were often caused by her encounter with others. reflection requires the person to experience something and lana fulfills the requirements. in the interview, lana mentioned that expressing what she saw (her experience), what she thought (her ideas) and what she felt (her feeling) as "self-reflection". it means that she realized that diary was the 'right' place to express all that she mentioned above. she also stated that besides used as a place to express her feelings, she used the diary to make some plans and as a support to motivate herself. she stated: i usually write my feelings, experiences, stories, opinions, and dreams. most entries of mine are about what i see, think, and feel. i can say that it’s all about self-reflection. i share my happiness, anger, anxiety, thoughts or ideas, some things i want to do next, and even support myself by writing good quotes in my entries. reflecting what she learned after having specific experiences one of the points in the theory suggested that reflection should involve attitudes that value the personal and intellectual growth of the person who makes the reflection and of others, some of lana's entries showed that attitudes. in her entries, lana implied that she took valuable lessons from some events that she experienced in her days. the followings are parts of her entries showing the case: i taught ivan today. it was time to learn about the universe. i tried to teach him how to pronounce it and the meaning of the words. he was so excited! and last, i asked him to draw and put the name of the picture. he did it well! even there were some mistakes but he did a good job. from it, i know that children have an amazing imagination. we shouldn't limit them. let them imagine everything. we only need to make it perfect by tell them the other information or maybe help them to imagine some objects or others. (entry #9) … i went back to campus at 10.30 from home by brt. i felt so sleepy. so, i fell asleep on the bus. i arrived at 11 at the bus stop. … at the traffic light, i met an old woman that bring an umbrella. that time was so hot, honestly but i did not bring an umbrella or hat. i just wore a jacket. i was surprised because that woman, suddenly, protects me from the sun with her umbrella. i directly said "thank you, mam" then we walked together, by chance she had the same way as me. i learned from what happened to me that kindness does not depend on who and where. you can help everyone wherever you are and wherever you can. maybe it is just a little thing, but it will be precious for https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 381 others. i’m trying to become a helpful person. hope i can do that. (entry #13) lana wrote these entries after she had “special” experiences as she implied or directly stated that she learned lessons from them. in entry # 9, lana, who gave private lessons to some children, learned from one of her students that they did have potentials. this knowledge was not uncommon to lana. she could presumably know this idea very well. however, by having direct experience and by having direct interaction with her student, lana could make such a conclusion. as the theory suggests that reflection should allow the person to appreciate others' potential. in this case, lana valued her students' imagination as one of his potentials to help him learn. later lana suggested to herself (or she may refer to everyone) what to do with children's imagination. in entry #13 lana learned how to value a person's kindness. before this event happened, lana might have already known the concept of kindness in which people help other people in need. this concept is known to everybody. however, by writing the experience in her diary, lana deliberately thought of what had happened as something valuable. in her reflection she wrote that even the lady's action of helping her might be considered a little thing, it might still be so helpful to others. this showed how an act of deliberate reflection such as writing an experience in a diary could help someone value someone else action as suggested by the theory. in responding to an interview question lana emphasized that she learned from her experiences and that made her be able to do things in better ways. here is her response: journaling keeps me sane. i learned a lot from what happened. it makes me feel that i can control myself easily when something bad happens and feel grateful when something good happens. it helps me to become a better and wiser person. for me, the benefits of journaling are mostly for my mental health. however, it also gives benefit to my writing habit and skills. reflecting her hopes and dreams it is common for someone who writes a diary to express his/her hopes and/or dreams. it shows that someone who makes the reflection wants growth to happen in her life. lana displayed her diary entries. here are her entries showing the case: i saw many children with low education today, especially this evening. i came to kaligawe for youth worship. i was so happy to meet them. i've never met them before, so i was not surprised about their behavior, their "bad words" and their "bad appearance". i gave them a picture with some words while the other (youth) did a game. they colored the picture and i tried to teach them about parts of the body. some of them were happy. my friends and i also gave them biscuits and milk. i saw them very happy when it was time for snacks. i felt so pity for them because of their environment and their family. they are lack education (school and family), lack of material, and lack of knowledge about norms. i knew why they act like that. i think it is because of the environment (many thugs and uneducated people). i hope i can help my friends to serve the children there. i hope i can have time for it. (entry #11) i am so glad because i have good and friendly lecturers. so, i can share anything. maybe for some of my friends or lecturer, i am so "complicated". i'll ask everything in detail until i understand. today i also got an email from yseali that yseali opened the scholarship for spring 2019. i've already tried to fill in the form for fall 2018 but i was not ready with some requirements. i want to get an international scholarship one day. yseali is not so complicated but again i'm not ready for it. i always pray about yseali. hope i can make it happen someday. (entry #15) these two entries showed lana tried to make meaning of what happened in her interactions with others and to herself and later wanted to have a change happen. she wanted to grow personally (entry #11) by being able to serve more and to grow intellectually (entry #15) by trying to apply for the next scholarship. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 382 expression hopes and dreams do not mean that lana imagined something that she wanted to happen. she expressed her hope and dream based on what she witnessed and what she did. learning from those experiences made lana hope to be able to do something more. the reflective practice in her entries so far involved more than just expressions of feeling and more than just taking lessons from an experience. these entries showed that lana wanted to do the actions based on what she had experienced. reflecting how she identified herself being able to see oneself through diary writing is an important part of reflective practice. lana tried to see herself through some of her entries. in some cases, lana’s attempts to see herself may seem to be selfish or judgmental. this may not be alright if she did it, for example, in front of her friends. however, n the case of diary writing, comparing oneself with others is not a bad case at all. it should be kept in mind that in real diary writing, no one is supposed to read your entries. that is the freedom in the diary writing that may help lana sees herself as a person. she wrote: i am a person who can't do anything in a little preparation. i thought that i have to do anything totally, even people didn't know about it. maybe you can call me "perfectionist." that's me. i have tried to become a person who did not care about everything that becomes my responsibility. i can understand the subject well because i make efforts, i study hard because i know i don't understand the subject well. so, i study until i can. they didn't know the process. i don't know that my standard is too high or just because my friends (some of them) never try to become "well prepared" (entry # 07) i often feel i can't do those things. i can't give the best to my students. i am so nervous when i teach english to them. i always say to their parents that i also still learn english. so, i'll do my best when i teach them. hope i can teach them well and give a positive impact on them. (entry #8) i am not interested in teaching. but, i don't know why i always fall into the education field. i don’t know why my day is always busy (i’m not complaining). sometimes, yes! haha… but i thank god he still gives me a chance to do the positive things in my life. (entry #25) in entry #07 lana decided to identify herself as someone who prepared everything for the best result of her work. she implied that the idea of "being a perfectionist" might be bad in other people's views. on the contrary, in her view, that attitude helped her in handling her duties as a student. this is a bold perception that might not always be true. however, by doing it, lana could see herself which would lead her to actions that she needed to do. this kind of self-identification, i believe is important to value one’s personal growth. meanwhile, in entry #8, after lana realized her weaknesses when she taught english to her private lesson students, she ensured herself to do the best that she could in teaching the students. knowing her weaknesses and, at least, tried to do better could be beneficial for her personal development. in entry #25, lana saw herself as being in a situation that made her keep doing an activity that she claimed she did not interested in. however, she seemed to be doubtful about her claim. in this situation, lana seemed to argue with herself. that means she made interaction with herself. this interaction, though only to herself, was a signal that there was a reflective practice that happened. reflecting her determination to write the entries though confused in these two entries, lana tried to be honest with her confusion about what to write in her diary. however, she showed her determination to still write something in her diary even though she just wrote some lines including her confusion. in this kind of situation, it cannot be said that lana did not want to fill in her diary with an entry. on the contrary, it showed her determination to keep https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 383 writing even when she thought that she had no idea. by writing her true situation of having no idea at all, she wrote something in her diary. she stated: i don’t know what i want to tell in this journal today. maybe i'll tell you about my activity. i met my friend on campus. we discussed everything. (entry #12) honestly, i don’t know what should i tell this time in today’s journal. (entry #14) in an interview, though sometimes she had nothing to write in her diary, lana said that diary writing helped her have the habit to write without worrying too much about what she wrote. that was why she felt free to write whatever she wanted to write like what she mentioned below: diary writing helps me in having writing habits. believe it or not, when i've finally written a daily journal in a week without jumping any days, i feel something's missing when i didn't write any entries the next day. i also feel that it helps me in improving my writing skills. for example, when i wrote my final project, i didn't think that write some paragraphs was that difficult. yes, it was, but i felt that i could write it easier than before i know about journaling. i think the difference is just in the final project, i have to do proofreading after i write, while in diary writing, i don't need to do that. discussion based on our above findings, lana showed that she generally used her diary to do the reflective practice. this finding confirms the previous studies mentioning the similar case in which diary writing help learner do reflective practice (booud, 2001; dincel & savur, 2019; hiemstra, 2001; jarvis, 2001; klimova, 2015; rodgers, 2001). specifically, the most dominant finding in this study is that lana used the diary to express her feeling such as sadness, boredom, disappointment, comfort, feeling blessed, or even feeling of her missing someone. this may be one of the most common uses of diary writing. despite its popularity as a self-expression medium, especially personal feelings, only a few studies confirm this case. boud (2001), for example, only mentioned that diary is used as a form of self-expression without mentioning specifically personal feelings. in our opinion, this special feature of diary writing needs to be addressed especially in the context of the creative writing class. students' ability to express their feelings can be an essential tool to write fiction. our findings also mentioned that through the diary lana could see herself deeper and therefore could take lessons from her actions. these two findings are strongly supported by some previous studies highlighting that diary writing help learners to be reflective learners. this means that they can see what they have achieved and what they need to do further (jarvis, 2001; klimova, 2015). some previous studies explained that diary writing helped learners’ writing ability through building the habit of writing regularly (dincel & savur, 2019; hiemstra 2001; taqil et.al., 2015). the studies, however, did not mention particular abilities that helped learners in developing their writing skills. this is possibly because diary writing does not require learners to write accurately, for example, with correct grammar. the emphasis is in the making meaning as suggested by the theory (rodgers, 2001) conclusion this study showed that diary writing provided an opportunity for our students to do self-reflection. she could reflect her feelings (boredom, anxiety, anger, etc.), her hopes, and her dreams. it also provides an opportunity for her to be able to see herself, to see her success and failures, and to plan what to do next. from there, she learned some lessons as her takeaway to decide her next steps. in short, diary writing provides room for the participant to do self-reflection. diary writing also helped my student to build a writing habit in which she was so determined to keep writing on daily basis. this process helped her improve her writing skills in terms of freely https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 384 expressing her feelings, emotions, and ideas. in turn, it helped her writing more creatively. for future researches, using more structured prompts to help students write more even when they think they do not have ideas to write is suggested. it is to make sure the participants have a specific framework to write their entries. in response to the advancement of technology, diary writing that is facilitated with technology such as online journaling and online creative writing platforms (e.g penzu, wattpad, etc) should also be explored. particularly for the creative writing class, diary writing needs to be introduced to the students as a tool for the students to be able to express various kinds of feelings based on their own experiences. the ability to show emotions in fiction writing is essential. references azizah, u.a., nurkamto, j., drajati, n.a., & tosriadi. 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(2011). writing to learn: can reflection journals be used to promote self-reflection and learning?, higher education research & development, 30(4), 519532 ni’ma, h., sumardi, & tarjana, s.s. (2019). students’ perceptions on reflective journal as self-as https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(1) october 2020 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 385 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 151 clil: suggested english materials for curriculum 2013 mushoffan prasetianto mush_prast@yahoo.com brawijaya university abstract teaching approaches always change from time to time. the change of teaching approaches is followed by the change of materials. the new materials in secondary level are content and language integrated learning (clil). from these materials, the students are expected to be able to understand other subjects which are written in english. in secondary level, the subjects are science and mathematics. thus, this paper provides materials, teaching procedures of clil and swot analysis. the materials are related to the science theme. there are three topics under science theme: digestive system, laboratory equipments and symbols, and light. the teaching procedure of clil is presenting, practicing and producing (ppp). firstly, the teacher presents the material. secondly, the students practice to retell the material. lastly, the students produce wall-magazine, posters and experiment report. in conclusion, clil materials can be explored more by english teachers because it is new and interesting. keywords: clil materials, ppp introduction teachers are often confronted by changes. teachers should be able to adapt themselves toward the changes including teaching approaches, curriculum and materials changes. teaching approaches, curriculum and materials are entities. one will influence the other. if teaching approach is changed, it will influence curriculum change. the curriculum change will influence the materials change. teaching approaches have been changing over the years. the first method is gtm. grammar translation method (gtm) is the oldest method which focuses on languistic knowledge. brown (2001) states that the method focus on grammatical rules as a basis for translating. the next method is audiolingual method. audio-lingual method (alm) believe that learning is a stimulusresponse-reinforcement (fachrurrazy, 2011). teaching and learning activity is only drilling. eclectic method is one which utilize the best part of existing methods (fachrurrazy 2011). communicative competence included five components, namely discourse competence, linguistic competence, actional competence, sociocultural competence, and strategic competence (celce-murcia, et.al. 1995). richards (2001) states that it is important to recognize that method is not only about the process of instruction but also what to be taught. it means that 152 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 method influences curriculum and curriculum influence the materials to be taught. those approach changes influenced the curriculum in indonesia. indonesia has changed the curriculum many times. the curriculum change is followed by the materials change. curriculum 1968 adopted audiolingual method in teaching learning activity. mechanical drills were the focus of learning. thus, the materials were only substituting vocabulary or pattern. when teacher introduces a new pattern, use the known vocabulary and when introducing new vocabulary, use the known pattern (fachrurrazy, 2011). curriculum 1975 had an objective to emphasize on reading skill with more stress on grammar (cahyono and widiati, 2011). the learning materials were focus on grammar. curriculum 1984 had an objective on the development of communicative competence (cahyono and widiati, 2011). the 1994 curriculum was developed. the objective of this curriculum is to develop reading, listening, speaking and writing skills (cahyono and widiati, 2011). the teaching materials were theme and topic based (huda, 1999 in cahyono and widiati 2011). the topics and themes were and stages of development. in 2006, school based curriculum was developed. school based curriculum offered flexibility for school to develop their own curriculum (cahyono and widiati, 2011). the last curriculum is the 2013 curriculum. in this curriculum, there are four core competences (kompetensi inti) should be achieved, namely religious, social, knowledge and applied knowledge (kemendikbud, 2013). the basic competences are organized vertically and horizontally (kemendikbud, 2013). organized vertically means that the basic competence is the continuity of the content with the higher level of education. organized horizontally means that the basic competence is related to other subjects. the 2013 curriculum shows that a certain subject can be integrated to other subject. it is possible that english is integrated to social science, natural science or mathematics. the bridge which can connect these two subjects is through clil materials. thus, clil is the new english materials in which the materials can be integrated with other subject. this paper aims to provide teaching guidelines and clil materials on three topics: digestive system, laboratory equipments and symbols, and light. definition of clil the term content and language integrated learning (clil) was coined in europe. clil serves as an umbrella term embracing all scenarios and combination of heritage, regional, minority, immigrant and/or foreign languages they involve: providing a highly diversified language curriculum (lorenzo, et.al. 2009). the language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 153 european commission refers clil as teaching subject through the medium of foreign language. the european commission asked all europeans to gain proficiency in more than one language (mother tongue) to enable better understanding and communicating among european countries. smala (2009) states that many bilingual immersion programs in europe are now in english because of the importance of english as a lingua franca. marsh (2002) refers clil as dualfocused learning, language and content. learning activity focused on the subject and the language. it is possible for the learners to practice what they learned whilst they are learning. the learners practice their language while they are learning the subject. indonesia government ever applied this concept in rsbi (rintisan sekolah berstandar internasional) school. in rsbi school, the teacher taught subjects such as biology, mathematics, physics, etc using english. claudiocol (2010) states that there are three kinds of clil, namely hard, mid and soft clil. hard clil is the way some schools teach half of the curriculum immersed in a target language (content led). this type of clil focus more on content. the learners are taught the content/subject by using the target language. mid clil is some schools teach some clil modules , where a subject is taught for a limited amount of hours. soft clil is the topic is a part of the language elt course curriculum (language led course). the focus of this type is language. the learners are taught english by using different topic materials. the topics are taken from the content/subjects such as biology, physics, chemistry, etc. meyer (2011) states that soft clil is a more efl version of clil. in efl context, clil can be defined as teaching english by using topics related to other subjects in school. the topics can be natural science, social science or mathematics. the topics support the learning of english. the learners can learn the technical terms of science topics. and also the learner can practice their english when they do experiment in laboratory by giving the instruction of doing the experiment. ball (2008) states that thematic content can be a vehicle for the illustration of language use. the clil materials should cover the topics of natural science, social science or mathematics. those topics are the topics which the learners need for their higher level of education. in secondary level, the students have a major in natural science, social science and language. the topics the students major in natural science, the students should have topics in natural science. the topics should be popular attention. the content of the materials covers linguistics and technical terms of the topic. the materials still need linguistics because it deals with english. the materials taught 154 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 are four skills and grammar. besides, technical terms are also presented in the materials because it deals with content/subject. the students can learn some definition related to the topic. the result of observation the writer did school visit in malang regency. from the school visit that the writer did and also the interview with two english teachers showed three aspects, namely, the facility, the teacher and the teaching materials. the facilities available in the school room, principle room, guest room, computer laboratory. the classroom consists of 21 rooms: seven rooms for each grade. there is no specific facility for the teaching of english, except lcd and tape recorder. the number of students in a class is around 36-40. there is no extracurricular related to english. there is no notices in english. mr. jupri has been teaching english for 15 years. his undergraduate degree obtained from both engish and arabic. then, he got scholarship at graduate program uin maliki in arabic language. another teacher, mrs. mariani has been teaching for 14 years. she tried to browse the internet to find a good teaching technique. meanwhile, those two teachers did not have any idea about post method, blended learning, clil. they never joined seminar or teacher training during in that join seminar is low because they do not want to join the seminar by themselves, they just waited to be pointed by the principle. in addition, they do not know about the 2013 curriculum. the learning materials used is textbook and lks. the textbook adopt gba (genre based approach). the textbook is organized based on the genre consisting of spoken and written cycles. the textbook still follow ktsp curriculum. swot analysis the following section presents the swot analysis of clil. swot stands for strength, weakness, opportunity and threat. the analysis come from the observation when the writer did school visit and also the theory. the reasons of using clil materials (strengths) there are some reasons english materials using clil. first of all is that the unavailability of certain technical terms (vocabulary). there are some vocabularies which daily english can not cover, such as vocabulary in mathematics, physics, chemistry, economy, etc. for example in physics, the word gaya, it can not be translated into fashion or style because it has technical term, force. another example is in mathematics, the word sudut tumpul, it cannot be translated into blunt corner which derived from corner means sudut, blunt means tumpul. the technical term for sudut language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 155 tumpul is obtuse angle. and there are many others. the students must know not only daily english but also the technical terms. the technical term and daily english are different. ball (2008) states that the differences exist on both a lexical and a structural basis. the second reason is that clil has some advantages. based on lorenzo learners outperformed non-clil learner on the result of linguistics evaluation. it shows linguistic competence. calvino (2012) states some advantages of clil. first, students motivation increase because the language is used to fulfil the real purpose to learn substantive materials. second, developing languages because the students learn not only grammar but also practicing the language through the topic of materials. it can lower the affective factors. third, knowing subject specific terminology. the students can learn technical terms in the topic of subject such as physics, mathematics, etc. clil materials is integration of language and content. teacher is the key component in teaching and learning. sulistyo (2007) states that teacher is the source of teaching and learning in classroom. it means that the teacher should teach the language and the content. the quality of the teacher competence can be shown by the european comission (2005) states that teachers are generally fully qualified for the one or more educational levels at which they work. in most cases, they are specialists in one or more non-language subjects or have two areas of specialisation, one in a language subject and the other in a non-language subject. in addition, marsh (2002) states that methodologically in terms of language and non-language content and application, through use of optimal linguistic target . the result of the qualification is only english. the teacher cannot teach subject. moreover, the education background of the teacher, one of them, is arabic. the weakness of clil is that it needs a teacher with double qualification, the language and the content or subject. in indonesia, there is no university which provide the students with those two qualification. clil need rich learning environment. features of clil methodology are to scaffold students cognition development by promoting active learning utilizing authentic materials to enhance content and language learning simultaneously in a safe line with sulistyo (2007) states that facility is one of aspect to support education. the 156 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 facility supports the teaching and learning. a good environment can boost the can actively involve in learning where ever they are in school, not only in the classroom, by reading notices or independent study in language laboratory. the result of observation showed that the school has minimal facility. there is no notices in english and language laboratory. it is not suggested to implement the clil. the weakness of clil is that it needs a good facility which most of school in indonesia have limited facility (see sulistyo 2007). the clil opportunity in the future (opportunity) clil provides students with content and language. thus, students can compete with other countries in 21st century because the students have the knowledge of the content and also are fluent in english. ananiadou and claro (2009) integrate several subjects. by using clil, the students can compete in global world. the curriculum change (threat) the 2013 curriculum can support the use of clil because the curriculum integrate several subjects or the term is organized horizontally, it can integrate the content and english (language). however, the threat toward clil is that if the curriculum is not implemented. the curriculum can be postponed or even cancelled when majority of the teacher do not understand the new curriculum because the socialisation of the curriculum is not sufficient. it means that the government is not ready. the result of observation showed that the two english teachers do not know the 2013 curriculum. it is possible that the implementation of the new curriculum will be postponed. as result, it gives a threat to clil implementation. teaching procedures teaching and learning activity is not only about the materials but also the teaching procedures. the teaching procedures consist of the steps how the teacher can teach english using clil materials one of the teaching procedures which can be used for clil materials is presentation, practice and production (ppp). harmer (2007) states that ppp is teaching procedure by introducing a contextualised situation. firstly, the teacher presents the material. secondly, the students practice to retell the material. lastly, the students produce wallmagazine, posters and/or experiment report. the detail procedures are as follow: presentation students pay attention to the slide about what the picture is (the picture is digestive system) students read the text given by teacher. the text is about digestive system (see appendix 1) practice language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 157 students find the technical terms in the text students practice how to pronounce the technical words students work together to find the meaning of technical term in order they understand the text students practice to retell the process of digestive system by using their own language production students can make wall magazine about digestive system in the teaching procedures above, the writer used digestive system topic. however, other teacher can use other topic (see appendix 2 and 3) with those guidelines. the teacher must make sure that in production, students should create creativity. conclusion english materials have been always changing over the years following the curriculum. the basic competences of the 2013 curriculum can be integrated with other subjects. clil can be the bridge for english materials to integrate with other subjects. clil materials are still new for some teachers even they are strange for mostly teachers in indonesia. clil materials are interesting because both the students and the english teachers can learn technical terms in certain topics. clil materials are new and they need to be explored by english teachers. references ananiadou, k and claro, m. 2009. 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in oecd oecd education working papers, no. 41, oecd publishing. (online) http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/21852526115 4. article accessed on february 20 2013 ball, p. 2008. language, concepts and procedures: why clil does them better! (online), http://www.onestop english.com/clil/methodology/articles/a rticle-language-concepts-andprocedures-why-clil-does-thembetter/500731.article, accessed on january 15th 2013 brown, h.d. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy 2nd edition. new york: pearson education cahyono, b.y. and widiati, u. 2011. the teaching of english as a foreign language in indonesia. malang: state university press calvino, l.d.g.m.a.m. 2012. content and language integrated learning. (online), http://www.eumed.net/rev/ tlatemoani/09/mamc.html, accessed on january 10th 2013 celce-murcia, m., dornyei, z., and thurrel, s. 1995. communicative competence: a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. issues in applied linguistics journal volume 6 number 2 pp. 5-35 158 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 claudiocol. 2010. clil principle. (online), http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blog s/claudiocol/clil-principles, accessed on february 20th 2013 european commision. 2005. content and langauge integrated learning (clil) at school in europe. belgium: eurydice european commission. 2013. content and language integrated learning. (online), http://ec.europa.eu/languages/languag e-teaching/content-and-languageintegrated-learning_en.htm accessed on february 15th 2013 fachrurrazy.2011. teaching english as a foreign language for teachers in indonesia. malang: state university of malang press harmer, j. 2007. the practice of english language teaching 4th edition. harlow: pearson education limited kemendikbud. 2013. kompetensi dasar sma/ma. (online), http://asepalwi.blogspot.com/2013/03/ draft-kurikulum-2013-untuk-sdmismpmts.html, accessed on march 15th 2013 lorenzo, f., casal, s., and moore, p. the effects of content and language integrated learning in european education: key findings from the andalusian bilingual sections evaluation project. applied linguistics advance access. pp.1-25. marsh, d. 2002. content and language integrated learning: the european dimension actions, trends and foresight potential. (online), ec.europa.eu/languages/documents/do c491_en.pdf, accessed february 15th 2013 meyer, o. 2011. clil-ing in me softly. defining clil. (online), http://teaching toteach.wordpress.com/2011/02/15/clil -ing-in-me-softly-defining-clil/, accessed january 5th 2013 richards, j.c. 2001. curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press smala, s. 2009. introducing: content and language integrated learning (clil). http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j& q=introducing:+content+and+languag e+integrated+learning+%28clil%29 +&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0 cdiqfjaa&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww .acsa.edu.au%2fpages%2fimages%2 fsimone%2520smala%2520%2520introducing%2520content%252 0and%2520language.pdf&ei=rtfhue mikk2omqxv7idqda&usg=afqjcn gxt8yjaqgy0ad_0u8tr1v_9dvrpq &bvm=bv.43828540,d.dgy, accessed december 28th 2012 sulistyo, g.h. 2007. ujian nasional: harapan, tantangan dan peluang. jurnal wacana vol. 9 no.1 pp. 79-106 http://www.b-escoshh.co.uk/images/ hazard_symbols.png http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subject s/anatomy/digestive/color.gif http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subject s/anatomy/digestive/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 159 http://images.tutorvista.com/content/feed/tv cs/light_dispersion1.gif appendix 1 human digestive system the human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. in order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste. most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it makes its way through the body. the digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals. the digestive process: the start of the process the mouth: the digestive process begins in the mouth. food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules). on the way to the stomach: the esophagus after being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. the esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. it uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. this muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down. in the stomach the stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme. in the small intestine after being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. it then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). in the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food. 160 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 in the large intestine after passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. in the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. many microbes (bacteria like bacteroides, lactobacillus acidophilus, escherichia coli, and klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. the first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). food then travels upward in the ascending colon. the food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon. the end of the process solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus. (taken from: http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/digestive/) task 1: find out the technical terms and find the definition task 2: retell the text in your own language appendix 2 the nature of color why is the sky blue and the grass green? blue? and why is a rose red instead of purple? what we see as color is the way our brain respond to the different wavelength of light light is a form of electromagnetic energy that travels very quickly on different frequencies or wavelength, which we see as different colors. for example, a wavelength of 400 nanometers causes us to see violet. a wavelength of 660 nanometers causes us to see red. the color brown is induced by the mixing of wavelengths. yellow can be produced by either its own wavelength or a mixture of the wavelengths for red and green. our sky looks blue because molecules of oxygen and nitrogen in the air scatter more blue wavelength than any other color. white light results from a mixing of the wavelengths of all colors. sir isaac newton discovered that when sunlight passed through a glass prism, the white light dispersed into a spectrum of colored light. newton then allowed the spectrum to pass through a second prism and the colors recombined, producing a beam of white light. this simple experiment demonstrated that white light contains all the colors of the spectrum. a beautiful and dramatic example of this occurs when sunligt falls on drops of water in the air after a rain. the beam of white sunlight spatters into a rainbow of colors. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 161 certain colors are invisible to human eyes. wavelengths shorter than that of violet produce ultraviolet light that can damage skin cells. wavelengths longer than that of the color red produce infrared light, radio waves, x-rays and gamma rays. we cannot see colors produced by these wavelengths, but we can measure and use their energy. (taken from: english for science) task 1: find out the technical terms and find the definition task 2: find out the cause-effect sentences in the text task 3: retell the text using your own language appendix 3 hazardeous symbols task 1: where do you possibly find each of symbols above? task 2: what do you do if you see each of symbols above? laboratory equipments magnet test tube thermometer 162 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 task 3: find out the function of each laboratory equipments above task 4: draw a poster about laboratory equipments and their function stands and clamps tuning fork teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 99 being bilingual in early ages: is it advantageous? pasca kalisa semarang state university abstract age as a factor to succeed in children’s second language acquisition (sla) has been a controversial issue for over a period of time. some studies analyzing the issue found that age is the main factor to determine children’s success in sla. responding to the issue, this paper aims at exploring the notion of early bilingualim compared to monolingual children. in addition, this paper mainly focuses on the advantages of being bilingual in a earlier ages. the discussion reveals that bilingual children get more benefits in their language performance than monolingual children. as conclusion, it is suggested that “additive bilingualism” could be applied in indonesia which english as the foreign language is used at school, while using indonesian is still maintained at home. key words: early bilingual, advantage, sla introduction recently, the unesco mandate to introduce early childhood education has been spreaded worldwide. learning a foreign language in early ages is seen as a milestone to encourage children’s lifelong learning. in responding to this mandate, many schools in indonesia introduced “immersion program” in which the school tried to build a foreign language-speaking environment. as a foreign language learned in many countries including indonesia, the need to learn english has been a demanding aspect in facing this issue. learning english as a foreign language becomes a compulsory in junior high school and senior high school. even, english is included in the national examinatin which judges students’ graduation. therefore, some schools prefer to have “immersion program” earlier, when the students enter kindergarten or before. this condition of learning is known as “early bilingualism”. the decision of being bilingual in early ages is also supported by recent theory which underlines that age is a main predictor of sla. however, this issue has been controversial among researchers which age is not the main predictor of learning a second language. therefore, this paper tries to analyze in both sides in responding to the issue. the notion of early bilingualism some children learn more than one language in earlier ages. others prefer to be bilingual when they enter schools. this 100 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 different condition might be based on personal need as children who have different background of parents. marriage with people from other nationalities is common in this era, which would provide the opportunity to have two languages at home. this mixed nationality marriage could be the reason why some children prefer to be bilingual in earlier ages at the same time. in addition, many parents get their children engaged in early bilingualism since they are aware in a theory which early childhood is considered as a critical period or sensitive period for acquiring a second language based on critical period hypothesis (cph) addressed by eric lenneberg (1967), in which brain plasticity was only conducive to language learning until puberty. it more concerns with the ability of very young children to grasp the language and be more conciliated to the phonological system of the new language. this is an evidence that children are more sensitive to the sounds and the rhythm of the new language by imitating new sounds and intonation from adults. moreover, pinter (2006) pointed out that language learning in earlier years is considered beneficial for children in terms of having ample inputs and being exposed to the language use environment, which can lead them to native like levels in the process of english language acquisition. in this case, age is considered very crucial that supports language learning to guide them for native level of proficiency. in addition, children in earlier years do not seem to have an accent compared to those who start learning language later than this period. they are potential to reach the native-like level when they produce the language. when compared to adults who start to learn the language later, children have a longer period to be exposed to learning the language (lightbown and spada, 2006). by being exposed to the language earlier, there is a possibility for children to receive input more than adults do from what they hear. furthermore, children are less anxious to use the language. they seem to enjoy the language more instead of considering the language learning as a pressure. they have no worries about making mistakes compared to adults, which are sometimes not quite confident to deal with mistakes. in addition, children use the language whenever it comes to their minds without much attention to grammatical rules and the appropriateness of their utterances. this kind of positive feeling leads them to use the language more frequently and spontaneously.that is why it is assumed that learning a second language in early ages would be better than adults. early bilingualism: a controversy? early bilingualism has become a controversial issue in the world whether it provides positive or negative impact for children’s learning.being bilingual from language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 101 earlier ages is referred to “simultaneous bilinguals” (lightbown and spada, 2006). for many years, bilingualism has been seen as a condition, which has negative impacts for children’s learning since they are too young to learn different kinds of language at the same time. even, being bilingual in early ages would be a problem for children (genesee et al, 2004). children are considered to be confused when they learn two languages at the same time. they might have difficulties in expressing either language well. research in bilingualism (schwartz et al, 2009) suggested that there was a delayed acquisition in irregular forms of inflectional morphology for bilingual children due to the lack of frequency in using languages. in other words, when children are engaged in being bilinguals, they could not perform both languages well since they do not maximize the use of the first or the second language. moreover, bilingualism is believed that it only will cause “mental confusion” if two languages are learned at the same time. furthermore, it is argued that monolingual children will perform better due to much amount of time in using one language for any settings. in other words, monolingual children have more exposure of the language learned, in which they have more time to practice and communicate the language as well. advantages of being “early bilinguals” instead of the negative aspect of bilingualism, recent research promotes the opposite view of having bilingualism in early ages. bilingualism can have positive effects in children’s learning. it is assumed that due to the exposure of two languages, they tend to have better selfconsciousness of language system than monolingual children (pinter, 2006). this reflects that bilingual children would be more aware of the structures and patterns of both languages. they would tend to realize if the language is not well structured when they use the language to communicate. a study in the positive effect of early bilingualism identified that metalinguistic awareness is considered as the central component in academic success of being bilingual, learning two languages enable them to be more aware in language shift (bialystock and barac, 2011). bilingual children would be more aware in cross-language transfer in both languages. another study by quiroz et al (2010) promotes the evidence in which bilingual children tend to have metalinguistic awareness, which is the ability to consciously reflect on the nature and use of the language such as crosslanguage transfer, which enables them to easily develop their cognitive academic aspect of language. vocabulary acquisition in both languages is considered as the reason why they have a good sense in code switching. the exposure of vocabulary acquisition in both languages 102 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 could provide the opportunity for them to be better in cognitive development. beyond cross language transfer, bilingualism also provides positive impact in phonological awareness, the ability to manipulate and reflect upon soundunits in the study by kuo and anderson(2010). they examined phonological awareness between bilingual and monolingual children by identifying onset, rime, and tone awareness through some tasks. onset is the initial phonological unit of word. rime refers to the string of letters that follow, usually a vowel and final consonants. whereas, tone deals with any sounds which underlines rising, sustain, and falling tone.the finding showedthat “bilingual children take advantage in segmenting and comparing syllables with onsets that exists in both of their languages because they had experienced the onsets in more variable phonological contexts” (kuo and anderson, 2010: 381). moreover, they consistently performed better than their monolingual peers on the tasks, which required them to segment and compare onsets and rimes or to attend to tones in novel syllables. based on this study, it can be concluded that bilingual children would be advantageous in phonological awareness due to the exposure of two languages at the same time, which enables them to outperform in segmenting and comparing parts of phonological awareness including onset, rime, and tone awareness. another study, which focused on phonological awareness by laurent and martinot (2009) suggested that bilingual children would perform better than monolingual children based on the tasks dealing with phonological awareness, such as syllable deletion, phoneme deletion, and permutation. laurent and martinot (2009: 442) added that “permutation more deals with the ability to identify syllables and phonemes, where the initial and final segmental units of an item have to be removed and the remaining medial part retained in memory”. this task is considered as the most difficult task than another two tasks given. a finding showed that bilingual children developed more ease in solving phonological tasks than monolingual peers. in other words, a group of bilingual children performed the phonological tasks more successfully than the monolingual group. this better performance is the influence of early exposure in the second language in bilingualism environment. therefore, it can be concluded that early bilingualism would affect the development of phonological awareness as an aspect of language acquisition. in other words, age also could be the aspect to consider which influences phonological awareness. the earlier children learn a language, the better they have in phonological awareness development. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 103 conclusion based on the discussion, it comes to a conclusion that children who start learning two or more languages in earlier years would be more beneficial than monolingual children. they perform the second language well since they are engaged in ample input of interaction in using the language. instead of only concerning with the language aspects, we should also concern with the way to manage the use of home and new language being learned to be implemented in children’s learning when they spend more time in learning language at home.it is more in line with how to maintain two languages to be used without neglecting the first language as the family language. as educators,it is important to respect the existence of the students’ native languages. it would have negative impacts of subtracting their first languages in order to learn the second language that they would lose their native languages. some educators concern with “additive bilingualism” as a solution for parents in early bilingualism. in this kind of bilingualism, the home language should be maintained when children are learning second language. in other words, although children learn the second language, they do not neglect their first language as their heritage. parents play the important role to create an environment at home to support the second language learning without neglecting the first language. in this case, parents would be better if they also learn the second language, which their children are learning. therefore, they could help their children when they face difficulties. when they are in the family settings, it is better for children to use their own language as well to communicate with other family members. this could help children to respect their native languages and have a good relationship with other family members. in conclusion, as educators, we should help parents to manage the environment by realizing the existence of the first language and the second language being learned at home. references bialystok, e., and r. barac. 2011. cognitive development of bilingual children. international journal of language teaching, 44, 1, 36-54. genesee, f., m. crago, and j. paradis.2004. dual language development and disorders. in p. m. lightbown& n. spada (3rd eds.), how languages are learned.oxford: oxford university press. kuo, l., and r. c. anderson. 2010. beyond cross-language transfer: reconceptualizing the impact of early bilingualism on phonological awareness. society for the scientific study of reading, 14, 4, 365-385. laurent, a., and c. martinot. 2009. bilingualism and phonological awareness: the case of bilingual 104 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 (french-occitan) children. springer science, 23, 435-452. lightbown, p.m., and n. spada.2006. how languages are learned. oxford: oxford university press. pinter, a. 2006. teaching young language learners. oxford: oxford university press. quiroz, b. g., snow, c. e., and zhao, j. 2010. vocabulary skills of spanishenglish bilinguals: impact of mother child language interactions and home language and literacy support. international journal of bilingualism, 14, 4, 379-399. schwartz, m., kozminsky, e., and leikin, m. 2009. delayed acquisition of irregular inflectional morphology in hebrew in early sequential bilingualism. international journal of bilingualism, 13, 4, 501-522. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/2 (april 2017) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 117 the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters yuni eka pratiwi demak vocational high school dwi rukmini universitas negeri semarang, indonesia abdurrahman faridi universitas negeri semarang, indonesia e-mail: yuni.ep66@gmail.com received: 30 december 2016. revised: 28 february 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract a good writing not only restates the message or idea using sentences or expressions that are grammatically correct, but also has to organize idea or message in a form which is easy to understand. the aims of this research were 1) to explain the organizations of business letters produced by the twelfth grade students of the office management program of ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school; 2) to explain the contents of business letters produced by the students; 3) to explain the grammars of business letters produced by the students; 4) to explain the vocabularies of business letters produced by the students; 5) to explain the mechanics of business letters produced by the students; 6) to explain the writing competence of business letters produced by the students. a qualitative case study was used in this research.the findings derived from students’ work. they showed that in the organization of business letters, they can organize the part of letter completely, from the letter head, date, inside address, salutation, give state the purpose, explain the information, conclude and thank to the reader, complementary close, and additional information if necessary. for the content, they got difficulty in what the idea they should write. in grammar, they didn’t know the verb form of simple past, confused to use the personal pronoun in english, the structure of sentence, differentiatethe auxiliaries, the articles and using degree of comparison. for vocabulary, they got difficulties in using and choosing vocabulary.in the mechanic, they made mistakes in using spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. the findings of the students’ competencies in writing business letters, there were 75.00% students whowere competent in writing business letters, almost of them mastered the organization, mechanic, and the content of letters. 25.00% students who had no-competent, they still got difficulty in using grammar and choose the vocabulary. almost half students in the class passed the exam. it can be concluded that the twelfth grade students of the office management program of ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school are competent in writing business letters. keywords: linguistic, writing, business letters. how to cite: yuni eka pratiwi; dwi rukmini; abdurrahman faridi. 2017. the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:yuni.ep66@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 118 introduction in learning english, there are four language skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. writing is one of the language skills which are important in our life. through writing, we can inform others, carry out transactions, persuade, infuriate, and tell what we feel. however, we know that writing or learning to write especially in a second language is not simply. it is one of the four basic skills that are very complex and difficult to learn. so for the beginner writers whose mother tongue is not english, it is the most difficult english skill. writing is an integrative skill and an important, constructive, and a complex process. it is an essential skill in foreign language learning in order to give the learners the opportunity to develop the proficiency they need to write personal letters, essays, research papers and journals. in addition, writing skills enhance cognitive and linguistic awareness (abu-jalil 2001). a good writing does not only restate the message or idea using sentences or expressions that are grammatically correct, but also has to organize idea or message in a form which is easy to understand. the idea or message must be constructed in a text form that has purposed, rhetorical structure, and linguistic realization or grammatical pattern. it must be created effectively in one form of written text. furthermore, there are students’ common problems in writing. according to albuainain (2009:4) there are nine defects in students’ writing, such as 1) high frequency of grammatical errors, 2) lack of variety in grammatical structure employed, 3) use of inappropriate vocabulary, 4) use of inappropriate grammatical structure, 5) limited range of vocabulary, 6) poor spelling, 7) inadequate understanding of the topic, 8) deficiency in clear self-experience, 9) poor punctuation. in my observation as an english teacher in ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school, i found that the most of the students got difficulties in writing english. ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school is a foundation and religious boarding school located in mranggen, demak. the foundation starts from play group until senior high school and vocational school. in ky ageng giri vocational high school, there are automotive, multimedia, office management and garment as the programs. especially in office management program, the students are taught many kinds of business letters. according to bly (2004) there are many kinds of business letters, they are sale letter, a letter of inquiry, request letter, order letter, invitation letter, offer letter, application letter, letter of recommendation, thank letter, and etc. some of them are taught in the vocational high schools. according to my observation students’ score in writing business letters assignments started from tenth grades until twelfth grades, almost of them got bad score in writing a letter of sell, a letter of inquiry, a letter of order, a letter of offer, a letter of complaint and application letter. therefore i want to know their obstacles in writing business letters. writing business letters are very important for them, because the headmaster asked the students in the end of semester or in practice examination they have to produce a letter. so writing business letters are very important for them, because it is as the product of writing skill in practice examination in my teaching and learning process, i found that most of students get difficulties in eka pratiwi; dwi rukmini; abdurrahman faridi. 2017. the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 119 writing. for example: grammatical errors, the use of inappropriate vocabulary and mechanics. in evaluating the students’ writing assignment is important to check how far the students’ writing performance improves. in evaluating writing, it is needed to consider the objective or the criterion of the materials. each objective can be achieved through the writing assignment given. in this study i use a qualitative case study to analyze the students’ problems in writing business letters. from those problems, i want to know the students’ competence in writing business letters. the analysis is based on the sentences make by the students. from this result will be used to know the lacks which probably occur in teaching writing such as the material, the teaching method or the students themselves which is lack of understanding in vocabulary, grammar, mechanic, and etcetera in doing writing. regarding to the important of writing business letters for the twelfth grade students but they still have difficulties in writing, i intended to conduct this research to know the students’ competence in writing business letters. after knowing how far their competence in writing business letters, they can give me feedback in teaching writing. i can make or use the best method in teaching writing business letters start from tenth grades, so that in the twelfth grade when doing practice examination they can produce good product in writing business letters and also get good score in the end. according to brown (2004) there are some aspects difficulties in writing, they are organization, content, grammar, vocabulary and mechanics. from those problems, i conclude that the students can learn writing easier if they could mastery of organize their idea, mastery of vocabulary, and mastery of grammar. talking about writing in vocational high school, there is relevant matter that needs to be highlighted. it is the regulation of ministry of education in the form of content standard of vocational high school students. according to the content standard which is developed by bsnp (2006), the english teaching of vocational high school in indonesia is aimed at making the students develop several competences. they are 1) developing students’ oral and written competence to achieve the informational competence which makes it possible for the students to access various knowledge 2) developing students’ awareness of the importance of english in improving indonesia’s competence at the world’s level 3) developing students’ understanding on the relationship between cultures and language. moreover, according to the regulation of ministry of national education, the standard of competence and basic competence for vocational high schools’ grade xii semester 6 is that they have to perform several writing competencies as shown in the table 1. table 1 standard competence and basic competence of writing skill for vocational high school students grade xii semester 6 standard competence basic competence 3.5 understanding kind of simple business letters  business documents: business letters, faxes, memos, advertisements, brochures, forms, questionnaires, etc. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 120  relevant vocabulary  antonym/synonym affixes: prefixes/suffixes the table above shows that the twelfth grade students will learn kinds of simple business letters. in the syllabus of the twelfth grade, there doesn’t explain what kind of business letters which should be taught. but, according to the handbook and the productive teacher, there are some business letters which should be taught for example a letters of sell, a letter of inquiry, a letter of offer, a letter of order, a letter of complaint, and application letter). however, in this research study, i will assess students’ writing business letters. there are some parts in writing business letter according to carey (2002: 9). the first is letterhead or heading, second is date, third is file number (optional), fourth is confidential (optional), fifth is inside address, sixth is attention line (optional), seventh is salutation (optional), eighth is subject line (optional), ninth is body of the letter, tenth is complimentary close (optional enjoy doing. the important of writing assessment is planning activity which is to help students develop their writing skills. it is invaluable to both students, who can learn from their errors, and teachers, who can check the students' progress and identify specific problems. however, correcting written work is usually a time-consuming activity which teachers do not particularly thereare some techniques which are helpful for teacher in assessing writing work, they are: the first, mark positively. the teacher's corrections should not have a discouraging effect on students, so instead of deducting points for each mistake they have, we could respond positively to their strengths and reward them with what they have got right. the second technique is designing a specific and reliable correction system. thus we need to decide: (a) what aspects of writing will be taken into account (content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, spelling, etc.), (b) what type of descriptors will be used (numbers, letters, words such as ‘excellent’, ‘good’, ‘fair’, etc.), (c) what criteria will be established to understand what each descriptor represents. these criteria could be arranged in holistic scales or analytic scales, which separate the aspects of writing into different units. third is mark selectively. when finding a lot of mistakes in a composition, it is a good idea, especially when carrying out informal assessment to focus the attention on some particular aspects, such as basic grammatical mistakes or organization, and ignore the rest, otherwise students will see their page painted in red and feel discouraged. the mistakes can be avoided in another time. fourth is using a clear correction code. in order to give feedback to students, teachers could create a system of abbreviations which they write in the margins of the composition to indicate the type of error detected, so that students can try to identify and correct them themselves later on in class. some correction symbols could be the following: sp = spelling mistake, t = wrong tense, wo = word order, pr = preposition, l = linking, v = vocabulary (inappropriate language), p = punctuation, = a word missing ? = unclear meaning, pa = paragraph, and etc. if the teachers want to assess the students' writing skills formally, they have to include eka pratiwi; dwi rukmini; abdurrahman faridi. 2017. the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 121 some writing activities in a test, they should think of the writing activities they have been doing in class and choose the right ones. in this research, i use analytic scale by brown (2004) for rating the students’ writing business letter and use code if necessity. on the teaching of writing, an evaluation should be done to measure or to know the students’ ability in writing. the effectiveness of a learning process of writing skill can be measured through an evaluation activity. according to brown (2004) there are two scoring systems of writing tests, analytic system and holistic system. according to brown (2004: 244-245) covers some points for rating compositions tasks in analytic scale, there are organization, content, grammar, vocabulary and mechanic. to know the students competence/nocompetence or passed/failed in their study, it can be seen from the standard score. minimum standard score is used as the reference to evaluate the students are competence or not in the subject of the study. each subjects’ school has different minimum standard score. in ky ageng giri mranggen, the minimum standard score of english subject is 70. the pre-specify standard of performance test on a numerical point system called absolute system of grading (brown 2004:286). for example, having established points for midterm test, points for final exam, and point for accumulated for the semester. the key to make an absolute grading system work is to be painstakingly clear on competencies and objectives and on tests, task and other assessment techniques that will figure into the formula for assigning a grade. there are also some criteria for judging or to know writing competence in writing work. in writing competency assessment: summary report for 2009-2014journal, there are some grades on essay or writing work range from a to f. the grade pass starts from a-c, not pass starts from d-e. for pass grade, a a a paper is rated superiorand shows originality of ideas and control of coherence, unity, development, and flow. a controlling main idea is readily apparent and is supported well with clearly developed examples and details. paragraphs are structured well and include a variety of sentence structures and the use of transitions. sentences show a superior command of word choice appropriate for audience, topic, purpose, and point-of-view. there are very few minor errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. b a b paper is rated above average and has an interesting topic with an obvious structure or plan but lacks full competency in coherence, unity, development, and/or flow. a controlling main idea is apparent and is supported with examples and details. paragraphs are structured well and include some sentence variety and transitions. sentences show a command of appropriate word choice for audience, topic, purpose, and point-of-view. grammar, punctuation, and spelling are usually appropriate with very few major or minor errors. c a c paper is rated average and has a clear topic but lacks originality and full competency in coherence, unity, development, and flow. a controlling main idea is used but lacks some necessary supporting details and examples. paragraphs show some structure but may not use a variety of sentence styles or structures. some transitions are used but may not be appropriate for content. sentences show a limited command of appropriate word choice for audience, topic, purpose, and point-ofview. the paper may have a few major errors language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 122 or frequent minor errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. for not pass grades, d a d paper is rated weakand has a poorly defined central idea that shows little insight and/or lacks full competency in coherence, unity, development, and/or flow. sentences are sometimes unrelated to the main idea and give only limited supporting details and examples. transitions are present but most are lacking or inappropriately used. sentence structure is frequently correct; however, sentence style and patterns are usually repetitive forms. word choice is often inconsistent, incorrect, and inappropriate for audience, topic, purpose, and point-of-view. major and distracting minor errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling are obvious. f an f paper is very weak and may have no clear main idea. sentences do not support a main idea and do not provide specific details or examples. sentences are faulty in style and not readable in parts. transitions and sentence variety are quite limited or unused. there are frequent serious errors and excessive minor errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. 0 a zero paper is rated unacceptableand does not follow the framework or address the topic given. this score is also given to those papers that deliberately use explicit language that attacks the assignment or topic. it is also frequently given to plagiarized papers. methodology i conducted this present research using a qualitative case study.the subjects of this research were the twelfth graders of ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school. the twelfth graders of that school consist of four classes. i took one of those classes as my subjects of this research that was “office management program” class. since the business letter was important, i used it as the source of the data. there were thirty three students of office management program. i divided them into six groups. each group consisted of six or five persons. i gave the topic to the group randomly. if the students took the lottery by themselves, there would be many students who got the same topics. group one wrote a letter of sell, group two wrote inquiry letter, group three wrote a letter of offer, group four wrote a letter of order, group five wrote a letter of complaint, and group six wrote application letter. the twelfth graders’ business letters writings of the office management program of ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational school were the source of the data. the instrument of data collection used in this study was test of writing business letters. the documents were used to obtain the data about the students’ competencies in writing business letters. results and discussions in this section, i discuss the theoretical implications based on the findings of the study that i have presented in the previous section to answer research problems of this study. hence, this section was divided into six parts based on the objectives of the study. the organizations of students’ business letters the organizations in students’ business letters were presented in some aspects; they were letter head, date, inside address, salutation, state the purpose, explain the information, conclude and thank to the reader, complementary close, and additional information. observing the percentages of organization aspects (see appendix 2, page 82),the dominant aspect of organization was eka pratiwi; dwi rukmini; abdurrahman faridi. 2017. the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 123 the letters’ part of organization which was almost complete. there were letter head, date, inside address, salutation, explain the information, conclude and thank to the reader, complementary close that got 45.83%. then it was followed by the part of organization which was complete, there were letter head, date, inside address, salutation, state the purpose, explain the information, conclude and-thank to the reader, complementary close, and additional information in 33.33%, and the part of organization which was not complete, there were just letter head, date, salutation, explain the information, complementary close in 20.83%. there were no students who wrote the letter in the part of organization which was not complete, there were just, date, salutation, explain the information, complementary close. the content of students’ business letters there were two aspects in analyzing the content; they were idea and content of the letters. based on the findings (see appendix 3, page 83)the dominant in analyzing the content in writing business letters was the idea completed and clear idea and the content that was almost related to the idea in 62.5%. it showed that the students could write the business letters based on the types of business letters which the idea and the content were appropriate with the letter’s types. there were 29.2% who could write the business letters which the complete and clear idea and the content which was related to the idea. it meant that only 29.2% students could write in good idea and content based on the letter’s types. and then there were 8.3% students who wrote the business letters in completed and clear idea but the content was not related to the idea. there were no students who wrote the business letters in unclear idea and the content which was not related to the idea. the grammar of students’ business letters there were preposition, modal, article, verb forms and tense sequence aspects in analyzing grammar. the finding can be seen in the appendix 4 page 84. based on the finding the dominant in analyzing the grammar in writing business letters, there were 83.3% who made numerous grammatical errors. it showed that only few students who had less understanding in grammar aspects, such as preposition, modal, article, verb forms and tense sequence. there were 12.5% students who had very few grammatical errors. it meant that those students had very good understanding grammar aspects in writing, especially writing business letters. and then there were 4.1% who made few grammatical errors but do not affect the meaning. and there were no students who made frequent grammatical errors. the vocabulary of students’ business letters in analyzing the vocabulary, i analyzed the effective choice of words, the word forms and the meaning of the sentence. the analyzing vocabularies used by the students could be seen in the appendix 5 page 85. the table displayed that the dominant in vocabulary used by students in writing business letters. they had few misuses of vocabularies, word form but not change the meaning in 75%. it meant that they were good enough in using and choosing the vocabularies in writing business letters. there were only 25% students who made limited range confusing words and word form. there were no students who had effective choice of words and word form and also very poor knowledge of words, word form and not understandable. they were in 0%. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 124 the mechanics of students’ business letters in analyzing the mechanic of writing business letters, there were some aspects which i analyzed; there were spelling, punctuation and capitalization. from the findings (see appendix 6, page 86), it showed that there were not correct spelling, punctuation and capitalization and serious problem of errors in spelling, punctuation and capitalization, they were in 0%. the dominant in mechanic writing of business letters was the students made occasional errors of spelling, punctuation and capitalization in 48.3%. it showed that in writing business letters they had good writing mechanics. it followed by 54.2% in frequently errors of spelling, punctuation and capitalization. the students’ business letters analysis to know the students passed or failed in their study it can be seen from the minimum standard score. each school subjects has different minimum standard score. in ky ageng giri mranggen, the minimum standard score of english subject is 70. from the final score of writing business letters (see appendix 8, page 88),it showed that there were 79.17% students who passed the writing business letters exams and only 20.83% who failed. in absolute grading scale according to brown (2004:287), writing business letters examination belonged to final exams, because it was the product of writing skill english subject in twelfth grade practice examination. the students who got a was only 4.16%, b was 29.17%, c was 45.83%, d was 20.83%, and f was 0.00%. conclusions this study sets out to explain how the organizations of business letters produced by the twelfth graders of the office management program of ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school, how the contents of business letters produced by the students, how the grammars of business letters produced by the students, how the vocabularies of business letters produced by the students, how the mechanics of business letters produced by the students, and how the writing competencies of business letters produced by the students. the findings show that students are competent in organizing the part of letter. they can organize the part of letter completely, from the letter head, date, inside address, salutation, give state the purpose, explain the information, conclude and thank to the reader, complementary close, and additional information if necessary. referring to the finding in the content in writing business letters, there are some students who get difficulty in writing the idea. some of them confuse in differentiating the letter types. the contents in the students’ works are not appropriate with the letter types. based on the grammar in writing business letters, most of students get difficulty in using grammar. they don’t know the verb form of the simple past. they also confuse to use the personal pronoun in english. the structure of their sentence is also not appropriate with the structure in english sentence. sometimes there is no verb or auxiliary in the sentence. they also get difficulty in differentiating the auxiliaries, the articles and using degree of comparison. in the vocabulary findings, they get difficulty in using and choosing it. some of them confused to use the appropriate eka pratiwi; dwi rukmini; abdurrahman faridi. 2017. the linguistic problems of students’ competence in writing business letters. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 125 vocabulary for the letters; it makes incorrect meaning of the sentence. regarding to the finding of mechanic in writing business letters, they often make mistake in using it. some of them make mistakes in using spelling, punctuation, and capitalization the findings of the students’ competencies in writing business letters, shows that there are 75.00% students who passed or competent in writing business letters, almost all of them mastered the organization, mechanic, and the content of letters. there are only 25.00% students who are no-competent; they still get difficulty in using grammar and choosing the vocabulary. almost half students in the class passed the exam. it can be concluded that the twelfth graders of the office management program of ky ageng giri mranggen, demak vocational high school are competent in writing business letters. suggestions are given based on the conclusions above. firstly, the students should be aware the importance of writing skill especially writing business letters. they should increase their motivation to learn basic writing in english, so that they are able to write english correctly. they should learn more the grammar especially tenses and vocabularies in english. they should be aware in writing mechanics, and they should be able to minimize those writing aspects in writing business letters. secondly, for english teachers, they have to give great attention to the fact that writing business letters in english is not easy; they should push the students in writing since tenth-grade; they need to encourage the students’ grammar in english; they should encourage the students vocabularies in english; they should give correction directly when the students got wrong mechanics in writing; they should help their students to overcome those problems by having friendly, helpful and cooperative behaviors to make students comfortable when writing english especially in writing business letters; they should remind the students not to worry about making mistakes and give them clear instructions and sufficient guidance; give the students motivation that writing business letters is the product of writing skill in practice examination, so they have to pay more attention in studying business letters. lastly, the next researcher is expected that to know the students’ competencies in writing especially writing business letter, it can be used business letters such as application letters, a letter of sell, a letter of inquiry, a letter of offer, a letter of order, a letter of complaint, and an application letter or other business letters. the analysis can be in the organization, content, grammar, vocabulary and mechanic in aspects of analysis. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 126 references abu-jalil a. 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(2013). a study of students’ assessment in writing skills of the english language. international journal of instruction www.e-iji.net. http://www.e-iji.net/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２１５ acehnese students’ perception of teacher’s motivational teaching strategy in teaching english yaumil fadhillah yaumilfadhillah@gmail.com universitas syiah kuala abstract in english teaching-learning process, motivational teaching strategy is an offer for the teachers to be applied in the class as a purpose of motivating the students. this study aims at exploring the students’ perception towards the motivational teaching strategy developed by dornyei (2001) a case study is used as a research methodology. the research subject is the 22 male students of second grade in darul qur’an junior high school, aceh besar. the data were obtained through close-ended questionnaire and interview guide. the findings reveal that there are ten crucial motivational teaching strategies applied by the teacher in teaching and learning process therewith the reasons according to the students’ perception. this finding is expected to be the reflective-teaching for all english teachers to maintain, develop, and apply the relevant strategies by fully taking into account students’ perception. as this research is considered an initiatory in the focus of motivational teaching strategies of english teaching and learning particularly in aceh, the research subject used is still partial and there is a limited time in conducting the research. accordingly, it is prompted for the subsequent researchers to profoundly carry out the similar research in aceh. keywords: acehnese efl students, motivational teaching strategy, students’ perception introduction most teachers and researchers agree that motivation has a significant role in determining success or failure in any learning situation (dornyei, 2001). the more motivated students are, the more likely they are active in class. studies have revealed that students’ motivation in a second or foreign language is influenced by many factors, such as teachers, peers, parents, learning experiences, learning environment, and so on (william & burden, 1997). thus, a teacher is one of the contributing factors that have a significant role in the english teachinglearning process in the classroom. in motivating students to learn english, a teacher is required to be careful and precise in selecting, designing, and applying the teaching strategy. teaching strategy is a teacher's effort in the teaching and learning process, which aims to attract students 'attention and increase students' enthusiasm and motivation in learning english. therefore, the teachers do not only teach but also create the teaching-learning process as attractive as possible. dornyei (2001) developed a teaching strategy covering all the important points that teachers can apply in the classroom. this teaching strategy is called motivational teaching strategy. dornyei claimed that the strategy contains several strategies that promote the individual's goalbehavior (2001, p.28). since human behavior is complex, there are various ways to promote it. dornyei (2001) delivered comprehensive set of strategies for teaching english to facilitate teachers in teaching english in the classroom to help students be more motivated and eager to learn english. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:yaumilfadhillah@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２１６ dornyei (2001) highlighted to create a motivational learning process, a teacher is suggested to comprehend the motivational teaching strategies, which can later be applied in the english teaching-learning process. it starts with how to create the motivational conditions, generate initial motivation, maintain and protect motivation, and encourage positive retrospective self-evaluation. creating the basic motivational conditions it is the stage where the role of the teacher is involved, begins with the teacher’s behavior, how a teacher creates a pleasant and supportive environment in the classroom, and how a teacher promotes a cohesive learner group with appropriate rules in the english teaching-learning process. it helps to create a more conducive atmosphere during the teaching-learning process. to sum up, there are eight motivational strategies developed by dornyei (2001) in this stage, there are: 1) the teacher is enthusiastic to teach the material, 2) the teacher concerns about every progress students achieve in learning english, 3) the teacher is always attentive to students, 4) the teacher associates with parents by keeping them updated about students’ english learning progress, 5) the teacher creates the fun english language learning atmosphere in the classroom, 6). the teacher encourages students to learn through fun game and group working, 7) the teacher creates the group rules and negotiate the rules with students, and 8) the teacher takes an action in case students break the group rules that have agreed earlier. generating initial motivation the second stage is generating initial motivation. it is how the teacher makes students excited about learning english. generating motivation in the early stage will increase students’ expectations for success in language learning (dornyei, 2001, p.29). to sum up, there are eight motivational strategies in this stage, those are : 1) the teacher invites senior students to hear the motivating english story, 2) teacher delivers interesting english learning style, 3) the teacher supplies students with the interesting english materials like showing the video, 4) the teacher shares the importance of english language for now and the future, 5) the teacher delivers english task in accordance with have been taught for students, 6) the teacher lets students to set and choose their own materials in order to achieve students’ own goals in learning english, 7) the teacher supplies students’ favorite english materials and also asks students to choose the material based on students’ preference, and 8) the teacher frequently gives students the guidance about how to understand and master the english language easily. maintaining and protecting motivation the third stage is maintaining and protecting motivation. motivation at the early stage must be held with the aim that learning objectives can be achieved. in this stage, dornyei (2001) asserted that a teacher's english learning strategy is carried out to make english learning stimulating and enjoyable, presenting tasks in a motivating way, setting specific students’ goals, increasing students’ confidence, and promoting english selfmotivating strategy. to sum up, there are 14 motivational strategies in this stage, those are : 1) the teacher presents the various fun task in english teaching learning process, 2) the teacher gets the english task from attractive contents such as english novel, comic, etc., 3) the teacher gives interesting english learning assignment to make students active, 4) the teacher gives the explicit explanations about the english task and examples how to do it, 5) the teacher prompts students to keep practicing english at home, 6) the teacher creates a english learning-deal before the lesson started, 7) the teacher assigns students the task that meets students’ english ability, 8) the teacher pushes students english confidence by convincing http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２１７ students based on their strengths, 9) the teacher never plays favorites in class, 10) the teacher teaches how to speak english confidently, 11) the teacher never embarrasses students in front of others when students speak english, 12) the teacher asks for students’ cooperation with friends in doing the english group work, 13) the teacher gives students the authority to learn english by themselves, and 14) the teacher asks students to share their own english learning style and strategy to their friends. encouraging positive retrospective selfevaluation the last stage is encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation. in this stage, the teacher focuses on helping students see students' strengths and weaknesses positively. the teachers are expected to consider that every human being has strengths and weaknesses in learning sciences, including english language learning. as the students complete any english material, they should reflect positively on the english learning experience and capability to sum up, there are five motivational strategies in this stage. those are: 1) the teacher energizes students by referring to their failures in learning english, 2) the teacher always appreciates students’ contribution in learning english by giving feedback, 3) the teacher gives applause and thumbs up to every effort and progress students make in learning english, 4) the teacher gives rewards for students in a motivational way, and 5) the teacher encourages students to work with peers in assessing and giving feedback to students homework. previous studies there were a number of previous studies related to motivational teaching strategy in teaching english. first, kassing (2011) conducted a study about the lecture and student’s perceptions of the motivational teaching strategy in efl classroom at a private university in sulawesi. the study found some similarities in perceptions between lecturers and students about the strategies’ lecturers used in teaching english, such as creating basic motivational conditions in the classroom. both lecturers and students agreed that motivational teaching strategy affected their motivation in learning english. secondly, alshehri (2012) in his research on the same case showed that several motivational strategies were necessary according to students to grow their enthusiasm for learning english, starting from the teacher’s behaviour, classroom atmosphere, and group work but depending on the group members. thirdly, astuti (2016) research, which took place in the state of senior high school 1 solok, west sumatra, investigated the teachers and students’ perceptions of the motivational teaching strategy in teaching english. four teachers were reported motivating their students in teaching english. then she explored the strategy that the teachers primarily applied in motivational teaching strategy and the teachers' perceptions and students. this study revealed that the teacher's strategy greatly motivated the students in learning english. in addition, the students confirm that the teacher was the primary key to making the learning language process more enjoyable. fourthly, wirentake, iragiliati, and prayogo (2017) investigated the students’ perception of motivational teaching strategies. the findings showed that, among several motivational teaching strategies, there were ten crucial motivational teaching strategies that the english teacher must maintain in the teaching-learning process. furthermore, these strategies were selected based on students’ preferences and needs in learning english. fifthly, soraya, kurnia, and setiawan’s study (2018) explored the use of motivational teaching strategy in teaching english. they intended to investigate how the teacher implements the frequently-used motivational teaching strategy http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２１８ and the perceptions of efl islamic university students towards the motivational teaching strategy. the result signified that the motivational teaching strategy substantially affected the students' comprehension of learning english. the systematic strategies applied by the teacher include showing enthusiasm for teaching and appropriate behavior, establishing a good rapport with the students, and applying various exciting activities. these strategies received positive responses from the students as they seemed immensely enjoy and motivated to learn english. identifying students’ perception toward motivational teaching strategies may help teachers recognize students’ motivation so that the teacher is expected to apply motivational teaching strategies that refer to students’ need as a consideration. therefore, the teacher would be able to adjust the teaching styles, methods, and approaches in the english teaching-learning process (hong & ganapahty, 2017). in a study of motivational strategies adopted by a group of foreign language teachers in hungary, dornyei and csizer (1998) found that teachers would use motivational strategies that they considered acceptable and appropriate to the needs of their students. another point to add, dornyei and ushioda (2011) summarized that the teacher could be expected to apply all strategies if possible. still, the teacher does not need to apply all the strategies if the learning and students’ condition are not supported. therefore, teachers need to choose motivational strategies tailored to students' conditions and interests based on students’ views of motivational teaching strategy. research problem based on the preliminary research conducted, it was reported that most second-grade students in smp darul qur’an aceh besar were motivated to learn english. it is evidenced when the english teaching and learning process took place. the students were actively involved in asking the questions, responding, expressing their opinions, and daring to speak english in and outside the classroom. moreover, students’ enthusiasm for english lessons impacted their test in the end-ofsemester exam (uas) with satisfactory results. according to the teacher, all the students’ test results passed the mmc (minimum mastery criteria) with an average score of 86 with an mmc of 70 (based on darul qur’an aceh besar junior high school). on top of that, out of 22 students, 18 students got 95 in the english final grade. the students conveyed that the teacher elevates their motivation, starting with the teacher’s performance and personality when teaching english inside or outside the classroom. considering the teacher contributed as a motivational factor, the researcher did preliminary observation there, which implicitly showed that english teachers applied motivational teaching strategies to make students eager to learn english in the classroom. it might appoint that teachers' performance through motivational teaching strategies could elevate students’ motivation to learn english. since the motivational teaching strategy has a tremendous impact on students’ motivation in the english teaching-learning process, as explained in several previous research above, the motivational teaching strategy must be adjusted to students’ needs. it is essential to conduct research regarding students’ perception toward motivational teaching strategies to find out motivational strategies needed by students in learning english to assist teachers in being applied in the english teaching-learning process. besides, it is found that the research topic of motivational teaching strategy is never discussed yet in aceh. moreover, most relevant studies in saudi arabia and indonesia (such as sulawesi, surabaya, malang, and west sumatra) focused on university and senior high school students. however, this study attempted to focus on junior high school students, particularly the students of smp darul qur’an aceh besar, to explore the students’ perception toward motivational teaching strategy as the latest research. it was also to enrich new things in the field of this research. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２１９ methodology case study is used as a research method. the data was obtained from a close-ended questionnaire consisting of 35 motivational teaching strategies from students, which adapted from dornyei (2001), and interview guide adapted from kassing (2011). to describe ten crucial motivational teaching strategies, the data was obtained from close-ended questionnaire that 22 second grade students in smp darul qur’an aceh besar considered crucial in the english teaching-learning process. the reliability of the questionnaire was administered through the statistical process in spss. the score of cronbach alpha of the questionnaire is 0.945, so it can be assumed the questionnaire is reliable. in this questionnaire, the students were asked to rank the motivational teaching strategies to very important, important, less important, and not important. the data were analyzed through a quantitative procedure using a manual and simple statistical formula to find the percentage of each statement. the researchers followed wirentake, iragilianti, and parayogo (2017) in analyzing the same case. the researchers calculate the percentage of each item by counting the total respondents who chose each item, then multiplied by 100 and divided by the total respondents. here the formula as follow: % = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 × 100 total students after getting the first result about the ten crucial motivational strategies, the researchers describe in dept the students’ reasons. the researchers got the data from the document of the interview transcript from students. to analyze the data from the interview, the researcher used the descriptive qualitative method through thematic analysis. thematic analysis is one way to analyze data to identify patterns and find themes through data collected by researcher (braun & clarke, 2006). in this case, the interviews were transcribed, coded, and translated. then, the data were thematically analyzed based on themes related to the ten crucial motivational strategies considered by students. result and discussion the crucial motivational teaching strategies considered by students after analyzing the data from the close-ended questionnaire using the formula explained above, the ten crucial motivational teaching strategies students consider. table 1. the percentage of the crucial motivational teaching strategies in teaching english based on students ‘perception motivational teaching strategies percentage (%) very important the teacher never plays favorites in class 100 % the teacher never embarrasses students in front of others when students speak english 91 % http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２０ the teacher supplies students with the interesting english materials like showing the video 86 % the teacher energizes students referring to their failures in learning english 86 % the teacher creates the fun english language learning atmosphere in the classroom 82 % the teacher teaches how to speak english confidently 82 % the teacher always appreciates students’ contribution in learning english by giving feedback 82 % the teacher frequently gives students the guidance about how to understand and master the english language easily 77 % the teacher is enthusiastic to teach the english material 73 % the teacher pushes students’ english confidence by convincing students based on their strengths 73 % table 1 shows the percentage of the ten crucial motivational teaching strategies considered by the students. more detailed information can be found in the explanations below. the first is “the teacher never plays favorites in class” is the most motivational strategy students choose. all students considered this strategy as the very important motivational strategy to motivate them in learning english, so the percentage of this item shot to 100% evidence by this. in the strategy, namely “the teacher never embarrasses students in front of others when students speak english”, 20 of 22 students took this strategy into account, so it indicated that around 91% of students confirmed that this strategy is very important to be applied by teachers to motivate them to learn english. then, strategy "the teacher supplies students with the interesting english materials like showing the video" and strategy 31 "the teacher energizes students referring to their failures in learning english. both strategies got a percentage of 86%, which means from 22 students, 19 students choose the importance of these strategies to motivate them to learn english. in several strategies, include strategy, “the teacher creates the fun english language learning atmosphere in the classroom”, strategy, “the teacher teaches how to speak english confidently”, and the strategy, “the teacher always appreciates students’ contribution in learning english by giving feedback”, the percentage obtained was 82%, which declared that out of 22 students, 18 students emphasized these strategies crucial to be applied by teacher in english teaching and learning process the strategy, “the teacher frequently gives students the guidance about how to understand and master the english language easily”. this strategy obtained a percentage of 77%, which showed 17 of 22 students ascertained that this strategy is important to be implemented by teacher when the english teaching and learning process. in addition, the last two strategies but not least are strategy, namely, “the teacher is enthusiastic to teach the english material” and strategy, namely “the teacher pushes students’ english confidence by convincing students based on their strengths”. these two strategies got a percentage of 73%, which indicated that as many as 16 out of 22 students claim these strategies are very important for teachers to be applied when the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２１ english teaching and learning process takes place. students’ reasons for selecting the strategies as the crucial figuring out the needs of students can be obtained by the teacher's knowledge of students' perceptions of the motivational strategy they consider to be applied by the teacher in teaching english. kassing (2011) highlighted that students' perceptions of this strategy are necessary as a reference for teachers in adjusting strategies to be applied by teachers in classrooms. the teacher never plays favorites in class all students agree this strategy is essential to be applied by their teacher in the classroom. it is said that this strategy is adequate to make them desire to learn english since there is no social comparison in the english teaching-learning process. therefore, the teacher must avoid social comparison, like favoritism, which leads to discrimination. discriminatory teacher attitudes in the learning process are inappropriate behavior, affecting the ineffectiveness of learning. the same research conducted by wirentake, iragiliati, and prayogo (2017) revealed the results of interviews about the social comparison. many students said that they do not like to be compared. it will make them feel embarrassed, uncomfortable, and demotivated to learn english. when viewed by individual students, many students need attention from the teacher. the teacher must be a fair figure for the students to create a peaceful atmosphere in the english teaching-learning process. discriminatory attitudes become hostile, which can reduce their enthusiasm for learning english. the teacher never embarrasses students in front of others when students speak english students highlight this strategy could get them enthusiastic about english teaching and the learning process in the classroom. if the english teacher does not embarrass the students, for instance, when the students mention the wrong pronunciation and speak with incorrect grammar, then the students will be more courageous and actively try to speak in english. in contrast, if the teacher embarrassed them, their speaking anxiety will increase, lower their mentality, and make them traumatized. as a result, the students do not have the desire to try speaking english. often encountered, many teachers underestimate their students when speaking english, which impacts students. the decrease in motivation makes students reluctant to learn english. soedjiwo (2017) said that students feel uncomfortable when they make mistakes in answering the teacher's questions. students are ridiculed or laughed at if they make mistakes in pronouncing and delivering the wrong sentences. it makes students feel inferior and reluctant to participate actively in interactions in learning english. on the other hand, if the teacher is optimistic about the students' efforts, the students will be appreciated to enjoy english. the teacher supplies students with the interesting english materials like showing the video this strategy became a favorite and more popular among students. learning through videos that are in accordance with learning materials, such as movies, really helps increase their motivation to learn english. in addition to creating a class atmosphere that is fun, relaxed, entertaining, not stiff, far from the boredom, and no pressure, this strategy can also make students understand more about the material being taught. astuti’s research (2016) stated that students enjoyed having learning material adjusted by the students’ interests, for example like, videos, movies, films, poems, english songs, and games. furthermore, the students agree this strategy can create various learning material that is understandable and may sharpen their listening and speaking skills due to its vocabulary and daily expression. by using audio-visual learning media, students can immediately see and imitate the pronunciation of english vocabulary or expressions. one example is in teaching speaking. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２２ the teacher presents an english conversation video using a projector and loudspeaker. as a result, teaching and learning english is no longer boring for them, thus students become more motivated to learn english (purnaningsih, 2017). in addition, arsyad (2015) said that the role of audio-visual media such as video movies and films can help students improve pronunciation by repeatedly watching a part of the learning material contained in it. in addition, audio-visual media is the appropriate medium to deliver english material. the process of teaching and learning english will be more effective, interactive, and engaging. teachers become more optimal in conveying the content of the material, and students become easier to understand. they also consider this teaching strategy is more varied and not monotonous, of course, with the help of an explanation from the teacher itself. some students discussed this strategy helps sharpen their listening and speaking skills by directly listening to expressions of daily life and vocabulary from the videos, which will be beneficial for them to practice in their daily lives inside and outside the classroom. interestingly, the results of ariastuti, wahyuddin, and maryadi's research (2014) supported that audiovisual media such as video films or movies increases the interest of smpn 1 klaten students in learning english so that they are active in classroom the teacher energizes students referring to their failures in learning english students claimed that this strategy fosters their enthusiasm for learning english, knowing personal strengths and weaknesses, building students' self-confidence, and remaining optimistic even if they fail. since students experience ups and downs in learning, in a situation that is down because of their failure, a strategy is needed to restore the students’ motivation to learn english. this strategy concerns the teacher always being patient, encouraging the students, and giving constructive feedback like correction. they claimed the teacher must consider telling them the correction directly and face-to-face without being known by other students to avoid a humiliation so that they will not be embarrassed. it is supported by the research of kassing (2011) about motivational teaching strategies based on students' and english teacher perceptions. it is stated that students prefer face-to-face correction outside of school hours rather than directly in front of them. on the other side, the teacher must enlighten the students that failure is common in the learning process. their slowness does not cause their failure in learning english, but because of the lack of students’ effort, so the students are not put down mentally. dornyei (2001) described how teachers can motivate students about their failures by encouraging positive attributions. it means that it is essential for students not to attribute success to their natural abilities, such as being “good at language” or being “gifted”, but rather to the effort someone has put in (bankier & wright, 2012). the teacher creates the fun english language learning atmosphere in the classroom according to the students, this strategy can create closeness between students and teacher. the class atmosphere is not tense, far from pressure, enjoy, and students are more enthusiastic about learning english to create a good atmosphere in the classroom. moreover, this strategy can reduce students’ anxiety in learning english because students can be more active and dare to ask their teacher regarding the teacher’s explanation. conversely, students are reluctant to participate in the english teaching and learning process instead of being enthusiasm. soraya, kurnia and setiawan (2018) research revealed that pleasant lecturers or teachers by providing humor to efl students create a good class atmosphere. it does not cause tension, so students can take part in english learning calmly and relaxed. instead, if the teacher does not bring some humor to the classroom, the atmosphere in the class will be tense and full of pressure, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２３ resulting in a decrease in students' motivation to learn english. riska (2019), in her research, said that some students felt heavy-hearted and did not like taking english lessons due to the teacher. they have experienced prolonged pressure from english language teachers. on the other hand, astuti (2016) described that flexible and funny teachers can create a relaxed learning situation; hence the students feel free to share their ideas and opinions. however, if the teacher excessively delivers the jokes, there would be little in the lesson that they could learn. therefore, english teachers must have the ability to humor but not too over to change the atmosphere of learning that was previously saturated to be more fun. students believe this strategy can build closeness between students and teachers, create a pleasant class atmosphere, and reduce student anxiety in learning english. students are more active in asking and free delivering their ideas to the teacher since no pressure causes fear and distance between teachers and students. as a result, students feel comfortable. therefore, to create a fun learning atmosphere when teaching and learning english takes place, dornyei (2001) explained that teachers should have a sense of humor in teaching english in the classroom. humorous teachers avoid creating distance between students to build intimacy between students and teachers. it will create a comfortable atmosphere. when students learn comfortably, positive motivation in learning english could grow. teachers with a good sense of humor tend to be popular among students. surveys of students have found that a teacher's sense of humor is usually rated as one of the most desirable characteristics of an effective teacher (martin, 2007). the teacher teaches how to speak english confidently emphasizing speaking skills is needed by students. many students agree that this can foster their enthusiasm for learning english. they asserted that english is about how to practice it. so, if the teacher can teach them how to speak english confidently, it will be beneficial for students to implement english as practical use and be more motivated to learn english. in addition, since they are boarding school students, speaking english is a must for them. they believe this strategy can build their enthusiasm in learning it, sharpening their speaking skill and being confident in their speaking ability. hence, to increase their selfconfidence, they need to explore their englishspeaking skills, so the teacher must support and facilitate students to speak english confidently. indeed, this strategy can be applied by teachers by developing learning materials that are oriented towards communicative competence. tomlinson (2011) highlighted that most researchers agreed that students should be allowed to use language for communication rather than practice it inside or outside the english teaching-learning process. using language for communication involves achieving goals in situations where content, strategy, and expression interact. in developing language-learning materials, english teachers must pay attention to aspects that focus on communicative competence (the ability to use language and practice effectively for communication). seeing language is all about its use. the way to apply the language is through communicative interaction. astuti (2016), in her research, highlighted that the opportunity to practice english makes students motivated by having speaking practice in the learning process. so, the teacher should drive students to engage in social interaction during activities that provide students with their experiences using language. in the same study, soraya, kurnia, and setiawan (2018), regarding motivational teaching strategies in university, also showed that speaking practice is one of the learning strategies used by lecturers to raise students' confidence in lectures. building students' self-confidence can be done in several ways, such as using songs, challenging quizzes on grammar, and speaking practice mostly applied http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２４ by lectures. students admire this kind of strategy. besides growing self-confidence, this strategy also avoids student boredom in learning. so, getting students used to using english will make them familiarize themselves with the language itself. the development of teaching materials that suit the needs of students can help students' confidence in learning so that they are motivated. the teacher always appreciates students’ contribution in learning english by giving feedback the students believe this strategy makes them feel appreciated and motivate them. instead of the teacher giving a gift as a form of appreciation, they said they prefer to be given a compliment and positive feedback from the teacher. of course, appreciation is one strategy to motivate students to learn english. teachers should appreciate students' efforts by always complimenting every student’s contributions when the english teaching-learning process occurs. this strategy is certainly an encouragement for students and reduces anxiety in the classroom. alshehri (2012), in his research about motivational strategies by the students’ perception, also highlights that students agree with the teacher appreciating all students’ activities by using words of praise such as 'well done' and 'you are a special group', these can reduce students' anxiety. instead of giving a reward like a gift or something else, students tend to like the teacher's praise as an appreciation. the form of appreciation with expressions or words also makes students optimistic about a lesson. mardiah (2020) said a simple strategy that can maintain the relationship between teachers and students and help increase student motivation is to compliment them in all their participation in the english teaching-learning process. in addition, positive feedback is also needed by students to assist them in correcting their mistakes in the future so that this becomes their stepping stone to progress well in the future. gan (2020) highlighted that english learning motivation influences feedback experience, which can maximize the students’ activeness in the english learning process in the classroom. the teacher frequently gives students the guidance about how to understand and master the english language easily the students considered this a crucial motivational strategy that teachers should apply in the english teaching and learning process. this strategy enlightened them to achieve learning objectives. moreover, they said that giving tips such as how to speak english fluently, understand reading comprehension assignment, and quickly recognize tenses can increase their confidence and motivate them to learn english as the tips can make those easy and understandable. students claimed this strategy energizes students in learning english, changes their english mindset as difficult to learn, and builds students’ confidence. so that this strategy can help change students' perceptions that english is an easy one. it also emphasizes the teacher's efforts in assisting students in creating the belief about english. astuti (2016) said that the role of the teacher can change the students’ belief that english is a difficult subject to learn. the effort can be shown by delivering tips on how to master english easily. if the teacher runs this effort, students will be more motivated to learn. as written on the smp negeri 8 surakarta (2019) website page, which presented the topic of barriers for students to learn english, it is said due to lack of motivation. students assume english difficult subject to learn. therefore, the english teacher's role is in charge of facilitating the students to make english easier by presenting a tip or trick to make learning english easy and understandable. dornyei (2001) said that the effort to create learner confidence in learning english is by raising the learners’ general awareness about different ways english is learned and the number of factors that can contribute to the success. the teacher is enthusiastic to teach the english material the students confirm that this strategy is essential for english teachers to implement during the teaching and learning process. the teacher's image has always been number one in creating a http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２５ conducive atmosphere. the teacher's optimistic disposition can affect the enthusiasm of students' learning. it brings a tremendous interactive effect between teachers and students. they are motivated when the teacher is passionate since the teacher’s positive energy in teaching english can affect the students themselves. if the teacher has a high teaching spirit, the students will also be enthusiastic. research from dornyei (2001) said that teachers' enthusiasm in teaching english is a component that can create successful english teaching that motivates students. alshehri (2012) research on students' perceptions of motivational teaching strategy about teacher enthusiasm revealed that saudi efl students agree that teacher enthusiasm in teaching english can provide positive energy for students. when the teacher shows enthusiasm, students are easily motivated to study. in addition, in the same study, astuti (2016), and soraya, kurnia, and setiawan (2018), in their research stated that most students said that the key factor in motivating learning in their classrooms is the teacher. students report that the teacher determines whether learning is exciting or not according to the teacher's enthusiasm. in line with the statement by ahmadi (2018) that passionate teachers are a source for the development of students' ethics and character, including growing interest and motivation to learn. therefore, teachers should have a personality that can have a positive impact on students, be able to understand students, understand student needs, and be able to foster student learning motivation. the teacher pushes students’ english confidence by convincing students based on their strengths the students believe this strategy can improve the students’ confidence to be persistent in learning. they said if the teacher focuses on student achievement, they feel appreciated. as a result, it will raise their english confidence. bahous and bacha (2011) explained that students' positive experiences and achievements in english can make them motivated to continue learning english. in addition to research from alshehri (2012), students agree that it is essential for teachers to focus on student strengths. teachers monitoring student progress by reflecting on students' current work with previous work is a solid motivating teaching practice. dornyei (2001) also said that every student is motivated differently, either by their achievements or by the student's confidence in learning english. the teacher can use this moment to maintain their confidence. if students are confident, it will automatically boost their motivation to learn english. conclusion from the research results, it can be concluded there are ten crucial motivational teaching strategies selected by the students. according to them, these strategies can motivate them in the english teaching-learning process in the classroom. it shows that students are motivated by the english teacher's behavior who has positive energy and passion. in addition, they also like english teachers who have a sense of humor that can eliminate a tense classroom atmosphere, creating closeness between teacher and students. hence, they are more comfortable and dare to convey their ideas and opinions. as a result, it will make them active when learning english. moreover, they considered interesting learning as a factor that motivated them, starting from interesting learning media according to students’ preferences. besides that, the teacher can create fun learning by providing tips on making learning english easy. it can also change students' perception of english as a difficult lesson into a more accessible and exciting lesson. another point to add is that students choose motivational teaching strategies that can build their selfconfidence in learning english and positive feedback and compliment from english teachers. therefore, this can be reflective teaching for an english teacher in considering strategies students prefer to boost their motivation in the english teaching-learning process. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２６ references ahmadi, r. (2018). profesi keguruan (konsep dan strategi mengembangkan profesi dan karier guru). jogjakarta: ar-ruzz media. alshehri, e. (2012). saudi efl teachers’ and students’perceptions of motivational strategies. lancaster university postgraduate conference in linguistics & language teaching, 7, 26-50. ariastuti, a., wahyuddin, h.m., & maryadi. (2014). peningkatan minat belajar bahasa inggris siswa melalui media audis visual di smp negeri 1 klaten. kajian linguistik sastra 26 (1), 32-41. arsyad, a. (2015). media pembelajaran. jakarta: rajawali press. astuti, s.p. (2016). exploring motivational strategies of successful teachers. teflin journal, 27 (1), 1-22. bahous, r., bacha, n.n. (2011). motivating students in efl classroom: a case study of perspectives. canadian center of science and education, 4 (3), 33-43. bankier, j., & wright, a. (2012). applying dornyei’s motivational strategies. in a. stewart & n. sonda (eds.), jalt2011 conference proceedings. tokyo: jalt. braun, v., clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3 (2), 77-101. cheng, h.f., dornyei, z. (2007). the use of motivational strategies in language instruction: the case of efl teaching in taiwan. innovation in language learning and teaching, 1 (1), 153-174. dornyei, z., & csizer, k. (1998). ten commandments for motivating language learners: results of an empirical study. language teaching research, 2 (3), 203-229. dornyei, z., & ushioda, e. (2011). teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). harlow: pearson education dornyei, z. (2001). motivational strategies in the language classroom. cambridge: cambridge university press. gan, z. (2020). how learning motivation influences feedback experiences and preference in chinese university efl students. frontiers in psychology, 11, 1-14. guilloteaux, m. j. (2013). motivational strategies for the language classroom: perceptions of korean secondary school english teachers. system, 41 (1), 3-14. hong, y.c., ganapathy, m. (2017). to investigate esl students’ instrumental and integrative motivation towards english language learning in a chinese school in penang: case study. canadian center of science and education, 10 (9), 17-35. kassing, r. b. (2011). perceptions of motivational teaching strategies in an efl classroom: the case of a class in a private university in indonesia. (master's thesis). victoria university of wellington, wellington, new zealand. retrieved from http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitst ream/handle/10063/1835/thesis.pdf?sequenc e=2. lamb, m., csizer, k., henry, a., & ryan, s. (2019). the palgrave handbook of motivation for language learning. basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. mardiah, h. (2020). the value of teacher’s effective praise and feedback to adult learners to create positive classroom climate. journal vision, 16 (2), 40-51. martin, r.a. (2007). the psychology of humor: an integrative approach. california: elsevier academic press. ng, c.f., ng, p.k. (2015). a review of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of esl learners. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/1835/thesis.pdf?sequence=2 http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/1835/thesis.pdf?sequence=2 http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/1835/thesis.pdf?sequence=2 language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２２７ international journal of languages, literature and linguistic,1 (2), 98 – 105. purnaningsih, p. (2017). strategi pemanfaatan media audio visual untuk peningkatan hasil belajar bahasa inggris. jurnal informatika universitas pamulang, 2 (1), 34-41. riska, d. (2019). pengaruh kepribadian guru terhadap motivasi belajar siswa kelas iv di sd negeri blimbing 1 malang. seminar nasional pgsd unikama, 3, 373-380. smp negeri 8 surakarta. (2019, august 13). hambatan pengajaran bahasa inggris, bagaimana cara mengatasi nya?. https://smpn8solo.sch.id/hambatanpengajaran-bahasa-inggris-bagaimanamengatasinya/. soedjiwo, n.a.f. (2017). peran pendidik dalam meningkatkan motivasi belajar bahasa inggris siswa sekolah menengah pertama. journal stai denpasar. https://journal.staidenpasar.ac.id/index.php/ wb/article/download/69/59/. sugita, m., takeuchi, o. (2010). what can teachers do to motivate their students? a classroom research on motivational strategy use in the japanese efl context. 4 (1), 21-35. sugiyono (2016). metode penelitian kombinasi (mixed methods). bandung: alfabeta. soraya, i., kurnia, f.d., & setiawan, s. (2018). teacher’s motivational strategies used in indonesian efl islamic university students. international conference on english language teaching, 145, 286-290. tomlinson, b. (2011). materials development in language teaching (2nd ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press. williams, m., burden, r. (1997). psychology for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press. wirentake., iragiliati, e., & prayogo, j.a. (2017). students’ perception of motivational teaching strategies in english as foreign language (efl) classroom. jurnal tambora, 2 (1), 1-11. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://smpn8solo.sch.id/hambatan-pengajaran-bahasa-inggris-bagaimana-mengatasinya/ https://smpn8solo.sch.id/hambatan-pengajaran-bahasa-inggris-bagaimana-mengatasinya/ https://smpn8solo.sch.id/hambatan-pengajaran-bahasa-inggris-bagaimana-mengatasinya/ https://journal.staidenpasar.ac.id/index.php/wb/article/download/69/59/ https://journal.staidenpasar.ac.id/index.php/wb/article/download/69/59/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 23 improving the students’ speaking practice in describing people by using contextualized card game indah muslichatun semarang state university abstract students often had problems to describe someone in english. the basic problem is the lack of practice. the students needed sufficient, fun and easy practice which would make them enthusiastic to do it. therefore, i proposed the use of contextualized card game to improve the students’ speaking practice in describing people. i used classroom-action research to investigate how the use of contextualized card game can improve the students’ speaking practice in describing people. by implementing the game, the frequency of the students to describe people increased in cycle 2, ranging from 6.3 % up to 87.5 % compared to one in cycle 1. the students felt fun, enthusiastic, and confident as they were practicing speaking in groups while playing game and the object of description was within their knowledge. besides, they described people better than before because in playing the game they learned from their friends and the teacher had facilitated them with sufficient and step-by step exercises. further, the average score of the test improved from 74 in pre-cycle to 79 in cycle 1 and 83 in cycle 2. thus, the use of contextualized card game can improve the students’ speaking practice. key words: contextualized card game; describing people; speaking practice introduction speaking skill is one of the productive skills of language learning. it is very important to pay attention to the attainment of this skill as by speaking people can communicate with other people orally. kayi (2006:3) states that the ability to communicate in second language clearly and efficiently contributes to the success of the learner in school and success later in every phase of life. burkart (1998:1) states that many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language. they regard speaking as the most important skill they can achieve, and they assess their progress in terms of their ability in spoken communication. besides, picollo (2010) says that although all four skills are equally important, it is easy to understand that people say that those who know english are referred to as "speakers" of english. many language students continue to consider speaking ability as one of their main goals of study, either because they would get some personal satisfactions from being able to speak a second language or because they think it would be useful in pursuing other interests or career goals (omaggio, 1986:175) consequently, teaching speaking is worth to have good attention from english 24 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 teachers. teaching speaking is not teaching the rules of language, but teaching how to communicate in the target language. it is in concordance with what stated by harmer (1998:32) that people learn language not so that they ‘know’ them, but so that they can communicate. offner (1997:1) also stated that the initial goal of learning language is to communicate. one of the speaking competences required by senior high school curriculum for grade x semester 2 is the competence of describing people (depdiknas 2006). the students must be able to describe someone accurately and fluently in english as they often have to do it in their daily life. in class x-7 of sman 1 pekalongan, students were difficult to describe someone naturally without memorizing it first. if they were asked to describe someone with the topic they had known and they had long time to prepare it, they could do it well because they just memorized something they had written first. however, if they had to do it naturally, they described someone with a lot of mistakes here and there dealing with pronunciation, tenses and vocabulary. these problems arose as the students are lack of good practice. many of my students are reluctant to practice speaking with their friends outside the class. some of them do not want to practice speaking outside the class because they are not confident due to their incapability of speaking english; some others because they feel ashamed and afraid of being told arrogant by their friends, and the other students question why they should do that while it is not their urgent need to be able to speak english fluently. due to the fact, the teacher should maximize the speaking class as the media for the students to have good practice of speaking. to provide good speaking class, teachers should use communicative language teaching. kayi (2006:1) states that communicative language teaching is based on real-life situations that require communication. esl teachers should create a classroom environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language. this can occur when students collaborate in groups to achieve a goal or to complete a task. by using this method in esl classes, students will have the opportunity of communicating with each other in the target language. however, many of english teachers sometimes do not pay adequate interest to teach speaking. they simplify teaching speaking by giving drills and memorization, as stated by kayi as follows: despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and english language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogue (kayi, 2006:1). language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 25 this phenomenon makes the english class boring. the students do not really learn how to use english. instead, they just do repetition of drill or memorizing dialogs. another problem is when teachers present a speaking class, they do not give enough exposure to the students to practice speaking. after they have one or two examples from reading or listening text, the students are directly asked to have speaking test. this jumping process is unfair for the students. actually the students have known the basic rules of english, but because they are lack of practice, they cannot speak well. speaking english is a skill and because of that, students have to practice it frequently to master it; not merely know the rules and formulas of producing utterances. in addition, the speaking activity is often carried out in tense atmosphere. according to snell (1999:2), a tense classroom climate can undermine learning and discourage learners. besides, the students often have problems on the idea as the topic of speaking is far from their understanding. teachers should contextualize the topic of speaking to make the students feel easy to do the speaking practice. contextual teaching and learning should get good attention from teachers. sear (2002) states that contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is a concept that helps teachers relate school learning to realworld situations. the general problems above also occurred in class x-7 sma 1 pekalongan. in the classroom activity which facilitated my students to practice speaking, especially in describing people, not all of the students were active to speak in english. some of the students were busy to chat in their native language. they just spoke in english very little. this was so because the speaking class was not interesting for the students. it was a boring class because the activity was not fun for the students. besides, the students felt that the teacher did not give them enough help to do the task. in addition, the topic of the speaking task was far from the students’ knowledge. they felt that they did not know well about what they had to speak. this condition made them not ready when they had to speak in english naturally either in test or in their daily life. the lack of practice and the poor practice are the crucial problems which made some of the students poor in speaking english, especially in describing someone. thornburry (2005:28) states that shortage of opportunities given to the students for practice speaking is identified as an important contributing factor to speaking failure. that’s why it is urgently needed to find the solution of the problems. harmer suggests that the important thing in teaching speaking is that there should be a task to complete and the students should want to complete it (harmer 1998:87). moreover, if it is presented in fun situation, it will not make the students get stressed with the 26 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 speaking task and instead it will make the students love to speak. fun atmosphere of language learning can be obtained through games. chirandon (2010:2) claims that using games is one effective alternative treatment which encourages the active learning atmosphere and stimulates students’ interest in learning english. when people learn something in fun situation with great willingness to learn, they will get the maximal result of learning. it is in line with what is proposed by krashen as stated by brown (2000:279) about second language acquisition. krashen claims that the best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low and defensiveness absent, or, in krashen’s terms, in contexts where the “affective filter” is low. one of the games teachers can apply is card game. beare (2012) suggested the teachers to use cue cards first to boost the production skill of the students to ease them with what they have to speak. by having the guidance, the students will not be confused about the ideas they have to put forward. considering that teaching speaking, in this case teaching to describe someone, is worth attended with fun and effective activities, i tried to conduct a classroom action research to improve the students’ speaking practice in describing someone by using contextualized card game. the game is a guessing game in which the students have to describe someone they know well, and the others have to guess who has been described. in the contextualized card game which i planned, something written on the cards were the names of someone and the students were asked to speak based on what is written on the cards. they had to describe someone whose name was stated on the cards while the others had to guess who the person was. usually, the students are happy to learn english through guessing games because they are challenged to tell about something and to guess what it is. the game can reduce tension if it is done in groups. when students practice their english in groups, they learn together how to express their ideas in english. if one of them makes mistakes in using the language, other students can correct him/her. by this, the students also learn to socialize and help one to another. research methods the study which i carried out is a classroom action research. burns (2010:2) says that the central idea of the action part of classroom action research is to intervene in a deliberate way in the problematic situation in order to bring about changes and, even better, improvements in practice. mettettal (2002) claims that car will help teachers discover what works best in their own classroom situations. in conducting the research, first i did preliminary observation. based on the reflection of the preliminary observation, i did the research in cycle 1. i went through the steps of planning, action, observation, and reflection. as the result in cycle 1 was language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 27 not satisfactory, i continued the research in cycle 2 by repeating the steps of planning, action, observation, and reflection. this research was conducted in sman 1 pekalongan in class x-7. i chose this class because there was the most number of passive students of all classes of grade x in class x-7. besides, the average score for speaking class in the last semester was the lowest among other classes. further, there are some students who are lowmotivated in learning english. i indeed wanted to know whether the contextualized card game could improve the students’ speaking practice in such a challenging class. the data of the research were taken from the observation sheet, questionnaire, interview record, and test scores. they were used in cycle 1 and cycle 2. the unit of analysis of this study is the students’ activities to practice speaking. in the speaking test in which the writer wanted to know the influence of speaking practice to the students’ performance, the unit of analysis is the clauses and i focused on students’ pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and fluency. from the observation sheets, i made tabulation on how many students who were active and passive in the teaching and learning process; how many times the students described people and asked questions; and how many times the students made mistakes in describing people. i also made qualitative analysis from the observation sheets. from the questionnaire and interview, i did qualitative analysis on the responses of the students to the use of the contextualized card game to improve the students’ speaking practice. from the test, i compared the score average of the students in pre-cycle, cycle 1 and cycle 2. results and discussion the improvement of the quality of teaching and learning, in this case the quality of presenting speaking practice to describe people by using contextualized card game can be seen from the students’ responses toward the method which was revealed in their responses on the questionnaires. from the questionnaire we can also infer the students’ attitude in doing the practice. the changes of the number of the students giving their responses under the different heading in the questionnaire can be described as follows. 1) the number of the students who strongly agreed that they liked the use of contextualized card game increased in cycle 2 compared to one in cycle 1. 2) they number of the students who liked the method increased. they liked the game because there was game in the method and the people they described were ones they knew. some of them said that the topic of description in cycle 2 was more challenging as they could not guess easily. 3) the number of the students who felt enthusiastic to practice speaking increases in every cycle. on the other 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 way around, the number of the students who felt nervous and depressed to practice speaking was getting lesser in each cycle. 4) in cycle 2, more students felt that they got more chance to practice describing people compared to in cycle 1 and precycle. 5) in cycle 2, compared to in cycle 1 and pre-cycle, more students stated that the teacher gave sufficient and stepby-step exercises to practice speaking, and helped the students to practice describing people. 6) in the second cycle, more students got help from their friends in practicing describing people. 7) after following the class, from cycle 1 to cycle 2, more students felt better in describing people in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, structure, and fluency. so, the use of contextualized card game to practice describing people presented the good quality of teaching and learning process as due to its good things, it enabled the students to feel fun and better in describing people. the next is the table showing the increase of the students’ chance of producing speech dealing with describing people. table 1. the frequency of the students to produce speech in the practice activity in cycle 1 and cycle 2. no. name cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 1 cycle 2 the increase d a d a tf tf tp 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. aia akf ar aa ak asf bas ban daw hra iin jlr kah mdy 2 2 3 3 3 4 2 7 5 2 3 5 3 2 5 5 5 1 1 2 3 3 5 5 2 4 0 1 10 4 4 9 8 5 9 7 5 6 6 7 10 8 6 8 7 7 10 8 8 7 6 9 8 6 8 8 7 7 8 4 4 6 5 10 10 7 5 9 3 3 16 12 11 16 18 13 17 14 11 15 14 13 18 16 56.3 41.7 27.3 75.0 77.8 53.8 70.6 28.6 9.1 53.3 64.3 30.8 83.3 81.3 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 29 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. mhs mwr mci mas mma mf nfj qaf rmn r 4 2 5 2 2 5 4 3 3 7 11 3 6 5 0 5 10 1 0 3 5 5 5 10 8 6 8 5 10 8 11 7 7 6 8 8 7 9 4 6 15 5 11 7 2 10 14 4 3 10 16 12 12 16 16 14 15 14 14 14 6.3 58.3 8.3 56.3 87.5 28.6 6.7 71.4 78.6 28.6 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. saf snk sra ssp vnv zhw 4 2 7 4 4 4 2 3 4 10 10 2 4 9 5 10 10 8 8 10 8 5 8 6 6 5 11 14 14 6 12 19 13 15 18 14 50.0 73.7 15.4 6.7 22.2 57.1 d=describing a=asking questions tf=total frequency tp =the percentage (%) in cycle 2, the frequency of the students to produce speech either to describe someone or ask questions increase sharply ranging from 6.3% until 87.5 % because of the modified rules of the game. in cycle 1, the students sat down in a group of 4, while in cycle 2, they sat in a group of 3. in cycle 1, they described someone, one by one by turn by taking the clue card in the middle, but in cycle 2, in 10 minutes, a student described as many people as possible while another student asked questions and guessed, and the other student recorded the score, the mistake his/her friend made in describing people and corrected the mistakes, and recorded how many times his/her friend asked questions. besides, the information about the person was written in the card, not separated like in cycle 1. those things saved the students’ times and enabled them to practice describing people more often than in cycle 1. the frequency of speaking of a few of the students did not increase much as they had already spoken in high frequency in cycle 1. the next finding is the decrease of the students’ mistake in describing people in the practice activity. the following data is the number of mistakes made by the students in every cycle. the data is obtained by listing the number of the students’ mistake. the recording was done by the student in each group. 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 table 2. the number of the students’ mistakes in describing people in the practice activity in cycle 1 and cycle 2. no. name cycle 1 cycle 2 the decrease the percentage (%) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. aia akf ar aa ak asf bas ban daw hra iin jlr kah mdy mhs mwr mci mas mma mf nfj qaf rmn r saf snk sra ssp vnv zhw 10 6 8 8 5 10 6 7 4 5 8 7 9 7 9 6 8 6 6 8 8 7 5 6 8 6 6 5 6 4 8 4 4 6 4 6 5 5 3 4 6 6 7 5 5 5 4 6 4 5 6 4 4 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 2 2 4 2 1 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 4 1 4 0 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 0 2 0 0 0 20 33.3 50.0 25.0 20.0 40.0 16.7 28.6 25.0 20.0 25.0 14.3 22.2 28.6 44.4 16.7 50.0 0.0 33.3 37.5 25.0 42.9 20.0 33.3 37.5 0.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 the data clearly show us that the number of the students’ mistakes decreases in cycle 2 compared to one in cycle 1 ranging from14.3 % until 50 %. some of the students still had the same number of mistake, but the number of the language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 31 correct utterances was more than one in cycle 1 as they produced speech more in cycle 2. it reflected that in the practice activity, especially in cycle 2, the students were getting better in describing people. they learned from their mistakes in cycle 1 and tried to improve their speech quality. the next finding is about the students’ score on their performance to describe someone. the following is the comparison of their scores among cycles. table 3. the comparison of the students’ scores on describing someone among cycles. no. name pronunciation vocabulary structure fluency score p 1 2 p 1 2 p 1 2 p 1 2 p 1 2 1 aia 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 60 65 75 2 akf 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 85 90 95 3 ar 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 70 75 80 4 aa 4 5 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 70 80 80 5 ak 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 85 90 95 6 asf 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 60 70 70 7 bas 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 75 75 80 8 ban 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 85 85 90 9 daw 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 90 90 95 10 hra 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 85 90 95 11 iin 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 65 75 75 12 jlr 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 75 80 80 13 kah 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 65 75 80 14 mdy 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 70 75 80 15 mhs 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 70 80 85 16 mwr 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 5 70 75 85 17 mci 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 2 3 3 55 70 75 18 mas 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 70 75 80 19 mma 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 75 80 80 20 mf 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 80 80 85 21 nfj 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 65 70 75 22 qaf 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 70 75 80 23 rmn 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 4 5 5 5 85 85 90 24 r 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 80 80 90 25 saf 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 75 75 80 26 snk 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 70 75 80 32 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 27 sra 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 75 75 80 28 ssp 4 4 5 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 5 75 85 90 29 vnv 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 75 80 80 30 zhw 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 85 85 90 means 3.9 4.0 4.2 3.7 4.0 4.1 3.5 3.6 4.0 3.7 4.1 4.3 74 79 83 p= pre-cycle 1=cycle 1 2 =cycle 2 the data show us that the students’ performance in describing people improved although the improvement was not very significant. this was so because the object of description was different from one cycle to another. in the first cycle, take for example the student was wrong in pronouncing the word ‘busy’, in the next cycle he/she was wrong in pronouncing the word ‘stubborn’, etc. so, there were always mistakes made by the students so it was difficult for them to get 5 in pronunciation. the same case was in vocabulary. only a few students dared to use broad vocabulary by describing someone beyond the guidance. however, most of the students used appropriate words throughout the monologue text. in structure, the students always forgot to say he likes… she lives., instead they said he like…; she live…., etc. the trivial errors said by the students made them hard to get 5. for fluency, the students’ score between cycle 1 and cycle 2 were relatively the same as they had to describe different person. overall, there was improvement on the students’ scores on their speaking assessment. conclusion the problems faced by the students in describing people are in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and structure. the problems faced by the students are actually rooted from the lack of practice. it includes the lack of the frequency of practice and the lack of good-quality practice. to cope with that basic problem, i implemented contextualized cardgame to improve the students’ speaking practice in describing people. i made the students sit down in a group of four and three to play guessing game using clue cards. i gave them a pile of cards on which written the names of their classmates, teachers and famous people. then by turn, they took the card one by one and describe someone whose name written on the card without mentioning the name. the other students had to guess who the person is. the use of contextualized card game can improve the students’ speaking practice. the frequency of the students to describe people and asked questions increased in cycle 2, ranging from 6.3 % up to 87.5 % compared to one in cycle 1. in doing the practice, the students felt fun and enthusiastic as they were practicing language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 33 speaking while playing game and the object of description was within their knowledge and understanding. further, the students, especially the students with low achievement, felt more confident in doing the practice as they did it in group activity. besides, in cycle 2 the students described people better than before because in playing the game they learned from their friends in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and structure; and because the teacher had facilitated them with sufficient and step-by step exercises. as the result of the improved speaking practice, the average score of the speaking test improved from 74 in pre-cycle to 79 in cycle 1 and 83 in cycle 2. references beare, k. 2012. teaching conversational skills tips and strategies. retrieved from http://esl.about.com on 1 january 2013 brown, h.d. 2000. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: pearson education. burkart, g.s, ed. 1998. spoken language: what is it and how to teach it. modules for the professional preparation of teaching assistants in foreign languages. washington, dc: centre for applied linguistics. retrieved from http://www.nclrc.org/ essentials/speaking/spindex.html on 15 september 2012. burns, a .2010. doing action research in english language teaching . new york: routledge depdiknas. 2006. kurikulum 2006 standar isi mata pelajaran bahasa inggris sekolah menengah atas . jakarta harmer, j. 1998. how to teach english. harlow: pearson education limited kayi, h. 2006. teaching speaking: activities to promote speaking in a second language. university of nevada (nevada,usa). the internet tesl journal,vol. xii, no. 11, november 2006. retrieved from http://iteslj.org/techniques/kayi teaching speaking.html on 24 january 2013. mettettal, g. 2002. improving teaching through classroom action research. essays on teaching excellence. toward the best in the academy vol. 14, no. 7, 2002-2003. retrieved from: http://academic.udayton.edu/facdev/n ewsletters/essaysfor teachingexcellence/podvol14/tevol14 n7.html on 24 january 2013. offner, m.d. 1997. teaching english conversation in japan: teaching how to learn. the internet tesl journal, vol.iii, no.3, march 1997. retrieved from http://iteslj.org/articles/offnerhowtolearn.html on 2 january 2013. omaggio, a.c. 1986. teaching language in context. boston: heinle &heinle publishers, inc http://esl.about.com/ http://www.nclrc.org/%20essentials/speaking/spindex.html http://www.nclrc.org/%20essentials/speaking/spindex.html http://iteslj.org/techniques/kayi%20teaching%20speaking.html http://iteslj.org/techniques/kayi%20teaching%20speaking.html http://academic.udayton.edu/facdev/newsletters/essaysfor%20teachingexcellence/podvol14/tevol14n7.html%20on%2024%20january%202013 http://academic.udayton.edu/facdev/newsletters/essaysfor%20teachingexcellence/podvol14/tevol14n7.html%20on%2024%20january%202013 http://academic.udayton.edu/facdev/newsletters/essaysfor%20teachingexcellence/podvol14/tevol14n7.html%20on%2024%20january%202013 http://academic.udayton.edu/facdev/newsletters/essaysfor%20teachingexcellence/podvol14/tevol14n7.html%20on%2024%20january%202013 http://iteslj.org/articles/offner-howtolearn.html%20on%202%20january%202013 http://iteslj.org/articles/offner-howtolearn.html%20on%202%20january%202013 34 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 picollo, l. 2010. teaching speaking to english second language students. retrieved from http://suite101.com/ article on 1 january 2013. sears. s.. 2002. contextual teaching and learning: a primer for effective instruction. indiana: phi delta kappa educational foundation. snell, j. 1999. improving teacher-student interaction in the efl classroom: an action research report. the internet tesl journal, vol. v, no. 4, april 1999. retrieved from http:/iteslj.org/ articles-snell interaction.html on 1 january 2013. thornburry, s. 2005. how to teach speaking. new york: pearson education limited. http://suite101.com/%20article%20on%201%20january%202013 http://suite101.com/%20article%20on%201%20january%202013 language circle: journal of language and literature xi/2 (april 2017) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 173 textbooks analysis: analyzing english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks from the perspective of indonesian culture devy angga gunantar semarang university, indonesia e-mail: angga.gunantar@gmail.com received: 20 march 2016. revised: 28 march 2017. accepted: 31 march 2017 abstract textbooks are very important parts in teaching and learning process. both teachers and students, mostly, use them as the basic foundations of courses in the classrooms. textbooks may not be able to fulfill all the needs of the teaching and learning process but their existence as teaching sources is still paramount. they become one of effective sources of learning used in teaching and learning process and as reflection of values and ideas of a person or nation. the aspect of culture can be supported by systematic and comprehensive textbooks. this research paper analyzes some textbooks used in one of junior high schools in indonesia. the way the writer analyzed the textbooks was based on cultural perspective. this is mainly because, in learning english, indonesian students should focus more on talking and discussing indonesian culture in english rather than the english speaking countries’ culture. to analyze and examine the cultural contents in the english textbooks, the writer followed the standards set by bryam. byram’s criterion is considered sufficient and comprehensive. this set of checklist is driven from the idea of cultural learning and teaching as an integral part of language education. the result shows that the textbooks being analyzed covered local or indonesian culture. this findings accentuate the needs of revisiting english teaching materials to contribute to the improvement of english textbooks in indonesia. keywords: textbooks, analysis, indonesian culture. how to cite: devy angga gunantar. 2017. textbooks analysis: analyzing english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks from the perspective of indonesian culture. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. introduction textbooks are essential parts in learning for students and even teachers. in the teaching and learning process, textbooks are considered to be the basic foundations of courses. textbooks may not contain all aspect needed in the teaching and learning process but their existence as teaching sources is still paramount. they acted as effective instruments used in teaching and learning process and as reflection of values and ideas of a person or nation (hinkel, 2005). the aspect of culture can be supported by systematic and comprehensive textbooks. more specifically, byram has formulated the checklist of the ideal cultural content in a textbook. this set of checklist is driven from the idea of cultural learning and teaching as an integral part of language education. byram (1993) examined the cultural content in textbooks that should be included properly on eight areas as shown in the following list: 1) social identity and social group (social class, regional identity, ethnic minorities) 2) social interaction (differing levels of formality; as outsider and insider) http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:angga.gunantar@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 174 3) belief and behavior (moral, religious beliefs; daily routines) 4) social and political institutions (state institutions, health care, law and order, social security, local government) 5) socialization and the life cycle (families, schools, employment, rites of passage) 6) national history (historical and contemporary events seen as markers of national identity) 7) national geography (geographical factors seen as being significant by members) 8) stereotypes and national identity (what is “typical” symbol of national stereotypes) (byram, 1993, p5-10) the standard set by bryam is considered to be more comprehensive and also practical. it accommodated most all elements of culture from the moral to material aspects. therefore, the writer decided to select byram checklist as the basic theory in collecting, analyzing and evaluating the data of the cultural content in the textbook. due to the goal to promote cultural value in efl education, textbooks should be designed with a detailed explanation. the importance of textbooks is varied but generally it facilitates the process of teaching and learning in second language countries. cortazzi and jin (1999) in mckay (2002) stated that textbooks, as a part of teaching and learning “can be a teacher, a map, a resource, a trainer, an authority, a de-skiller and an ideology.” therefore, it can act as major sources for both cultural knowledge and linguistic and thematic materials which portrays the existed ideology of esl countries. textbooks in every part of the world possess various cultural orientations; whether it is based on cultural source, target culture, or international target. the source culture means that the textbook is based on learner culture while the target culture textbook reflects the target language used as first language. the international target culture was driven from numerous cultures from english, or nonenglish-speaking countries which view english as an international language (cortazzi and jin, 1999 in mckay 2002). norrizan (1993 in mckay, 2002) studied the impact of various cultural elements in esl texts introduced during esl lessons in two different schools in malaysia with two different student groups. by contrasting the schools based on the economic background, she selected the samples of a school in community a with middle or upper middle class students and community b which was an urban village with low income families. she applied the research with cultural uni matrix by including common topical items such as types of houses, overseas studies, satay, business loans, travels, air travels and local festivals among others. the selection of these items is based on a survey of six form four esl textbooks used by the teachers of the school sample. data collection such as interviews and classroom observations aimed to assess whether the student is familiar with the provided topical items. the result showed that student from middle or upper middle class families are familiar with most of topical items compared to the community b. she concluded that the textbooks were representative for both middle-class values and lifestyles. thus, effective interactions were accomplished by students in community a. in an opposite, in community b, the students are less interested and tend to neglect the lessons. she suggested the teachers to choose more appropriate topics which is in line with the culture of the students. the study concluded that familiar devy angga gunantar. 2017. textbooks analysis: analyzing english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks from the perspective of indonesian culture. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 175 items can support the learning and teaching of second language. regardless the unclear influence of western culture on english learning and teaching, shimako (2000) in her view published in mckay (2002) argued that most of japanese textbook contained western value and character even though the local culture is more paramount. the way of foreign culture is expressed by setting story of a western tourist who is introduced to local culture. mostly, western culture is portrayed in american context. in korea, the teaching and learning of english as a foreign language (efl) covered all aspects of social life; lifestyle, behavior, ideas, and the custom system of the target culture. the students are deliberately shaped to understand the element of culture but expected to master the linguistic aspects as well. it is concluded that in the secondary level, most selected topics are referred to local culture such as cuisine, vacations, gesture, weather, traditions and trip to english speaking countries. the main essence of culture is ‘culture as the way of life’ which covers sociological aspect of culture. other aspects like the beauty of culture, culture as the way of thinking and behavior are less explored. in chile, the cultural contents focused on the concept of sense of belonging. the ministry of education has set a concept of textbooks for public school in chile called ‘go for chile” mugglestone, elsworth, and rose 1999, 2000 in mckay, 2002). this principle is made to reach the education purposes set by the government. the books itself, discuss about the places in chile and numerous local cultures. the characters in the books are selected from many nationalities and backgrounds but the western value such as career women is also depicted in the storyline. adaskou, britten, and fahsi (1990) in mckay (2002) in their study about teaching material in morocco mentioned that there is no tangible advantage gained by including western culture in secondary schools. it is believed that by putting western value, the learners will more likely compare their local culture with western value which later may trigger dissatisfaction. furthermore, teachers assumed that the motivation to learn english will be higher if the context used is student’s daily life rather than based on the culture of english speaking countries. they also stated that cultural element in english teaching can increase the understanding of english as international language, appreciate the local culture, accommodate the learners to travel internationally and contact others as well as motivate the learners. in short, the textbooks in the mentioned countries used western cultures to identify the difference between local and western culture. the books also included some issues like gender roles and this have been agreed by the local ministry of education. based on these studies, the writer intends to explore the cultural dimensions and portray the cultural value in english language textbooks in one of schools in indonesia. methodology the type of research is descriptive-qualitative and simple quantitative. rather than measuring the quantity of case, this study measures the quality aspect of a case. that is why it is called as a qualitative study. this point focuses on whether the culture being discussed in the textbooks are more local or indonesian culture of western culture. this means that the current study focuses more on data explanation instead of presenting language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 176 statistical result. this study also used simple quantitative which means that this study concerns more on qualitative data but also analyze simple quantitative data and then explain the results. in terms of descriptive aspect, the study mainly described the phenomena based on the observation. the explanation dealt with social, cultural, and linguistic phenomena. it is called as an explanatory discussion, because the reasons within the discussion are well explained. the data of this research were taken from some textbooks. the english textbooks were analyzed by the writer as the sources of data. the selected english textbooks were published by department of national education. they were as the following. 1) wardiman. a. et al. (2008). english in focus (for grade vii junior high school smp/mts. jakarta: pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional. 2) priyana. j. et al. (2008). scaffolding (english for junior high school students grade viii. jakarta: pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional. 3) susilohadi. g. et al. (2008). contextual teaching and learning bahasa inggris, smp/mts kelas ix edisi 4. jakarta: pusat perbukuan departemen pendidikan nasional. results and discussion the data from textbooks materials were compiled by analyzing the selected three english textbooks for junior high school in published by pusat perbukuan departemen penddikan nasional tahun 2008. to analyze and examine the cultural contents in english textbooks, the writer followed the standard set by bryam. byram’s criterion is considered sufficient and comprehensive. byram (1993) stated that cultural contents should covers eight main areas as shown in the following list: “criteria for english textbooks evaluation (focus on cultural content) are as follows”: 1) social identity and social group (social class, regional identity, ethnic minorities); 2) social interaction (differing levels of formality; as outsider and insider); 3) belief and behavior (moral, religious beliefs, daily routines); 4) social and political institutions (state institutions, health care, law and order, social security, local government); 5) socialization and the life cycle (families, schools, employment, rites of passages); 6) national history (historical and contemporary events seen as markers of national identity); 7) national geography (geographical factors seen as being significant by members); 8) stereotypes and national identity (what is ‘typical’ symbol of national stereotypes) (byram, 1993, p5-10). in the present study, the discussion concerns around the issue of cultural contents in the english text books used by one of indonesian junior high schools. the analysis of cultural contents of english textbooks conducted by screening the english module used in english teaching i.e. english textbooks for junior high school which is published by department of national education. the principle used to collect, analyze and examine the cultural contents in english textbooks is based on byram’s checklist criterion. this standard is considered more comprehensive and efficient. moreover, all elements of culture like spiritual and material aspects are well accommodated in byram’s devy angga gunantar. 2017. textbooks analysis: analyzing english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks from the perspective of indonesian culture. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 177 criteria. the following list shows the criteria of textbooks specified on cultural contents. table 1 the analysis of english text book (english in focus for grade vii junior high school) no byram’s criteria details position number percentage 1. social identity and social group what is your name? what should i buy? what do you do? my hobby page 1 page 57 page 101 page 139 4 33,33% 2. social interaction greeting and introducing asking and giving information describing people asking and responding clarification expression page 8 page 27 page 107 page 143 4 33,33% 3. belief and behavior work out page 123 1 7,69% 4. social and political institutions 5. socialization and life phrase let’s go to school family life page 39 page 83 2 16,67% 6. national history 7. national geography things around us page 19 1 7,69% 8. stereo types and national identity total 12 100% the criteria of english books set by byram and named english in focus for grade vii junior high school also explain about the indonesian cultures in several pages included page 1, 57, 101, and 139. the main focus of the discussion is the personal identification which takes about 33.33% of overall discussion. other aspects such as social life, belief and behavior are also discussed. the social life which achieve 33,33 % is presented through greeting, introducing, asking and giving information and describing people. while the point of belief and behavior are only explained in 7,69% of total discussion. the writer found no issue about social and politic within the discussion. however, the textbooks include social interaction and moment in life or life phase such as family, going to school or school life. this kind of themes spent around 16,67% of discussion. even though national history topic, national identity and social stereotype are not covered in the textbooks, the issue of national geography is discussed in 7.69%. such topic mostly describe about things around daily life. language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 178 table 2 the analysis of english text book (scaffolding, english for junior high school students grade viii) no byram’s criteria details position number percentage 1. social identity and social group describing things and animals my gorgeous idol my unforgettable holiday my first experience once upon a time a friend in need is a friend indeed page 1 page 21 page 61 page 79 page 141 page 161 6 46,15% 2. social interaction asking for, giving and refusing goods and services agreeing and disagreeing something asking for and giving opinions starting, extending and ending a conversation on the telephone page 1-20 page 41-60 page 62-79 page 103 4 30,77% 3. belief and behavior life performances page 103 1 7,69% 4. social and political institutions celebration around the world page 123 1 7,69% 5. socialization and life phrase 6. national history 7. national geography wonderful places page 41 1 7,69% 8. stereo types and national identity total 13 100% the byram’s criterion/standard in other book called scaffolding english for junior high school students grade viii, also discussed indonesian culture in the pages of 1, 21, 61, 79, 141, and 161. the discussion mostly explore about description of stuff, this topic is explained in 46.15 % of total discussion. the topic about social interaction is also included, it can be seen in several conversations such as asking for something, asking and giving opinions, offering and refusing goods and services, agreeing and disagreeing, etc. these kinds of discussion are allocated in 30.77%. the other theme like belief and behavior is presented in around 7.69% in the textbook. with the same percentage as belief and behavior, the social and political issue took 7.69% of overall discussion. the example of this issue is celebration in many parts of the world. in devy angga gunantar. 2017. textbooks analysis: analyzing english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks from the perspective of indonesian culture. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 179 other hand, the issue of socialization or social life and moments of life are not included in this textbook. national historical issue are still not discussed yet in the textbook, but for about 6.69% of total discussion talks about national geographical theme. mainly, that topic is presented through discussing wonderful places. meanwhile, stereotypical issue and national identity are not discussed. table 3. the analysis of english text book (contextual teaching and learning, bahasa inggris, junior high school grade ix) no byram’s criteria details position number percentage 1. social identity and social group are you sure? how do you do it? what a pity? what are they? really? what is it like? could you? long long time ago, there was page 1 page 24 page 41 page 55 page 71 page 90 page 107 page 121 8 72.73% 2. social interaction expressing and responding to doubt, asking for repetition, showing concern, showing surprise or wonder. expressing and responding to bad news. responding to good news and expressing opinions page 2 page 42 page 72 3 27.27% 3. belief and behavior 4. social and political institutions 5. socialization and life phrase 6. national history 7. national geography 8. stereo types and national identity total 11 100% other textbook entitled contextual teaching and learning bahasa inggris sekolah menengah pertama kelas ix explained the byram criteria about indonesian culture in the pages of 1, 24, 41, 55, 71, 90, 107, and 121. the discussion still emphasize personal identification which its percentage is about 72.73%. social interaction followed by 27.27% of total portion by including some materials like expressing and responding to doubt, asking for repetition, showing concern, showing surprise or wonder, expressing and responding to bad news, responding to good news and expressing opinions, etc. there also several common topics which are not discussed in the textbook. the issues language circle: journal of language and literature 11/2 (april 2017) 180 such as belief and behavior, social and politic, national historical issues, national geography, socialization and moments of life do not appear in the textbook. the writer believed that english textbooks in indonesia, have been adjusted toward the global trend. it is reflected in the design and the method of the textbooks presenting the reading texts and vocabulary. some texts tell about indonesian culture, such as borobudur, batik, etc and the vocabularies are also related to the topic and content. this indicates that english learning focus in indonesia has been set to encourage the students to share their ideas about local culture in english as the medium. this model is unlike the previous syllabus which only suggested learners to copy the way of communication of english native speakers. it is also obvious that the ability to communicate is more paramount than performing native style of communication. even so, the syllabus still includes linguistic aspect such as pronunciation but also encourage students to more communicative using english. as it is mentioned that cultural content should be inserted in english textbooks, the material used in the textbooks are mostly about social life and local culture. this cultural content is expected to promote sense of belonging toward the youth, penetrate the local value to the students, and show the original culture to international community. although it is important to include local culture in english teaching and learning process, the use of proper basic english rule such as british and american english should remain significant to be conducted without discouraging learners’ efforts. then consequently as long as learners are able to deliver messages through a communication, teachers should not tell the learners that their english is bad just because their accents and intonation do not reflect the native style. conclusion based on the above explanation, the writer believed that the material content in the english textbooks has included the topic of indonesian culture. most of the discussion is focused on indonesia local culture and it is considered as an effective way to teach english to indonesian learners. this notion is also approved by several linguists for example andy kirkpatrik (2007), jennifer jenkins (2000) and sandra-lee mckay (2008). they argued that english learning is more effective through involving local culture without depending on native culture. moreover, they also suggested that it is not necessarily absolute to enforce student to imitate native performance because the main goal is to be able to communicate in english with their fellows. moreover, the student themselves rarely use english to communicate with native speakers, so it is better to concern on the local culture than english speaking countries culture. the writer also discovered that the cultural content of this books concerns on two kinds of culture; local and ‘localized culture’. the ‘localized culture’ is a combination of different ethnic cultures in indonesia. supporting this notion, the textbook is oriented to a direct and explicit description about local cultures such the explanatory texts of local festivals and traditional dances. some intercultural behaviors and communications are also preceded in several parts of textbooks. but, there is no example of comparison between native english cultures and local cultures. regarding this, the status of english in efl context has been expanded to “english as an international language” (eil) by utilizing it as the medium to promote devy angga gunantar. 2017. textbooks analysis: analyzing english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks from the perspective of indonesian culture. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/2. 181 local culture in international level. thus, it can be concluded that indonesian english textbooks that has been analyzed by the writer are accommodating the idea that cultural content will improve language proficiency. therefore the idea that indonesian english language teaching (elt) to involve cultural value is well presented in the textbooks. references byram, m. 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(1991). “the reactions of listeners to the discourse of non native speakers of english.” college esl-journal of theory and practice in the teaching of english as a second language 1(2): 9-20 pickering, l. (2001). “intelligibility in english as a lingua franca” available from http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwlup/aralproofs.pdf [26 april 2011] richards. j. and t. rodgers. (1985). method: approach, design, and procedure. in j. richards (ed.). the context of language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. uuspn/undang-undang sistem pendidikan nasional. (2003). sistem pendidikan nasional (national education system). jakarta: depdiknas http://www.amazon.co.uk/world-englishes-implications-international-communication/dp/0521616875/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=utf8&qid=1313002973&sr=1-1 http://www.amazon.co.uk/world-englishes-implications-international-communication/dp/0521616875/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=utf8&qid=1313002973&sr=1-1 http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwlup/aralproofs.pdf%20%5b26 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa20a951130 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaaf0d5210cb • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 100 investigating translation technique: a result of the students’ work on subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing muhammad fauzan aminudin universitas nahdlatul ulama surakarta, indonesia fauzanaminudin24@gmail.com anni nurul hidayati universitas nahdlatul ulama surakarta, indonesia anniweasley@gmail.com abstract the modern era, especially in the global pandemic covid – 19, the need of information, knowledge and entertainment becomes a crucial part since the activities must go online. the government rule stated that the information shall be accessible for anyone, the deaf and hearing impaired, for instance. this descriptive qualitative study aims to investigate the translation technique done by the students in working for subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing (sdh) in audiovisual translation class. the finding of 208 data revealed that there are 12 of 18 techniques applied proposed by molina and albir. the most dominant technique is literal translation, besides it showed that the students as a subtitlers may apply one or more techniques during doing the subtitling. as a pedagogical implication to this study, the results can be considerations in designing the curriculum for audio visual translation subject with complete theories and practices, especially in terms of building the emotion and characterization. keywords: translation technique, audio visual translation, subtitling, subtitling for the deaf introduction language as a mean of communication plays an essential portion in human’s life (budiana, sutopo, & rukmini, 2017). it has an effect on the need for translation due to the variations in the languages that people use to communicate. it is in line with newmark’s perspective (as cited in budiana, sutopo, & rukmini, 2017, p. 2) that multilingual notices such as reports, documents, posts, and textbooks, eventually started to rise in public places and those are translated as well. it means that translation also becomes crucial part in constructing and comprehending foreign language items such as books, documents, movies and video games. furthermore, the recent phenomena revealed that translation area is not only assisted by written forms but also by audiovisual forms. since there have been several items of audiovisual translation (avt) like: movies, song video clips, advertisements, and video games, etc., this becomes an interesting subject to be investigated in the terms of translation. the information is often expressed in particular language, such as english, which has become a foreign language in indonesia. it can be sum up that because their l1 is bahasa indonesia, people who lack in english may find it difficult to obtain the detail information. to address this issue is to translate the information so that it is adequately received. regarding with obtaining information nowadays, people put a high emphasis on information in order to expand their knowledge of the most up-to-date information. moreover, this global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) in the year 2020 – 2021 has had a significant impact on human actions around the world (nugroho, a. & atmojo, a. e. p., 2020). one https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:fauzanaminudin24@gmail.com mailto:anniweasley@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 101 of the impact is the policy to do social distancing which frequently people used to go to schools, go to works, and do activities outside shall be at home in doing the activities, work from home for employees and online learning for students, for instance. because of this policy, a question addresses to the needs of information itself. the process is done through online media which may encounter a drawback related to how the information can be accessible without distinguishing disability and normal people. this shall be in accordance to indonesian broadcasting commission stated that people with disabilities, such as hearing loss, have the right to obtain information from television programs through hand cue as one of solutions to aid in disseminating information. to accommodate the issue, subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing in audiovisual translation field can be one of the innovation in spreading the information for those who have disability in hearing. in the educational field, audiovisual translation arena is learned seriously by students of english department in one of university around surakarta. the students are exposed to the theories and practices in order to enable them practice it someday in exploring their teaching. as a result of this course subject, the students are given assignment to make subtitle for the deaf and hard of hearing (sdh). the following is the example of sdh done by the students in a short movie entitled the three little pigs: source language (sl): that reminds me! target language (tl) : (babi 3) aku ingat sesuatu based on the data above, it can be seen that the utterance in sl is translated with amplification technique. this done in order to ease the audiences who have disability in hearing to point out which pig speaking is. there have been several studies which examine in the field of translation (sahrain, 2017; yafi, haryanti & prasetyarini, 2015; nurpermadi, hartono & sutopo, 2020; hudi, hartono & yuliasri, 2020). the previous studies examine the translation techniques in printed form such as in bilingual tourism booklet of bandung bali (sahrain, 2017) and in english translation of caption in pekalongan batik museum (nurpermadi, hartono & sutopo, 2020). as well as in the printed form (yafi, haryanti & prasetyarini, 2015) conducted in novel harry potter and the sorcerer’s stone and its translation by focusing on the translation strategy. while in the field of audiovisual translation conducted by hudi, hartono & yuliasri (2020) investigating the translation technique and its quality of movie subtitle entitled the english teacher. subtitled movies as the result of audio visual translation became the subject of the studies conducted by budiana, sutopo & rukmini (2017) and supardi & putri (2018), which focus on the translation technique used in the documentary movie (budiana, sutopo & rukmini, 2017) and movie soundtrack (supardi & putri, 2018). some previous studies have attempted to reveal the translation techniques used by the translators either in the printed media or audio visual media. however, this global pandemic which massively encourages people to do the online learning still have yet focus on the disabilities who also need to access the information easily. as an attempt to address these gaps, conducting a descriptive method, the present study aims to investigate the translation technique used by the students in constructing subtitle movie entitled “the three little pigs”. subtitling subtitling becomes an essential part along with the progress of audio visual media. diaz cintas and remael (2007) explained the notion of subtitling as a result of translation practices by presenting written text on the bottom of the screen. it is in accordance with burton in cintas anderman (2009. p. 58) that defines subtitle is translated texts displayed below the images, as on a cinema or television screen. to date, the issue about the development of audio visual media such as films, songs, video games, etc becomes crucial topics to discussed. it is important to take notes that audio visual products shall be accessible to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 102 everyone so subtitling plays an important role to address this issue. mangiron (2013) made a clear example regarding with the need of accessibility as well ensuring game accessibility for the deaf and hard of hearing players, to this specific purpose, audio instructions, dialogues, soundtracks and song effect of a video game shall be entirely subtitled. working with subtitles, a subtitler needs to consider the coherence between the message and the created text. the subtitlers should know the general considerations like taking 2 lines and considering the reading speed so that the audiences will not miss out the information. frequently, aegisub can be one of the common software to create a subtitle besides some other soft wares. besides, for the sake of coherence between source language in audio visual product and the written text on screen, the subtitlers should apply the subtitling strategies. there have been several strategies proposed by gotlieb such as expansion, paraphrase, transfer, limitation, transcription, dislocation, condensation, decimation, deletion and resignation (gotlieb in ghaemi and benyamin, 2010). translation technique molina and albir (2002) explicated that translation technique is known as a textual analysis instrument combined with other alternative instruments. it permits the individuals to investigate how translation equivalence works in reference to the initial text. considering the translation technique as the results of translators’ preferences, so that the validity will based on the various contexts such as the aims of the translation, audience expectation, etc. there have been 18 translation techniques proposed by molina and albir (2002, p. 511) that might be used by the translators such as adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, linguistic amplification, linguistic compression, literal translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution, transposition and variation. methodology the present study employs descriptive qualitative method to reveal students’ assignments in subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing in terms of translation techniques. some procedures are applied to construct this study such as collecting data, classifying and analyzing data. eventually the researchers draw the conclusion. the data were taken from a short movie entitled “three little pigs” in the form of utterances or sentences in the subtitle for the deaf and hard of hearing done by the students. the data consists of 2 different languages, sl (english) and tl (indonesia). there are 208 data which come from three groups of students with the duration about 4 minutes 38 seconds. each group consists of 3 to 4 students. those data were coded to ease the researchers analyze the data. the following is the example of data coding done by the researchers: 69/st2.sdh.sl.ttlp/st2.sdh.tl.ttlp it means that data come from number 69, taken from st2 means that subtitling from second groups. sdh stands for subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing. sl is source language, english while tl is target language, bahasa indonesia. ttlp stands for the three little pigs or the movie title. regarding with analyzing the data, the researchers used the concept of translation technique proposed by molina and albir (2002) that consisted of 18 techniques while to valid the data, the study used expert judgement. expert judgment shall meet the requirements, like working as a lecturer who ever taught translation, subtitling, or avt and master both english and indonesia. after reading, coding and classifying data based on molina and albir’s concept, the applied techniques are measured by using formula proposed by bungin (2005, p. 171) in srikandi (2009). the following formula is presented below: η = in which: η: percentage of the types fx: the number of types of applied technique n: total number of all types of applied technique. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 103 result and discussion translation technique aims to determine the problems arose during the process of translation. to address this case, the translators may use more than one techniques in a sentence. based on 208 data in this study, these data were classified and analyzed by using molina and albir (2002) concept. the analysis of applied technique found in subtitle for the deaf and hard of hearing (sdh) entitled “the three little pigs” can be seen on table. 1. table 1. analysis of applied technique translation technique technique quantity literal translation 97 established equivalence 27 reduction 45 substitution 25 discursive creation 27 compensation 9 linguistic compression 41 amplification 32 variation 4 transposition 3 modulation 2 linguistic amplification 2 total 314 as stated in table 1 above, there are 12 ki nds of techniques found from 18 techniques propo sed by molina and albir (2002). the total number of technique used is 314 techniques. the results showed that the common or the highest technique employed is literal translation technique, for about 97, and there are two techniques that have same quantity, for about 2, namely; modulation and linguistic amplification. table 2. percentage of translation technique percentage of translation technique technique percentage (%) literal translation 30.89 % established equivalence 8.6 % reduction 14.33 % substitution 7.96 % discursive creation 8.6 % compensation 2.87 % linguistic compression 13.05 % amplification 10.19 % https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 104 variation 1.3 % transposition 0.95 % modulation 0.63 % linguistic amplification 0.63 % total 100 % the classified techniques were presented into form of percentage as seen on table 2 above. according to table.2 about percentage of translation technique, there are four techniques which have high percentage among others, such as literal translation technique about 30.89%, reduction technique about 14.33%, linguistic compression technique about 13.05% and amplification technique about 10.19%. some examples of applied techniques on sdh made by the students are as following: a. literal translation literal translation means translating words to words or changing the source language to target language literally. there are 97 literal translation techniques applied by the students by its percentage about 30.89%. as the example of this technique is boldfaced below. no: 11/st2.sdh.sl.ttlp/st2.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:01:01.68,0:01:02.78 sl: that reminds me! tl: itu mengingatkanku! based on the data sample number 11 taken from second group above, the students translated the utterance literally from source language (sl) into target language (tl). the other example taken from data number 36 of first group as following. no: 36/st1.sdh.sl.ttlp/st1.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:02:11.15,0:02:13.24 sl: wait! what's that? tl: tunggu! apa itu? b. established equivalence established equivalence as one of technique found in the students’ works about 8.6% by the quantity is 27. this technique is almost similar to literal translation technique which uses expression that commonly used in dictionary. the example of this technique can be found in data number 9 of third group and data number 23 of second group. these examples are as boldface below. no: 9/st3.sdh.sl.ttlp/st3.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:00:53.04,0:00:54.95 sl: let's fix that, shall we? tl: mari kita buktikan? no: 23/st2.sdh.sl.ttlp/st2.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:01:42.36,0:01:44.36 sl: aha! he's finally here! tl: aha! akhirnya dia kemari! c. reduction this technique can be stated as the opposite of amplification technique. it means that some parts are deleted but it does not change the meaning itself. there are 45 data found that belong to reduction technique by the percentage 14.33%. one of the example of reduction technique found in the students’ works of subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing is following no: 29/st1.sdh.sl.ttlp/st1.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:01:58.35,0:02:00.00 sl: what? a trap? tl: apa? jebakan? based on the data number 29 of first group above, it can be stated that the students as the translators deleted the word “a” which in tl is sebuah. when it is omitted and transferred into tl, it will not change the meaning. d. substitution substitution is known as one of variation of translation technique that changes the linguistic elements and paralinguistic (intonation or sign). there are 25 data belong to this variation of https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 105 technique by it percentage about 7.96%. this variation of technique can be seen in the figure below. figure 1. substitution technique 1 according to figure 1 above, the wolf is taking a deep breath that can be seen from the growing movement of his chest. this gesture is transferred by the first group into (mengambil nafas). another example of substitution technique can be seen from figure 2 below that found in data number 49 of second group. figure 2. substitution technique 2 the pig as showed in figure 2 above is showing its shoulders up and down movement to show that the pig is laughing slowly so that the wolf behind the door asking permission to enter the house might not listen the pig’s laughing. this condition is transferred into “hahaha (babi tertawa)”. e. discursive creation discursive creation known as a technique that employs equivalence out of the context in order to catch readers’ attention. on this study, there are 27 data by its percentage 8.6% belong to discursive creation technique. the examples are as below. no: 24/st3.sdh.sl.ttlp/st3.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:01:34.60,0:01:37.66 sl: a young pig deliciously wrapped in a flimsy house! tl: seekor babi kecil tinggal dalam rumah reot! no: 32/st2.sdh.sl.ttlp/st2.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:02:02.80,0:02:05.20 sl: have a nice flight! tl: selamat menikmati. those two examples above showed that to catch people’s attention and make them more interesting, the translators change some elements of the sentence. such as in data number 24 of third group, “a flimsy house” is translated into “rumah reot” while in data number 32 of second group, the utterance “have a nice flight!” is transferred into “selamat menikmati”. f. compensation compensation technique aims to convey a message of another parts of source language. it is because of in terms of stylistic of source language. there are 9 compensation techniques found in this study by its percentage about 2.87%. the data number 13 of second group can be one of the example of compensation technique. the sl "the pigs came up with an ingenious plan" is transferred into “babi babi punya rencana cerdik”. regarding with the stylistic elements, the word “came up” is translated into “punya”. g. linguistic compression there are 41 data of linguistic compression technique with its percentage about 13.05%. this technique as an opposite of linguistic amplification technique is used to synthesize the linguistic elements of sl. the example of the use of this https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 106 technique can be found in data number 14 of the third group as following. no: 14/st3.sdh.sl.ttlp/st3.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:01:03.00,0:01:07.30 sl: i heard there's a big bad wolf in the land and he likes to blow down poorly made houses. tl: ku dengar ada serigala jahat yang suka merobohkan rumah. h. amplification amplification technique is known as an opposite of reduction technique that means paraphrasing or adding an information from sl. according to data analysis, there are 32 data belong to amplification technique by its percentage about 10.19%. the example can be seen from the data number 10 of the first group, that there is an addition in the result of the subtitling. the utterance from sl “yep, i can’t wait to have my own house!” is translated into tl “(babi 2) ya, aku tidak sabar untuk menempati rumahku”. there is an addition “(babi 2)” to show the readers or audiences that which pig speaking is. the other example can be seen from figure 3 below. figure 3. amplification technique according to the figure 3 above as well found in data number 63 of second group showed that when the wolf screaming is translated into “aaaaaaaaa! (teriak serigala)”. the scene as showed in figure 3, explicitly seems like no actors in the scene above yet in fact there is a wolf that screams inside the house. i. variation the use of this variation technique is to change the linguistic or paralinguistic elements that affects to the linguistic variation in a sentence. four variation techniques applied in this present study by its percentage about 1.3%. the example of this applied technique can be seen as following. no: 40/st1.sdh.sl.ttlp/st1.sdh.tl.ttlp duration: 0,0:02:23.68,0:02:28.80 sl: right on time! not by the hair of my chinny chin chin! tl: ini saatnya! tak kan kubiarkan! regarding with data number 40 of first group above, variation technique is applied to translate the utterance from sl “not by the hair of my chinny chin chin!” into tl “tak kan kubiarkan!”. it changes the linguistic elements of that utterance which affects to the variation of this sentence. j. transposition transposition technique is a technique that shifts the grammatical elements such as a shift in category, structure and units, from nouns to verbs, for instance. there are 3 transposition techniques applied in the students’ assignment of sdh by its percentage 0.95%. it can be seen from data number 16 of first group that sl “one built house of sticks” is translated into tl “(owl): yang satu membangun rumah dari kayu”. based on the data above, the shift is between the word “one” in sl and the word “yang satu” in tl which means “one” as a quantity is shifted into “yang satu” as a subject or noun. k. modulation modulation technique is a technique that is applied by changing lexically or structurally the point of view, focus or category regarding with sl. two modulation techniques were applied in sdh made by the students by its percentage about 0.63%. the example can be found in data number 60 of first group as following. no: 60/st1.sdh.sl.ttlp/st1.sdh.tl.ttlp https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 107 duration: 0,0:03:43.02,0:03:48.66 sl: that landing wasn’t so bad. tl: pendaratan yang bagus. the utterance “that landing wasn’t so bad” in sl is transferred into “pendaratan yang bagus” in tl, that means in indirectly the utterance in sl shows that the landing is comfortable and good enough. therefore, it is translated into “pendaratan yang bagus” in tl. l. linguistic amplification amplification technique is a technique that is done by adding linguistic elements in the sl. there are two amplification techniques applied by the percentage is about 0.63%. this technique can be found in data number 63 of third group that the utterance in sl “because there’s no telling what they’ve got waiting for the intruders” is translated into tl “karena tidak ada yang tahu. apa yang mereka rencanakan untuk penyusup”. regarding with the object of the translation product, in this case, subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing people, it is important to notice that people have the same right to access the information, entertainment and knowledge. in this global pandemic, covid – 19, many activities must go online along with the government rules announced. this might bring big challenges to provide the information as well the knowledge for the students who have disabilities, hearing impairment, for instance. based on the research finding above about some translation techniques proposed by (molina and albir, 2002) found in students’ works on subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing might be applicable to spread the information for those who have disabilities in hearing. the researchers in this present study found 12 of 18 translation techniques with the most dominant technique used in sdh is literal translation by its percentage around 30.89%. while the lowest technique found is modulation and linguistic amplification by both percentages of those techniques about 0.63%. when the students did this subtitling as knowing that this will be for those who are not easily access the information, the students sometimes combine one or more technique while translating one utterance/sentence. for the example, the students still use literal translation to translate the sl to tl yet it might be combined with amplification. the figure 3, can be one of the example of the use more than one technique that is the combination between substitution and amplification techniques. the screen does not provide the actor, while the wolf is screaming, so it might be difficult for people who are having hearing impairment. they will not know what happened in the scene (what the actors are talking about), therefore the students tried to translate this situation by using substitution and amplification techniques. the application of those techniques is in accordance to vehicular matching and translation + explicit attribution proposed by szarkowska et.al (2013, p. 295). vehicular matching means showing the deaf and hard of hearing audiences the transcribed of sl which similar to substitution technique while translation + explicit attribution is similar to transferring the sl conversation and telling the viewers that a language is spoken. szarkowska et.al (2013, p. 295) add an example “[in french] good morning” that might be same with amplification technique as stated in figure 3 of the finding in this study, “aaaaaaaaa! (teriak serigala)”. both brackets may have the same function as an additional information for the deaf and hard of hearing viewers. szarkowska et.al means to show the viewers about the french accents of the actor while speaking whereas the present study means to show the viewers that there is someone speaking in that scene. besides, to address the atmosphere such as important sound appears, as best choice is to simply indicate the presence of sound i.e. ambulance siren (nevez, 2005, p. 244 – 245). presenting the sound in the screen as a way to enhance the nuance for the viewers (hearing disabilities) also found in data 8/st2.sdh.sl.ttlps/st2.sdh.tl.ttlp that sl: “ehem” is translated into tl: “ehem (berdehem)” https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 108 that means showing the presence sound of clearing throat. in the education and learning context, ohene et al (2007. p. 2) mentioned that deaf and hearing impaired students use subtitles to read conversation and determine character as well still encountering the lack of subtitle that difficult to build the degree of emotion. the present study is still limited on some cases such as how about if multi-sounds appear at the same time, i.e. when the character is screaming at the same time a sound of explosion presents, conveying the nuance, in terms of emotion, as well. there are some ways formulated by ohene et al (2007) to deal with the degree of emotion. those are changing the fonts, colors and the use of kinetic typography as a way to describe emotion in the subtitles. dealing with the educational implication, the study might be the considerations of designing new curriculum especially for translation class. the curriculum shall suit the students’ needs along with the rapid changes of time. providing audio visual translation, sdh, with complete theories and practices at class aims to prepare the students to compete in the digital era, as professional teachers or subtitlers, furthermore in this situation of global pandemic covid – 19. generally, the students are able to help spreading the information of audio visual media for those who need, i.e. the deaf and hearing impaired, through subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing. conclusion from the data finding and discussion above, it can be concluded that from 3 groups of students working on subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing, there are 12 of 18 applied techniques formulated by molina and albir (2002). the present study reveals some ways to help the deaf and hearing impaired by transcribing or describing on screen for the dialogues of characters that cannot be seen on screen. this global pandemic covid – 19 shall be the reflection to change the curriculum since that there are students who lack in accessing the information via sounds. developing and designing complete curriculum of translation for audio visual media, or known as audio visual translation, for learning in class, hopefully can be a way to massively spread the information and knowledge. acknowledgments: we would to thank to direktorat riset dan pengabdian masyarakat (dprm) from the indonesian ministry of research, technology and higher education (ristekdikti) for funding this study and the institution of research and community services (lppm) universitas nahdlatul ulama surakarta for the support and guidance during completing this study. references agnieszka szarkowska, jagoda żbikowska & izabela krejtz. (2013). subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing in multilingual films. international journal of multilingualism, 10:3, 292-312, doi: 10.1080/14790718.2013.766195. ali yafi, m. haryanti d, & prasetyarini. (2015). a translation analysis of independent clause in harry potter and sorcerer’s stone and its translation. university research colloquium 2015. muhammadiyah university of surakarta. issn 2407-9189. budiana, a. a., sutopo, d., & rukmini, d. (2017). the use of translation techniques in subtitling the dhaup ageng documentary movie. english education journal, 7(1), 01-05. bungin, burhan. 2005. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. prenada media group. jakarta. díaz cintas, j., & remael, a. (2007). audiovisual translation: subtitling. manchester: st. ghaemi-benyamin, f. j. (2010). strategies used in translation of interlingual subtitling (english to persian). i̇ü çeviribilim dergisi, 1(2). gottlieb, h. (1992). subtitling‐ a new university discipline. in: c. dollerup, et al. (ed.). teaching translation and interpreting. (pp. 161-70). amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. hudi, a. c., hartono, r., & yuliasri, i. (2020). subtitling techniques and the quality of indonesian subtitles of the english teacher. english education journal, 10(4), 456-465. mangiron, c. (2013). subtitling in game localisation: a descriptive study. departament de https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 109 traduccio´ i interpretacio´ & caiac, universitat auto`noma de barcelona, barcelona, spain. perspectives: studies in translatology, 2013 vol. 21, no. 1, 42-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2012.72265 3. molina, l. & hurtado albir, a. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta, 47(4), 498–512. doi: 10.7202/008033ar. neves, j. (2005). audiovisual translation: subtitling for the deaf and hard‐of‐hearing. a thesis. school of arts. roehampton university. university of surrey. nugroho, a., & atmojo, a. e. p. (2020). digital learning of english beyond classroom: efl learners’perception and teaching activities. jeels (journal of english education and linguistics studies), 7(2), 219-243. nurpermadi, e. d., hartono, r., & sutopo, d. (2020). translation techniques and quality of indonesian‐english translation of captions in pekalongan batik museum. english education journal, 10(4), 426-435. ohene j, wright j and combie smith k. (2007). emotional subtitles: a system and potential applications for deaf and hearing impaired people. conference & workshop on assistive technologies for people with vision & hearing impairments assistive technology for all ages. cvhi 2007, m.a. hersh (ed.) sahrain. (2017). translation technique and quality of the indonesian culture terms in bilingual tourism booklet of bandung bali. muhammadiyah university of surakarta: unpublished thesis. supardi, m., & putri, d. a. (2018). audio-visual translation techniques: subtitling and dubbing of movie soundtrack in frozen: let it go. buletin al‐turas, 24(2), 399-414. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2012.722653 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2012.722653 http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 361 cohesion and coherence of students’ recount texts in indonesia arif suryo priyatmojo1 arifsuryo@mail.unnes.ac.id 1english department, faculty of language and arts universitas negeri semarang, indonesia abstract this study aimed at analyzing the cohesion and coherence of recount texts and their implication to teaching writing. the data was fifteen recount texts which were non-randomly chosen from the first-grade students of high school in central java, indonesia. this was qualitative research employing cohesion theory by halliday and hasan (1976) and thematic progression proposed by butt et al. (1995). the result of this research showed that most of the cohesive devices employed by the students were personal reference with 58.11%; demonstrative reference and definite article with 7.18%; comparative reference with 0.93%), lexical (repetition 22.21%; synonym 0.66%; superordinate 0.13%), conjunction (temporal conjunction 7.45%; adversative conjunction: 1.33%; additive conjunction 1.06%; causal conjunction 0.66%), and ellipsis with 2%. the presuppositions of the presupposed items and presupposing items were achieved anaphorically and cataphorically; most of them were anaphoric. the distances of the presuppositions were in the forms of immediate ties, mediated ties, and non-mediated ties. furthermore, immediate ties occurred extensively. based on the analysis, most of the texts were cohesive due to the achievement of presupposing and presupposed items in every sentence of the texts. then, coherence of the students’ recount texts was achieved by employing three kinds of patterns: reiteration/ constant, zig-zag, and multiple thematic progression patterns. most of the texts were developed by using a reiteration/ constant pattern. based on the analysis, most texts were not coherent because of the unrelated clauses. as the result, they broke the signposted progression of the texts. the finding was expected to possibly contribute to the process of teaching writing by encouraging the students to create a good text in a cohesive and coherent way. keywords: cohesion, coherence, recount text, writing, indonesia introduction writing is significant for some reasons. firstly, writing is a wonderful idea in which every student can explore his ideas. based on the indonesian curriculum, the students by the end of the learning process are supposed to create a text. it is based on the texts that the students are studying. every text has its social function and lexicogrammatical features. for example, in the first grade of high school, the students produce three kinds of texts – procedure, recount, and narrative. in the written activities, the students are demanded to produce those texts. as a result, they need to have ideas to create the text. the ideas are also based on the generic structure of the texts. it is because a good text should be in good order. thinking and writing is the next significant reason for writing. the third reason, literate students need writing to encode ideas, opinions, etc. in the indonesian curriculum, from the school-based curriculum to the newest one called k-13 (curriculum 2013 till present), the teaching and learning process is based on a genre-based approach. here, the teachers give five phases/ cycles for the students context building, text modeling and deconstructing, text construction, independent of text construction, and linking to related texts. in the fourth phase, it is the phase the students are to produce a text. when i observed students in english learning processes with a topic about writing recount text, they seemed to produce unrelated sentences. the students also had problems in organizing ideas systematically. for the worst, they were unable to create a unified paragraph. the paragraph jumped out here and there. it could be concluded that they faced difficulties in producing a cohesive text. it was related to bamberg (1983) in wang (2007) that one of the main difficulties was lack of cohesion in the texts https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:arifsuryo@mail.unnes.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 362 which contributed substantially to lower scores in tests. also, a coherent text is also important. it is how the students organize the text by informing the readers where the writer is and is going (butt et al., 1995). by coherence, the text can be read well by the readers toward interrelated clauses. writing activity produces a text (halliday, 1976). in a text, texture has become the most prominent element that can be achieved by cohesive ties which depend on a lexical and grammatical relationship (witte & faigley, 2008). this research investigated cohesive devices used by the students and the way the texts were organized for some reasons. first, cohesion and coherence are two significances of a text. then, the study could be used to improve the quality of students’ writing. the last, it could develop students’ skill in writing. literature review text and language teaching the orientation of teaching english as a foreign language has changed as stated by richards (2006) by classifying three phases of language teaching. the first is traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s) that prioritize grammatical competence as the basis of proficiency by giving of repetitive practice and drilling. the techniques used were memorization, question, and answer, drilling, and guided speaking and writing by the use of some methodologies such as audiolingual and structural-situational approach. the second is classic communicative language teaching (the 1970s-1990s), and the last is current communicative language teaching (the late 1990s to the present). however, due to the need for english for a broader communicative purpose, the orientation has changed into its function. it is now recognized as current communicative language teaching. studying english as a foreign language is not just studying its certain number of fixed patterns, but the students are supposed to study its purpose and function. it relates to gerrot and wignell (1994) that the whole systematic language cannot be explained. the students use language to convey their intended meaning in both spoken and written forms. halliday and hasan taxonomy by cohesion continuity of a text is provided by clause structure and clause complexes which is according to halliday and hasan formed by formal ties. it binds one sentence to others (coulthard, 1994). cohesion based on halliday and hasan (1976) is based on five headings reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. in addition, they also introduced another taxonomy of how a cohesive tie is classified based on the amount of text spanned by the presupposed and presupposing elements of a given tie. it is called text-span classes. a class is determined by the number of t-units a given cohesive tie spans. the cohesive tie is classified based on function and distance. the illustration as follow (halliday & hasan, 1976: 330-340): text span classes (immediate, mediated, remote, mediated-remote) (1) the last word ended in a long bleat, so like a sheep that alice quite started. (2) she looked at the queen, who seemed to have suddenly wrapped herself up in wool. (3) alice rubbed her eyes and looked again. (4) she couldn’t make out what had happened at all. (5) was she in a shop? (6) and was that really – was it really a sheep that was sitting on the other side of the counter. (7) rub as she would, she could make nothing more of it in sentence (2), she refers to alice in the first sentence. it relates to the sentence which immediately precedes it. it is called an immediate tie. the word she in sentence (4) also refers to alice in the immediate sentence. she, in sentence (5) has the target of its presupposition another instance of she, that in (4) and to resolve it we have to follow this through to the occurrence of alice in sentence (3). this type is called a mediated tie. remote ties result when two elements of a tie are separated by one or more intervening t-units. it can be seen from sentence (6). in the sentence, there is no presupposing or presupposed item. finally, a tie may be both mediated and remote. for example, she in sentence (7) does not have any https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 363 presupposition in the sentence (6) but refers back to sentence (5). here, the tie is considered remote. at the same time, the presupposed item in (5) is again she, which has to be followed through she in (4) and finally to alice in (3), so it is also mediated. coherence coherence is meant as how a text holds together in the right order with a clear process. it plays an important role in how a paragraph can be read well by readers that consists of interrelated sentences. a good writer needs to inform well about his texts. also, the readers need to understand the topic and the content of the text. a good text is not only due to cohesiveness but also its organization. a coherent text is organized by keeping the readers well informed about what it is and where it is going (butt et al. 1995). to do so, grammatical resources are needed to signpost through clauses, clause complexes, and paragraphs. butt et al. (1995: 90) stated that the first signpost must be at the beginning of a text, paragraph or clause to tells the readers what the writer has in mind as a starting point. the first position in the clause signals to the readers what the message is about. the signpost is called theme and rheme (halliday, 1994). genre-based approach the approach used in the teaching and learning process of the indonesian curriculum is textbased. competence is based on how the language learners have knowledge about different types of texts. a text, according to richards (2006) refers to structured sequences of languages in specific contexts and ways. communicative competence refers to the language learners’ skill in using different kinds of spoken and written texts in varied contexts. to enable the students to produce written texts, the teachers should implement the teaching and learning process (genre-based approach) in some phases (feez & joyce, 1998): phase 1: context building: in this stage, students are given the social context of an authentic model of the text, learn features of cultural context and social function of a given text, and investigate the register of a selected model text by exploring: building knowledge of the topic and social activity, understanding the roles and relationship of the people using the text, and understanding the mode of communication. activities related to context building include (1) presenting the context with pictures, audiovisual materials, realia, excursions, field trips, guest speakers, etc; (2) establishing the social functions by discussion or surveys, etc; (3) doing cross-cultural activities by comparing differences of two cultures; (4) comparing the model text with other similar or different texts. phase 2: modeling and deconstructing the text. in this stage, students analyze the structure and language characteristics of given texts and identify similarity and difference of the given text with other texts with the same kinds of texts. feez and joyce (1998) stated that text, clause, and expression levels are given in the modeling and deconstruction steps. phase 3: joint construction of the text. in this stage, the students begin to build whole types of texts then control the text construction independently. some activities in this step include questioning, discussing, editing, etc.; constructing texts; doing jigsaw, informationgap activities, dicto-gloss, self-assessment, and peer-assessment. phase 4: independent construction of the text. in this stage, the students work independently with the text and do performances. independent construction in writing includes writing tasks which demand that students draft and present whole text. phase 5: linking to related texts. the students identify what they have studied in the learning activities about other texts with the same context and step to the learning process. some activities in this step are identifying different texts with varied use and finding other texts with the same topics, and finding language characteristics in the same or different texts methodology this research was descriptive qualitative research investigating systematically about facts and characteristics of given subjects. the main objectives of this research were (1) to analyze the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 364 cohesion of the students’ recount texts by analyzing the general features of the cohesive devices of the texts and (2) to analyze the thematic progression of the texts. subject and object of the research the first-grade students of high school students in central java, indonesia became the subject. meanwhile, the object of the study was the students’ recount texts. fifteen recount texts were chosen as the object of the study in a nonrandom way. unit of analysis the focus of analysis for cohesion was sentence halliday and hasan (1976), and coherence was clauses (butt, et al., 1995). technique of collecting data the students’ recount texts were the main data chosen from the students’ writing. the steps were as follows: (1) fifteen recount texts were used as the object; (2) the texts were arranged based on the number of sentences the students produced; (3) the texts were analyzed based on the cohesive devices and how the texts were organized (thematic progression). data analysis the identification and classification were conducted to find cohesive devices in the appropriate headings with the analysis sheet that covered some elements as the followings: (1) index-serial number (2) total number of ties (3) the reference (or the presupposed item) of the particular cohesive item; (4) the distance between the cohesive item and the referent o for an immediate tie, m for mediated, n for remote/ non-mediated, and c for cataphoric; (5) the direction the example of the analysis of cohesive device could be seen as the following example. unforgettable camping when i was in junior high school, i joined a group of scouting (1). it consisted of two groups (one boy and one girl) every year (2). in grade 8, there is camping at karanggeneng for 3 days (3). we prepared all enthusiastically (4). we went there by a police truck (5). wow, it was an unforgettable moment (6). there, we did many activities such as building a tent, making a fence and clothesline, hiking, cooking, and doing a campfire night (7). on the first day, we just built a tent (8). on the second day, we went hiking (9). before it, we had to cook by ourselves (10). my group cooked rice, corn soup, and fried sausage (11). because we cooked it hurriedly, the taste of corn soup was a little salty (12). but we like it because it was made by ourselves (13). after that, we went hiking (14). it was the most tiring hiking we have ever done (15). we walked approximately 4 km with some stops for some briefing (16). there were some rambutan trees in the route of hiking (17). one of my friends took it and ate it (18). because we felt very thirsty, we followed him (19). we took some rambutans and ate them together (20). we were lucky because the owner didn’t know it (21). on a campfire night, we felt very happy (22). we sang a song together, watched a drama, and shared together (23). not only happy but we felt sad because it was the last night we gathered (24). on the third day, we tidied up our tent, cleaned the place, and went back (25). i was so happy and i never forget that day because it was unforgettable camping and we didn’t take a bath for 3 days (26). unforgettable camping sentence no. of cohesive presupposed number ties item type distance item 2 1 it r13.6 o a group of scouting https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 365 3 o 4 1 we r14.6 o the writer & group 5 2 we r14.6 m1 we  the writer & group there r22.7 o karanggeneng 6 1 it r13.6 n2 camping 7 2 there r22.7 m1+n2 there  karanggeneng we r14.6 m1+n1 we  the writer & group 8 3 first c46.1 o (s7) we r14.6 m2+n1 we  the writer & group tent l1.6 o tent 9 2 second c46.1 o (s8) we r14.6 m3+n1 we  the writer & group 10 2 before it c41.3 o hiking we r14.6 m4+n1 we  the writer & group 11 1 my r11.8 n9 the writer 12 3 because c33 o (s10) we r14.6 m4+n2 we  the writer & group corn soup l1.6 o corn soup 13 4 but c21.1 o (s12) we r14.6 m5+n2 we  the writer & group it (2x) r13.6 o corn soup 14 2 after that c41.1 o (s13) we r14.6 m6+n2 we  the writer & group 15 4 it r13.6 o hiking most r35.9 o activity hiking l1.6 o hiking we r14.6 m7+n2 we  the writer & group 16 1 we r14.6 m8+n2 we  the writer & group 17 1 hiking l1.6 n1 hiking 18 2 my r11.8 n16 the writer it r13.6 o rambutan 19 4 because c33 o (s18) we (2x) r14.6 m9+n4 we  the writer & group him r11.6 o the writer’s friend 20 2 we r14.6 m10+n4 we  the writer & group rambutan l1.6 n2 rambutan 21 2 we r14.6 m11+n4 we  the writer & group it r13.6 o eating rambutan 22 1 we r14.6 m12+n4 we  the writer & group 23 1 we r14.6 m13+n4 we  the writer & group 24 4 we (2x) r14.6 m14+n4 we  the writer & group it r13.6 o activities on camp last r35.9 o activity 25 2 third c43.1 o (s24) we r14.6 m15+n4 we  the writer & group 26 4 i (2x) r11.6 n24 the writer that r22.6 n24 camping we r14.6 m16+n4 we  the writer & group r: 35 s: 0 e: 0 c: 8 l:5 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 366 after that, the texts were analyzed in terms of theme and rheme to see the thematic progression like the following example: unforgettable camping (1) when i was in junior high school, when i was in junior high school conj. topical rheme tetual theme (2) i joined a group of scouting i joined a group of scouting topical rhemetheme (3) it consisted of two groups (one boy and one girl) every year it consisted of two groups (one boy and one girl) every year topical rhemetheme (4) on grade 8, we camped at karanggeneng for 3 days on grade 8 we camped at karanggeneng for 3 days topical rhemetheme (5) we prepared all enthusiastically we prepared all enthusiastically topical rhemetheme (6) we went there by a police truck we went there by a police truck topical rhemetheme (7) wow, it was an unforgettable moment wow it was an unforgettable moment interpersonal topical rhemetheme (8) there, we did many activities such as building a tent, making fence and clothesline, hiking, cooking and doing a campfire night there we did many activities such as building a tent, making fence and clothesline, hiking, cooking and doing a campfire night topical rhemetheme https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 367 (9) on the first day, we just built a tent on the first day we just built a tent topical rhemetheme (10) on second day, we went hiking on the second day we went hiking topical rhemetheme (11) before it, we had to cook by ourselves before it we had to cook by ourselves conj. toipcal rheme textual theme (12) my group cooked rice, corn soup and fried sausage my group cooked rice, corn soup and fried sausage topical rhemetheme (13) because we cooked it hurriedly, because we cooked it hurriedly conj. topicaltextual theme rheme (14) the taste of corn soup was little salty the taste of corn soup was little salty topical rhemetheme (15) but, we like it but we like it conj. topical rheme textual theme (16) because it was made by ourselves because it was made by ourselves conj. topical rheme textual theme (17) after that, we went hiking after that we went hiking conj. topical rheme textual theme https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 368 (18) it was the most tiring hiking it was the most tiring hiking topical rhemetheme (19) we have ever done we have ever done topical rhemetheme (20) we walked approximately 4 km with some stops for some briefing we walked approximately 4 km with some stops for some briefing topical rhemetheme (21) there were some rambutan trees in the route of hiking there were some rambutan trees in the route of hiking theme rheme (22) one of my friends took and ate it one of my friends took and ate it theme rheme (23) because we felt very thirsty, because we felt very thirsty conj. textual topical theme rheme (24) we followed him we followed him theme rheme (25) we took some some rambutans and ate them together we took some some rambutans and ate them together topical rhemetheme (26) we were lucky we were lucky topical rhemetheme (27) because the owner didn’t know it because the owner the owner conj. topical rheme textual theme https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 369 (28) on a campfire night, we felt very happy on a campfire night we felt very happy topical rhemetheme (29) we sang a song together, watched a drama and shared together we sang a song together, watched a drama and shared together topical rhemetheme (30) not only happy, but we also felt sad not only happy but we also felt sad interpersonal textual topical rhemetheme (31) because it was the last night because it was the last night conj. topical rheme textual theme (32) we gathered we gathered topical rhemetheme (33) on the third day, we tidied up our tent, on the third day we tidied up our tent, cleaned the place and went back topical rhemetheme (34) cleaned the place we cleaned the place topical rhemetheme (35) and went back and we went back textual topical rhemetheme (36) i was so happy i was so happy topical rhemetheme (37) and i never forget that day and i never forget that day conj. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 370 topical rheme textual theme (38) because it was an unforettable camping because it was an unforettable camping conj. topical rheme textual theme (39) and we didn’t take a bath for 3 days and we didn’t take a bath for 3 days conj. topical rheme textual theme clause1 t1 r1 when i was junior high school clause2 t1 r2 i joined a group of scouting clause3 t2 (=r2) r3 it consisted ... year clause4 t3 r4 on ... 8 we ... days clause5 t4 (=r4) r5 we prepared ... enthusiastically clause6 t4 r6 we went ... truck clause7 t5 (=r6) r7 wow it was ... moment clause8 t6 (=r4) r8 there we ... night clause9 t7 r9 on ... we built ... tent clause10 t7 r10 on ... we went ... hiking clause11 t7 r11 before ... we had ... ourselves clause12 t8 r12 my group cooked ... sausage clause13 t8 r13 because we cooked it hurriedly clause14 t9(=r13) r14 the taste of corn soup was little salty clause15 t10 r15 but, we like it clause16 t11(=r15) r16 because it was ... ourselves clause17 t12 r17 after ... we went hiking clause18 t13(=r17) r18 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 371 it was the most tiring hiking clause19 t14 r19 we have ever done clause20 t14 r20 we walked ... briefing clause21 t15 r21 there were ... hiking clause22 t16 r22 one ... friends took ... it clause23 t17 r23 because we felt very thirsty clause24 t17 r24 we followed him clause25 t17 r25 we took .... together clause26 t17 r26 we were lucky clause27 t18 r27 because ... owner didn’t ... it clause28 t19 r28 on ... night we ... happy clause29 t20(=r28) r29 we sang ... together clause30 t20 r30 not ... we also ... sad clause31 t21(=r30) r31 because it was lat night clause32 t22 r32 we gathered clause33 t22 r33 on ... we tidied up our tent clause34 t22 r34 we cleaned the place clause35 t22 r35 and we went back clause36 t23 r36 i was ... happy clause37 t23 r37 and i never ... day clause38 t24(=r37) r38 because it was ... camping clause39 t25 r39 and we didn’t ... days result and discussion cohesion cohesion of the students’ writings was analyzed by applying halliday and hasan’s framework. based on their suggestions, the first thing to do was by indicating how many cohesive ties instances of a cohesive element within the sentence. then, for every type of tie we specified what type of cohesion involved in terms of reference, substitution, conjunction, ellipsis, and lexical cohesion. thirdly, for every tie, we specified whether this kind of tie was immediate or non-immediate. if it was non-immediate, it https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 372 was whether mediated, remote or both mediated and remote. there had to be an assigning numerical value to each instance. table 1. summarized the data analysis. table 1 students’ cohesive devices no devices number % 1 reference personal reference 437 58.11% demonstrative reference & definite article 54 7.18% comparative reference 7 0.93% 2 conjunction additive conjunction 8 1.06% adversative conjunction 10 1.33% causal conjunction 5 0.66 temporal conjunction 56 7.45% 3 lexical repetition 167 22.21% synonym 5 0.66% superordinate 1 0.13% 4 ellipsis 2 0.27% 5 substitution total 752 100% most of the students employed three kinds of cohesive devices. those three ties occurred more frequently than others. they were a reference, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. the reference occurred more frequently than others, numbering 498. then, it was followed by lexical cohesion with 173 occurrences and conjunction with 79 occurrences. there were only two ellipses on the table. in writing a recount text, the students were supposed to use grammatical devices that involved reference, lexical, conjunction, and also two other cohesive devices ellipsis and substitution. from the overall texts, we concluded that most students could produce cohesion of the texts. meanwhile, 4 students produced intervening sentences in their texts by which the texts be less cohesive. by the existence of those intervening sentences, there were no presupposing and presupposed items in the sentences. this leads the texts to be weak in cohesion. halliday (1994) also argued that the use of ellipsis and substitution is the prominent characteristic of spoken language. the students also had difficulty in employing substitution and ellipsis since they are the realization of grammatical relation in the level of lexicogrammar. they were considered more confusing rather than reference, lexical, and conjunction. coherence meanwhile, the flow of information in a sentence from theme to rheme is crucial in achieving communicative effectiveness in a message. the exchange of information between successive theme and rheme pairings in a text is called thematic progression (eggins, 1994). thematic progression contributes to the coherent development of a text, that is to say, in a coherent text the distribution of given and new information needs to follow certain patterns. there are several main types of thematic progression, which depends on different text types. as stated before, to analyze the thematic progression from the students’ recount texts we used the theory from butt et al. (1995). here is the table of the thematic progression patterns employed by the students in the 15 students’ texts. table 2 thematic progression produced by the students thematic pattern students’ texts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 373 constants 6 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 8 9 1 0 1 3 1 6 5 1 0 1 4 1 5 1 4 1 5 zig-zag 5 3 8 2 8 1 1 6 3 4 5 4 2 4 6 8 multiple 4 5 8 1 7 3 7 1 2 4 9 5 total of clauses 1 9 2 7 3 1 2 5 4 4 3 9 2 7 3 6 3 6 3 4 3 7 3 4 3 2 4 3 3 9 from the table above, the students mostly employed thematic progression pattern in the form of constant or reiteration. the constant thematic pattern is the way a writer repeats the theme from the previous theme directly. the theme produced by the students mostly were the repetition of pronoun (i, she, he, it, they, we). one of the reasons stated by cahyono (2009) is that the students find it easier to use pronouns in their writing by repeating one clause to another at the beginning of the clause. then, the second thematic progression pattern used by the students in their texts was zig-zag/ crossreferential thematic progression. it means that the students put the rheme as the new theme in the subsequent clause. finally, the last pattern used by the students was in the form of multiple thematic progression. furthermore, the number was not as many as constant and zig-zag patterns. the students did not improve their texts well. from the elaboration and the given table above, the numbers of clauses and thematic progression patterns were not balanced. it means that there were many clauses unrelated to one another. the students often introduced some new themes at the beginning of the clause without any relation with other clauses and they broke the well-signposted progression of the text. it can be concluded that most of the recount texts produced by the students were not coherent. conclusion to create cohesion of the texts, there were three cohesive devices that most of the students employed; personal pronoun, repetition, and temporal conjunctions. it indicated that the students created recount texts in a good structure since the personal reference and temporal conjunction are the lexicogrammatical features of a recount text. the cohesive devices were frequently used as personal references. it occurred 437 times or 58.11 %. the second occurrence was repetition with 167 times or 22.21 %. the third was the temporal conjunction with 56 occurrences or 7.45 %. then, the adversative conjunction occurred 10 times or 1.33 %. next, additive conjunction occurred eight times or 1.06 %. the next device was a comparative reference with seven times or 0.93 %. then, the occurrences of causal conjunction and synonym were five times each or 0.66 %. ellipsis also occurs two times or 0.27 %. the last device which existed and became the fewest number was superordinate. it only occurred once or 0.13%. those numbers were based on the total cohesive devices found in the texts. then, from all ties between presupposing items and presupposed items, most of them were in the form of anaphoric and cataphoric ways. furthermore, the relations were mostly those of anaphoric relations. the function of anaphoric and cataphoric relations is to create cohesion in the text and also to create the meaning of the text. the distance of the presuppositions that existed between ties in the texts was varied such as immediate, mediated, and non-mediated ties. on the one hand, the students could produce cohesion of the texts. on the other hand, some intervening sentences occurred in some texts. these intervening sentences could make the texts less cohesive. furthermore, most of the texts produced by the students were cohesive. then, the students developed their texts by employing reiteration or constant thematic progression pattern. the second pattern employed was a zig-zag pattern. the least was the multiple thematic progression pattern. based on the analysis of the way students developed the text in thematic progression, most of the texts were not coherent. there were many occurrences of unrelated clauses in the texts unrelated to the previous themes or rhemes. they appeared as new themes in the clauses, but they broke the signposted progression of the text. it means that the students failed to create unified related to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 15(2) april 2021 374 one another from the beginning to end. as a result, most of the texts were not coherent. there were only two texts considered coherent due to fewer intervening sentences. one implication of the present study was that if cohesion is better understood, coherence is better taught. at present, coherence is taught, explicitly or implicitly, either through exercises, classroom instructions, or comments to students’ texts. this research could also contribute to students in the writing activities because it gives the view to the students to write a cohesive and coherent text. the teachers could also improve the strategies in teaching writing based on the weaknesses of the students. based on the finding, teaching coherence becomes a concern as the students are weak in creating a coherent text. they seemed to have more difficulties in producing a coherent text. small exercises to produce a coherent text can start from producing coherent sentences, short paragraphs, and a text. references aghdam, s.h., & hadidi, y. (2015). cohesion and coherence in political newspaper and discussion sections of academic article. international journal on studies in english language and literature, 3(3), 11-22 bamberg. (1983). what makes a text coherent? college composition and communication, 34(4), 417-429. butt, d., fahey, r., feez, s., & spinks, s. (eds). (2000). using functional grammar: an explorer’s guide (2nd ed). national centre for english language teaching and research macquaire university. cahyono, s.p. (2009). applying textual metafuction in efl writing: a method to teach writing. https://repository.dinus.ac.id/docs/ajar/applyi ng_textual_metafunction_in_efl_writing.p df coulthard, m. (1994). advanced in written text analysis. routledge dossoumou, a.m., mehouenou, m.s., & koukpossi, a.o. (2018). appraising the impact of cohesion and coherence in benin ss3 efl learners’ writing productions: a linguistics perspective. international journal of lingustics, literature and culture, 4(5), 4154 https://doi.org/10.21744/ijllc.v4n5.293 emilia, e., habibi, n., & bangga, l.a. (2017). an analysis of cohesion of exposition texts: an indoneisan context. indonesian journal of applied linguistics. 7(3), 515523.https//:dx.doi10.17509/ijal.v7i3.9791 feez, s., & joyce, h. (998). text-based syllabus design. ames gerrot, l., & wignell, p. (1994). making sense of functional grammar. antipodean educational enterprises halliday, m.a.k. (1994). an introduction to functional grammar(2nd ed.). edward arnold. halliday, m.a.k., & hasan, r. (1976). cohesion in english. longman isti’anah, a., putri, s.p., & permata, a.g. (2020). cohesion in jurnal articles on applied linguistics: the case of conjunction ‘thus”. journal of applied studies in language, 4(1), 68-78. http://ojs.pnb.ac.id/index.php/jasl ong, j. (2011). investigating the use of cohesive devices by chinese efl learners. asian efl journal, 13(3), 42-65 richards, j.c. (2006). communicative language teaching today. cambridge university press suwandi. (2015). coherence and cohesion: an analysis of the final project abstracts of the undergraduate students of pgri semarang. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 5(2), 253-256. https:// dx.doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v5i2.1349 wang, l. (2007). theme and rheme in the thematic organization of text: implications for teaching academic writing. asian efl journal, 9(1). witte, s.p., & faigley, l. (2008). coherence, cohesion and writing quality. college composition and communication, 32(2). https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://ojs.pnb.ac.id/index.php/jasl language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 63 improving students’ participation in learning reading comprehension of narrative texts through constructive reading model (crm) ida maenawati state senior high school 7 cirebon email: idamaenawati@yahoo.com abstract this article is a report of an action research project conducted in reading class for eleventh year students of state senior high school 7 cirebon in the academic year of 2012/2013. the objectives of this study are to describe: (1) the problems faced by the students in learning reading comprehension (2) how constructive reading model is implemented (3) whether constructive reading model improve students’ participation in learning reading comprehension . the result from the questionnaires and observation sheet showed that(1) the students did not actively participate in the process of teaching learning, (2) by using constructive reading model students’ participation from pre-cycle to cycle 1 increased , from cycle 1 to cycle 2 increased, and (3) students’ score of reading comprehension from precycle to cycle 1 increased 15.65 points, from cycle 1 to cycle 2 increased 11.59 points. so the study concluded that the implementation of constructive reading model (1) could solve the problems faced by the students in learning reading comprehension (2) could improve students’ participation in the process of teaching learning and(3) could develop students’ reading comprehension mastery of the eleventh year students of state senior high school 7 cirebon. key words: students’ participation, reading model, constructive reading model, narrative texts. introduction: this part deal with background of the study, reasons for choosing the topic, statements of the problems, objectives of the study, significance of the study, scope of the study and definition of terms. reading is one of important skills that must be taught in school beside listening ,speaking and writing. it is as one of the language skills that takes a major place among the other language skills. harmer (2007:99) stated that reading is useful for language acquisition because reading text provides students more or less understand what they read. the teaching and learning process of english from junior to senior high school emphasized on the reading skill. it is also proved in english national examination, reading text takes the major test questions. however, reading is perhaps the most difficult language skill to teach in senior high school, because they do not participate actively in teaching learning 64 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 process, reading becomes the most boring class. to solve this problem, the teacher must think how to make students participate actively and how to find the appropriate approach, technique or model that is appropriate for her students so that they can folow the reading lesson enthusiastically, and can learn reading in an interesting, exciting and easy way. so, it is assumed that the most important issue which needs to be improved is participation of students in the process of teaching learning english. to fulfill this task, this study is intended to observe on improving students’ participation in comprehending of narrative text through “ constructive reading model” for students of state senior high school 7 cirebon that might help them to learn in an easy way and eventually improve their reading ability. the facts show that the students still have difficulty in reading. the students do not have good participation to comprehend a reading text, they do the tasks given by the teacher lazily, they do not enthusiastic in teaching and learning process. in order to clarify the problem that will be investigated, the researcher has formulated the following research questions: (1) what problems are faced by students of the eleventh year of state senior high school 7 cirebon in learning reading comprehension of narrative texts by using constructive reading model? (2) how is constructive reading model implemented in the teaching of reading of narrative texts in the second year of state senior high school 7 cirebon? (3) does constructive reading model improve students’ participation in learning reading comprehension of narrative texts? in relation to the problem formulation, the main goal of this study is to find the answer to the questions above. therefore the objectives of the research are as follow: (1) to describe the problems faced by the students of senior high school 7 cirebon in learning reading comprehension of narrative texts using constructive reading model ; (2) to describe how constructive reading model is implemented in the teaching of reading in second year of state senior high school 7 cirebon; (3) to describe whether constructive reading model improve students’ participation in learning reading comprehension of narrative texts. the following are some of reading models that belong to constructive reading models that inspire the researcher to implement in the class to help students comprehend a text and actively participate in teaching and learning process. they were created by some experts such as: a. fountees & pinnelle’s model: they called their model as “guided reading”, they propose the term “ before, during ,and after reading activities”. this model help to drive the enthusiasm and joy of learning to read language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 65 b. sharon vaughan and janette k. klingner’s model: they proposed a model which is called: collaborative strategic reading model or csr for short. this model consists of four strategies namely : preview, click and clunk, main idea and wrap –up. the goal of this model are to improve reading comprehension and increase conceptual learning to maximize students involvement. c. grage william and fredericcka l. stoller’s model: grabe & stoller wrote a book, the title of their book is “teaching and researching reading”. they stated that the models of reading is classified into two, they are metaphorical and specific models of reading. in the constructivist reading models only metaphorical is adopted. those three reading models were modified to be constructive reading model or crm for short. the first unit of constructive reading model called background knowledge activation and stimulus is based on the activities in before reading activities (fountes & pinnelle), preview (sharon & klingner) and bottomup (grabe & stoller) reading activity. the purpose is to assist students predict the content of the text they are going to read. the second unit is comprehension. it is based on the during reading activity (fountas & pinnele), get the gist (sharon & klingner) and top-down (grabe & stoller) reading activity. this activity is used to help students comprehend the text. the third units in constructive reading model is called enabling task is based on the after-reading activity (fountas & pinnelle), click and clunk (sharon & klingner) and interactive reading activity (grabe & stoller). in this unit the students are asked to review the linguistics aspects such as grammar and vocabulary. the forth unit of the constructive reading model (crm) is based on: after reading activity (fountas & pinnelle) wrap-up (sharon& klingner) and interactive reading activity (grabe and stoller). in this unit the students are asked to write or to tell what they have read by following the questions provided by the teacher or by answering question words such as: what. when, where, why and how, or they have to remember what they have read by writing or telling a paragraph related to the topic freely. these above units are used to foster students in understanding text easily so that joyful learning situation is reached. research methods the research design that was used was suggested by kemmis and mc. tagart: action research consists of cycles, every cycle consists of four actions. they are planning, action, observation and reflection. based on the method employed in this study, the nature of the data was qualitative quantitative. they were needed to answer the three research questions. the data needed to answer the first, second and the third questions. they were 66 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 taken from the result of questionnaires, the students’ tests and observation sheets in the on going process. 34 students of the eleventh grade science 5 of state senior high school 7 cirebon in the academic year 2012/ 2013. the instruments that were needed in this research were questionnaires, field note /observation sheet, and tests. the explanation is the following: a. questionnaire before the action: to know the problem in teaching learning process especially comprehending narrative texts and questionnaire after the action: to analyze learners’ feedback to crm in its units. b. observation sheet : to record events such as students’ participation in class. c. tests consisted of try out test: to know the quality of the test empirically, test before the cycle, and test after the cycle. the research was carried out at the eleventh science five class students of state senior high school 7 cirebon . it had been begun in the first week of april and finished first week of may 2013.so, there were five weeks or ten meetings needed for conducting the research. the respondents met twice a week in a classroom, one meeting was forty five minutes times 2. for eight meetings , including one meeting for gaining the score of students’ reading comprehension before the cycles, six meetings for learning process, one meeting for gaining the score of students’ reading comprehension after the cycles, and the last weeks for filling in the questioners, after that the researcher analyzing quantitative and qualitative data then doing the next cycle data were analyzed as follows: tabulating the respondents opinions or answers on the questionnaires, scoring the test before the cycle and after the cycle, finding out the gain score, tabulating and interpreting the observation sheet, interpreting and drawing the conclusions. results and discussion the description of initial condition were based on the questionnaire, the result of the questionnaires showed that students : a. did not actively participate in learning reading comprehension b. did not feel confident to answer teacher’s questions c. felt unsure with their answer in reading comprehension d. at times they thought they were not good at all in reading lessons. description of the 1st and 2nd cycle based on the problem found in the analysis, the researcher decided constructive reading model to improve students’ participation in learning reading comprehension of narrative texts, the activities were described as follows: a. planning: preparing a strategy, designing lesson plan, preparing teaching aid, test before & after the cycle language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 67 b. action: the researcher implement activities in c r m, they were background knowledge of activation and comprehension activities for the first meeting; enabling task and wrapup activities in the second meeting. c. observation; to know the effect of crm to improve students’ participation in learning reading , the researcher collaborated with some english teachers by using observation sheet, questionnaire and tests. d. reflection: this phase was conducted to analyze the data finding and discussion of the first cycle the first cycle consisted of two meetings that were conducted at april the 3 rd and the 8th. in those meeting the researcher had done observation and had some findings. they were: students’ participation during the implementation crm. a few of students had excellent participation, it means a few students demonstrated very active involvement, nearly a half of students had good participation, they contributed to well discussion, nearly a half of students had fair participation they did not give a lot of contribution in class interaction and a few of students had poor participation, they were present not disruptive but they did not involve in discussion. students’ reading comprehension after the action. average of students’ score in reading comprehension was 72.12 while before the action was 56.47. it means that students’ score after the action increased by 15.65 points. it was not significant yet, and it could not be said successful so it had to be continued in the second cycle. result of questionnaires after the action. before the action the average score of their participation in the process of teaching learning of reading comprehendsion was 68.47 ,while the average score of their participation after the action was 80.11. it means that before the action the students did not actively participate in the process of teaching and learning while after the action it showed that their participation increased. after analyzing the 34 students the researcher found that all students agree that c r m gave much contribution to increase their participation in learning reading, they like to learn reading. they thought that crm were attractive technique to improve reading skill. by using crm, they could actively involve and could do the task cooperatively with their friends and teacher. through activation of their background knowledge, they could answer questions easily and the activities made them proud of themselves. 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 findings and discussion of cycle ii second cycle consisted of two meetings that were conducted at april the 26 th and the 30 th. in those meeting the researcher had done observation and had some findings. they were: students’ reading comprehension before cycle. students’ average score before the cycle was 73,5 only 18 students or a half of all students got above the minimum passing grade fulfillment, while the average score after the cycle was 83.71, so nearly all of students got their score above minimum passing grade fulfillment or 82 .35 % o students’ participation after the action nearly a half of students had excellent participation, it means that nearly a half of students demonstrated on going very active involvement. nearly a half of had good participation, it means that they listened to his teacher and peers attentively, they contributed well to discussion. a few of students had fair participation, the students did not give a lot of contribution in class interaction and few of students had poor participation they had not demonstrate involvement in discussion with his peers or teacher. findings from questionnaire nearly all students stated that they like to learn reading through c r m, they thought that crm were attractive technique to improve their reading skill, they could actively involve and did the task cooperatively with their friends and teacher, they felt confident to answer the exercises in comprehension activities, exercises in wrap-up activities made them involve actively and enjoy to make a summary of a paragraph, they could be more enthusiastic to learn . discussion the criteria of successful proposed in this study had been accomplished, those were based on the findings towards students’ participation and students’ reading comprehension, to summarize the researcher made a simple illustration below which covered the success of the students’ achievement both in cycle 1 and cycle 2. criteria of successful are as follow: (1) if nearly all of students had good/excellent participation. (2) if more than 75% students passed the passing grade fulfillment. (3) if the implementation of constructive reading model could contribute the students’ participation. the summary are presented in the following figure: language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 69 the figure above means that the result of students’ participation during the teaching learning process from cycle 1 to cycle 2 increased by 48.51 points. it means that the implementation of constructive reading model could improve students’ participation. the score of students reading comprehension from pre-cycle to cycle 1 increased by 15.65 points, from cycle 1 to cycle 2 increased by 11.59 points, it means that constructive reading model contributed significantly to the improvement of the students’ reading comprehension of narrative texts. the result of students’ questionnaire from precycle to cycle 1 increased by 11.64 points, from cycle 1 to cycle 2 increased by 7.06 points. it means that constructive reading model contributed significantly to the improvement of the students’ participation. conclusion this chapter presents conclusions and suggestions that are made in reference to the research findings and discussions. the learning process of grade x1 science 5 students of state senior high school 7 cirebon in learning reading had some problems. based on the questionnaires the problem faced by the students were as follows: students did not actively participate in learning reading comprehension. they did not feel confident to answer questions, they felt hesitate or afraid of making mistakes to answer the questions. they could not express their view or opinion spontaneously in english lessons, they felt unprepared to answer the questions , they felt unsure with their answer , they felt bored with the tasks and activities , and at times they thought they were not good at all in reading lesson. to solve the problem above the researcher used constructive reading 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 pre cycle cycle 1 cycle 2 student's participation during the treatment student's participation quaestionnaire reading comprehension 70 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 model. it gave the students opportunity to have meaningful interaction to share and communicate their ideas or thought, so they can actively participate in the process of teaching learning. this was the appropriate technique that bring them to do the steps of learning reading. the students did the activities in group and individually, so they could do the tasks actively and confidently. additionally, constructive reading model implemented in this study contributed to the students in terms of their participation in the process of teaching learning and the students’ reading comprehension. this activities could be done both in speaking or writing tasks. so the students can both improve both in writing and speaking. the activities in constructive reading model were able to encourage the students to be more active. having the treatment of constructive reading model to students of the eleventh year senior high school 7 cirebon, the writer would like to give some suggestions, especially to senior high school teachers: teacher can apply the constructive reading model in teaching reading comprehension; english teachers should use some strategies in teaching learning process in the classroom to improve the students’ participation and students’ reading comprehension; for other researcher, it is suggested to continue the action research by using constructive teaching learning in teaching reading or in the teaching of other language skills such as writing, speaking and listening references brown h. douglas, 2004, language assesment principles and classroom practices, new york: pearson education, inc. fountas & pinnelle 1996. guided reading. in donna kester philips, guided reading: constructivism in action. (on line). available: www.jpacte.org/2008.philips.pdf. grabe w. and stoller l.f. 2002, teaching and researching reading london; pearson education,. harmer j.,2007, how to teach english, edinburgh: pearson education . pang e. (2003). teaching reading ( on line ) available : http: // www. curtin. edu .au/curtin/dept/smec/ial. shen l. & jipanat s. .2011.e-learning constructive role plays for efl learners in china’s tertiary education ( on line) available: http://www.asianefl-journal.com. the asian efl journal professional teaching articlescebu issue vol. 54, august 2011. http://www.jpacte.org/ http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/ http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ４９ ４９ english instruction for special educational needs: a narrative inquiry of a learning support assistant ayu sinta ramadhani1 ayusinta.ramadani@uinsu.ac.id rahmah fithriani2 rahmahfithriani@uinsu.ac.id 1,2universitas islam negeri sumatera utara, indonesia abstract in terms of instruction and materials, efl for children is very different, particularly if it is taught in inclusive classes where children with special educational needs (sen) are grouped in one class and receive the same education. therefore, students with sen require a learning support assistant (lsa) to aid in explaining and guiding their learning. in this study, we will therefore employ a narrative inquiry methodology to describe the experience of an lsa in assisting students in the english language. the collected data were examined using content analysis. challenges associated with the lsa profession that accompany efl learning, differences in the educational background of the profession, as well as social relationships and interactions with the school environment are the focus of this study's findings, which are intended to provide other learning support assistants with based-on-experience information. keywords: english for children, learning support assistant, narrative inquiry, special educational needs. introduction english language’s burgeoning importance as a lingua franca for international communication has impacted its teaching and learning in most countries over the world, particularly those in outer and expanding circles. english, as a global language, has been prioritized by education practitioners as an introduction to international interactions (o’regan, 2021). to participate in international negotiations and cooperation, english is used by a growing number of nations, particularly those in expanding circles such as china, indonesia, japan, korea, and nepal, which only use the language for specific purposes including scientific and technological development and diplomatic relations (lestari & setiyawan, 2020). this significant role in english increases the demand for proficiency in the language. as a result, numerous countries require english in their curriculum presentations. this curriculum is included in the education curriculum in these countries not only for adults as a communication tool, but it is also included in the basic education curriculum and becomes compulsory learning taught in schools. there is, of course, a need to separate english lessons for adults and children. thus, there are specific approaches specifically discussed and referred to as english for children. learning english at an early age has become significantly important for children (chu, 2014), which necessitates a variety of approaches, materials, and instructional methods. as a result, the phenomenon of learning english at a young age is prevalent in many countries around the world, including indonesia. although english is not a required subject for elementary schools under the current curriculum implemented in this country, numerous educational institutions have offered english as a subject to their students as early as first grade. children typically learn english in the classroom in the same way that http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:ayusinta.ramadani@uinsu.ac.id mailto:rahmahfithriani@uinsu.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５０ ５０ adults do, despite the required distinction of english instruction for the two groups. at an early age, english learning usually focuses on vocabulary development and enrichment through game-based learning to make this experience enjoyable. regarding the differences between english learning for children and adults, it is logical to conclude that the distinction must be made clearer for children with special education needs (sen), who require specialized pedagogical treatment. since the english subject is taught to all children, including those with sen, it is essential to pay particular attention to this group. depending on their limitations, the achievement outcomes would vary if the same teaching method and approach were used for all children (garcía & baker, 2007), (lewis et al., 2017). therefore, it is necessary to differentiate approaches, materials, and instructional methods for children with special needs. children with special needs are typically included in inclusive classroom programs. despite the existence of this inclusive class program, children with special needs must also adhere to the government-mandated curriculum. inclusive classes are used to comply with federal law and make progress toward grade-level general education standards (taub et al., 2020), which require inclusive children to achieve or improve their learning outcomes. a study that engages a standards-based reform model by stating that if a country adopts high-quality standards and students have the opportunity to study those standards, students will make progress in the general curriculum as required by the essa (every student succeeds act), individuals with disabilities act (idea, 2004), and non-regulatory guidance from the office of special education and rehabilitation services (2015). every student with special needs who attends public schools must complete the same curriculum as other students, including foreign languages. in the absence of differences in the indonesian curriculum system regarding foreign language learning in the classroom, students with special needs must adhere to all english learning systems established by the school. english for children alone is very interesting, especially english for special educational needs. as some research was undertaken by three local education authorities in the northeast of england to support pupils with special educational needs (crowther et al., 2001), a study about educating english and language learners with special educational needs (park & thomas, 2012). and also a concern about teachers’ perspectives on special educational needs in oman (al-busaidi & tuzlukova, 2018). children with special needs will participate in inclusive classes alongside other students. it's just that they've been given special authorization to have an assistant teacher. the task of this learning support assistant is to assist the main teacher in explaining the explanation and to ensure that these students with special needs participate in learning and achieve the curriculum targets that have been set (lacey, 2010). several studies discuss the point of view of learning support assistants such as research on the role of learning support assistants in assisting students with special educational needs that accompany physical learning(vickerman & blundell, 2012), (maher, 2016). there are currently very few studies on the teaching of english to children with special needs. particularly from the perspective of the accompanying teacher or learning support assistant. as a result, this study will describe the learning support assistant's perspective on english learning in children with special educational needs. the narrative inquiry research method was used in this research. kitwood introduced the narrative inquiry method in 1993, which introduced a personal approach to the medical field. this method creates a research foundation that focuses on feelings, time, opinions, and time. people frequently feel the need to share their illness stories, and these narratives can be used to learn more about their experiences and the people who care for them(haydon et al., 2018). this research was conducted to answer the research question of http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５１ ５１ “how does the learning support assistant feel and react to students with special educational needs in the english learning process?”. moreover, the aim of this research was expected to benefit knowledge in improving the quality of education for children with special needs, as well as provide additional literature for learning support assistants in assisting students with special needs. the teaching of english to children at early ages teaching english to children requires a different approach than teaching english to adults. not only must the material taught, but also the approaches used, be appropriate for the child's needs. not only must the information taught be appropriate for the child's requirements, but so must the methods employed. there are several reasons why english is taught to children at a young age, particularly in countries of expanding circle (kachru, 1985), which refers to countries where english has no special administrative status but is recognized as a lingua franca and is widely studied as a foreign language, such as brazil, germany, japan, and indonesia. one of which is because children are still acquiring their linguistic code, thus, they will readily adopt a new one. for the same reason, they have no trouble pronouncing unfamiliar sounds. they are not concerned in sounding distinctive. moreover, when children have a great experience learning a language since their early age s children, they will remember it fondly and find it simpler to learn languages later in life cooper, 2007). aside from language-related benefits, learning english or any other language beside mother tongues has a direct and association with cognitive growth. in addition to boosting memory, focus, and the ability to multitask, it has been demonstrated that learning a second language helps young children develop problemsolving, critical-thinking, and listening abilities. finally, children who are exposed to multiple languages at a young age have more favorable attitudes toward the cultures linked with those languages. the experience of learning a language exposes children to aspects of the world they might not otherwise encounter. english for children with special educational needs education for children with special educational needs (sen) began to be actively developed in the 18th century, with the pivotal publication of a research by a french specialist named jean-marc itard. the paper detailed the finding of "wolf children" who were neither clothed nor civilized. the biography of hellen keller is then supplemented by anecdotes from other characters. many cases that are unique and challenging to conquer, necessitating ways, experiments, and strategies for teaching and educating children with special needs. according to the interpretation above, education for students with special needs differs from that for other students. students with special needs, according to hallahan and kaufman (2006), are individuals who require special education and related assistance. in line with this, gearheart (in mangunsong, 2009) explained that a student who is born impaired has different educational demands than the ordinary normal child and requires unique learning programs, services, and materials. sensory, physical, cognitive, emotional, or communication skills, or a combination of these, are areas of specialization for these students. this specificity is the reason for the impact's severity on educational advancement. different effects can be seen based on age, gender, and environment. students with special needs should not be segregated from the community since they have the same rights as other people, including the access to education. inclusive education is a strategy for achieving universal education that responds to the diverse actual needs of children and the community, especially children with special needs. for children with disabilities, the term ‘inclusive’ sounds more positive than special, disabled, and abnormal because they contain discrimination and powerlessness. moreover, inclusive education seeks more realistic and comprehensive methods of exposing students to real-life situations since they can interact with a http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５２ ５２ variety of individuals in their social milieu. in contrast to mainstreaming and segregation, inclusive education seeks to integrate children with special needs into the larger world of education. identifying appropriate approaches to addressing persistent educational underachievement of english language learners (ells) remains a challenge for educators across the country. the widespread and inappropriate use of standardized testing with ells is well documented, as is the fact that these tests frequently underestimate students' academic progress and potential (baca & cervantes, 2004; cummins & sayers, 1995). not surprisingly, the national research council reported that ells are still at risk of being placed in special education (donovan & cross, 2002). furthermore, zehler, hopstock, and fleischman (2003) stated that instructional programs for the approximately 350,000 special education second-language learners in grades k–12 must be better aligned to state standards to ensure that all students have equal access to the implementation and assessment of mandated curricula. to address cultural and linguistic diversity in education for all students, there is an urgent need to use more authentic assessments and differentiate the curriculum. different sociolinguistic and cultural backgrounds, adjustment to a new socio-cultural milieu, the presence of a disability, or a combination of these factors may all contribute to ell students' learning and behavior problems (hoover, 2000). this frequently leads to ells being over-identified, under-identified, or misidentified for special education (gonzalez, bruscavega, & yawkey, 1997). although the terminology has changed over the years (e.g., adaptation, differentiation, modification), the underlying issue for ells with special needs is that curriculum must meet their diverse needs in the classroom. curriculum implementation principles apply to all learners, including students with mild disabilities from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. an appreciation for the diversity that students bring to the educational setting is a value-added component (hoover & patton, in press). the curricular principles discussed by garcia (2001), hoover (2001), o'malley and pierce (1996), and ovando, collier, and combs (2003) supplement the basic teaching principles and are important in implementing and differentiating the curriculum for ells with learning and behavioral problems. effective curriculum implementation for ells with special needs focuses on academic content relevant to students' culture, background, environment, and prior experiences; and multiple content knowledge and skills that are reinforced over time and across subject areas. hoover and patton (in press) expanded on these important teaching and curricular principles by outlining six curricular elements required to effectively select and differentiate curriculum and instruction for ells. "addressing these six factors will help the practitioner ascertain the best adaptations to curriculum, while simultaneously valuing the learner's cultural and linguistic diversity," hoover and patton explained. learning support assistant’s role the success of an inclusive education practice depends on a number of factors, one of which is teacher-student interaction. in inclusive environments, teachers need to pay more attention to students with special needs than those without special needs (cameron, 2014). furthermore, the effectiveness of inclusive classrooms is also determined by instructional interaction patterns, the beliefs and attitudes of teachers towards students, and their attitudes and beliefs about students (jordan & stanovich, 2001), due to the teacher-student ratio, inclusive education will be difficult to achieve, as intensive interaction between the teacher and the group of students they instruct would be impossible. to address this issue, inclusive education classrooms need to employ learning support assistants (lsas) to assist students with sen in adjusting to the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５３ ５３ classroom environment. this is typically one-onone and is intended to assist the student while relieving the teacher of additional responsibilities. therefore, a learning support assistant (lsa) assists both students and teachers. inclusive education has been implemented in indonesia for almost two decades. however, since its inceptions, numerous issues have been identified, which include inadequate services for students with special needs and a lack of lsas (rasmitadila & goldstein, 2017). as a consequence, inclusive education in indonesia has not yet been fully implemented, as evidenced by the small number of students with specific learning disabilities (sld) and profound and multiple learning disabilities (pmld) who have been educated alongside their more privileged classmates. as a result, there is scant literature on learning support assistants (lsa) and students with sld and pmld, particularly in an indonesian context. regarding this issue, this paper focuses on the general literature on students with special educational needs (sen) and the narrative of an sla working with students with sen to help them learning english as a foreign language. methodology research design this qualitative study was conducted with the narrative inquiry design. narrative inquiry is a type of research that investigates an individual's experience and how their physical, social, and cultural environment influences and shapes their individual experiences (haydon et al., 2018). the desire for a more holistic exploration of the chosen phenomenon: its depth and breadth, drives narrative inquiry research (guba & lincoln, 1982; lindsay & schwind, 2016) by focusing on both the relationship between researcher and participant as well as the interwoven dimensions of inquiry (byrne, 2017; clandinin, 2016). furthermore, a narrative is both a phenomenon and a method, with the former representing the life being studied and the latter referring to the process by which a researcher studies the phenomenon and engages in research the act of recounting (white, 2015). this research investigated the views, opinions, and experiences of a learning support assistant (lsa) as a companion for english education by focusing on their belief in supporting children with sen in english education and their perspective on how effective they are in their relationship with the english teacher. therefore, even so, this study may be useful for triangulating lsa views with english teachers and education providers, the main purpose of this paper is to present lsa perspectives in detail rather than limiting their views in addition to analyzing other people's perspectives. the main goal of this paper is to present lsa perspectives in detail rather than limiting them, as well as to analyze other people's perspectives. the study was carried out in a single primary school in medan where the first author has been working for nine years. the data were collected from one lsa who works in a school that specializes in english language education for children with special needs. data were collected through interviews and transcription of reports from lsa experiences in the form of a teacher's diary. the interview took place in indonesian. similarly, lsa’s teachers’ diary is also written in indonesian. the researchers met with lsa several times during the data collection process to obtain detailed and rich data. participants three lsas are assisting inclusive learning for children with special educational needs at the school where we conducted this research. in addition to the three lsas, there is one therapist and one psychologist who collaborate to enhance and develop learning. we purposefully selected one of the three lsas based on the lsa criteria of greater experience assisting sen students and accompanying children with special educational needs. among the three potential participants, the selected candidate has more experience and http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５４ ５４ has accompanied more than two students with sen at this school. our participant is a male aged 29. he was born to a malay and a bataknese couple. he is the eldest of three siblings in his family, with a younger brother and a younger sister. he is currently married and has a daughter. he is an immigrant from tanjung balai, north sumatera. he moved to medan to continue his education at undergraduate level where he majored in perbandingan mazhab. his choice of this major was rooted in his curiosity as a muslim who wanted to know the rationale and law behind any activities conducted by human beings. for ethical consideration, anonymity and confidentiality issues were discussed and explained to participants during data collection (fithriani, 2018), after identifying the participant, the first author, who is also a teacher at the school, delivered the information orally. the information was communicated to the principal by the first author, who also explained the objectives of the study. this was completed as part of the school's research requirements. after the research conditions were met, the researcher’s scheduled interviews. the interview was scheduled for three meetings. the questions posed about lsa's experience assisting students with special educational needs in learning. instruments in this study, semi-structured interviews served as the research instrument for the narrative inquiry methodology. this type of interview is used to elicit information from participants that are more comprehensive and rigorous. with the participant’s consent, the researchers audio recorded the interview, which was conducted in indonesian. the audio recording was subsequently transcribed word-for-word and translated into english. we interviewed the participant to get indepth stories about his experience as an lsa, particularly when assisting students in learning english. the semi-structured interview format allowed the participant to discuss what was important to him rather than limiting his responses to the areas we identified as potential concerns based on the literature review. we created open-ended questions to encourage discussion about his decision to work as an lsa and whether his lack of educational experience posed a problem in carrying out his duties as an lsa. in addition, when working with children with special educational needs, we explore what he feels and how he controls their emotions. we also allow the participant to tell us about any other important experiences the has had, as well as to seek advice on how to improve his ability to handle children and find solutions if obstacles arise during the learning process. we scheduled a 60-minute semi-structured face-to-face interview. however, the actual interview lasts 30 minutes, after which it would be continued via whatsapp and phone to get in-depth information. in addition to interviews, the teacher's diary was used to collect data for data source triangulation. the lsa provided these daily notes in the form of student behavior and development reports. this daily report also includes problems, difficulties, and roadblocks encountered throughout the mentoring process. the lsa also includes suggestions or solutions for every problem encountered. there are three notes which were used as the data in this study. data analysis the primary method of data analysis in this study was inductive content analysis, which focuses on answering the research question by identifying themes in selected material (terrell, 2016). the responses of the sla to the interview questions and his teaching diary entries were contextually analyzed in three stages of coding. significant quotes and passages were manually coded using colored pencils during the initial phase of coding. the initial findings were then recorded in the researcher's note as a guide for the subsequent data analysis phase. in the second stage, all http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５５ ５５ significant quotes and passages from the initial findings were coded and provisionally categorized at the sentence level. the findings from this stage of coding were subsequently reanalyzed during the final stage of coding. this process was iterative before categories and subcategories could be adequately saturated. result and discussion result the objective of this research is to tell the story of an lsa's experience assisting children with special needs to learn english in inclusive classrooms. the findings are divided into three categories: the impact of professionalism with an educational background as an lsa, teaching challenges efl for special educational needs, and interaction with the environment. the following are descriptions and discussions of the three findings: impact of professionalism with educational background according to data collected through the interview, the participant has a different educational background than his job as a learning support assistant. as we all know, people who work as lsas typically have educational or psychological backgrounds. however, the participant claimed to be a law scholar. he stated that this was initially an impediment to optimizing learning achievement. because he did not obtain pedagogical knowledge and procedures for teaching or giving lessons as a law scholar with a comparative concentration of schools of thought. during the in-depth interview session, the participant stated that his diverse background piqued his interest. it provides him with very valuable color and knowledge as a recent graduate who has only recently attempted to work as an lsa, as seen in the following excerpt: i have no formal education as an sla. this is my first time working. but, to be honest, i learn a lot from my job as an sla every day that i would not have gotten in college. interacting with these children also altered my perception of special-needs children. (interview excerpt 1) excerpt 1 shows that our lsa participants enjoy their profession, even though it is not directly related to their academic background. he also admitted that the nuances of being an lsa broadened not only his knowledge but also his perception of children with special needs. he also explained that this situation of being in a profession which is not linear with his educational background is not something he regrets. he found it a blessing and felt very thankful for the opportunity to master two fields of knowledge at the same time. he furthermore compared his current situation with that of his experience back in college time, where he had to study pedagogic sciences and psychology, as he stated in excerpt 2: i only studied one field of science in college, but now i study two fields of science at the same time. i studied psychology and education. particularly important is the education of children with special needs. i consider myself fortunate, and i want to see it as an opportunity, not a hindrance to my professional development. (excerpt 2, interview) the participant explained that he learned a lot more than he did in college from finding 2. he studied psychology to better understand the psychological side of children with special needs, as well as their growth, development, and emotional changes. in addition, to prepare for a career as an educator, he studied education so that he could teach students. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５６ ５６ efl teaching challenges for special educational needs from the results of the coding performed on the teacher's daily report on english learning assistance, the participant agreed that teaching english to children with special needs is a great idea with a big goal. however, some limitations exist in the language development of the children he is accompanying. where the children accompanied by adhd are students with very low attention or focus if he dislikes learning, his mood will be unstable. excerpt 3 from teaching diary #1 below reflects the aforementioned issues: students (with sen) whom i accompany have poor concentration. he can only sit quietly in class for 5 to 6 minutes at a time. as a result, he becomes bored faster than the other children when he pays attention to the teacher's explanation. i usually deal with this by giving him additional instructions during the learning process to help him stay calm in class. i need to spend some time getting to know her learning and emotional styles. when i found out about it, it greatly aided me in giving him instructions. (excerpt 3, teaching diary 12. february 2022) according to excerpt 3, he accompanied a child whose concentration was low and whose attention was easily distracted. as a result, the participant must employ special strategies to ensure that students sit quietly and pay attention to the teacher's explanation while not disturbing other students. then an lsa must develop a special method of getting students with sen to listen to the instructions they give. students with sen require a unique approach and an intense emotional introduction from lsa. so that the student is willing to follow the participant's instructions. another lsa challenge mentioned in the data is the students' ability to learn english. students with sen have limitations in language classes. some of them are illiterate. sometimes the perfect oral organs and other external factors are constrained. excerpt 4, teaching dairy #6 i struggle to teach new vocabulary. because students tend to memorize vocabulary without understanding what they have memorized. when students are asked to name vocabulary and its meaning, for example. he, however, was unable to locate the previously mentioned item. furthermore, students (with sen) who have oral organ problems will find it difficult to pronounce vocabulary according to pronunciation. (excerpt4, teaching diary #6) the participant described the challenges he faced when teaching new vocabulary to students with special needs. because students with special needs are more likely to be able to memorize without understanding what he has memorized. furthermore, if there are students with sen who have problems with their oral organs, it will be difficult for them to mention the vocabulary based on their pronunciation. according to the participant’s explanations, teaching children with special needs presents extremely complex challenges. the difficulties begin with students' cognitive abilities, low concentration power, and oral organs, which are commonly used for communication. as a result, as lsa, participants must have a unique approach to each learning mentoring. emotional closeness is also very influential in getting students to listen to instructions. interaction with the environment as part of the school ecosystem, an lsa must interact with the child he or she is accompanying and their classmates. this will assist students in interacting with their social surroundings. because they are engrossed in their world, most sen students struggle with friendships. obstruct their interaction with their peers this is comparable to the outcomes of the interview process. furthermore, under federal law, an lsa may collaborate in optimizing their potential and http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５７ ５７ development if children with special educational needs must also progress in learning and teaching. this was founded on interview data, as the participant explained in excerpt 5 i believe that i should be able to communicate with his classmates. this student lacks social skills. he also has trouble making friends and playing with them. he prefers to play alone or daydream during recess. as a result, i played with his friends and included him in the game. (excerpt 5, interview) according to the participant's interview explanation, he must participate and be active in establishing relationships with the environment around the school as an lsa. there are several criteria that students with sen find it difficult to establish social relationships, even with family or peers. then, based on the participant's explanation, it is clear that he must also be active and play with his classmates in class. besides that collaborating with classmates will make it easier for us to help children socialize. furthermore, even if they are only lsa, they are teachers who must be respected. additionally, lsa must be able to socialize and mingle with teachers at school. according to the data obtained from the transcript, lsa must assist teachers in implementing the rules and principles that already exist in the classroom when it comes to learning implementation. so that the class becomes a whole and connects students, teachers, and lsa other findings were discovered in the participant's diaries about the need for him to interact with the school environment. this was excerpt 6 in the teacher’s diary i once suggested to the class teacher that we invite students to study outside of the classroom. this is due to the student’s tantrums and refusal to study in class, making studying difficult for him and his friends. by explaining it to the teacher, he accepted it, and all of the students in the class ended up learning outside of the classroom. with this change in atmosphere, i, students, and other students were able to learn in a more conducive environment. based on his explanation, we can conclude that as part of a school, an lsa must have good relationships with the surrounding environment for him and his student (sen) to follow all of the learning targets set by the government and schools. discussion the data analysis revealed that lsa's experiences as a companion teacher for children with special needs were very different. becoming a learning support assistant at the age of a recent graduate with a background unrelated to the profession is a unique challenge for the participant. he must have a strong personal attachment to students with sen. this proximity will enable him to interact with students, understand their situations, and devise methods, tips, and tricks to meet their needs. three findings were obtained during the interview process and data analysis from the participant's teacher's diary, namely impact of professionalism with educational background, efl teaching challenges for special educational needs (sen), interaction with the environment. the impact of professionalism on educational background, as an lsa with a very different educational background and as a fresh graduate with no work experience, he must adapt and learn quickly. he had to learn not only one branch of science, but several branches of science at the same time, based on the information he received. he attempted to study education and psychology and apply what he learned to his work. the research on the lsa role explains that being an lsa does not have to be someone who graduated from the same department or education concentration as the participants, because an lsa will receive special assistance in the form of training from the institution where he works. the most important aspect of becoming an lsa is to have a strong sense of caring, a desire to http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５８ ５８ learn, and excellent communication skills (farrell et al., 2000). when an lsa accompanies students with sen in an efl class, the challenges would be different. students with nes must follow the same curriculum and process as other students in the efl class. it is difficult for an lsa to ensure that students meet the assessment objectives. some students with sen have cognitive limitations, causing interference with their language skills. aside from that, students with sen have limitations on language acquisition devices, such as the brain or central nervous system, hearing instruments, and speech instruments (chomsky, 2005). a device can help a child master the language in a broad and complex way, as well as in a variety of ways, such as the sound of a language, vocabulary, language structure, and other aspects that will enable every child to use language correctly and effectively in communication. of course, it will be extremely beneficial to students learning a second language. another opinion of thought holds that a child with language intelligence will have better language skills than children his age (gardner, 1983). students who are accompanied by participants only reach the level of imitation. where he can memorize new vocabulary but cannot comprehend the meaning of the vocabulary he has memorized. students have not been able to compose simple sentences in addition to good sentences. with this challenge, an lsa must, of course, be able to collaborate with the surrounding environment. an lsa must have a good working relationship with the work environment in a professional relationship. the role of an lsa in the classroom is to explain to the students he is accompanying what the teacher has said in front of the class. based on the information gleaned from the interview and the teacher's diary, the participant stated that as an lsa, he must be able to collaborate with the peers of his students. this will greatly assist him in improving students' social skills. as has been observed in several cases, students with sen are more interested in their imagination than in playing and socializing with their peers. so, in addition to assisting with learning, an lsa can also help students improve their abilities. to improve students' abilities in efl classes, teachers must collaborate to create lesson plans that are tailored to the students' needs(farrell et al., 2000; lacey, 2001). according to the findings, an lsa had very different experiences while mentoring students with nes. students with special needs must demonstrate changes and achievements in the learning process not only to meet the social development of students, but also to fulfill the inclusive school system. as a result, an lsa must perform at a high level. aside from that, an lsa must be quick to adapt and have a strong desire to learn in order to help his students want to follow every series of learning provided by the school conclusion language teaching and acquisition differ between adults and children, one of which is influenced by environmental factors (rod ellis, 2006). efl for children necessitates a variety of approaches, methods, materials, and delivery methods, particularly for children with special needs. an inclusive education system requires students with nes to participate with other students. they receive the same treatment, learning materials, and methods, and achieve the same learning results. in other words, students with special needs must demonstrate growth and learning achievement as well. a student with a nes must be accompanied by an lsa in order to improve their learning. an lsa who will help students with their studies the lsa will re-explain the material that the class teacher has already delivered. references al-busaidi, s., & tuzlukova, v. (2018). teachers’ perceptions of practices and challenges of innovating for the inclusion of special needs http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ５９ ５９ university english language learners in oman. journal of educational and psychological studies [jeps], 12(4), 659–671. https://doi.org/10.53543/jeps.vol12iss4pp659 -671 byrne, g. (2017). narrative inquiry and the problem of representation: ‘giving voice’, making meaning. international journal of research and method in education, 40(1), 36– 52. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2015.10340 97 cameron, d. l. (2014). an examination of teacher– student interactions in inclusive classrooms: teacher interviews and classroom observations.journal of research in special educational needs, 14(4), 264-273. chomsky, n. 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(2018). narrative inquiry as a research methodology exploring person centred care in nursing. collegian, 25(1), 125–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2017.03.001 jordan, a., & stanovich, p. j. (2001). patterns of teacher–student interaction in inclusive elementary classrooms and correlates with student self-concept. international journal of disability, development and education, 48(1), 33-52. lacey, p. (2001). the role of learning support assistants in the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties. educational review, 53(2), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910120055589 lacey, p. (2010). the role of learning support assistants in the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910120055589, 53(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910120055589 lestari, s., & setiyawan, r. (2020). technology era, global english, clil: influence and its impact on english teaching for young http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ６０ ６０ learners in indonesia. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 469(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/17551315/469/1/012094 lewis, r., wheeler, j., & carter, s. (2017). teaching students with special needs in general education classrooms. etsu authors bookshelf. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu_books/113 lindsay, g. m., & schwind, j. k. (2016). narrative inquiry: experience matters. the canadian journal of nursing research = revue canadienne de recherche en sciences infirmieres, 48(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0844562116652230 maher, a. j. (2016). ‘we’ve got a few who don’t go to pe’: learning support assistant and special educational needs coordinator views on inclusion in physical education in england. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1356336x1664993 8, 23(2), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336x16649938 o’regan, j. p. (2021). global english and political economy: an immanent critique. global english and political economy, 1–282. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315749334/glo bal-english-political-economyjohn-regan park, y., & thomas, r. (2012). educating englishlanguage learners with special needs : beyond cultural and linguistic considerations. journal of education and practice, 3(9), 52–59. rasmitadila & goldstein, b. l. (2017). the role of special assistant teacher to help special needs student through instructional interactions in an inclusive classroom. international journal of special education, 32(3), 485-506. rod ellis. (2006). understanding second language acquisition. in oxford (vol. 1999, issue december). taub, d., apgar, j., foster, m., ryndak, d. l., burdge, m. d., & letson, s. (2020). investigating the alignment between english language arts curricula developed for students with significant intellectual disability and the ccss. remedial and special education, 41(5), 284–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932519843184 vickerman, p., & blundell, m. (2012). english learning support assistants’ experiences of including children with special educational needs in physical education. european journal of special needs education, 27(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2011.64558 5 white, c. (2015). internationalizing education: critical qualitative case studies in social education. american journal of educational research, 3(2), 211–219. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-3-2-15 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 394 the advantages and disadvantages of offline and emergency remote online general english classes rintya yuniastari rintya.yuniastari@gmail.com anna marietta da silva anna.silva@atmajaya.ac.id abstract during the covid-19 outbreak, with more than one billion school closures occurring worldwide, all teaching and learning interactions have to be conducted online, and it is a challenge for teachers (and learners) to adapt to this sudden shift because most educational institutions were not yet ready. however, regardless of the pandemic, in the era where technology plays a huge part in the advancement of human civilization, it is time for the global education system to evolve and begin incorporating technology into its implementation. once the pandemic is over, teachers (and learners) will then have the opportunity to choose their medium of teaching and learning interactions, whether it is offline or online. thus, this study examined and compared the advantages and disadvantages of both offline and emergency remote online teaching. the data were collected through focus group discussion. several prompts were used as discussion starters, but the researchers allowed the participants to share their opinions freely and let the data speak. the data were then analyzed and coded using thematic analysis. researchers then made a summary of synthesis assumptions based on and supported by evidence from the data corpus. the findings revealed that teachers tend to favor offline teaching for its direct teacher-student interactions, although the high number of students in one class can be a challenge. whereas online teaching is preferred for its time-efficiency and flexibility, albeit its technological complexity. keywords: [offline, online, english teaching, synchronous, asynchronous, technology] introduction in the field of english language teaching, various teaching methodologies and approaches have been implemented in the classrooms. some of the most common approaches are the oral approach and situational language teaching, the audiolingual method, total physical response (tpr), the silent way, community language learning (cll), suggestopedia, the direct approach, grammar-translation method (gt), and communicative language teaching approach (clt) (richards & rodgers, 2001). in reality, english teachers combine the approaches to enable the students to achieve the learning objectives. a study by kong (2011) explored a combination of communicative teaching methods and the grammar-translation method in teaching english to chinese students in a vocational school. the result showed that by combining these two contrastive approaches, teachers could enhance their students’ ability to grasp the learning objective in a better way. another similar finding came from chang (2011) where he initially conducted a contrastive study on the communicative approach and the grammartranslation method. he later concluded that the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:rintya.yuniastari@gmail.com mailto:anna.silva@atmajaya.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 395 best way to achieve maximum results was to integrate the two said approaches. however, these approaches were mainly developed for conventional teaching and learning activities which are conducted in offline classrooms with face-to-face and direct interactions between learners and instructors. as a consequence, for decades, language teachers around the world were used to teach within the “traditional” boundary. the covid-19 outbreak in early 2020 has extremely changed the global educational system. the outbreak resulted in approximately 1.38 billion school closures occurring worldwide (li & lalani for world economic forum, 2020, paras. 12). this unfortunate event forced educators around the world to switch to emergency remote (henceforth, er) teaching, preventing learners from physically interacting with each other to prevent the spread of the coronavirus. consequently, all teaching and learning interactions have been conducted virtually through online educational platforms. at first glance, this could seem to be the perfect solution for global education amid a pandemic. nevertheless, er teaching that is being conducted everywhere right now is meaningfully different from regular, well-planned online learning. hodges, et al. (2020) explained the phenomenon in their study: in contrast to experiences that are planned from the beginning and designed to be online, emergency remote teaching (ert) is a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances. it involves the use of fully remote teaching solutions for instruction or education that would otherwise be delivered face-to-face or as blended or hybrid courses and that will return to that format once the crisis or emergency has abated. the primary objective in these circumstances is not to recreate a robust educational ecosystem but rather to provide temporary access to instruction and instructional support in a manner that is quick to set up and is reliably available during an emergency or crisis. (para. 13) it seems that in er teaching and learning, educators, teachers, lecturers, and all educational institutions personnel, even learners, are expected to “master” this new system overnight. this current situation is unexpected, and most schools and universities were not yet ready. rahiem (2020) pointed out in his study on the er learning experience of university students in indonesia that one of the main reasons for this unpreparedness was because “most of the course syllabus was not designed to be an online or for a distance learning experience” (p. 17). as a result, many teachers, including language teachers, are intensely pressured to provide manageable yet effective teaching methods that are appropriate and suitable for the current situation in a very limited time. they are expected to be able to implement the teaching methods that they have been used in offline to online classrooms, although previous studies revealed that many teachers were actually struggling to adapt to the sudden shift (see for example nashir and laili, 2021; and nakhriyah & muzakky, 2021). this situation was reflected in a survey conducted by the inverness institute (2021) to 121 teachers in california which revealed that around a third of the participants agreed that this sudden shift is extremely challenging and more than half felt that the general public does not understand the hardship teachers are going through. for the last year, there have been several studies conducted to study er online learning in the language teaching and learning field, especially, in the english as a foreign language (efl) and english as a second language (esl) classrooms (see for example hodges, et al., 2020; lestiyanawati & widyantoro, 2020; nakhriyah & muzakky, 2021; nashir & laili, 2021). many of the studies focused on teachers’ perceptions towards online english learning and er teaching, as well as teachers’ opinions and suggestions on effective http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://members.educause.edu/charles-hodges https://members.educause.edu/charles-hodges language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 396 online english teaching methods. however, there are very limited studies that are aimed at analyzing teachers’ perceptions towards online and offline english classes. furthermore, most previous studies (see for example lestiyanawati & widyantoro, 2020; damayanti & rachmah, 2020; nashir & laili, 2021) tended to investigate english teachers with limited resources or in rural places where most of them were not equipped with proper teaching apparatus for online teachings, such as computers, laptops, fast internet connections, and easy access to various english material resources both offline and online. thus, naturally, the results tended to showcase the negative perceptions towards er online teaching, and preferences for conventional, offline teaching. therefore, this study aims to investigate english teachers’ perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of the er online english classes in comparison to those of their previous offline ones, where the teachers are properly equipped with state-of-the-art teaching equipment. hence, the present study sets out to answer the following research question: 1. what are the advantages of offline and online emergency remote english classes? 2. what are the disadvantages of the offline and online emergency remote english classes? literature review some of the previous studies on offline teaching and classrooms suggested that teaching offline allowed english teachers to directly interact with the students (damayanti & rachmah, 2020) which resulted in the possibility for teachers to combine two or more contrastive teaching methods to increase their students’ chance to grasp the learning objectives more effectively (kong, 2011) and to eventually achieve the maximum result from the learning interaction (chang, 2011), with “communicative language teaching (clt), grammar translation method (gtm), and total physical response (tpr) were the dominant approaches used in efl classrooms” (intarapanich, 2013, p. 310). additionally, direct interactions between teachers and students found in offline classes might also help teachers conveniently implement various classroom activities such as presentations, group work, and group discussions (chien, 2014), along with the use of teaching tools such as “flash cards, textbooks, worksheets, and chalkboard/whiteboard” (intarapanich, 2013, p. 311). furthermore, in offline classrooms, students are also believed to have more opportunities to build a two-way interaction with the teacher for a better understanding of the material discussed. a contrastive study on offline and online classrooms by damayanti and rachmah (2020) on 16 efl students in banjarmasin, indonesia, found that, in offline classrooms, teachers were able to communicate directly with learners and provided immediate feedback during the teaching and learning process. in fact, according to the findings by damayanti and rahmah (2020) more than half of their participants preferred the “traditional” classrooms to online classes because these particular (physical) locations provided them with comfort and familiarity during the learning process which was absent from the online ones (pp. 23-24). however, it is also important to note that “conventional (offline) classrooms also tend to be teacher-centered where teachers dominate the classroom and are the primary source of information and students have fewer chances to interact with each other (ameliana, 2017, p. 60). similar findings also revealed by weizheng (2019) that “teachers still spent most of the time in the presentation, only leaving a small part of the time for interaction […] some of the teachers have difficulty in developing the conversation or involving the students in teaching activities in efl class.” (p. 108). teacher-centred classrooms also tended to focus on preparing students to take exams rather than to cater to the students’ needs (zohrabi, et al., 2012), and the materials are grammar-oriented (acat & dönmez, 2009). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 397 regarding the student-teacher interactions and classroom management in offline classrooms, teachers are believed to have the ability to manage the classroom interactions properly by “setting appropriate seating arrangements, managing learning activities, choosing the most interesting topic to discuss and making students discipline by setting the rules” (muluk et al., 2021, p. 137). yet, according to lap and thy (2017), the effectiveness of classroom interactions and management might not be purely determined by teachers, although, sometimes, teacher-related factors, such as personality, clarity in giving instructions, and teaching methods, would also play a part in affecting the overall quality of classroom interactions. they found that classroom interactions between teachers and students are, in fact, mostly affected by learners-related factors, such as learning styles, level of confidence, and level of proficiency. similar findings by dincer, yeşilyurt, and demiröz (2017) also revealed that, […] (the learners) who try to at least physically attend the course have agreed with the engagement items and they are the ones who are more behaviorally, emotionally and cognitively engaged. regarding the learners’ motivational orientation, […] when the learners engage in the course with pleasure or excitement, they become behaviorally, emotionally, agentically, and cognitively more engaged learners when compared to the learners engaging in the course for the external factors, like passing the course or to fulfill compulsory attendance (p. 100). on the contrary, in er online classrooms, the main concern raised by teachers was their inability to control the students during the teaching and learning process, which could lead to the class being less effective (nakhriyah & muzakky, 2021). moreover, the lack of control of classroom management, the challenging process of materials delivery, and the feedback provision that was not optimal (nashir & laili, 2021) are also listed as some very common problems faced by teachers during er online teaching. all of these resonate with the results of lestiyanawati and widyantoro’s (2020) study which suggested that most teachers tend to struggle in integrating technology into their online classrooms. however, apart from the obvious and urgent need to conduct er online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic, it is also essential for teachers to understand how to properly integrate technology into their teaching because in the 21st century, “the role of the teacher shifts […], they become orchestrators of learning rather than dispensers of skills, serving to facilitate learning” (harris, n.d., p. 1). yordming (2017) stated in her study that, “language teachers need to be clear about their purpose for incorporating ict into their classroom […] developing an awareness of how specific tools or techniques can enhance learning is essential.” (p. 47). classrooms that are integrated with technology have the potential to help develop students’ authentic writing and oral communication, to “offer intimacy and immediacy, [and] to nurture a dynamic community of learners where feelings of togetherness and accessibility are expected.” (durriyah & zuhdi, 2018, p. 58). therefore, to achieve those notions, teachers’ (and learners’) digital literacy seems to play a huge part. a private school in southern england, paignton academy (2012) shared a similar view on why (their) teachers should familiarize themselves with technology and be digitally literate, they stated that, […] digital literacy is not simply maintaining and developing a familiarity with computers, the internet and the possibilities afforded by incorporating ict (information, communication, technology) – it is more about future proofing learning, keeping teaching accessible and relevant to pupils, and extending and embedding key skills and concepts into pupils’ lives – both in and out of school (para. 27). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 398 most of the previous studies tended to focus either on (conventional) offline teaching or er online teaching only and are only partial in scope. regarding er online teaching, they tended to examine teachers’ perceptions with similar background situations where the teachers were not fully equipped with proper facilities, such as fast internet connection, decent devices, and various resources for english materials, whereas for (conventional) offline teaching and classrooms, most of the studies only explored the advantages and rarely presented the opposite. therefore, this study sets out to examine and compare the advantages and the disadvantages of both (conventional) offline and er online teaching in a situation where the teachers have the experience of both types of teaching interactions, and they are fully supported with state-of-the-art teaching apparatus. methodology this study used the qualitative approach with focus group discussion as the research instrument. the authors chose focus group discussion to facilitate the participants’ different opinions on and to gain an in-depth understanding of the same topic, as nassarmcmillan et al. (2014) stated in their study that, an unintentional result of the focus groups was realizing that the format created ample opportunities for discussion about topics that not only gave information to the researchers but to the participants as well. it was clear that this experience gave many participants the words to express their current understandings of the issues we addressed (pp. 1628 1629). the first author as the moderator gave a few prompts as a discussion starter but allowed the participants to share their opinions freely and “let the data speak”. there are four main prompts that were used during fgd, such as, learning activities, challenges, teaching methods, and teachers’ perceptions. these prompts then were naturally developed into several questions throughout the discussion. participants the participants are 3 female english lecturers (amy, bella, christ). for the purpose of this study, the participants were chosen based on the following criteria: (1) they have been teaching english professionally for more than 5 years. this means the lecturers have enough experience teaching english in offline, conventional classrooms to be compared to their er online teaching experience. (2) they have received a certified 3 to 6-month training of english instructors/facilitators from one private training and development institution in jakarta. (3) they belong to different age groups; amy is in her 30s, bella is in her 40s, and christ is in her 50s. this criterion allows the author to examine whether the implementation of technology in er online teaching has different impacts for the english lecturers in different age groups. (4) they teach toeic integrated general english to first-year students at a private institution in kemang, south jakarta, indonesia (see table 1). (5) table 1. the participants. pseudonym amy bella christ age 32 45 55 sex f f f http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 399 education bachelor of economics bachelor of english education master of english education year(s) of teaching english 7 20 37 data collection procedure participants were aware of the scope and the purpose of the study, and prior to the focus group discussion, the participants were asked for their consent by signing a letter of consent stating that they were informed about the data collection procedure which involved recording and transcribing the verbal data to written form, and they were allowed to withdraw from the research anytime. the fgd was conducted online on june 20, 2021, in a virtual meeting room using zoom, and was recorded for 1 hour and 38 minutes long. the author as the moderator started the discussion by giving the prepared fgd prompts, and the participants were then allowed to respond to the prompts by sharing their opinions, interrupting other participants, giving comments, and raising new subtopics. the author then listened to the recording and manually transcribed the verbal data into a written document using microsoft word. the participants later were presented the full transcript and allowed to add or remove details, and to confirm the accuracy of the transcript by signing a statement letter. they were also given some follow-up questions through email on july 29, 2021, in order to clarify and elaborate some parts of their answers which the author found ambiguous or unclear. data analysis procedure the author read the full transcript a few times to get a full understanding of the written data before making any notes. since this is small-scale research and the total of the participants was only 3 people, the author mostly wrote handwritten notes and then created a backup file using microsoft word. to analyze the written data, this study used the thematic analysis (see more braun & clarke, 2006) to examine the written data and to find themes. there are two steps in data analysis, that is, (1) to code the data extracts, and (2) to group the coded data into meaningful categories or themes. the author conducted the first step by reading the transcript several times, highlighting keywords relevant to research questions, and creating initial codes. table 2 shows the example of the coding process. table 2. sample of coded data extract data extract coded for http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 400 after all the data sets have been coded, all the different codes were then sorted into potential themes and sub-themes. in the process, the author changed codes, added new codes, and dropped a few codes to finalize the final themes. in this stage, the author gave the participants some follow-up questions through email to clarify and elaborate some parts of their answers which the author found ambiguous or unclear. there were two main themes, that is, offline teaching and online teaching, which were further divided into two subthemes for each main theme, i.e., advantages and disadvantages. the two sub-themes were then divided into several categories, i.e., (1) classroom management (control and speed, number of students, physical gap), (2) emotional bonding (offline, online), (3) privilege (offline, online), (4) overload activities, (5) personal progress tracking, (6) technology (time-efficient, readiness), and (7) preparation stage (see figures 1 and 2). finally, the author made a summary of synthesis assumptions and claims based on and supported by evidence from the data corpus. figure 1 thematic map for offline teaching/classes. figure 2 thematic map for online teaching/classes. because the effort will be different, like, here’s the thing, in offline classrooms, we [the teachers] are like the leader in the classroom—we have the control of the speed and the situation. strong sense of control in classroom management. meanwhile, in emergency online classrooms, there are some parts that we cannot control. lack of control in classroom management. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 401 results and discussion to answer the research questions, the results will be presented into two big groups, that is, (a) the advantages and disadvantages of conventional, offline teaching, and (b) the advantages and disadvantages of er online teaching. the advantages and disadvantages of conventional, offline teaching at the beginning of the focus group discussion, the participants were asked to share their teaching experience before the pandemic, including the teaching approaches that they used in the classroom. to start her conventional, offline teaching, bella would use her teacher talking time (ttt) to provide explanations and necessary instructions to help students grasp contexts. in this part of the classroom interaction, ttt allows teachers to model pronunciation and vocabulary used at the beginning of the lesson (nunes, 2021). she then would shift the focus to the students by implementing students talking time (stt) where the students would share their opinions, needs, and wants. it is essential for teachers to increase stt since it allows students to actively participate in the classroom by producing the language, practicing what they have learned (nunes, 2021), and being really involved in the lesson (scrivener, 2005). since it is an offline classroom, bella also accommodated some of her students who happen to be bodily-kinesthetic learners (see more gardner, 2011) by doing some physical learning activities, such as treasure hunt and gallery walking. she believed that doing that would make her class to be less boring (see excerpt 1). excerpt 1. teaching approaches in offline english classes. bella okay, so, for the offline teaching, especially in university classes, usually the first approach i’m using is the teacher-centered approach, because we need to explain (the material) first to the students what we want to teach, what the topic would be for that day’s lesson. and it’s usually in the form of a presentation with slides and after that, it goes to a student-centered approach which i focus on what they want to learn, what they need to know, what they have learned, and then also followed by, either project-based learning or, because we’re in an offline condition or situation, i usually try to accommodate the kinaesthetic learners by doing kinaesthetic learning with the use of roleplaying, and then we can use a treasure hunt, and gallery walking, or anything to ignite their senses. amy and christ also expressed their agreement with bella’s opinion of having physical activities in an offline classroom. while amy uses the physical activities mostly to start her class to prevent her http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 402 students from getting bored and always actively engage in the lesson, christ would use it to do a material review to check her students’ understanding (see excerpt 2). excerpt 2. teaching approach to accommodate bodily-kinaesthetic learners. amy […], i also love to use kinaesthetic learning [as a starter activity]. christ i usually start the teaching by showing them a sample of dialogue within the context and then based on that dialogue, we break down the language [focus] then we practice and at the end of the session the students will act out similar dialogues. so, more or less, it’s the same with bella and amy, we try to make the students active by using the language. it seems that teaching in offline classrooms enables the teachers to adjust their teaching methods to the different learning styles of the students; not only by engaging in conversations but also by doing some physical learning activities together to cater to their students’ needs. furthermore, teaching in conventional, offline classrooms also seems to enable the teachers to build relationships with the students; to have more engagement with them, to feel the classroom atmosphere including students’ energy, feelings, and physical responses. in addition, they were able to see students’ behavior in the classroom, for instance when they felt bored or tired, and give appropriate responses, such as some intermezzos that may help students stay focus on the subject (see excerpt 3). excerpt 3. teachers are able to build chemistry in offline classes. bella […] see, i would say that i’m thriving in this [offline] teaching style because i always like to see their energy, their feelings, their reactions, that i can tell by their expressions that this one still doesn’t get it, and that one already does, you know? that kind of engagement, like the body language, so it’s quite confusing when one of them is still confused and the others already get it. […] amy in offline classes, when you see some students getting bored in the middle of the lesson, or getting tired, then you can tell it’s your cue to have a break. christ i agree with a. in offline classes, we can have the students back on check directly, and it’s easier to do that. and, we can also have some “intermezzo” in the middle of the lesson or any fun activity that will probably help the students refresh their minds. the participants felt that being in the same room with their students enables them to notice their students’ “unspoken” needs by reading their body language during the learning interactions. amy and christ openly stated that offline teaching helps them check on their students’ well-being throughout the session, which eventually gave them cues when their students might need some in-between breaks. amy also pointed out that almost all students in her classes began every session on a very similar starting line. in offline classes, there are no complicated requirements that must be fulfilled by each student, for example, fast internet connection or decent electronic devices that are usually http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 403 required for online learning. therefore, it was easier for the teacher to start the lesson right away without the burden of having to check each student’s readiness (see excerpt 4). excerpt 4. students’ starting line. amy in offline classrooms, the students come into the classroom with the same mindset, with all the necessities such as books, pens, and so on. regarding classroom management, amy stated that teaching in offline classrooms gave her better control of the learning speed and classroom situation. in certain situations where the students disobeyed her instructions or showed confusion towards the lesson, she could immediately give necessary responses and figure out a solution (see excerpt 5). excerpt 5. teachers have better control of classroom management in offline classes. amy […], in offline classrooms, we [the teachers] are like the leader in the classroom—we have the control of the speed and the situation, like when a student is sleeping in the back, we can just give them a warning or scold them, or when someone looks very confused, we can immediately know and find a solution. nevertheless, although conventional and might seem to be the ideal learning situation, in offline classrooms, there were also some challenges the participants commonly encountered as mentioned in excerpts 6a and 6b. although it was previously mentioned that in offline classes the teachers usually had better control of how the learning interactions are taking place, they also expressed their concerns regarding the high number of students in offline classrooms. they thought it would affect how they controlled the class during the learning interactions. interestingly, bella also mentioned that, for her, even in small (in this case, both offline and er online) classes, if the students were passive, she would have some difficulties in giving necessary feedback which might result in a “cemetery class” (see excerpt 6b). excerpt 6a. a usually high number of students and overload activities in offline classes. christ for me, i think, it’s classroom management—because usually, i teach a big class, like, more than 20 students. it’s quite a challenge for me to manage the classroom so that they all engage in the activities that i provide, and make sure that they really participate in it. […] bella […] also, [offline classroom] is related to the number of students, in my opinion, because the higher it is, the more difficult it is to handle. but, then again, if it’s a small number, it’s also not helping— amy i agree. bella —because we need to do a lot of activities. excerpt 6b. students’ participation affects the classroom situation. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 404 bella it’s related more to the student’s participation in [both offline and emergency remote online] class. even in small classes, when the students are not actively participating due to their lack of understanding, their character traits, nor the insecurities of their level of english, the flow of the class will be interrupted often and it would be harder for the teacher to give feedback to the students. there’s a potential of becoming a “cemetery class” which results badly in their improvement. this part of the conversation seems to show another side of conventional, offline teaching that was previously discussed at the beginning of the discussion. while the teachers aim to accommodate their students’ various learning styles, it seems that the intention came with a consequence. the high number of students in an offline classroom seemed to give a negative effect on the teachers’ classroom management. this concern then brings the participants to share their opinions on the ideal number of students an offline class should have (see excerpt 7). excerpt 7. the ideal number of students in an offline class according to teachers. christ […] so, i think, we need more than 10 and less the 20. i think the most number of students that i had was 44 or 45. bella so, the number for the offline [class], i think 15 is still manageable, especially for adult classes, because i approach them differently. the advantages and disadvantages of er online teaching the next part of the discussion focused on the advantages and disadvantages of er online teaching that has been implemented during the pandemic. in the previous subsection, the participants have shared their perceptions on the advantages and disadvantages of teaching english in offline classrooms. amy, bella, and christ shared that teaching offline enabled them to create an exciting classroom atmosphere by doing various physical learning activities, building an emotional bonding with the students, and having better control of the (learning) speed and general situation. however, the participants also admitted that they struggled in managing the classes since offline classrooms usually have a higher number of students. in this subsection, the participants shared their opinions on the change of teaching methods that occurred because of the sudden shift from offline to online, along with the benefit and the downside of online teaching. bella and christ shared that they would change their usual teaching approach to flipped learning method when teaching er online classes. based on their initial assumptions that the students might not gain a lot in this type of learning condition, i.e., er online classrooms, the participants thought that it would be better for the students to have an early start by assigning some exercises or pre-class activities that hopefully would help the students grasp the idea of today’s topic prior to their virtual session later on (see excerpt 8). excerpt 8 the use of flipped learning method in eronline classes. bella […], but with the online class, i shift to the flipped method. […] they need to know what they’re going to learn [beforehand]. they need to know the topic of today’s lesson and they need to engage with that topic right away prior to the lesson. […] so, after the [pre-class activities] we start with http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 405 the teacher-centered method where i explain [the material] to them in an old-fashion way what we’re going to learn, with the slides, and then after that, we return to the student-centered approach. christ […] so, i think it’s similar to the flipped learning method used by bella. the students can do it independently first, and when we have the virtual [meeting] sessions, we can review those materials. according to the participants, flipped learning methods allow their students to engage in the lesson right away once they join the virtual session. however, during the virtual session, participants said that they would still proceed with the usual teaching methods they used in offline classrooms, such as total physical response (tpr) and communicative language teaching approach (clt). similar to conventional, offline teaching, there are also some advantages of online teaching shared by the participants. according to them, teaching online provided them with easier access to their student’s individual progress, which is almost impossible to do regularly in offline classes. for example, christ said that in offline classrooms she mostly struggled in monitoring her students’ individual progress, or on a more positive note, she feels that she is only able to sometimes check her students’ progress—unlike in her online classrooms where she can intensely do so and with easier access, according to bella (see excerpt 9). excerpt 9. teachers are able to track students’ individual progress. christ […] you know, in emergency remote online teaching, in my opinion, probably this is one of the advantages, i can know exactly the individual ability, which i cannot really see in offline classrooms. because usually in offline classrooms, even though we focus on each student, but it doesn’t happen all the time, but in online classrooms, we can monitor the progress of each student more intensely. bella […] because in the online [class] we are more facilitated with the easy access to [check the students’ progress], so it’s quite easier to track the progress. […] later on, through email, christ explained that in an er online classroom, teachers were able to design the lesson so that the students could access the materials at their own pace. the (online learning) system also allowed teachers to collect students’ assignments and store the soft files (in clouds or computers) which gave them access and flexibility to check and re-check the files numerous times as necessary. this kind of advantage was usually impractical to conduct in offline classrooms since the participants were not used to implement blended/flipped methods prior to ert. for example, in offline classes, they almost never recorded role-plays activities, or any classroom activities, using videotapes unless the classes were being observed for teachers’ performance evaluation (see excerpt 10). excerpt 10 christ’ explanation regarding tracking students’ individual progress. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 406 christ in online teaching [using moodle-based platform], materials are designed and prepared to make students study independently. there are some exercises and assignments that students have to do and submit in each session. all students’ work (written exercises, video/audio recordings) are saved in the system so teachers can see the progress more intensely because they can always play/replay the videos/audios anytime. this cannot be done in offline teaching (unless whenever there’s a roleplay, it’s always recorded, which is impossible to do). it may indicate that technology has helped the teachers to make the classes more effective. the participants admitted that technology does help them deliver the lesson more effectively and time-efficiently (see excerpt 11). unlike in offline classrooms where the teachers usually have to manually check on their students’ understanding one by one, in (er) online classrooms, products of technology, for example, google form and learning management system, can do that for them. as a result, they can move on to the next part of the lesson right away. excerpt 11 using technology in the classroom is time-saving and time-efficient. christ fyi, [for some classes], i’m using learning management system, so we can design the lesson where the students can access the lessons by themselves. [since] we are the ones who design the lessons, we can make it as if we teach them like we’re in the classroom. bella […] but when we apply [the technology] into the classrooms, it is really time-saving, it’s efficient. probably, [when we think about it], […]. for example, with google form, you can just assign the students to practice for a few minutes and then they get the (automated) feedback right away. and we don’t have to [waste our time] to talk about it [further] unless they really have questions. however, when discussing er online teaching the participants also shared some disadvantages. they thought that one of the main problems that commonly occurred in online classrooms was the physical gap between teachers and students that resulted in the lack of emotions between them. it prevented the participants to really see their students’ personalities and how they would react to certain situations and eventually built a deeper emotional bonding which usually could be strengthened in offline classrooms. furthermore, the use of technology for virtual meetings may not necessarily help to bridge the physical gap between teachers and students, especially in a situation where some students did not comply with the rules and had excuses not to show their faces on the screen. amy pointed out that when the students seemed to lose focus (whether she was aware of it or not), she could not always handle it, and even if she tried to get their attention back, most of the time, it did not work. the participants agreed that, in er online classes, it was a challenge for them to encourage students’ active participation, to check students’ understanding, to make sure the students were involved in the lesson by doing the activities provided, and to make sure the students could follow the lesson well (see excerpt 12). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 407 excerpt 12 the physical gap prevents the development of emotional bonding and negatively affects teachers’ classroom management. christ i agree with a. […] but in online [classrooms], i think the problem is because we cannot see all the students’ faces on the screen, even though we ask them to turn on the camera there’s always a reason or excuse not to comply. so, it’s hard for us to really know whether they follow the lesson or not. and, of course, then i have to repeatedly and randomly call or mention someone’s name and make sure that they know what we’re talking about. […] bella […] so, it’s quite difficult to adjust it in online classrooms because i cannot memorize them just by their faces, since it doesn’t show their [true nature] in the classroom, like how they would react to something. there are no emotions there [in online classes]. so, i feel a bit disappointed. christ […] the difficult part, especially when we’re talking about classroom management, is probably when we are having virtual [meeting] sessions. […] but the problem is, in terms of classroom management, how to make sure that all the students are [actively] involved in the activities that we provided. […] so, probably, controlling the students to do the activities, for me, is still a problem. amy […] meanwhile, in emergency online classrooms, there are some parts that we cannot control. for example, when some students do not pay attention to us, we cannot do anything about it [because we are not aware of it]. even when we do our best to grab their attention, most of the time, it just doesn’t work. […] while in online classes, it takes a lot of effort to do that. […] but, in reality, it’s not applicable to all classes, sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn’t. students’ motivation and cooperation were also considered to determine the effectiveness and quality of the er online teaching. according to the participants, if their students do not want to cooperate or actively engage in the lesson, everything will not work, no matter how much effort the teachers have put in (see excerpt 13). excerpt 13 students’ motivation and cooperation would hugely affect the effectiveness of ert. amy even in online classes, i try to do some kinaesthetic activities, simple ones like “can you find something [in your house] related to our vocabulary items?”. but, in reality, it’s not applicable to all classes, sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn’t. it really depends on students’ cooperation. bella […] it depends on the students, on their motivation, and also on how they think it’s important for them in the future [or not]. so, whatever we do as the facilitator, even if we give our 1 million percent if the students do not want to engage and they feel that this is not important [for them], it just goes down the drain. regarding the lack of motivation, amy suggested that it is also important to consider the readiness of each student and how each student might have a different preparation stage prior to the class. it is widely known that the main requirement of er online classes is that the students are expected to make use of their electronic devices to properly interact in the classroom. however, unfortunately, not every student has the privilege of having a decent laptop or computer and a fast internet connection. some of them do not even have their own personal bedroom which might disturb or cause a distraction to their online learning (see excerpt 14). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 408 excerpt 14 students’ readiness and privilege in ert. amy meanwhile, in online classrooms, the preparation stage is different for each student. because it depends on their environment, too. some are privileged to have a decent laptop and internet connection in their own personal bedroom, but some are not. there is a lot of other factors that might affect their technical performance. another disadvantage that the participants faced in er online teaching was the implementation of technology. especially for bella and christ who are currently in their 40s and 50s, integrating technology into their online classrooms was a very challenging task. the following excerpt (see excerpt 15) further explains the participants’ concerns regarding the implementation of technology into their er online teaching. the participants admitted that most technology-related problems that occur seemed to be caused by their own limited capability in understanding how to make the best use of the technology. christ pointed out that throughout the online class she would keep worrying if something unfortunate might happen to her mid-teaching. she was particularly concerned about facing unpredictable technical problems to which she did not know the solutions. yet, this challenging situation might also become an unexpected advantage for the participants. their inconvenience could become some sort of motivation for them to push their limits by expanding their knowledge and developing their competence towards the use of technology. christ and bella realized that the only way to master the skill is by learning the ins and outs of whatever technology platforms they were using, even though it might take a longer time to cover it all. excerpt 15 teachers’ readiness towards the implementation of technology. christ for me, the facility is not really a problem—i’m really grateful that i have my laptop and i have the [internet] connection running well, but i think [the problem would be] my own capability [in using the technology]. i’m not feeling confident, i’m rather insecure, like, “what if—?” [the question] keeps popping up in my head. when i already planned the lesson well, but then some technical problems happened in the middle of the class which i could not give the solutions [to fix it], i really don’t know what to do. […] and i think i still need to learn [the technical part] a lot (laughing). bella but christ, you still know how to operate [microsoft] excel, and i have no idea, and i just click this and that, and if it’s an error then well… (laughing). […] it’s not just about the preparation—when things got out of hands, like, suddenly the electricity went out, or we lost the internet connection—i just don’t know how to deal with that. […] i have been nodding a lot with everyone’s opinions. especially when christ explained [her struggle with technology]. it’s basically me and how i’ve been feeling. so, [regarding technology], i’m trying to learn it one by one, at my own pace. because i know i’m going to get stressed out if i’m trying to get everything at once. the pre-class preparation stages also seemed to be a challenge for the participants. in their opinion, in er online teaching, preparation was the most important part of the whole teaching and learning interactions. however, the preparation for the online classes was very time-consuming and required them to put in their extra effort (see excerpt 16). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 409 excerpt 16 time-consuming pre-class preparation. bella […] so, the level of readiness that i feel when i start a class really depends on my preparation. because, you know, online [classroom] is unlike offline [classroom] where we can just improvise and then create something out of the blue. with the online [classroom], if you don’t have the materials ready, you’re doomed. […] the preparation is indeed time-consuming […]. amy […] even though at times it’s tiring and the preparation is time-consuming. this study revealed that offline classes gave teachers the opportunity to directly interact with their students, and allowed the teachers to conduct various learning activities to accommodate students’ different learning styles. teachers can also conveniently implement various classroom activities (chien, 2014), combine two or more contrastive teaching methods (kong, 2011), and be supported by multiple teaching tools (intarapanich, 2013). the participants shared that these direct interactions in offline classes between them as teachers and their students allowed them to understand their students’ unspoken needs and well-being. offline classes also do not have complicated technical requirements that must be fulfilled by each student, which also makes it easier for teachers to control the learning speed and classroom situation (muluk et al., 2021). in certain situations, teachers can also provide immediate feedback (damayanti & rachmah, 2020) such as giving necessary responses or figure out a solution to a problem. however, offline classes also tend to have a higher number of students, which can be a disadvantage. for example, when the class has more than 20 students, it was more difficult for the participants to manage the classroom and control how the flow of the class interactions was going. meanwhile, in online classes, the participants admitted to having easier access to check their students’ individual progress. incorporating technology into their teaching also helps teachers make the classes more productive and timeefficient in terms of conducting learning activities. however, the physical gap between teachers and students in online classes prevented them to have deeper emotional bonding (damayanti & rachmah, 2020) and put teachers in a difficult position to control the students which led to the class often being less effective (nakhriyah & muzakky, 2021). it is also important to note that not all students had the privilege to have and were provided with decent electronic devices and a fast internet connection. some of them do not even have their own personal bedroom which might disturb or cause a distraction to their online learning. on the other hand, teachers also seem to have difficulties integrating technology into their teaching (lestiyanawati and widyantoro, 2020), particularly when delivering the material and providing feedback (nashir & laili, 2021). although, the participants suggested that their own limited capability in understanding technology might be the main cause. they also pointed out that this challenging situation might as well force them to expand their knowledge and develop their competence in using technology, since “developing an awareness of how specific tools or techniques can enhance learning is essential” (yordming, 2017). conclusion this study revealed that offline teaching tends to be favoured by teachers for its simplicity and direct teacher-student interactions, while (er) online teaching is preferred for its time-efficiency and flexibility. while the high number of students in offline classrooms could be a challenge in classroom management, the complexity of technology incorporation is the main obstacle for teachers in online teaching. this study may provide some insights for english teachers to better understand how offline and online classes might have different impacts on both teachers and http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 410 learners, whole needs to further adjust their teaching and learning activities to promote effective and meaningful learning experiences. due to the small coverage of the present study, the result may not be generalized in other efl teaching or learning contexts. hence, it is recommended to conduct further studies with a larger number of participants. it may be interesting to investigate how english teachers and students in rural and marginalized areas narrate and reflect their offline and er online teaching and learning experiences and how those experiences have shaped the way they see today’s education in both macro and micro situations. references acat, b., & dönmez, i̇. 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(2017). teachers’ perspective towar ds digital teaching tools in thai efl classrooms. international journal of languages, literature and linguistics, 3(2), 45–48. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijlll.2017.3.2.108 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://www.paigntonacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/what-every-teacher-needs-to-know-about-digital_literacy.pdf https://www.paigntonacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/what-every-teacher-needs-to-know-about-digital_literacy.pdf https://www.paigntonacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/what-every-teacher-needs-to-know-about-digital_literacy.pdf https://www.paigntonacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/what-every-teacher-needs-to-know-about-digital_literacy.pdf https://edsource.org/2021/teachers-share-the-challenges-heartbreaks-and-opportunities-of-teaching-in-the-pandemic/649694 https://edsource.org/2021/teachers-share-the-challenges-heartbreaks-and-opportunities-of-teaching-in-the-pandemic/649694 https://edsource.org/2021/teachers-share-the-challenges-heartbreaks-and-opportunities-of-teaching-in-the-pandemic/649694 https://edsource.org/2021/teachers-share-the-challenges-heartbreaks-and-opportunities-of-teaching-in-the-pandemic/649694 language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 412 zohrabi, m., torabi, m. a., & baybourdiani, p. (2012). teacher-centered and/or studentcentered learning: english language in iran. english language and literature studies, 2(3), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.5539/ells.v2n3p18 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 137 the clipped life of the wife in edith wharton’s short story entitled “a journey” ratna asmarani faculty of humanities diponegoro university ratna_asmarani@yahoo.com abstract the purpose of this paper is to analyze the life of the young wife that is clipped by many “othering” factors that prevent her from becoming a self. the analysis is focused on the “othering” factors and the impacts on the young wife and on her relationship with her sick husband. the analysis is done through the perspective of existentialism combining the existentialism of sartre and beauvoir. since the focus is on the female character, the particular perspective used is on the existential feminism focusing on the “woman-being-for-others” mode of being. the methods of research are the combination of library research method with its close-reading technique, the qualitative method, and the contextual method of literary analysis. the result shows that it is difficult for a wife to be a self when she has to face many “othering” factors such as the husband’s illness, the doctors’ suggestion to move to a temperate climate state, the new environment, and the death of the husband while they are still on the train. these “othering” factors do not only clip the wife’s socialization, love and relationship with her husband, and anticipation to return home, but also clip the wife’s life so that she will never have a chance to be a self forever. keywords: existentialism, “othering” factors, contextual method of literary analysis introduction “a journey” is a short story written by a prolific american female writer, edith wharton (18621937). it is about a young wife who takes her sick husband home to die after a futile effort of following doctors’ suggestion to stay in a hot climate area for several months. on the train journey back home, the wife has flashes of thoughts and emotions concerning her husband’s bad health and its impacts on her previous plans and hopes. the young wife tries to conceal the death of the husband on the train due to her fear of causing more troubles until she experiences an unexpected accident causing her own death on the train next to her death husband’s body. based on the brief summary of the short story, this paper will deal with the clipped life of the wife from the existentialism perspective. this focus has never been dealt before as shown in the following previous study. neilson in “edith wharton, a journey” relates the short story with the author’s life (2010). whitehead in “make it short: edith wharton’s modernist practices in her short stories” talks about “wharton’s narrative gaps, ellipses and absences” (2012). tanguay in ““a journey” by edith wharton” talks about “female roles in relationships” and also relates the short story with the author’s life (2012). pete in ““a journey” literally and figuratively” talks on the wife’s mourning which is carefully hidden (2013). chelseaicard in “the dark days” (2013) relates the short story with the social condition of that time. preston in “a journey” focuses on the plot and character (2014). dermot in “a journey by edith wharton” talks about the theme of “change, acceptance, gender roles, loyalty, independence, conflict and social opinion” (2018). to support the discussion focusing on the wife’s clipped life from the perspective of existentialism, several concepts are used in this paper. the first is the concept of existentialism. here it is particularly about sartre’s existentialism, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:ratna_asmarani@yahoo.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 138 which is from male perspective of sartre is defined in a simple way as “a concern with the living person and his concrete emotions of anguish, despair, nausea, and the like” (sartre, 1978: xvi). another concept from sartre borrowed for the discussion is his concept on the modes of being which consists of three modes; namely, being-initself (etre‐en‐soi), being-for-itself (etre‐pour‐soi), and being-for-others (etre‐pour‐autrui) according to jean paul sartre (1905-1980), the first mode of being, being-in-itself (etre‐en‐soi) is “non-conscious being” (sartre, 1978: 629). being-in-itself is an existence without consciousness or in other words it is not an existence of the humans. the second mode of being or being-for-itself (etre‐pour‐soi) is “the nihilation of being-in-itself; consciousness conceived as a lack of being, a desire for being, a relation to being” (sartre, 1978: 629). being-foritself is the existence of the humans or the existence of the conscious being. the third mode of being, namely being-for-others (etre‐pour‐autrui) is “my self exists outside as an object for others. the for-others involves a perpetual conflict as each for-itself seeks to recover its own being by directly or indirectly making an object out of the other” (sartre, 1978: 629). being-for-others is the social existence of beings in which the self meets the others. there is always a conflict because each existence wants to be the self or the powerful center contesting with the other self. sartre’s existentialism with the modes of being has the male perspective. this male perspective is brought into female sphere by simone de beauvoir (1908-1986) “her philosophy is focused in the existentialism of sartre … she states in general how certain existentialist concepts … apply to woman's situation” (beauvoir, 1956: 8). known as an existential feminist, de beauvoir states that “she is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. he is the subject, he is the absoluteshe is the other'” (beauvoir, 1956: 16). de beauvoir places the woman in the other position in the selfother relationship. thus in beauvoir’s opinion, the woman or the other is always in conflicting situation with the self in her subordinate position. viewing the woman as the other, de beauvoir has a specific view on marriage: “for the vast majority of unmarried workers entertain the hope often enough illusive that marriage will release them from work in which they have no real interest and which they regard as a temporary burden” (beauvoir, 1956: 10). she views that for most women, marriage is supposed to be an ideal escape from a burdening life as female workers. however, de beauvoir states that it is an illusive hope. on the other side, de beauvoir views that “marriage, whatever its formmonogamy, polygamy, or polyandrywas only a secular accident, creating no mystical tie. it involved no servitude for the wife, for she was still integrated with her clan” (beauvoir, 1956: 92). she states that although the wife is dependent on the husband, for social status and economy, she may not totally under the power of the husband since she still has a tight connection with her own big family where she comes from. thus marriage is not a total bonding for the wife, at least psychologically and/or emotionally. referring to sartre’s modes of being and reversing de beauvoir’s positioning of woman as the other, the existential feminist perspective used in this study will focus on the woman. positioning the woman as the center of attention, then sartre’s being-for-itself is formulized as “woman-beingfor-herself” in which the woman has her own consciousness. meanwhile sartre’s being-forothers is analogous to “woman-being-for-others” in the existential feminist perspective focusing woman as the self or center of attention in conflict with others. others here can be in the form of males in whatever relation and profession, other females, or other forms of existence that must be faced by the woman as the self, such as disease, moving out, new surroundings, etc. supported with the new formula of modes of being which focuses on the woman as the self, the analysis on the clipped life of the wife in the short story entitled “a journey” by edith wharton is done. the discussion will focus on the “othering” aspects, the aspects that aim to block https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 139 the female to become a self, a free individual that can develop and actualize herself, that must be faced by the wife and its impacts on her relationship with her husband and on herself. methodology the data collection to support the discussion is done through library research method while the data analysis is done through close-reading method. the general analysis is done through qualitative method while the contextual method of analysis is focused on the literary analysis combining intrinsic and extrinsic prose elements (behrendt, 2018). the intrinsic elements focusses on the character, setting, and conflict while the extrinsic elements are based on sartre’s modes of being and de beauvoir’s opinion on marriages for women. since the focus of analysis is a woman and the writer is also a woman, the perspective taken is a feminist criticism: “feminist criticism reads writing and examines its ideology and culture with a woman-centred perspective. criticism is feminist if it critiques existing disciplines, traditional paradigms about women, nature or social roles, or documents such as work by others, from the point of view of women” (humm, 1995: 51). the particular feminist perspective applied in the discussion is the existential feminism perspective. this particular perspective is based on the modification of sartre’s modes of being from the perspective of the female since the focus of the discussion is on the modes of being of the female character, while de beauvoir’s concept of other is modified to refer to the parties which are against the female character’s effort to construct her modes of being. result and discussion the discussion concerning the wife who has no given name, especially about her clipped life, will be divided into two phases: the phase of moving to colorado and the phase of returning to new york. the two phases finally lead to the tragically clipped life of the wife. before the marriage, the young woman is like being entrapped in a boring life. she is a school teacher who does not seem to have a bright future: “when they married, she had such arrears of living to make up: her days had been as bare as the white-washed schoolroom where she forced innutritious facts upon reluctant children” (wharton, 2001: 65). her life is not joyful at all. she does not enjoy her job as a teacher too much and the children are also unwilling to pay attention to her teaching. she also thinks that she does not do useful job as a teacher. thus it can be said that she does a boring job to earn a living to support her life. in other words her work has no promise to open an exciting life for her, something that she longs so much. she hopes so much from her marriage. she expects her marriage leads her to a wider, joyful, exciting, and fulfilling life: “his coming had broken in on the slumber of circumstance, widening the present till it became the encloser of remotest chances. but imperceptibly the horizon narrowed” (wharton, 2001: 65). she is like a sleeping beauty waiting for a prince to awaken her and guide her into a kingdom of joy. however, the moment of freeing happiness is too short. a haunting darkness is creeping slowly but surely. phase 1: moving to colorado they start their marriage optimistically. they enjoy life to the fullest feeling that the future is theirs to live in as they want: “a year ago their pulses had beat to one robust measure; both had the same prodigal confidence in an exhaustless future” (wharton, 2001:65). the wife’s flash of memory shows their readiness to face the happy future. “othering” agents the expected bright future does not come. some “othering” agents are ready to destroy their hope and their future. the first “othering” agent is in the form of a disease suffered by the husband. the sudden disease that has no name at first is not considered as a serious one; thus it does not need too serious treatment: “at first the doctors had https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 140 said that six weeks of mild air would set him right; but when he came back this assurance was explained as having of course included a winter in a dry climate” (wharton, 2001: 66). however, the treatment in the form of staying for several weeks in a place with temperate weather has no significant effect. thus the doctors suggest that he should avoid winter by staying in a dry-climate area. it can be concluded that he is vulnerable to cold weather. the next “othering” agent is in the form of the doctors. they have a big role to the life of the newly-wed couple. the doctors’ suggestion makes the new couple move from new york to colorado to avoid the harsh winter: “they gave up their pretty house, storing the wedding presents and new furniture, and went to colorado” (wharton, 2001: 66). the couple leaves comfortable situation at home to move to a new place where they know nobody as suggested by the doctors for the sake of curing the husband’s disease. the third “othering” agent is the new city, colorado, and the new neighbors. although it is only described briefly, it can be seen obviously that the wife feels alienated in the new place. she is a stranger there and she cannot fit in: “she had hated it there from the first. nobody knew her or cared about her” (wharton, 2001:66). the wife feels like being uprooted without her consent to drift in an unfamiliar place. she is alone and lonely with her sick husband. she is now in the position of the “other”, the displaced person. clipped socialization of the wife the agents of “othering” are able to change the life of the young wife. the first effect is on the new social life that she has just entered. it is too short for her to enjoy it: “there was no one to wonder at the good match she had made, or to envy her the new dresses and the visiting-cards which were still a surprise to her” (wharton, 2001: 66). deep down her heart she feels reluctant to leave her new social life. she is so proud with her marriage and her ideal husband. she still wants to savor her great achievement. she herself sometimes does not believe in her own luck. thus, it indicates that her marriage takes her to a higher social status that she has dreamed so far. now, all the newly-got social life has to be left due to the husband’s disease and the doctors’ suggestion. even sadder is that she cannot have normal social life in the new place. her life now is only around the sick husband consisting of taking care of him and giving medicine regularly. for her it is as tedious as her former job as a teacher: “the routine of the sick-room bewildered her; this punctual administering of medicine seemed as idle as some uncomprehended religious mummery” (wharton, 2001: 66). she feels that she is just doing an unending circular activity leading to unclear result. this event also indicates that the wife cannot actualize herself as a potential person. she is bound to her sick husband. she has no life of her own, let alone fill it with things that she wants to do. when the doctors finally let them returning home, not because the husband has been recuperating but because the doctors see that there is nothing else that they can do to ease the husband’s disease, she secretly feels so happy: “how she had rejoiced when the doctors at last gave their consent to his going home! she knew, of course, what the decision meant; they both knew. it meant that he was to die” (wharton, 2001: 66-67). although the journey home means preparing the death of her husband, she feels relieved because at least she will return to the familiar surrounding with familiar people. she will not be lonely and alone with her sick husband anymore: “she had perhaps been too long alone with him, and that she would feel differently when they were at home again, surrounded by her robust and buoyant family” (wharton, 2001: 66). the presence of her family will become a great support for her emotionally and psychologically. her relief to return home is implied in the following quotation: “she hung out of the window waving unregretful farewells to the acquaintances she had really never liked till then” (wharton, 2001: 67). she does not feel sad at all to leave the new friends. she is eager to go home. clipped love and relationship of the wife to the husband https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 141 besides clipping the new social circle of the young wife, the agents of “othering” especially in the form of the no-name disease also clips the love and relationship of the wife to the husband. the disease changes the husband. previously the husband is the healthy, leader type person but now he becomes a weak, dependent person. the role has changed in which the wife must become the guard and the keeper: the man she had married had been strong, active, gently masterful: the male whose pleasure it is to clear a way through the material obstructions of life; but now it was she who was the protector, he who must be shielded from importunities and given his drops or his beef-juice though the skies were falling (wharton, 2001: 66). the young wife is not ready and happy with the new role. she marries because she wants to be protected not vice versa. the gap in their physical relationship is getting wider. the husband is becoming weaker and weaker while the wife is healthy and energetic. she still longs for adventures which cannot be fulfilled by her sickly husband: “now their energies no longer kept step: hers still bounded ahead of life, preëmpting unclaimed regions of hope and activity, while his lagged behind, vainly struggling to overtake her” (wharton, 2001: 66). unconsciously they are drifted apart. their interests are no longer the same. the young wife has to curb her desire to have an active and fulfilling life, as can be seen in the following quotation: “when she still found his old self in his eyes as they groped for each other through the dense medium of his weakness. but these moments had grown rare” (wharton, 2001: 66). their sexual activities also become rarer and rarer and less qualified. the husband’s disease is successful in “othering” the young wife’s desires and wants. the illness also makes the wife and husband like strangers. the gap between them is getting wider and wider. they are close physically but far apart emotionally: … this increasing childish petulance seemed to give expression to their imperceptible estrangement. like two faces looking at one another through a sheet of glass they were close together, almost touching, but they could not hear or feel each other: the conductivity between them was broken (wharton, 2001: 66). the sick husband becomes more difficult to appease while the young wife is getting more depressed. both are being “othered” by the longlasting illness. their perseverance to face the illness hand in hand is weakened with the passing of time. their emotional bond is at the vulnerable point. nobody can be blamed, each faces his/her “othering” phantom. the young wife senses this widening gap of separation. she is not close to her husband anymore. there is a kind of unconscious reluctance: “her hand avoided his damp soft skin, which had lost the familiar roughness of health: she caught herself furtively watching him as she might have watched a strange animal. it frightened her to feel that this was the man she loved” (wharton, 2001: 66). they are like strangers in a different side of the abyss. she is eyeing her husband curiously. the young wife is shocked with this condition because it makes her question her feeling to her husband. sensing the emotional separation, her reaction is typical, she feels guilty and blames herself: “she, at least, had this sense of separation … doubtless the fault was hers. she was too impenetrably healthy to be touched by the irrelevancies of disease” (wharton, 2001: 66). she blames herself for being healthy unlike her husband. it is ironical because she is very healthy while her husband is so sick. thus in her position of being “othered” by the husband’s disease the young wife is “othering” herself further. in her cornered position she feels that “life had a grudge against her: she was never to be allowed to spread her wings” (wharton, 2001: 66). it is her fate to be the “other”. she cannot avoid what is constructed for her. she cannot live her life to the fullest. that kind of life is not for her. her life is not hers to construct and fulfilled. phase 2: returning to new york https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 142 the doctors’ permission to return home open a new possibility for the wife if not for the husband since it means that there is no more alternative to cure the disease. in other words, they are going home in order to bury the dying husband soon. the trip from colorado to new york take around three days by train. this time the young wife is happily anticipating to meet her family and the familiar surrounding that they have left before. clipped anticipation of the wife however, this return trip is not easy because the husband’s illness is getting worse and worse. again the “othering” agent in the form of serious illness has a big role in the journey home. as stated by the wife, they can pass the first day of the return trip well enough: “the first twenty-four hours had passed off well. he revived a little and it amused him to look out of the window and to observe the humours of the car” (wharton, 2001: 67). the wife can relax a bit while nurturing her hope of returning home safely. she is too tired to face another problem in the train journey. again, her wife’s simple hope is not met fully. the second day on the train does not run as well as the first day. the husband’s condition is getting worse: “the second day he began to grow weary … that night he slept badly and the next morning his temperature frightened her” (wharton, 2001: 67). the young wife’s distress is accumulated with the passage of time. this condition is worsened by the disturbing attention from the other passengers and the train porter. their intention is good, actually, but the haunting attention burdened the wife because she loses her privacy and has to answer their silent questions concerning her husband‘s condition: “she felt the others observing him too, and hovered restlessly between him and the line of interrogative eyes” (wharton, 2001: 67). actually, their constant curiosity serves as an “othering” agent not only to the wife but also to the sick husband. unconsciously it clips the freedom of the wife to be herself and to relax a bit during the distressful journey. before the wife goes to her own berth to rest, she accompanies her husband in his berth while preparing him to sleep: “the hours dragged on in a dreary inoccupation. towards dusk she sat down beside him and he laid his hand on hers. the touch startled her” (wharton, 2001: 67). the young wife who is so stressful and preoccupied with her own thought almost does not realize her husband’s presence. she is too tense to get home and to meet her family. deep down in her heart she wants to share her burden with the people that she knows well. the cheerful thought of meeting the members of her family “this time to-morrow—” (wharton, 2001: 67) makes her go to bed feeling rather relieved: “she tried to cheer herself with the thought that in less than twenty-four hours they would be in new york. her people would all be at the station to meet her—she pictured their round unanxious faces pressing through the crowd” (wharton, 2001: 68). tomorrow evening she will be with the familiar faces who will help her taking care of the dying husband. she will not be alone again. can her simple hope be fulfilled? the weary young wife sleeps a long but troubled sleep. she wakes up in the morning, feeling fresh and happy: it was always a struggle for her not to be cheerful in the morning. her cheeks burned deliciously under the coarse towel and the wet hair about her temples broke into strong upward tendrils. every inch of her was full of life and elasticity. and in ten hours they would be at home!” (wharton, 2001: 67). the quotation indicates that the young wife is basically a healthy, cheerful, energetic person. it is so sad that such a person has to curb her bouncing energy for a long time. at this moment, every nerve in the young wife’s body is anticipating for a brighter moment after the long gloomy period in an unfamiliar place that they have just left. the optimistic anticipation of the wife is drastically clipped by the startling fact. it is startling but not unpredicted. it is the death of the husband on the train that is so startling: https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 143 she leaned over him and drew up the shade. as she did so she touched one of his hands. it felt cold . . . she bent closer, laying her hand on his arm and calling him by name. he did not move … his head fell back; his face looked small and smooth; he gazed at her with steady eyes” (wharton, 2001: 69). when she optimistically wakes her husband in the morning, she finds out that he has already died during the night. this fact is not anticipated by the young wife. the fear of facing the worst fact alone the young wife is shocked by the fact that now she is alone, among strangers on the train, with the dead body of her husband. she is panicked when she remembers her unforgettable experience seeing the incident of the death on the train: in a terrifying flash of remembrance there arose before her a scene she had once witnessed in travelling, when a husband and wife, whose child had died in the train, had been thrust out at some chance station … she had never forgotten the dazed look with which they followed the receding train” (wharton, 2001: 69). that incident traumatizes her and she does not want to experience the same shocking fate. the fear almost makes her paralyzed. however she has to find a way to save her from the same disaster: “at all costs she must conceal the fact that he was dead” (wharton, 2001: 70). this is her solution to overcome her fear of being stranded with the dead husband’s body in an unfamiliar railway station. she tries to prolong the other passengers and the porter from knowing the death of her husband till the train is on the way to the last station. if known before the train enters the last station, she will not face any problem. however the effort to conceal the fact that her husband has already died is not easy for her who has been gripped by fear. the young wife closes the curtains tightly in order to hide the dead body of her husband: “she noticed that they still parted slightly with the motion of the car, and finding a pin in her dress she fastened them together” (wharton, 2001: 70). for a moment the situation is safe for her. the biggest thread comes from the porter whose job is to tidy up the berth in the morning including opening the curtains closing the berth. the young wife can postpone the porter from opening the curtains by saying that he has not woken up yet (wharton, 2001: 70), but the excuse will not last long. after a moment he returns and: “at length he said: “ain’t he going to get up? you know we’re ordered to make up the berths as early as we can”” (wharton, 2001: 70). he has to do his job as instructed because if not he will get certain sanction. another way taken by the young wife to buy time is by asking the porter to get the husband’s morning milk and she herself will take it to her sick husband. to give the impression that her husband has drunk the milk “she decided to drink the milk” (wharton, 2001: 70). this trick only lasts for a while because: … after a while the porter came back to get it. “when’ll i fold up his bed?” he asked. “oh, not now—not yet; he’s ill—he’s very ill. can’t you let him stay as he is? the doctor wants him to lie down as much as possible.” he scratched his head. “well, if he’s really sick—” he took the empty glass and walked away, explaining to the passengers that the party behind the curtains was too sick to get up just yet (wharton, 2001: 70). the young wife has to use another strategy to hide the real condition of her husband. she begs for the porter’s tolerance by stating that her sick husband needs a lot of rest according to the doctor’s suggestion. however, this strategy draws much attention to herself again and to the tightly closed curtains. the previous passengers and the new ones are curious and some offer helps to take care of her husband. she firmly declines the offers which make the passengers becomes more curious. thus, whatever the young wife’s effort to hide the death of her husband, she always becomes the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 144 object of attention. the young wife has no freedom of her own. the inner turmoil triggered by excessive fear the fear of being known that she has hidden the fact that her husband has died some time before makes the young wife more and more panicked. she fully realizes that she has to act convincingly to avoid suspicion when the train comes to the last destination in new york and the death of her husband is publicly known: “i must pretend i don’t know. i must pretend i don’t know. when they open the curtains i must go up to him quite naturally—and then i must scream” (wharton, 2001: 73). however, fear and guilt are still haunting her. now she is the prey of her own fear and guilt. the clashing of fear and guilt exhausts her and she is on the brink of hallucination: “she gazed fixedly at the curtains … through it she saw her husband’s face—his dead face … close in front of her, small and smooth, was her husband’s face … and suddenly she felt the touch of his smooth skin” (wharton, 2001: 74). she is haunted by the death face of her husband. she cannot avoid seeing his husband’s death face wherever she looks. the young wife, after eating a bit of biscuit and a sip of her husband’s brandy finally can sleep. however it is a troubled sleep filled with frightening dream which look like a real one: she was dead in her turn, and lay beside him with smooth upstaring face. how quiet it was!— and yet she heard feet coming, the feet of the men who were to carry them away . . . she could feel too—she felt a sudden prolonged vibration, a series of hard shocks, and then another plunge into darkness: the darkness of death this time (wharton, 2001: 75). in her dream the young wife sees that she is dead and the efforts to bring her alive are futile. it turns out that this strange dream is a kind of premonition to the young, healthy wife’s fate. waking up in a confusing mind due to the troubled sleep, the young wife is further bewilders by the fact that the train is approaching the last station: the train passed into the harlem tunnel. the journey was over; in a few minutes she would see her family pushing their joyous way through the throng at the station. her heart dilated. the worst terror was past . . .” (wharton, 2001: 75). for a moment a hope is budding in the young wife’s mind. she is so relieved that her burden will be over soon. she will be with her family. she will be safe to start a new step in her life. this relieving thought is cut by the porter’s question that brings her back to the fact that she is still hiding the husband’s death: ““we’d better get him up now, hadn’t we?” asked the porter, touching her arm. he had her husband’s hat in his hand and was meditatively revolving it under his brush” (wharton, 2001: 75). the porter, in doing his job, clips the young wife’s happy thought. the young wife, abruptly drawn into the personally frightening reality, is so distracted. moreover, the porter is holding the dead husband’s hat. seeing the hat, the young wife gets so panicked. the young wife who is standing at that time suddenly loses her balance because of the sudden dark situation. it is not clear whether the dark situation is caused by the train’s entering a tunnel or by the sudden fainting of the wife due to her panic. whatever the cause, the effect of the wife’s losing her balance is so tragically fatal: “she looked at the hat and tried to speak; but suddenly the car grew dark. she flung up her arms, struggling to catch at something, and fell face downward, striking her head against the dead man’s berth” (wharton, 2001: 75). this accident clips the young wife’s life. she loses her life a moment before she get off the train to meet her family. there is no more chance for her to have a new start as aptly represented by the following quotation: “life had a grudge against her: she was never to be allowed to spread her wings” (wharton, 2001: 66). from the start the energetic and healthy young wife is fated to have a clipped life. everything is against her effort to have a life that lets her to actualize herself. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 145 conclusion being a self is not an easy matter, particularly for a wife as portrayed in edith wharton’s short story entitled “a journey”. there are too many obstacles that must be faced all alone. the husband’s illness, the doctors’ suggestion to move to a temperateclimate area, the new surrounding are some that must be handled by the wife alone leaving no chance for her to be herself. there is a hope for the wife to be herself when they are allowed to return home by the doctors who have given up. however this hope is clipped by the death of the husband on the train before arriving home. trying to buy time by hiding the death of the husband, the fear of being known creates a paralyzing inner conflict leading to the clipped life of the young wife due to losing her balance inside the still running train. thus, to be a self and to be herself is not possible for the young wife since she has to face “the others” who have a big power to clip every chance for her to be a self and herself. references beauvoir, s. de. (1956). the second sex (h.m. parshley (ed.)). jonatan cape. behrendt, s. c. (2018). contextual analysis. http://www.unl.edu/english/sbehrendt/study questions/contextualanalysis.html chelseaicard. (2013). the dark days. https://writingonwomenwriters.wordpress.co m/category/edith-wharton/ demot. (2018). a journey by edith wharton. http://sittingbee.com/a-journey-edithwharton/ humm, m. (1995). the dictionary of feminist theory. ohio state university press. neilson, k. (2010). edith wharton, a journey. https://whisperinggums.com/2010/11/17/edith -wharton-a-journey/ pete. (2013). “a journey” literally and figuratively. https://writingonwomenwriters.wordpress.co m/category/edith-wharton/ preston, b. (2014). a journey. https://prezi.com/evey36-15yug/a-journey/ sartre, j. p. (1978). being and nothingness: a phenomenological essay on ontology. pocket books. tanguay, c. (2012). “a journey” by edith wharton. https://prezi.com/rgavvymqgmv5/a-journeyby-edith-wharton/ wharton, e. (2001). “a journey” in edith wharton: collected stories 1891–1910. https://loashared.s3.amazonaws.com/static/pdf/wharto n_journey.pdf whitehead, s. (2012). make it short: edith wharton’s modernist practices in her short stories. journal of the short story in english., 58(special issue: the short stories of edith wharton), 25–43. https://journals.openedition.org/jsse/1234 https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 39 the flexibility of the “f” word deinda ratih machmudah universitas negeri surabaya deindarm@gmail.com abstract the “f” word (fuck) cannot be separated from its taboo nature. this can reveal more deeply about its use which can be found every day that the “f” word is not always used in negative terms and may be useful to enrich the knowledge about the characteristics of the “f” word and to reduce the stigma about it that it has more than negative purpose in expressing emotions. this research would also clarify the reasons for the versatility of the “f” word itself because of the kind that can be used to convey the sense of a specific emotional situation. this study was created because of the shortcomings that the previous study had; horvat (2016), jay and janschewitz (2008), and pluszczyk (2015) who have not studied the function of the “f” word in detail. so the motivation is created with documentation technique and applying the framework of shiedlower (1999) and wang (2013) to further discuss that the “f” word can be flexible in terms of word elements and their function in this study. the results have 6 different types of word element and 4 functions of “f” word swearing. keywords: fuck, swearing, functions of swearing introduction language has always been a medium of communication. every emotional state can be conveyed by expressing it through language. it does not rule out that any kind of word can be uttered, because it is the function of the language itself to visualize what we are thinking or feeling in words despite whether it is “good” words or “bad” words. by “bad” words, it means a taboo, which means in linguistic theory refers to the condition that a word or a name cannot be used by a certain community, circumtance, or persons. let us name it the “f” word (fuck) in this case. battistella notes that the words' vulgarity 'and' obscenity 'both apply to crude terms for human anatomy (e.g. prick, cunt) and sexual or excretory functions (e.g. fuck, shit),' largely a matter of degree and prurience,' with the discrepancy between vulgarity and obscenity (2005). historically, the 'degree and prurience' of the “f” word was such that the first academic study of the “f” word, read's paper, omits any description of the word itself and refers obliquely to it as 'the most unreputable of all english terms, the colloquial verb and noun, uniformly understood by english speakers, defining the sex act' (read, 1934). the survival and continuing use of the "f" word can sound shocking, considering this extreme social stigma (fairman, 2006). stapleton (2010) however suggests, that the banned existence of taboo language gives it a strength and power that performs a number of social, psychological and interpersonal purposes. the term thus tends to be used 'not in spite of the stigma, but because of it' (fairman, 2006). for some people expressing emotional state with the “f” word is inevitable. it proves that this “f” word has its some kind of flexibility to be in any explication or statement. this what makes the study worth doing. it is to analyze why is it flexible. why it can be “get the f*ck out” when you expel someone? why it can be “don’t f*ck with me” when you are cornered and giving a threat like so? and why does it have to be “she’s f*cking beautiful!” when you see a really beautiful person? several related studies found. among them is a study by horvat (2016) that discusses the “f” word from its etymology and also its roles as a word element. but not the function of the word. the second study is done by jay and janschewitz (2008). it analyzes swearing from the pragmatic’s perspective and believes that swearing is not necessarily impolite. however, the second previous study focuses on the swearwords https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 40 characteristics in general and does not expand it to the “f” word specifically. the third is by pluszczyk (2015) that analyzes various functions of swearwords from negative to positive use. even this study attemps to demonstrate the occurrence of swearing used in a more positive sense. this following study will support the function of the “f” word’s flexibility in expressing any kind of emotional statement. the case leads us to the purpose of this study that is to clarify and point out that the “f” word has several functions to express something more than what it is written explicitly. therefore, the present study is motivated by the statement of andersson & trudgill (1992) that the “f” word can be considered flexible, since the “f” word can be used to express pain, pleasure, hate, and love depending on the context it appears in. swearing vingerhoets (2013) cited from andersson and trudgill (2007) swearing is described as a use of language in which the expression: (i) refers to something in the culture of the swearer that is taboo or stigmatized, (ii) is not meant to be literally interpreted, (iii) may be used to convey strong emotions or attitudes. the application of these elements leads to a language with a greater power of expression. for this reason, in specific cases, swearing may be more functional (stapleton, 2010). pinker (2007) notes that swearing is universal and that in certain cultures, the words and terms used in swearing can be considered taboo. in various corners of the world, swearing is a normal human behavior. many people claim that it is sometimes socially inappropriate to utter swear words, but new studies show that it helps alleviate stress, frustration, and tension (stephens, 2013). as stephens (2013), a senior lecturer in psychology at keele university, states: "[...] swear-ing probably works by making people feel more aggressive, in turn setting off the fight or flight response". most of us probably agree that the main purpose of swearing is expressing something negative, such as anger, frustration, and annoyance. it is used when we cannot control our emotion most of the time. swearing, in addition, is often used to insult or offend others. people, thus, stigmatize swearing, even if swearing may be used for the opposite reason. just as jay and janschewitz (2008) claim that the purpose of swearing does not always have to be thought in a bad way. functions of swearing it is undeniable that a swear word used in a given context fulfills some kind of communicative function (wang 2013). it is necessary to stress that there are several functions of swearing to be distinguished. 1. emotion one of the most principal functions of swearing is expressing emotion. whenever we analyze swearing in terms of expressing emotions, we usually associate it with anger, fury, and anxiety. according to andersson and trudgill (2007), swearing in constitutes an utterance of strong emotions such as: fuck, shit, holy shit. 2. insult swearing is also used in order to offend another person. it is undeniable that this function is used in a negative way. male 1: danny, anybody hurt? male 2: we're ok, just don't say "no", you motherfucker! (the negotiator) the above example contains word insults and slurs the purpose of which is to offend others. we can easily observe how swearing is used in order to vent negative emotions, show rudeness, offend, insult another person or refer to them in a derogatory way. 3. emphasis another function of swearing is emphasis. one of the most principal objectives of swearing in this respects is to emphasize one's feelings or emotions about something and intensify the force of a particular element in an utterance (wang 2013). it should be stressed that the swear words the function of which in emphasis do not have to be regarded as contextually inappropriate or offensive. as a result, the judgement is not negative in this respect. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 41 male 1: tell me some of the shit you've learned, fuck-ass before i pistol with you. male 2: ok. i believe in death, destruction, chaos, filth and greed. male 1: cut the shit, danny. come on, tell me what i wanna hear, asshole. male 2: do you want to hear shit about your mother, man? male 1: do you want to get fucking beaten, danny? (american history x) in the above example, the function of the adjective fucking is used in order to strengthen the force of beaten. 4. solidarity / identity another function is expressing solidarity or identity. the expletives used in this respect usually occur in order to indicate intimacy or group membership (wang 2013). the swear words fuck you, or shit, or the mild one damn is probably very okay among close people, as the swearing utterances instill or confirm the feeling of friendship, solidarity, or camaraderie. the occurence of swearing can also be caused by the need to show solidarity or harmony. hence, in this respect a swear word functions as a marker of solidarity and this phenomenon is regarded as positive. 5. humour finally, swearing can also be used in order to bring forth laughter. it should also be stressed that there is a lot of offensive language encountered in jokes which also contributes to or increase the funniness. it can be hypothesized, in other words, that swearing does not actually always indicate rudeness. swearing is not inherently violent, rude, and hostile. it can even be a reflection of politeness, it can also have other functions-swear words, for example, also serve to signify unity or cooperation or even to create laughter. the “f” word (fuck) the meaning of the “f”word varies based on its word element. it is because the characteristic of the “f” word that can be any word element in a sentence. either as a verb, noun, adjective, interjection, adverb, infix, or acronyms. therefore, the “f” word can be considered as a polymorphous word. most of the examples below are taken from sheidlower's book the f‐word, some are taken from the internet, and some are taken from the corpus of contemporary english. the corpus was created by mark davies of brigham young university and can be accessed at http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/. other examples are taken from song lyrics, television shows and internet chat rooms. fuck – verb, 1. to engage in heterosexual intercourse involving the penetration of the penis into the vagina liz phair, flower, song: "i want to fuck you like a dog, i'll take you home and make you like it ... everything i'll do to you, i'll fuck you till your dick is blue." (retrieved from http://www.lyricsfreak.com/l/liz+phair/flower_200 84491.html 5/2/2016) 2. to make sexual thrust into, rub against in a sexual way, engage in intercourse other than heterosexual genital intercourse; j. vasco, three‐hole girl, 1967: stick your tongue in my pussy hole, lisa, fuck my pussy with your mouth! (sheidlower, 1999) 3. in various similes and proverbs; legman, dirty jokes, 1952: i am going to fuck you till your ears fly off. (sheidlower, 1999) w. c. woods, killing zone, 1970: i wish you were here too, so i could fuck your brains out. (sheidlower, 1999) 4. used as an interjection to express dismay, disbelief, resignation, surprise, etc., often used with it, occasionally elaborated; manning, fortune, 1929: a man uttered a monosyllabic curse: "fuck!" (sheidlower, 1999) 5. to harm irreparably; finish; victimize; h. miller, tropic of cancer, 1934: we'll take his lousy review and we'll fuck him good and proper ... the magazine'll be finished. (sheidlower, 1999) 6. to botch, bungle up; l. sanders, anderson tapes, 1969: i might fuck the whole thing. (sheidlower, 1999) 7. to cheat, to victimize, deceive, betray; https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 42 gwin, overboard, 1979‐1982: as mick tried to teach me, "top dog fucks the bottom dog. that's the law of the jungle." (sheidlower, 1999) 8. in variations implying especially cruel deception or brutalization; new yorker, september 1997: gil didn't understand how much firepower steve had ... steve is going to fuck gil so hard his eardrums will pop. (sheidlower, 1999) 9. to exploit to one's own benefit; m. baker, cops, 1985: i'm going to stay here but i'm going to fuck the job to death. they are not going to get anything out of me. (sheidlower, 1999) 10. to be used as a curse, oath; cee lo green, fuck you: i see you driving 'round town with the girl i love and i'm like, "fuck you!" i guess the change in my pocket wasn't enough, i'm like, "fuck you! and fuck her too." (retrieved from http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/ceelogreen/fuckyou. html 5/2/2016) 11. in stronger, more vivid or more elaborate curses; bunker, animal factory, 1977: if she's been a jiveass bitch, fuck her in the ass. (sheidlower, 1999) 12. to cease or abandon, especially suddenly, to ditch; r. roth, sand and wind, 1973: i got the idea to fuck everything and head for california. (sheidlower, 1999) 13. to trifle, toy, meddle, or interfere, fool, play, to harass, tease or provoke, to mess with, to lie to; new yorker, march, 1998: you don't say no to the mafia, you don't challenge the mafia, you generally don't fuck with the mafia. (sheidlower, 1999) fuck off – verb; 1. to run away, get away, get out, go to hell, usually used as an imperative; movie: a fish called wanda, john cleese, 1988: tell those pigs to fuck off. (sheidlower, 1999) 2. to loaf or evade duty; rhodes, chosen few, 1964: you missed formation. you fucked off and we don't tolerate fuckoffs. (sheidlower, 1999) 3. to slack off; fail through inattention; rhodes, chosen few, 1964: you were on yo way t'breakin' some kinda record, son, bu'cha fucked off on th' five hundred. (sheidlower, 1999) 4. to be deprived of through bungling; bunker, no beast, 1972: it's too late. we fucked off a score because you weren't there. (sheidlower, 1999) 5. to disregard; brush off; put aside; g. ross, last campaign, 1962: they been trying to retire him for months ... but he keeps fucking them off and turning down his retirement and refusing to leave the division. (sheidlower, 1999) 6. to idle away; playboy, december 2969: you are going to get tired of running around in a pair of dirty levis, fucking off your time with those other young cats. (sheidlower, 1999) 7. to anger, upset; n. hornby, high fidelity, 1995: "i'm glad you're back to sort him out." this really fucks me off. (sheidlower, 1999) fuck over – verb, especially black english; 1. to treat harshly or with contempt in any manner whatsoever; to mistreat, victimize, cheat, betray; damage; movie: cradle to the grave, 2003: i'll be back. i got ta go fuck over a guy who fucked me over. (coca) 2. to beat up, to work over; t. mayer, weary falcon, 1971: the fourth mission i went on was the time they really fucked us over. (sheidlower, 1999) fuck up – verb; 1. to ruin, spoil, destroy, to botch, to bungle; movie: the terminator 2: judgement day, 1991: "yeah, saralita. sure. just drop by any time and totally fuck up my life." (coca) 2. to blunder badly, get oneself into any kind of trouble; fail; stuart woods, the short forever, new york 2003: "callie left in a hurry, she said. i guess you fucked it up again. don't you start, stone said." (coca) 3. to go awry, malfunction, break down; d. mamet, american buffalo, 1976: there's the least chance something might fuck up. (sheidlower, 1999) 4. to confuse, confound, thwart, interfere with; https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 43 chinn, dig the nigger up, 1976: i'd sure like to do it to her! she fucks me all up! (sheidlower, 1999) 5. intoxication; john allman, losers and gainers, antioch review 1992: " if you have kids, " arlene says, " you'll have retards and cripples. " she means he is so fucked up by now from drugs. (coca) 6. to injure, especially severely, mangle, wound; especially black english; movie: collateral, 2004: i'll fuck you up! hand it over. (coca) 7. to kill, especially military; whitely, deadly green, 1987: fuck them up! fuck them fuckers up! get some! (sheidlower, 1999) 8. to fool around, especially black english; a. young, snakes, 1970: we both need to get away from this old school grind for a while. why don't we go out and fuck up tonight? it's friday, man ... let's go out and party! (sheidlower, 1999) motherfuck – verb; 1. used to express rejection, dismissal, hatred, used as a curse; song: lil jon and the eastside boyz feat. ice cube, real nigga roll call: motherfuck that nigga! motherfuck that bitch! (source at link: http://ohhla.com/anonymous/lil_jon/cr_juice/real_ nig.jon.txt) 2. to destroy, confuse; urban life iv, 1975: we'll motherfuck the bastard's mind! (sheidlower, 1999) fuck – noun; 1. an act of copulation: j. atkins, sex in literature iv, 1763: then just a few good fucks, and then we die. (sheidlower, 1999) 2. copulation: r. thompson, unit for modest ears, ca 1675: if gifted men before now swear and rant/(then surely i for fuck may cant). (sheidlower, 1999) 3. a person considered as a sexual partner: "j.m. hall", anecdota, 1934: you are a much better fuck than your old mammy here. (sheidlower, 1999) 4. same as goddamn, a jot; usually used in phrases such as worth a fuck and care a fuck: h. miller, tropic of cancer, 1934: nobody gives a fuck about her except to use her. (sheidlower, 1999) 5. anything whatsoever – used in negative: rolling stone interviews, 1970: they didn't play fuck. (sheidlower, 1999) 6. used with like, as or than as an emphatic standard for comparison, also used with a: legman, limerick, 1938: the colloquial comparative, "hotter than a persian fuck". (sheidlower, 1999) 7. a bit of difference – used in negative: sample, racehoss, 1984: it don't make a fuck who it is. (sheidlower, 1999) 8. semen, although rare nowadays, in phrases such as full of fuck: "justinian", americana sexualis, 1938: full of fuck – amorously potent. (sheidlower, 1999) 9. a despicable person, usually a man: fliesler, anecdota, 1927: you bloomin' fuck. (sheidlower, 1999) 10. an evil turn of events, a cheat of fortune: terkel, good war, 1984: know what they did? they made him a lieutenant colonel and me a captain. ain't that a fuck? (sheidlower, 1999) fucker – noun; 1. a person, usually a man, who copulates, especially promiscuously: romance of lust, 1866: she grew madly lewd, called me her own dear delightful fucker. (sheidlower, 2009) 2. a person, especially a man, who is despicable, wretched, formidable, a bastard, (broadly) a fellow or simply a person: j.s. farmer and w.e. henley, slang and its analogues, 1890‐93: fucker – a term of endearment, admiration, derision etc. (sheidlower, 2009) 3. an annoying or hateful thing, task, situation; a thing in general, especially if its striking or remarkable: t. shibutani, derelicts of company k, 1945: i don't think i can walk a mile with this fucker on. (sheidlower, 2009) 4. a splendid or wretched example: w. kotzwinkle, jack in the box, 1980: she'll burn up the competition ... it's one fucker of an engine. (sheidlower, 1999) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 44 fuckface – noun; an ugly or contemptible person; usually used abusively in direct address; movie: the nines, 2007: goodnight, fuckface. (coca) fuckload – noun; a large number or a load of, a lot; g. malkani, londonstani xxiii, 2006: she was my girlfriend, we'd both landed in a fuck‐load of trouble. (sheidlower, 2009) motherfuck or motherfucker – noun; 1. a man who commits incest with his mother; a despicable or contemptible man or woman; mailer, why are we in vietnam, 1967: don't come near, motherfuck. (sheidlower, 1999) 2. especially black english or military; a fellow, a person, a formidable person: song: lil jon and the eastside boyz feat. lil scrappy – what you gon' do: i don't play with motherfuckers 'cause this shit be real. make you hold your breath longer than a navy seal. (lyrics retrieved from: http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/liljontheeastsidebo yz/whatyougondo.html 24/2/2016) 3. an infuriating, hateful or oppressive thing; a difficult task: b.jackson, in the life, 1962: oh, life's a motherfucker, bruce. (sheidlower, 1999) 4. an infuriating or surprising state of affairs: s. robinson and d. ritz, smokey, 1989: we're going to remember this motherfucker ... 'cause i don't intend to let it happen again. (sheidlower, 1999) 5. a large or outstanding example: national lampoon, august 1977: have i got a motherfucker of a stunt for you! (sheidlower, 1999) 6. a damn: pelfrey, big, 1972: and i don't give a motherfuck. (sheidlower, 1999) 7. used as an emphatic expletive; hell: norst, colors, 1988: what the motherfuck was that you just did? (sheidlower, 1999) 8. used as an indefinite standard of comparison: rukuza, west coast turnaround, 1990: it was raining like six motherfuckers. (sheidlower, 1999) fucked – adjective; 1. completely exhausted: h. garner, monkey grip, 1977: i only want to crash, right now. i'm absolutely fucked. (sheidlower, 1999) 2. lacking in sanity or good sense, crazy: national lampoon, april 1990: they're fucked in the head. (sheidlower, 1999) 3. exceedingly bad or offensive, rotten, awful: movie: ules's gold, 1997: everyone's life you've ever touched is fucked. you know that, ulee? (sheidlower, 1999) fucked up – adjective: 1. especially military for ruined or spoiled through incompetence or stupidity; botched, chaotic, messed up: t. dulis, path for our valor, 1963: man, there ain't ever been such fucked‐up operation! (sheidlower, 2009) 2. intoxicated by liquor or drugs: danielle steele, secrets, 1985: sandy's not fucked up again, is she? (sheidlower, 2009) 3. confused, mentally or emotionally ill, crazy: j. mccorkle, cheer leader, 1984: you're crazy, jo, fucked up. (sheidlower, 1999) 4. deeply troubled or upset, distraught: e. hemingway, selected letters, 1948: i was all fucked up when i wrote it and threw away about 100.000 words which was better than most of what i left in. (sheidlower, 2009) 5. contemptible, worthless, miserable, damned: s. terkel, hard times, 1970: it's the textbooks that are fucked up. (sheidlower, 2009) 6. utterly fatigued, exhausted: d. gram, boulevard nights, 1979: i'm tired man. fuckin' fucked up. (sheidlower, 2009) fucking – adjective; contemptible or despicable, goddamned: kate rockland, 150 pounds, n. york, 2012: "come on, shoshana, can't you turn that thing off for one fucking day?" (coca) motherfucking – adjective: 1. goddamned: movie: american history x, 1999: you're a motherfucking traitor! (coca) 2. used to emphasize the positive qualities of a following noun: flaherty, fogarty, 1973: what a motherfucking man he was, shamus! (sheidlower, 1999) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 45 bfd – big fucking deal! so what? who cares? p. fonda, unauthorized biography (on fox tv), 1988: he was very angry that i had destroyed his honeymoon – bfd! (sheidlower, 1999) fu – fuck you: "man, i just embarrassed you!" "fu" (retrieved from http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term =fu 24/2/2016) motherfuck or motherfucker – used to express astonishment, anger. gq, november 1998: he spins around, kicks the ground, stares down the offending patch of wood. "motherfuck," he mutters. (sheidlower, 1999) wtf – what the fuck? same as "what the hell?" reddit.com, 2013: all (& only) things that make you say wtf. (retrieved from http://www.reddit.com/r/wtf/ 24/2/2016) -fuckingused for emphasis in the middle of a word or set phrase: in verbatim, 1945: twenty‐fxxxing‐four faces to feed. blame it on your anti‐fxxx'n‐aircraft units, mate. (sheidlower, 1999) also –motherfuckingragni and rado, hair, 1967: yeah! emanci‐ motherfuckin'‐pator of the slave. (sheidlower, 1999) a number of explanations above lead to several problems to be answered. some of these are to answer the meaning of the word “f” (fuck), and the flexibility of the “f” word from the point of view of the swearing function. this is related to the purpose of this study are to uncover the meaning of the “f” word (fuck), and to elaborate the flexibility of the "f" word by categorizing the swearwords according of their pragmatic (functions) and semantic (word element). methodology according to lodico (2010) qualitative research has few characteristics. some of them are: studies in qualitative method are carried out in naturalistic settings, in qualitative the researchers ask broad research question designed to explore, interpret, or understand the social context, and the study data report is in narrative form or using words rather than numbers. based on the explanation above, this research uses qualitative data approach because the data resulted from research problems are in the form of texts or statements. subject documentation is considered to be the most useful approach in this analysis since there have been several researches similar to the present research. the hypotheses produced need to be examined and compiled later in order to produce a clearer hypothesis in this study. the data obtained comes from dialogue of a movie that requires expressions with the “f” word in it. data analysis analysis can be described, according to miles, huberman, and saldaña (2014), as consisting of three current activity processes that is data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification. in this study, the researcher uses miles and huberman's theory to analyze the results. result and discussion in filling in the responses to the problems that have been provided, this study collects data from a film entitled the wolf of wall street, which has the motivation of the large number of “f” swearing found in the film. please note that this film is a criminal biographical movie about the life of a stockbroker whose life is inseparable from alcohol, drugs, and other criminals that are still considered taboo by most people. it is found 571 times “f” swearing in the movie. word elements of “f” swearing table 1. word element of "f" swearing in the wolf of the wall street adjective adverb interjection verb noun infix 273 153 64 36 34 11 adjective the “f” word swearing that has been collected from the movie, has 273 the f word swearing as the adjectives. there are 256 adjectives https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 46 of fucking, 10 adjectives of fucked up, 3 adjectives of motherfucking, 3 adjectives of fucked, and 1 adjective of fuck‐free. as we know generally that adjective of a sentence is used to describe the noun. in this case, the word fucking and motherfucking are used to describes and emphasizes the noun in the dialogues. jordan : you know what? if you're happy, god bless you, buddy. donnie : no, i'm not fucking happy. jordan : i gotta go fucking talk to him right now! bo : listen to me! don’t go! bo : listen to me. that guy denham, that fbi agent guy, somebody told me he’s got your phones tapped. your office and your home. don’t talk on the motherfucking phone! jordan : okay. fuck! i got it. i got it. i got it. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the adjective of fucked up and fucked are another adjective that is found in the movie. fucked up is an adjective phrase means several points. in the wolf of wall street, fucked up is expressed to describe the condition of intoxicated by liquor or drugs, contemptible, worthless, miserable, damned, utterly fatigued, and exhausted. while fucked is an adjective to be described as completely exhausted, lacking in sanity or good sense, crazy, exceedingly bad or offensive, rotten, or awful. donnie : i can get you a beer if you want a fucking beer. jordan : i know, but i don’t drink. you remember? i don’t drink anymore. donnie : oh, you wanna go inside and blow some lines of baking powder? or baking soda... can’t imagine ever not enjoying getting fucked up. jordan : how’s hildy? good? donnie : she’s still alive, so my life is fucked, you know? jordan : yeah. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) fuck‐free is a made up adjective that is to describe something is free from obscene activity. jordan (voice‐over) : it was a madhouse. a greed‐fest, with equal parts cocaine testosterone, and body fluids. it got so bad, i had to declare the office a fuck‐free zone between the hours of 9:00 and 7:00. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) adverb there are 85 words of fucking and 68 words of fuck for the adverb. the adverb in the movie is to describes, modifies, and emphasizes verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. as for the wolf of wall street, the word fucking and fuck are to modifies and emphasizes verb phrase. mark hanna : now did you really pitch a stock in your job interview? jordan belfort : i had to do something to stand out. right, sir? mark hanna : i fucking love that. janet : jordan! barry kleinman’s on the phone from future video. jordan : who? janet : i don’t know. he shot at your wedding. he says it’s urgent. jordan : urgent? who the fuck is barry kleinman? jordan : i’m making an honest living, you fucking piece of shit! denham : hey, jordan, let me give you a little legal advice. shut the fuck up! (the wolf of wall street, 2013) interjection interjection is used to express emotional state in a short and sudden way, and it does not have a particular meaning literally. in the wolf of wall street, there are 64 times interjection spoken. there are 55 times interjection of fuck is spoken. there are also several interjection that is modified into what the fuck 4 times spoken, once each for holy fuck, motherfuck, and fuckety‐fuck‐fuck. jordan : get off the phone! naomi : what the fuck, jordan? your daughter’s in the house! i hope you know that! otter : i'm not putting words in your mouth or nothing, but you just said that everybody wants to get rich. robbie : holy fuck, you did just say that. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 47 donnie : you gotta take this case, you gotta drive straight home, need you to open up the briefcase, and you take out every single dollar. don’t leave one dollar inside the briefcase. and once you have it all neatly organized outside the briefcase, i need you to take it and i need you to shove it right up your wife’s latvian cunt, you understand? brad : my fucking wife! donnie : chill! chill, bro. brad : fuck. you motherfucking piece of shit! brad : fuck! motherfuck! you’re fucking dead! denham : let me tell you something else. honestly, i’m not bullshitting here, this is one of the nicest boats that i’ve ever been on, i gotta tell you. jordan : i bet it is. denham : and you know what i was just thinking, too? the fucking hero that i’m gonna be back at the office when the bureau seizes this fucking boat. because, i mean, fuckety‐fuck‐fuck, jordan, look at this thing! it’s beautiful! and you got the beautiful girls there. it’s wonderful. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) verb the “f” word in the movie as the verb has various meaning. it has 20 words mean an obscene. otter : hey, jb, jb, jb, jb. you gotta check this fucking chick out. look at this. look. nicky : i would fuck that girl if she was my sister. i would let that girl give me fucking aids. naomi : who’s venice? huh? jordan : “who?” who? who? naomi : “who?” what are you, a fucking owl? who is she? some little hooker you were fucking last night? (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the 8 “f” words are also applied for the meaning to betray, and mess up with something in a negative way. jordan : if that little fucking prick thinks he can fuck with me, we’ll turn his company into a penny stock! you hear me? you got it? nicky : yes. i got it! jordan : so, if i just wanted to get some more information, just to find out what he knows, you could go to his house, right? tap his phones a little bit, bug him. you could get some information... bo : you don’t fuck with these guys like that. you don’t fuck with them like that. what are you, nuts or something? (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the other 2 “f” words are used in idiomatic term such as: mark hanna : we don't start dialing at 9:30 because our clients are already answering the phone. three. two. one. let's fuck! jordan (voice‐over) : as you can probably guess, i fucked her goddamn brains out... (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the rest of 6 “f” words are used to be verb phrases, namely fuck off, fuck up, and fuck over. the fuck off in this case means to get away, get out, go to hell, to loaf or evade duty. fuck up here means doing something wrong and getting oneself into a trouble. and fuck over means to work over someone. jordan : oh, god! naomi : fuck off, rocky! bad dog. jordan : you have a biscuit or something like that? naomi : it's okay. just keep going. donnie : i don’t wanna die, jordan! i did a lot of bad shit. i’m going to hell, jordan! i fucked up! i fucked up so bad! jordan (voice‐over) : what i’m asking, you swiss dick, is are you going to fuck me over? saurel (voice‐over) : i understand perfectly, you american shit. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) noun the word fuck is also applied for a noun in a sentence. the role of the noun “f” word can have different meaning and also can replace some word. the movie mentioned motherfucker 18 times, six times of fuck, four times of fucksville, three times of https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 48 fucker, and once for each word of fuckface, fuckload, and fuckhead. man 3 : yeah. fuckface, look at where the stock's at today, huh? jordan (voice‐over) : we had, literally, a fuckload of money. aunt emma could never carry all this by herself. so i thought to myself, who else has a european passport? (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the word motherfucker in the movie has a meaning of a despicable or contemptible man or thing: jordan (voice‐over) : okay, walking’s out. all right, think, think. what else is there? yes! i can crawl. i can crawl like skylar! fuck! the kid makes it look so goddamn easy! think, you motherfucker, think! (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the word fuck has several meaning in the movie, such as; a goddamn, emphatic standard for comparison, and a despicable person: venice : wolfie? jordan : yeah, it’s my safe word, baby. it’s my safe word. venice : i don’t give a fuck about your safe word! man 6 : it's 3 cents a share, that's $3! you cheap fuck! (the wolf of wall street, 2013) while the fucksville is a made up name that means of some place of despicable people: donnie : hey, what are the citizens of fucksville doing today when their emperor’s gone? is it mayhem? are people looting and raping? what are all the little fuckheads doing while you’re here? (the wolf of wall street, 2013) the fucker here means a man, who is despicable, wretched, formidable and an annoying or hateful thing, task, situation: nicky : they are very ornery by the way, so you gotta be careful with these little guys. jordan : safety first. safety is first, all right? i want somebody with a fucking tranquilizer gun ready to knock this fucker out. jordan (voice‐over) : after 15 years in storage, the lemmons had developed a delayed fuse. it took 90 minutes for the little fuckers to kick in. but once they did... pow! i mean, i had skipped the tingle phase and went straight to the drool phase. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) infix infix is used and put in the middle of a word or a phrase in order to emphasize it. the 10 infixes of fucking in the movie are mostly used to emphasize a name of a person. while there is motherfucking infix that also is used to emphasize a phrase: jordan (voice‐over) : something about laundering drug money through offshore boat racing and a guy named rocky aoki, you know, the founder of benihana. benihana. beni‐fucking‐hana! beni‐ fucking‐hana! why? why, why, god? why would you be so cruel as to choose a chain of fucking hibachi restaurants to take me down? jordan (voice‐over) : even though i owned 85% of steve‐cocksucking‐motherfucking‐madden shoes, the shares were in his fucking name. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) functions of swearing table 2. function of "f" swearing in the wolf of wall street emphasis emotion solidarity insult humour 284 118 104 50 15 emphasis the most function of swearing in the wolf of wall street is to emphasize someone’s feeling or emotion about something. the word fucking is used 223 times to emphasizes mostly anything. the word fuck is also used 48 times. the phrase fuck up is used 10 times to emphasizes the condition of someone, while fucked is used to emphasizes something twice in the movie. and there is also a word fuckload that is for emphasizing somethiing in a large number. naomi : jordan, i don’t know what the fuck to do! i can’t help him! oh, my god. jordan. jordan, he’s not breathing. you gotta do something. jordan, he’s a father! he’s got fucking kids! do something! https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 49 chantalle : brad you’re making this too fucking tight! jordan : well, this is fucked. chantalle : oh. no shit. donnie : i don’t wanna die, jordan! i did a lot of bad shit. i’m going to hell, jordan! i fucked up! i fucked up so bad! jordan (voice‐over) : we had, literally, a fuckload of money. aunt emma could never carry all this by herself. so i thought to myself, who else has a european passport? (the wolf of wall street, 2013) emotion swearing to express emotion in this term is tend to be anger, cursing, confusion, and anxiety. there are 40 times fuck is uttered in a strong way. while the rest are fucking 49 times, the fuck 24 times, what the fuck 3 times, and once for each fucked up and fuck over. although the words and phrase other than fuck might be considered as other function, but the situation when they are uttered is in the state of anger, confusion, and anxiety. which is why they are considered in emotional expression. teresa : you! get out of the fucking car! jordan : jesus christ. teresa : son of a bitch! oh, fuck! jordan : relax, sweetheart, relax. donnie : she's perfect. hildy : donnie, what the fuck are you doing? you piece of... get the fuck out. naomi : oh, my god! nicholas : oh, hey. is it wednesday already? uh... man 5 : oh, don't stop. nicholas : what the fuck! that is fucked up! jordan (voice‐over) : what i’m asking, you swiss dick, is are you going to fuck me over? saurel (voice‐over) : i understand perfectly, you american shit. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) solidarity the important thing of swearing for solidarity is nobody feels offended when they are getting sworn. it is because both parties feel it is a common thing to swear with each other. the word fucking in current function has the most used word in the movie, which is 53 times. the word fuck is used 42 times. the word motherfucker does not applies as an insult if it is meant to be show a solidarity for colleagues and it is used 4 times. the fuck has been used twice, and the rest is once for each fucker, fuck off, and fucked. jordan : come here, buddy. donnie : ah, fuck. jordan : it’s good to see you, pal. donnie : yeah, you, too. jordan : and what’d i do, kimmie? go on, tell them. kimmie : you wrote me a check for $25,000. jordan : that’s right. kimmie : thank you. jordan : and you know why that is? it’s because i believed in you. it’s because i believed in you, kimmie, just like i believe in each and every one of you here today. kimmie : i fucking love you, jordan! mark hanna : meanwhile, he thinks he's getting shit rich, which he is, on paper. but you and me, the brokers, we're taking home cold hard cash via comission, motherfucker. jordan belfort : right. mark hanna : pop off to the bathroom, work one out any time you can. when you get really good at it, you'll be fucking stroking it and you'll be thinking about money. jordan belfort : oh! oh, fuckers. oh! (the wolf of wall street, 2013) insult the insult word is usually the one with –er infix, such as fucker that is used twice and motherfucker eleven times in the movie. however, the movie also has a various word that is not only –er word. there are also fuck five times, fucksville four times, and once for fuckface and fuckhead. turns out, the most mentioned insult word is the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 50 word fucking, which is 26 times. although it is doubted to be an insult, fucking can be an insult if it is used in a derogatory way. jordan : they don't know, right? they gotta think about it, they gotta talk to their fucking wives, or the fucking tooth fairy. point is, it doesn't matter what the fuck they say. jordan : we're talking about whales here. moby fucking dicks. and with this script, which is now your new harpoon, i'm gonna teach each and every one of you to be captain fucking ahab. get it? huh? robbie : captain who? jordan : captain ahab. from the fucking... the book, motherfucker. from the book. jordan : safety first. safety is first, all right? i want somebody with a fucking tranquilizer gun ready to knock this fucker out. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) humour the swearing can also bring laughter beacuse the context of the speaker is to entertain people. in this case, the word fucking brings a laughter by been mentioned 10 times, motherfucker is also mentioned 3 times, and fuck twice in the movie. jordan : this is our golden ticket to the fucking chocolate factory right here! and i wanna meet willy fucking wonka, okay? ? i wanna be with the fucking oompa loompas like this! donnie : take your little bow tie, get your shit, and get the fuck out of my office! you understand? jordan : get the fuck out! mc : so listen. i’ve met some bad motherfuckers in my life. i’m talking about rock stars, professional athletes, gangsters. i’m telling you, some real bad motherfuckers. but this guy, my good friend, mr. jordan belfort, is the single baddest motherfucker i have ever met. (the wolf of wall street, 2013) conclusion the “f” word may be judged starting from the elements of the word and the function of its usage. it turns out that there are different types of word elements and functions from the results found, which are not always meant negative and not always meant positive. it reveals the flexibility of using the “f” word into adjective, adverb, interjection, verb, noun, and infix. and this also points out that it can not be assumed that the “f” word signifies rage explicitly. it can, however, convey emotions, emphasize something, show solidarity, insult others, and trigger laughter as well. it can also not be assumed that the word “f” is an inevitably offensive, derogatory, and impolite word. notwithstanding the compelling results, this study acknowledges that many elements of the “f” word remain that have not been touched. similarly, as there are so many hypotheses from the leaders that can still be used as research material, its function is still a lot to be learned. it is also proposed that the study can be enhanced from different facets of the “f” word's flexibility in future research. references andersson, lars-gunnar; trudgill, peter. 1992. bad language. london. battistella, edwin l. 2005. bad language: are some words better than others? 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"an analysis of the pragmatic functions of swearing in interpersonal talk." in griffith working papers in pragmatics and inter‐cultural communication, 71-79. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 173 the need of paradigm change and multicultural literature in early childhood education; the indonesian context nailil muna yusak email: naililmuna@unissula.ac.id sultan agung islamic university semarang abstract as the home of many ethnic groups, indonesia is a showcase of diversity. on the one hand indonesiais benefited in many crucial sectors such as economy and tourism from the rich diversity of its natural and human resources but on the other hand the country is facing a high risk of intergroup friction. the goverment of indonesia attempted to end social conflict and disintegration in many ways, from interfaith dialogue to military occupation. despite of all progress, little has been done to find a fundamental resolution. this study examines the importance of paradigm change in understanding conflict. the new order approach in conflict resolution suggests that conflict is destructive and therefore needs to be avoided. however, conflict can also be constructive and in order to deal with conflict in a constructive way, institutions or organizations must be aware of this two-fold concerns and citizens must be educated in the skill to face conflict. going deeper in the plea that education constructs a nation, using the same analogy, peace education should also construct a peaceful nation. finally, this study proposes the use of multicultural literature to reconstruct the notion of conflict through the practice of multicultural education in early childhood education. keywords: conflict, multicultural education, literature, childhood education. introduction with more than 300 ethnic groups, 700 ethnic languages, 6,000 inhabited islands, and 250,000,000 population, indonesia is a vast platform of diversity. on the one hand, but on the other hand indonesia is facing a high risk of intergroup friction. in 2009, gadjah mada university in cooperation with the asia foundation released data showing that approximately 832 cases on social conflict were reported during 19902008 alone (fauzi, 2009: 7). the quest for an ideal conflict resolution is a steady concern. this study started with a concern that many conflicts are partly or left unresolved in many parts in indonesia. the indonesian institute of sciences reported that despite the numbers of conflict occured in the past decade, indonesian govenment lacks essential conflict management plan and strategy. not only that it does not offer a long term conflict resolution, indonesian government tends to offer a reactive resolution. in poso, for example, govenment mediated agreement revolves around temporary resolution such as 174 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 security forces and military occupation, leaving the underlying cause and triggers such as interreligious issues at risk of reemerging (ahmad, 2011: 20). as a result, although violence and physical conflict are less encountered, social conflict is becoming a latent threat to peace building effort in indonesia. although indonesian government has no grand strategy in developing a multicultural education on its national curriculum, the issuance of the act of the republic of indonesia number 20 year 2003 article 4 on national education system that includes national pluralism is an indication that plurality is already taken into account as a crucial aspect in the national education. since the fall of research on conflicts resolution in indonesia has been continuously conducted, but conflict research utilizing education as the approach is still outnumbered. conceptual framework prevention is better than cure. this general maxim of prevention is the underlying principle why study on the role of early educationin of conflict prevention holds a significant contribution in the peace building efforts. from the point of view of prevention, schools and classrooms are the best places to educate citizens about the importance of peace and nonviolence (panggaben, 2006: 220-223). a grounded understanding on the concept of conflict and diversity in early childhood education practice is essential in building a stronger concept of the value of difference and diversity of their surroundings. this study specifies its focus on early childhood education for two reasons. first, as robinson (2006: 4) points out, the early childhood years (from birth to age 8) are formidable years in the growth and development of cognition, language, social, emotional and physical competence. as children are developing their that they develop a positive feelings towards differences in a social contexts where issues related to human diversity and difference impact significantly on being in the world.second, a study on early childhood education is amicrocosm of the broader society (robinson, 2006: 8). early childhood institutions (formal, non-formal or informal) constitute and perpetuate many of the normalizing discourses that underpin social structure through educatogies, and the curriculum of everyday interactions and practices. problems with diversity and difference in childhood education since the late 1980s there has been a significant increase in awareness of the importance of early childhood education policies, practices and curriculum positively reflecting the diverse cultural identities of language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 175 children and their families. in order to present broad perspective on difference in early childhood education in indonesia, the term difference will be broadly defined in this paper, from culture, religion to individual preference and learning style. it is important to highlight that early childhood institutions like preschools, playgroups and kindergartens consisted of heterogeneous group from a variety of backgrounds, with a multiplicity of family backgrounds that operate around difference. conducting research on early childhood education, kerry robinsons and criss jones diaz (2005: 4) points out the many possible variables constructing c perspective on difference: children do not enter early childhood programmes as empty slates but rather bring with them a myriad of perceptions of difference that they have taken up from their families, peers, the media and other social sources and negotiated in the representations of their own identities. glover (1991) in the early 1990s found that as 2and 3-year-old children become aware of differences they simultaneously develop positive or negative feelings about the differences they observe. it is then important for social and educational institutions to provide a balance, non biased perspective of this diverse world to children. tracing back on the dynamics of multicultural education in indonesia, there is a flaw on how the society perceive conflict as one of the most crucial factors triggering social conflict. it is the concept of the conflict itself. samsu rizal panggabean (2006: 217220) in educating to handle conflict and avoid violence proposed an idea that we reconsider how approaceh to conflict has been done so far. panggabean described our approach to conflict as practicing the new order approach which hold the following characteristics; first, conflict is always destructive, evil and negative. conflict is regarded as evil because it challenges stability and disrupts social harmony. this perspective featured strongly under the suharto regime, as it puts stability and economic growth above all other national concerns. under new order rule, stability was to be maintained at all costs, to the extent that a paradoxical situation existed, namely when the effort to maintain stability itself resulted in violence. for these reason, conflict should be repressed if not avoided. as a result, our children are not prepared with the skill to resolve conflict. they master the skill to avoid conflict with teacher, parents, or higher authority yet we question why our children cannot communicate and bravehearted to face problem. second, conflict is a behavior. in government perceptions and in media reports during the period under discussion here, conflict especially violent behavior. therefore, evoked images such as stabbing, 176 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 struggling, rioting and other violent behaviors. the unobservable is not yet a concern. but then what about feelings of anger, distrust and resentment? these negative feeling opted out from what defines a conflict and therefore not taken into consideration because they were not perceived as part of a conflict. we do not teach our children to consider that these negative potentials can lead to violent conflict yet question why children nowadays are short tempered and susceptive. paradigm shifting and multicultural literature in early childhood education it requires further research on how peace education in early childhood education can contribute to conflict resolution in indonesia or around the world. what this paper try to examine is that at least there are two fundamental options that we can do to better prepare our children in this diverse and globalized world; first, we need to have a paradigm change in understanding conflict and second, it is crucial that our children are introduced to the concept of difference and diversity in a social context. as panggabean points out earlier, there is a need to learn new approaches to understand conflict. the first tenet is to recognise that as well as having a negative and destructive impact, conflict can also have positive and constructive influences. educators, parents, and policymakers must understand the two-fold position of conflict in society. conflict is similar to cooperation in the sense that it needs to be handled creatively, and must be handled within universally accepted rules of the game, so that it can benefit the society. conflict is needed to avoid ossification in a society. the energy or dynamics of a society can arise from powerlessness. during the crises in many parts of indonesia, people who were previously powerless began to be more dynamic and energetic. the experience of going through the crisis during a period of pancaroba, or interregnum, may strengthen the people and the state. the more serious the crisis, the more energy emerges, which can then be used to strengthen and cement the society in the future (panggabean, 2002: 221). an interisting case in a japanese preschool on how teacher design her class to engage in fights more often is worth telling to discuss the practice of conflict research on american and japanese preschool and elementary education points out an interesting fact that japanese preschool teachers do actually design their classes to risk conflict (2002: 84-85). a very good way, as lewis (2002: 84) puts it, hat children had to share and even, as children get older, we put fewer toys. teacher plan things so that there will be more fighting as language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 177 explained by another school teacher is by e began the school year by gradually putting out enough paintbrushes for all the children but gradually reduced the number so that children within each group would have to paint brush is one of the teambuilding skills developed in conflict resolution. instead of giving enough paint brushes for all students, they are taught to solve problem by developing skills to negotiate. in addition, students also develop teambuilding skill and shape perspective of others; that some people will not share but some others will. introducing the concept of difference and diversity is also important in childhood development. in a more globalized world like today, it is impossible to eliminate difference to foster unity. asean membe (asean free trade area) agreement will lead to improvement of economy of the asean regions enable the intensification of cross-cultural contact as well as friction among nations (http://www.asean.org/ communities/ dec. 30, 2013). if the future asean community and future leaders are not well equipped with a substantial understanding of the concept of diversity, peace building resolution will forever be an impossible mission. the use of multicultural education, including multicultural literature in promoting diversity in education system is a growing concern. rizvi (in robinson, 2006: 70) describes multicultural education as centering around teaching children about other cultures in an attempt to combat racial prejudice and stereotypes, in order to dispel ignorance which was seen to be the root of intolerance and prejudice. parents and educators must see ignorance, stereotyping, and prejudice as conceptialized attitude. they can either encourage individuals to reduce these negative attitude or support mobilization of individuals to be engaged in them. it is therefore, crucial for the cociaty to develop them a balance perspective of the world. research conducted by robinson and jo policy and practices with regard to diversity and difference found that in settings with proportionately high levels of children attending from diverse language and cultural groups, there was greater focus on visible difference than when there were less obvious physical differences. although there are so many possible media to promote diversity such as movies, songs, food and festivals, etc., this section will focus on the use of multicultural literature in fostering the concept of diversity as a peace education strategy. multicultural literature is a byproduct of the multicultural education definition of multicultural literature. young defines multicultural literature as literature 178 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 by and about people belonging to the various self-identified ethnic, racial, religious, and regional groups in a country (young, 1995: 376). in addition, glazier and seo (2005: 686) defines multicultural literature as literature that represents voices typically omitted from the traditional canon. multicultural literature introduces characters of diverse background and thus invited its reader to explore new ways of viewing people of parallel cultures through the different perspective of the characters. norton (1990, 1991) and walker-dalhouse (1992) reaffirm that multicultural literature is a powerful tool to help students develop an understanding and respect for individuals of all cultures while at the same time gaining an appreciation of their own cultural and literary heritage (young, 1995: 377378). the media, popular culture and perpetuation of heteronormativity in c literature and films provide numerous examples of the ways in which different cultures, norms and values are practiced around the world. through literature, children are taught attitudes and actions appropriate for themselves and their society. a rich literatry selection, accross nation and culture can provide balance to the predominantly mainstream to children as well as appreciate minority culture. let us take the discussion of woman emancipation figure in indonesia as an example. have our children heard enough story about other woman emancipation figure other than kartini? what about sundanese patrician dewi sartika, tanettenese queen siti aisyah we tenriolle, acehnese sultana safiatuddin, orpadangnese journalist rohana kudus? it is through reading nonstandard selections that students will be able to appreciate the contributions of non javanese women and members of parallel cultures have made to our country in history, science, and the arts. how can we expect them to be a man of tolerance and respect if they do not have enough concept ofothers? years have a profound impact on their later social, emotional and cognitive development (french, 2007: 9).i believe it is time for us to take a step further from a traditionalist theories viewed children as consumers of the culture established by adults. this view is oriented towards the ignoring the fact that children will play role and may even hold authority to take decicion to construct society in the fiture. corsaro (in french, 2007: 10) support this argument by asserting that, children and adults alike should be seen as active participants in the social construction of childhood and in the reproduction of their shared culture. children are seen as having agency and power within their own right, not just in relation to the social constructions assigned to them by adults.one must now see children as active agent in their social development language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 179 process havi potential, strong, powerful, competent and most of all connected to adults and to other co-constructor of knowledge; a researcher actively seeking to make meaning of the world. it is through participating in everyday activities/routines and play, children absorb messages from people and the environment regarding their identity and social values. as a consequence, there lays responsibility for us; educators, parents, and community to teach and play as role model for children to respect differences. a research paper on by geraldine french (2007: 9) points out that: practitioners should be aware of and respect areas of difference such as gender, faith/no faith or family structure. these individual identity. difference in this sense should be respected in every aspect of early childhood work. by exploring our own and other cultural daily practices/routines, we gain appreciation of our common humanity as well as providing the optimal emotional and social growth. for anyone considering in taking multicultural education as a serious concern, allow me to summarize the 1997 2007: 14) research reportwhich revealed that greater involvement by parents in their more sharing of information between parents and practitioners/childminders; (2) parents spending more time in the setting, parents improving their knowledge of parenting and child development generally; (3) family values and beliefs being understood and taken account of by the practitioner/childminder; (4) a more emotionally secure environment for the child, parents being viewed as valuable resources bringing added value to the setting, parents feeling more confident about engaging in dialogue regarding their conclusion diversity in our globalized world has challanged traditionalist view on children as consumers of the culture established by adults. early childhood education are seen as a formidable moment where children develop their cognition, language, social, emotional and physical competence. as informal, formal, and nonformal education attitude toward the world, it is our responsibility; parents, educators, and society as a wholeto better prepare children in understanding diversity in this complex world by; first, understanding the twofold concept of conflict. reconstruction of the concept of conflict is necessary in peace education to provide children conflict resolution skills. in addition, by teaching children to face and solve conflict, they will be trained life skills such as responsibility, teambuilding, negotiation 180 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 and tolerance. second, by utilizing multicultural approach in early childhood education. introducing multicultural literature, accross culture and across nation, will provide a rich view on c minority and other social issues caused by diversity. references ali-fauzi, ihsan et al. 2009. pattern of religious conflict in indonesia (19902008). jakarta: magister of peace and conflict resolution, gadjah mada university in cooperation with the asia foundation. asi, rohaiza ahmad et al. 2011. conflict management in indonesia; a conflict analysis in poso, papua, and molucca. jakarta: the indonesian institute of sciences, current asia, and the center for humanitarian dialogue. french, geraldine. 2007 learning and development; a research paper. (national council for curriculum and assessment) (http://www.ncca.ie/). glazier, jocelyn & seo, jung-a. 2005. multicultural literature and discussions as mirror and window? in journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 48: 8, p. 686 700. international reading association. lewis, catherine. 1999. educating hearts and minds. united states of america: cambridge university press. overview on the asean free trade agreement (afta), http://www.asean. org/communities/ (december. 30, 2013). panggabean, samsu rizal. 2006. educating to handle conflict and avoid violence in violent conflicts in charles a. choppel, ed. indonesia; analysis, representation, and solution. new york: routledge. rizvi, f. 1993. children and the grammar of popular racism, in c. mccarthy and w. crichlow (eds) race, identity, and representation in education. new york and london: routledge. robinson, kerry et al. 2006. diversity and difference in early childhood education. berkshire, uk: open university press. young, terrel a., et al. 1995. multicultural literature for children and young adults; a rational and resources. reading horizons, 35: 5, p. 375-373. western michigan university. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 187 integrating language and culture in language skill classes seful bahri seful.bahri.unnes@gmail.com semarang state university abstract foreign language learning is foreign culture learning. it also means that the teaching of culture should become an integral part of the teaching of a language. culture teaching should allow learners to increase their knowledge of the target culture in terms of people‘s way of life, values, attitude, and beliefs, and how these manifest in lnguistics categories and forms. these things are the concerns of this article and will be elaborated in the explanations of the relationship between language and culture, the ways they are taught integratedly, and simple procedure in carrying out classroom activities. keywords: language learning, culture, language skill classes introduction in the last two decades, there has been a new increase of interest in the study of language in relation to society (:culture) which has led to a shift of focus from behaviorism and positivism and critical theory (benson & voller. 1997).language teaching is no longer (:not only) teaching merely about using the language correctly in terms of grammatical patterns but also that of using the language appropriately, which includes linguistics and cultural appropriateness. indeed, foreign language learning is comprised of several components including grammatical competence, communicative competence, language proficiency, as well as a change in attitudes towards one‘s own or cultural competence. cultural competence here includes the knowledge of the conventions, customs, beliefs, and systems of meaning of another country, which becomes an integral part of foreign language learning. many experts have also seen it as the goal to integrate the teaching of culture into foreign language curriculum. then, it is obvious that foreign language learning is foreign culture learning. what is debatable, though, is what it means by term ‗culture‘ and how it is integrated into language and teaching. that is what this paper tries to discuss. the discussion will enclose the relationship between language and culture, the way they are taught integratedly (including teacher roles and some practical consideration), and simple procedure in carrying out classroom activities. the relationship between language and culture there are many arguments and claims concerning the relationship between language and culture. one of the arguments stated by saphir cited in wardough (1986) says that the structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. (though recent study says that hypothesis is mailto:seful.bahri.unnes@gmail.com 188 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 unproven) others say that the structure does not determine the world-view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of language toward adopting a particular world-view. further, there is also another argument that the culture of a people finds a reflection in the language they employ. these three arguments show us that language and culture are inseparable, or in other words they are intertwined each other. language is also said as a product of a culture and the culture is a vehicle by which cultural customs and ways of life are expressed in a language. one of examples proving that language and cultural developments influence each other is the emergence of new words or oldsame words with new-given meanings which are derived from, for instance, social interaction and political interference (: which, of course, they belong to the culture). this happens to any language including our bahasa indonesia and english. to mention some, english words like chick, gal, vegetable, and buck, are those which have new meanings through socio-cultural interference (:the first two words mean girls, dying patient, and money/dollar, orderly). in our bahasa indonesia, words like kuningisasi, pengentasan kemiskinan, gizi buruk, and rawan pangan, are examples of new words (or we might call them ‘new term‘) emerged through political interference. to support argument concerning the relationship between language and culture, many studies have been done to show that language and culture are from the start are inseparably connected. of all such studies, buttjes citied in marchal summarized the result of them (which are based on his study on first and second language acquisition in children) and proposed its relation to language teaching. he summarized them into five, they are : 1.) language acquisition does not follow a universal sequence, but differs across culture; 2.) the process of becoming a competent member of a society is realized through exchanges of language in particular social situations; 3.) every society orchestrates the ways in which children participate in particular situations, and this, in turn, affects that form the function and the content of children‘s utterances; 4.) caregivers primary concern is not with grammatical input, but with the transmission of socio-cultural knowledge; 5.) the native learner, in addition to language proficiency, acquires also the paralinguistic patterns and the kinesics of his or her culture. to restate the relationship between language and culture, samovar et al cited in abbaspur observes that: ―culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine how people encode messages, the meanings they have for messages, and the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted......culture.. is the foundation of communication.‖ from all the above arguments, it is clear that language does not exist apart from culture. then it can also be implied that the teaching of (second or foreign) language is also the teaching of (the target) culture. indeed, language teaching not only gives the students ability on grammatical competence, mastery of vocabulary, and language proficiency, but also introduces cultural components of a target language to language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 189 students, so that they will be able to use the language appropriately. integrating language and culture in the classroom a question may, then, come up about what kind of ‗culture‘ should be taught and how to integrate language and culture in a language classroom. in other words, how to teach language skills, -speaking, reading, writing, or listening, integratedly with the teaching of culture, terms of the method, technique, and teacher, roles in the classroom. to answer this question, i would like to give a definition of culture proposed by duranti, (1997:24) who says that culture is ‗something learned, transmitted, passed down from one generation to the next, through human actions, often in the form of face-to-face interaction, and, of course through linguistic communication‘. it is quite obvious that language, as a subpart of culture, plays a vital role. a simple explanation about culture is given by wardough (1986), he says that culture is a ―know how‖ that a person that posses to get through the task of daily living; in relation to language and culture teaching, the lesson should be that of enabling students to properly ‗survive‘ in a socio-cultural interaction. teacher roles there are many roles of a teacher should play in a classroom proposed by many scholars, such as a prompter, organizer, controller, assessor, supervisor, or even an active participant or partner to students. however, the writer prefers not to use such technical terms, instead, he will only give an idea or concept about what the teacher should do in a classroom when teaching culture incorporated with the teaching of a language. what the teachers should bear in mind when teaching culture is the need to raise their students awareness of their own culture, to provide them with some kind of metalanguage in order to talk about culture, and to foster understanding of the target culture so that the students can accurately interpret foreign culture behaviors. technically, teachers are supposed to stimulate students‘ interest in the target culture, and to help establish the foreign language classroom as place where opportunities for learning of various kinds are provided through the interactions that take place between participant, and not merely as a place where the language is taught. (ellis, 1997) some practical considerations here, i propose some considerations and ways of teaching language skills as well as culture integratedly. the general considerations that might be taken in language skills and culture teaching are that: a)culture teaching must be commensurate with the dynamic aspect of culture; b)teaching the culture in the systematic and structured way; c)evaluation of culture learning is a necessary component of the foreign language and culture teaching. teachers of course will play very important role i this kind of teaching, but the main thing they should bear in mind is that they must raise their students‘ awareness of their own culture and target culture experience, provide some target-culture based material, and create a culture-setting of classroom (which it could be out side the classroom). there are many methods and techniques in teaching language skills and culture proposed by many experts. one of 190 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 the best ways might be involving a native speaker in the classroom and ask him to be a target-culture-resource person. however, it seems very difficult to apply this way in our country for many considerations. other possible ways worth to apply are as follows: 1) giving the students opportunity to enjoy certain activities that are part of their tradition, for instance; song, traditional festival, sport, etc., then followed by setting up this kind of things of the target language (and culture). these activities will bring the students to experience the target culture, and not just hear the language uttered. in doing such activities, teachers can bring realia and even take the students outside the classroom too certain places. 2) giving the students multiple choice questions (10 questions/meeting) about what the person in a target culture will mostly behave in a certain situation. for instance a question about: what will an american mostly do when she is visiting her friend and offer a drink (:and she is thirsty?): a. she will say “no, thanks” while waiting for a second offer b. she will directly accept and offer and say “yes, please.” c. she will say “don’t bother (:just to be polite) and wait for a second offer d. she will say yes and go the kitchen with the host. then it is followed by discussion regarding the reasons about that answer. 3) a similar method is given by henrichen in marchal, who proposes culture assimilators which comprise short descriptions of various situations where persons of the target language interacts with persons from the home culture. then followed by four possible interpretations of the meaning of the behavior and speech of the interactants, especially those from the target culture. once the students have read the description, they choose one of the four options they think is the correct interpretation of the situation, and then they discuss why it is correct or incorrect. 4) inviting a guest speaker (a person of the first language community who happened to go to a target-languageand-culture country) to tell his language and cultural experience to students. students are led to participate in giving questions and comment on what the guest explains. the writer happened to do small research dealing with carrying out the above first-two activities in his speaking class. there are two classes of twenty students; one class (group a) is using the above firsttwo ways, and other (group b) is not. the general procedures that the writer applied in teaching group a is as follows: 1) pre-teaching: students are divided into groups of five, and given multiple choice questions about what people in the target culture would behave and react in a certain situations. 2) whilst-teaching:  in groups, students discuss the answer, try to find out why the answer is correct/incorrect, then compare the answer to other groups.  students are asked to act out the situation (role play). this gives a chance the students to practice their language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 191 language skills and express their culture awareness. 3) post teaching: confirming the students answers, the teacher explains the basic value of (reason) such reaction/ behavior done by people in the target culture. teacher, then, asks the students to compare such situation and people‘s reaction of the home culture. after 16 meetings, it is found that students in group a show relatively better result than those in group b in their communicative skill and cultural awareness, and able to use the target language more appropriately. this technique can also be applied in other language skill classes such as writing, reading and listening. conclusion the teaching of culture should become an integral part of foreign language instruction. culture teaching should allow learners to increase their knowledge of the target culture in terms of people‘s way of life, values, attitude, and beliefs, and how these manifest themselves in linguistics categories and forms. more specifically, the teaching of culture should make learners aware of things culturally by providing them with the opportunity to act out being a member of the target culture, so that they can communicate and behave appropriately in the target language and culture. references bryam, m., morgan, c. et al. 1994. teaching and learning language and culture. great britain: wbc benson, p & voller p. 1997. autonomy and independence in language learning. london: longman duranti, a. 1997. socialization and literacy in a foreign language: learning through interaction. columbus. the ohio state university. ellis, rod. 1997. second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press wardaugh, ronald. 1986. an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: blackwell publisher. abbaspour, ehsan. 2015.how to integrate culture in second language education. accessed from http://www.academia. edu. on april 9. marchal, michael. 2015. the integration of culture into foreign language classrooms. accessed from http://www.digitalcommons. brockport.edu. on april 9. 192 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 141 critical thinking in teaching writing book review galuh kirana dwi areni d_areni@yahoo.com semarang state university frimadhona syafri frima_d@yahoo.com semarang state university abstract critical thinking is important in university because students can have some benefits e.g. (1) achieving better marks; (2) reducing their dependency on teachers and text books; and (3) creating their knowledge. therefore, students are supposed to be able to apply critical thinking skills to all their academic reading, writing, listening and discussing. book report and review is one of the subjects taught in english department of unnes. writing book reviews is not only informational, but also analytic and persuasive. in doing it, consequently, students are required to have critical thinking skills in analysing the content, format, argument, and context to argue that the book is worth reading or not. in order to display critical thinking, they need to develop skills in interpreting, analysing, reasoning, and evaluating. this presentation will focus on how to develop teaching strategies that can foster students' critical thinking in writing book reviews. it will discuss the concept of critical thinking for undergraduate students, its implementation in teaching writing book reviews, and its assessment in students' book review writing texts. keywords: critical thinking, book review introduction book report and review is a subject taught in english department of unnes for 5th semester students of both educational and literature study programs which aims to develop the skill of reading a book in an attempt to compose a descriptive and critical or evaluative account of the book in an oral and written presentation. in book report and review classes, we often found that students had difficulties in reviewing books critically. instead of reviewing the books critically, they just reported them. it means that they still got confused the difference of writing book reports and book reviews. based on our finding, we tried to make an action research to overcome this problem. besides explaining the theories of book review, we also tried to guide them with critical thinking approach. in realizing this approach, we used some cooperative strategies such as team-pairsolo and round robin brainstorming. this article will describe on how to develop teaching strategies that can foster students' critical thinking in writing book reviews. it will also discuss the concept of critical thinking for undergraduate students, its implementation in teaching writing book reviews, and its assessment in students' book review writing texts. there are some theories related to what a book review is. although a book review, like a book report, spends some time discussing the content of the book, its main purpose is not informational, but analytic and persuasive. the writer, in analyzing the content, format, argument, and context within which the book was written, argues that the book is worth reading or not. (http://huronuc.on.ca/ assets/website/document/the%20hub/writing %20services/2.1g%20quicktipsforwritin gbookreviews.pdf) a critical book review is a vehicle for examining and discussing issues the book itself http://huronuc.on.ca/ 142 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 raises or fails to raise. one writes a critical book review for the benefit of those who might not presently have time to read the book but who nevertheless need to learn more about its basic approach should they desire to read or study it at a future time. (http://www.sebts.edu/files/ dmin/bookreview.pdf ) first, one must understand that a critical book review is not a book report (a summary of the contents of a book). a critical book review is a vehicle for examining and discussing issues the book itself raises or fails to raise. one writes a critical book review for the benefit of those who might not presently have time to read the book but who nevertheless need to learn more about its basic approach should they desire to read or study it at a future time. the job of the book reviewer is to inform these readers concerning any merits and/or shortcomings the book may have. from information based on a well-written review, the reader may conclude that this book is either indispensable or inconsequential. (http://www.sebts.edu/files/dmin/bookreview.pdf) based on the explanation above, we can conclude that writing a book review is different from writing a book report. in writing book reports, students only need to report and summarize what they read from book(s); they don't necessarily need to think critically in analyzing the book(s) as the goal of making book reports is only to inform the readers what the book(s) are about. on the other hand, in writing book reviews, students need to analyze critically about some issues which can make their writing informational, analytic and persuasive so that the readers not only get some information about the book(s) but also consider whether the book(s) are worth to read or not. there are some explanation about critical thinking from several sources as follows: critical thinking is the kind of thinking which seeks to explore questions about existing knowledge for issues which are not clearly defined and for which there are no clear-cut answers. (http://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/documents/learnin g_centre/critical.pdf) when you are thinking critically, you are not just thinking passively and accepting everything you see and hear. you are thinking actively. you are asking questions about what you see and hear, evaluating, categorizing, and finding relationships. http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/ critical) critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. in its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. (https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/definingcritical-thinking/766) in other words, critical thinking stimulates students to think actively and skilfully. they have to think critically to find answers of unidentified issues through academic skills such as conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, interpreting, analyzing, reasoning, generating, reflecting, exploring, or categorizing. there are a lot of academic skills that we can use in realizing critical thinking, but in our research we will focus only on four skills below from http://www.usyd.edu.au/lc. he states that in order to display critical thinking, students need to develop skills in:  interpreting: understanding the significance of data and to clarify its meaning  analyzing: breaking information down and recombining it in different ways  reasoning: creating an argument through logical steps http://www.sebts.edu/files/ http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/critical http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/critical language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 143  evaluating: judging the worth, credibility or strength of account based on (http://www.sebts.edu/files/ dmin/bookreview.pdf), the job of the book reviewer is to inform these readers concerning any merits and/or shortcomings the book may have. from information based on a well-written review, the reader may conclude that this book is either indispensable or inconsequential. first, one must understand that a critical book review is not a book report (a summary of the contents of a book). a critical book review is a vehicle for examining and discussing issues the book itself raises or fails to raise. one writes a critical book review for the benefit of those who might not presently have time to read the book but who nevertheless need to learn more about its basic approach should they desire to read or study it at a future time. the job of the book reviewer is to inform these readers concerning any merits and/or shortcomings the book may have. from information based on a well-written review, the reader may conclude that this book is either indispensable or inconsequential. a book review tells not only what a book is about, but also how successful it is at what it is trying to do. professors often assign book reviews as practice in careful analytical reading. as a reviewer, you bring together the two strands of accurate, analytical reading and strong, personal response when you indicate what the book is about and what it might mean to a reader (by explaining what it meant to you). in other words, reviewers answer not only the what but the so what question about a book. thus, in writing a review, you combine the skills of describing what is on the page, analyzing how the book tried to achieve its purpose, and expressing your own reactions. according to (http://sydney.edu.au/ stuserv/ documents/learning_centre/critical.pdf), there are some general strategies for critical writing i.e. read critically (e.g. check validity of references used in source text); be fair. take into account accepted standards of judgement used in the particular discipline or field; use evidence taken from sources which are considered authoritative in the field; consider viewpoints from a range of perspectives (e.g. male and female, different socio-economic and ethnic groups); use inclusive language (e.g.nongender specific, non-absolute terms such as 'often' and 'could' rather than 'always' and 'is). the skill of writing book reviews is necessary for university students because it trains them to analyze critically both in reading and in writing. in reading, they can explore critically the information that they need before writing reviews. in writing, they can review books critically so that they can inform the readers about the strengths and the weaknesses of the books. in english department of unnes, book report review class is a compulsory subject that must be taken by fifth semester students. this subject has 16 meetings and they have to make 4 (four) book reports and 4 (four) book reviews. we tried to apply critical thinking approach in our classes for some reasons – (1) they can achieve better marks; (2) they can reduce their dependency on teachers and text books; and (3) they can create their own knowledge. methodology we used a classroom action research in this study. this classroom action research is conducted in order to get solution to the problem until it can be solved. this method is a reflective process which is conducted by using necessary techniques in order to solve the problem. according to kemmis and taggart (anne burns 1999:22), the procedure of action research can be drawn in figure 1. the research instruments that we used in this research are critical thinking guideline (see appendix 1), rubric of assessment (see appendix 2), and observation sheet (see appendix 3). http://www.sebts.edu/files/ http://sydney.edu.au/ 144 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 figure 1. procedure of action research finding and discussion in our book repot and review classes, as we have mentioned before, the students were supposed to make 4 (four) book reports before the mid semester test and 4 (four) book reviews after the mid semester test. after they made their first book reviews, we found that they had difficulties in distinguishing book reports and book reviews. therefore, we started to plan to conduct cycle 1. in the action step, we applied critical thinking approach in writing the next book reviews by giving them the guideline of critical thinking (see appendix 1) by using the following teaching strategies: pre activity 1) teacher asked students some questions, e.g. do you like to read books? what kinds of book do you read? have you ever read a book review? 2) teacher and students discussed what book review is. 3) teacher explained the definition of book review. 4) teacher gave examples of book reviews. 5) teacher and students tried to identify the structure of book review examples. main activity 1) students tried to make a structure outline to make a book review of books that they had read. 2) teacher gave some questions (guideline) to stimulate students' critical thinking in reviewing books they had read. 3) students made notes of their answers based on the given questions. 4) students found some examples, proofs, evidence from the books they had read to support their answer. 5) students wrote their first book review drafts. 6) students did peer assessment. 7) students revised their drafts based on their peers' input. 8) students presented in random their second drafts in front of the class. 9) teacher gave feedback on students' presentation of book review. 10) students revised their drafts based on the teacher's input. 11) students submitted their final drafts to the teacher. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 145 post activity 1) teacher and students discussed the definition, structure, and critical thinking questions in reviewing books. 2) teacher asked students to review another book. these activities were conducted in two meetings. in realizing the teaching strategies, we put the students in groups or in pairs. we made a job description, one of us as an instructor and the other as an observer. during the treatment, we observed the students' activities such as whether they used the given guideline in order, whether the guideline made them easier in making the book reviews, etc. we observed them by using observation sheet (see appendix 4). after the students submitted their book reviews, we tried to identify them based on some types of critical thinking they used (see appendix 3). based on our identification, we found that the students mostly used the analyzing for 41.9%. the second frequent use of critical thinking type is interpreting for 28.1%. next, evaluating were used by students for 24.4% and the least frequent use is reasoning for 5.6%. we got the percentage by using the following formula: the number of frequency per ct type/total number of data x 100% for example, interpreting: 116/413 x 100% = 28.1% figure.1 percentage of critical thinking types the result of this identification shows that the students were able to write book reviews by using the given critical thinking guideline. they did not get confused anymore about the differences of writing book reports and book reviews. consequently, we decided not to conduct cycle 2. this can also be proven with the result of their assessment. the assessment was conducted by using rubric assessment that adapted from http://www.wlac. edu/staffand faculty/slo_rating_scale/grid_sp_09/aj_rubric.p df. there were 24 students who took part in our research. out of 24 students, 5 students (20.8%) got scores 86 or more, 17 students (70.8%) got 81-85, and 2 students (8.4%) got 71-80. the percentage of students' result proves that almost all students were competent in using the critical thinking to write book reviews. the complete result is shown as below: score data percentage a : 86< 5 20.8% ab : 81 85 17 70.8% b : 71-80 2 8.4% bc : 66-70 c : 61-65 cd : 56-60 146 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 based on the observation sheet, in pre activity, most students were enthusiastic in answering questions that the teacher asked related to book review because they had had the lesson of book report before. only 1-2 students were passive in this activity. in discussing about book review, most students were still confused about the differences between book report and book review. therefore, the students seemed enthusiastic in listening to the teacher's explanation about definition and examples of book review. after that, the students tried to identify the structure of book review examples, guided by the teacher. most of them did it actively. in the step of main activity, all students were enthusiastic to make structure outlines of their own book reviews. when the teacher tried to implement the critical thinking guideline, all of students were eager to use it. they were active in making notes, finding examples, proofs, evidence from the books they had read to support their answer. next, students were enthusiastic to write their first book review drafts. after finishing writing their first book review drafts, students exchanged their drafts to their partners. they tried to give comments to their partners' drafts enthusiastically. after the students got their drafts back, they had to revise their drafts based on their partners' input. some of the students were asked to present their second drafts in front of the class. they had made the book reviews in good order based on the critical thinking guidelines given before. however, the teacher still needed to give some reinforcement to the students. next, all of the students made their final drafts of book review and submitted them to the teacher. in the post activity, most students could summarize the lesson of book review well. they could tell the definition, structure, and critical thinking questions in reviewing books. conclusion and suggestions critical thinking is necessary to be implemented in writing book reviews. by using critical thinking, students can achieve better marks, reduce their dependency on their teacher and text books, and create their knowledge. in writing book reviews, they have to be able to develop skills of interpreting, analyzing, reasoning, and evaluating critically. this study offered a critical thinking guideline to be implemented in a book report and review class. the result shows that the students could develop the four types of critical thinking with different percentage. the most frequent use of critical thinking type is analyzing for 41.9%. the second frequent use of critical thinking type is interpreting for 28.1%. next, the third frequent use is evaluating which were used by students for 24.4% and the least frequent use is reasoning for 5.6%. most of students got satisfying scores, i.e. more than 81; they were scored based on a rubric assessment that was adapted from http://www.wlac.edu/staffand faculty/slo_rating_scale/grid_sp_09/aj_rubric.p df. from the observation sheet, we could see students' enthusiasm in using the critical thinking guideline to help them writing their book reviews. hopefully, this study can be applied in other subjects, especially those of language skills. references buckley, joanne. 1995. "keeping your head: kinds of essay writing‖ fit to print. toronto: harcourt brace. burns, anne. 2008. exploring teaching through action research. sydney: department of linguistic mcquarie university. mc niff, jean. 1988. action research. london: macmillan education. northey, margaret. 1993. making sense. 3rd ed. toronto: oxford. thomson, ashley. 1975. how to review a book. laurentian university library. http://www.usyd.edu.au/lc. https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/definingcritical-thinking/766 http://www.wlac.edu/staffand%20faculty/slo_rating_scale/grid_sp_09/aj_rubric.pdf http://www.wlac.edu/staffand%20faculty/slo_rating_scale/grid_sp_09/aj_rubric.pdf http://www.wlac.edu/staffand%20faculty/slo_rating_scale/grid_sp_09/aj_rubric.pdf http://www.wlac.edu/staffand%20faculty/slo_rating_scale/grid_sp_09/aj_rubric.pdf https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 147 appendixes appendis 1. critical thinking guidelines of writing book review evaluation criteria of book review critical thinking questions notes/ examples introduction: title, author, publication information (publisher, year, # of pages) interpreting what is the title of the book? who is the author of the book? what is the publisher of the book? when is the book published? how many pages of the book? a brief description of what the book is about and why you selected it analyzing what is the book about? why did you select it? a brief description of the author‘s qualification; analyzing what is the author's qualification? why is the author written the book? summary of contents addresses important points includes some of the key events, dates, places, or people analyzing what are important issues (some of the key events, dates, places) that are found in the book? gives examples to illustrate key points (and attachments, if necessary) analyzing what evidence or proofs or examples to support the issues? analysis the writer‘s style: simple/technical; persuasive/logical analyzing how does the author apply his ideas in the book? the organizational method (comparison/contrast; cause/effect; analogy ;persuasion through example) develop the argument or theme of the book analyzing what is the main argument or thesis of the book? how is this argument developed by the author in the book? evidences to support the argument (maps, charts, essay by experts, quotations, newspaper clippings analyzing what are other theories from other authors to support the argument? completeness the argument reasoning what evidence or proofs or examples to support the argument? facts and evidence that the author has neglected to consider reasoning what facts and evidence that the author has neglected to consider? evaluation brief summary of all weakness and strengths evaluating what are the weakness(es) and strength(s) of the book? the book‘s overall usefulness to evaluating is the book effective for certain reader? 148 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 the audience it is intended for why? liked/disliked the book evaluating do you like the book? why? conclusion presents an analytical /critical evaluation of the book evaluating what is your opinion about the book? describes how the book could be improved, citing specific examples/sections evaluating what are the advantages or disadvantages of the book? how the book could be improved? appendix 2. data analysis of critical thinking implementation 1 evaluation criteria of book review critical thinking questions number of data percentage introduction: title, author, publication information (publisher, year, # of pages) interpreting what is the title of the book? who is the author of the book? what is the publisher of the book? when is the book published? how many pages of the book? 24 24 24 23 21 100% 100% 100% 95.8% 87.5% a brief description of what the book is about and why you selected it analyzing what is the book about? why did you select it? 18 16 75% 66.6% a brief description of the author‘s qualification; analyzing what is the author's qualification? why is the author written the book? 9 5 37.5% 20.8% summary of contents addresses important points includes some of the key events, dates, places, or people analyzing what are important issues (some of the key events, dates, places) that are found in the book? 24 100% gives examples to illustrate key points (and attachments, if necessary) analyzing what evidence or proofs or examples to support the issues? 19 79.2% analysis the writer‘s style: simple/technical; persuasive/logical analyzing how does the author apply his ideas in the book? 21 87.5% the organizational method (comparison/contrast; cause/effect; analogy analyzing what is the main argument or thesis of the book? how is this argument developed by the author in the book? 24 22 100% 91.6% language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 | 149 ;persuasion through example) develop the argument or theme of the book evidences to support the argument (maps, charts, essay by experts, quotations, newspaper clippings analyzing what are other theories from other authors to support the argument? 18 75% completeness the argument reasoning what evidence or proofs or examples to support the argument? 18 75% facts and evidence that the author has neglected to consider reasoning what facts and evidence that the author has neglected to consider? 5 20.8% evaluation brief summary of all weakness and strengths evaluating what are the weakness(es) and strength(s) of the book? 23 95.8% the book‘s overall usefulness to the audience it is intended for evaluating is the book effective for certain reader? why? 24 100% liked/disliked the book evaluating do you like the book? why? 6 25% conclusion presents an analytical /critical evaluation of the book evaluating what is your opinion about the book? 24 100% describes how the book could be improved, citing specific examples/section evaluating what are the advantages or disadvantages of the book? how the book could be improved? 24 100% appendix 3. data analysis of critcal thinking implementation 2 types of critical thinking number of ata percentage 1. interpreting 116 28.1% 2. analyzing 173 41.9% 3. reasoning 23 5.6% 4. evaluating 101 24.4% 150 | language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/2 april 2015 appendix 4. observation sheet steps of teaching activities notes pre activity: 1. teacher asked students some questions, e.g. do you like to read books? what kinds of book do you read? have you ever read a book review? 2. teacher and students discussed what book review is. 3. teacher explained the definition of book review. 4. teacher gave examples of book reviews. 5. teacher and students tried to identify the structure of book review examples. main activity: 1. students tried to make a structure outline to make a book review of books that they had read. 2. teacher gave some questions (guideline) to stimulate students' critical thinking in reviewing books they had read. 3. students made notes of their answers based on the given questions. 4. students found some examples, proofs, evidence from the books they had read to support their answer. 5. students wrote their first book review drafts. 6. students did peer assessment. 7. students revised their drafts based on their peers' input. 8. students presented in random their second drafts in front of the class. 9. teacher gave feedback on students' presentation of book review. 10. students revised their drafts based on the teacher's input. 11. students submitted their final drafts to the teacher. post activity: teacher and students discussed the definition, structure, and critical thinking questions in reviewing books. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 127 the genre analysis of food label for supporting small and medium enterprises to join international trades wijang sakitri wijangs26@yahoo.com semarang state university nury ariani wulansari nuryarianiwulansari@gmail.com semarang state university abstract label is necessary for trades and education. in business world, one of the requirements that should be fulfilled by the owner of industries or small and medium enterprises to go international is label. in education, how to make label should be taught as the students of economics faculty are encouraged to become enterpreneurs. this study focuses on the analysis of food label genre. it aims to explain how the stages of food label under study are structured, what stages of food label have in common, and how persuasion, and information is realized. generic analysis based on social function and systemic functional analysis are used for analyzing thirty food labels as data. in selecting the data, random sampling technique was implemented. thirty two stages were found in the food labels. however, there was not any label under the study that have the same order of stages. the realization of persuasion, product identification and information were word group, word group and numbers, declarative sentences, and imperative sentences. keywords: label, stages, information, persuasion, product identification, word group introduction label for food product is very important in business. first, label is needed for international trades. second, label is the right of consumers for knowing the information of a product. moreover, it is an obligatory for business owners to inform his/her product clearly and truthfully. third, from the educational point of view, label should be taught in english for specific purposes class especially for the students of economics faculty. teaching a label genre includes word choices and its grammatical structure that will open that those who really want to be an enterpreneur have knowledge for joining the international trade. unfortunately, the owners of small scale businesses (ukm) in indonesia do not know and realize the importance of label. based on research done by kemenkop, 79,41% ukm that produce food and beverages have not issued a label for their product. based on research conducted by regional planning board of magelang regency in 2011, there were 375 persons that became ukm owners in magelang, but they did not have any label for their products. some indonesian tourism objects are located in magelang so that a lot of 128 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 local and international tourists come and become the customers of food and beverages. if the tourists want to buy a product, especially food product, they will look at the label first before buying. the absence of label in a product will make the tourists think a lot or even cancel the purchases. sandiaga, (2009, p1) as the vice head of business and industry chamber for micro, small and medium businesses and co-operation said that tourism sector and industries supporting the tourism sector will be a prospective business. here, one of the prospective businesses is food and beverages. however, small and medium businesses (ukm) has problems and restrictions. (kuncoro, 2008: 8) said that the development of ukm is problematic because of the low skill of its labours and human resources, and the bad enterpreneurship, marketing and finance. in education, the students of esp, especially the those of the economics faculty have got some subjects such as marketing, business feasibility study and management, but they do not have adequate knowledge to make a label of a product in indonesian, english or bilingual. in fact, the students are supported for being an enterpreneur after graduating from their study. if the students want to be an enterpreneur someday, they are categorized as ukm owners. at the beginning, they must be multitalented. it means they should have an ability of marketing, managing businesses, producing products, managing finances, packaging and labelling products. by looking at the phenomena explained above, labelling is very important for ukm owners to have a target to go international. in education, it is needed for helping the students who want to be an enterpreneur. the study aims to explain how the stages of food product label under this study are composed, whether the stages of food product label under the study have in common, and how informative and persuasive product are realized in food product label under the study has been conducted. research method the data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. qualitative approach was implemented for knowing the stages of genre of food product label and the realization of informative text in the label. then, quantitative approach was used for explaining the stages of food label product that have in common. the data of this study was thirty imported food product labels. the data were taken randomly. in the analysis, clause becomes the unit of analysis. in analyzing the data, there were two models of analysis, used for supporting this study. generic analysis based on social function was implemented for analyzing the stages of food product label. it is suggested by eggin (1994: 37). he says that we could divide the genre into stages or parts according to the function of the different constituents. this approach emphasizes difference of function of every stage. next, systemic functional analysis that language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 129 emphasized on interpersonal meaning was also conducted for realizing the informative text in the food product labels. eggins (1994: 2, 309) says that the systemic approach to language is functional in two main respects: because it asks functional questions about language: systemicists ask how people use language; and because it interprets the linguistic system functionally: systemicists ask how language is structured for use. here, thomson (1996: 28) also agrees that functional grammar can recognize three kinds of meaning within a clause. it covers experiential, textual and interpersonal meanings. some steps were done for analizing the data. it begins with collecting thirty food product labels, classifying every stage based on the social function, llabeling every stage and determining the stages of food product label which are commonly used by having simple calculation. analizing the realization of clause appear in the label is the next step that has been done. then, it is followed by interpreting the findings and drawing the calculation findings and discussions label small and medium enterprises is one of prospective industries and they can be developed. it is because of some factors. they are various and spread out all over indonesia. moreover, almost 100% their raw materials are from indonesian. they market their products not only in this country but also other countries. as a matter of fact, they really contribute to the indonesia economic growth. the government have tried to protect small and medium enterprises and their consumers. in this case, to develop them, the government and its departments have conducted some trainings, seminars and socialization about production, management, marketing, regulation and deregulation. on the other hands, some regulations are issued for protecting consumers when consuming food products. nowadays, consumers are critical and smart. they need relevant information about the product they want to get since various products, brands and industries come up. the information of goods and services needed is classified into three groups. first, the information from the government that can be gained from laws or government rules, has been issued. for example is labelling and packaging which are stated on government regulation no 9/1999. second, information which is from public organization such as ylki (yayasan lembaga konsumen indonesia). this organization often conducts researches about a particular product. then, the findings are published so that public society will know whether a particular product is good for health. third, information from the businessmen that produce various products. the aims are for informing new products or marketing their products. those three sources of information have their own way to inform 130 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 goods and services. however the most influential one is label or advertisement. based on indonesian government regulation nb. 69/1999 about label and food advertisement, food label is any information about food that can be images, written text or both of them. it is stuck on the food product or part of food packaging. its functions are for product identification, product information sources, product description which are designed as attractive as possible so that it also has function as an advertisement. talking about label, it will relate to the packaging which also becomes an important thing. packaging is a process of wrapping a product by using a particular material so that the product is protected and durable. kottleralso (2009: 31) says that a well designed packaging will create comfort for customers and it can be used for promoting a product. then, it can be an advertisement, can compete in business world because of packaging. further, a well-designed packaging will attract consumers. however, packaging and labelling are still problematic for the owners of small and medium enterprises. the problems are the materials for packaging, label design, and fund for making the package. by having packaging and its label, the product information such as nutrition, ingredients and its expired date can be known. the well-designed packaging and label will make the consumers curious. the effect of having packaging and label is that the sale of a product increase. stages of food label genre after selecting the stages of food label, an analysis was conducted. next, the analysis results the following table that depicts the stages of labels. table 1 the stages of food label and the percentage of their existence in the labels no stages percentage 1. logo 83,3% 2 product name 100% 3 preproduct name 90% 4 product image 100% 5 ingredients 100% 6 nutrition information 93,3% 7 health information 73% 8 storage 63,6% 9 product information 70% 10 company image 10% 11 company information 0,3% language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 131 12 company name 90% 13 address 90% 14 telephone 50% 15 fax 40% 16 web site 60% 17 email 30 18 halal logo 50% 19 environmental awareness image 63,3%% 20 net weight 100% 21 country of origin 76,6%% 22 bar code 100% 23 expired date 100% 24 production date 40% 25 serving 83% 26 unsealing point 100% 27 batch number 40% 28 customer service 10% 29 production code 3% 30 opening hours 10% 31 country logo 10% 32 imported countries 33,3% table 1 presents some important points which are explained below. (1) product name, ingredients, net weight, bar code, and expired date are always presented in the labels under study. 100% producers have published those stages in the packaging. product name and bar code are for identifying a product. to inform the product offered ingredients, net weight and expired date are always written (2) 96,6% labels under the study have product image. it shows that product image has an important role. the function is for identfying the product and persuade the buyers for buying the product. however, there is a product that does not have product image since the material for packaging is transparant plastic. in this case, the customers can know the product directly. (3) nutrition information appears almost in all labels under the study. the percentage is 93,3%. the function of this study is giving the information about the product nutritions so that the customers can know whether product is good for his health. moreover, bpom ri 132 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 has issued a regulation. it is hk.00.05.52.6291 which is about the reference of nutrition label of food stuff from the indonesia 2007 (4) 90 % label has pre-product name, company name, address. pre-product name has a function for persuading the customers to buy the product since it depicts the product in clear short and interesting words. company name is for giving information the name of the company produces the product. then, address is used for giving the that the customers will be easier when they want to purchase the products or send complaints (5) logois for identifying the product. next, serving is for giving information how to serve the product. 83,3% of labels under the the study have those two stages (6) 76,6%of labels mention country of origin. it functions for giving the information about labels mentioning country of origin that functions to inform in which country such products stems from. (7) health information is written in 73,3% of labels. it is for fiving health information. for example is whether a product contains of cholestrol or can causes allergy for its customers. even this stage can persuade the customers to buy healthy products as nowdays people begins to be more aware to their health (8) 70% of labels under the study have product information. it is for giving information about the strength of the product (9) environmental awareness image andstorage are in 63,3% of label under the study. those two stages are for giving information. further, environmental awareness image can persuade buy the product. (10) 60% labels have website. it can give information about the company, its products, services and purchase transactions. (11) halal logo is written in 50% of labels. it is used to give information whether the product is halal, especially for moslem. (12) 46%of labels i phone number. it is for giving information to the customers if they want to complsain or ask question about the company and the products. (13) batch number and imported countries, are owned by 40% of labels. batch number is for identifying the product and imported countries is for giving information the countries, imported the product. (14) 36% labels wrote fax number. it is used to give information for consumers when ever they want to contact the company (15) e-mail and production date are also appears in some labels. it was about 26%. those two stages are for giving information language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 133 (16) company image, unsealing point, customer service, opening hours come up in 10% of label. they are for giving information (17) 0,3% labels have country logo and it is for identifying the product to sum up, the stages that function as product identification are product name, bar code, product image, logo, batch number and country logo. then, the stages used for informing are company image, unsealing point, customer service, opening hours, email, production date, fax, imported countries, telephone, halal logo, web site, nutrition information, environmental awareness, product information, health information, ingredients, net weight, and expired date. finally, stages used for persuading the consumers are environmental awareness, product image and health information. the common stages of food label based on the analysis done, the stages of labels under the study do not have in common. however, there are five stages which always appear in the labels. they are product name, product image, ingredients, bar code, expired date. in fact, the other important stages are net weight, imported countries, and halal logo. unfortunately, they are not always written in the labels. the impact is that it will make the consumers disappointed. the example is halal logo. knowing there is not any halal logo in the label, the moslem consumers cancel their purchases since they will be in doubt whether they can consume the product. the realization of persuasion, information, and product identification the other finding that can be known is the realization of giving information and persuasion. it is presented in table 2. table 2 the realization of food stages in labels no. stages word g roup declarative im perative interrogative num bers w ord g roup & num bers im ages total percentage 1 logo 29 1 33 63 3,69 % 2 product name 53 53 3,11 % 3 pre product name 54 1 55 3,22 % 4 product image 47 47 2,75 % 5 ingredients 359 9 77 445 26,08 % 6 nutrition information 52 18 1 423 494 28,96 % 7 health information 21 32 1 6 60 3,52 % 8 storage 4 21 1 26 1,52 % 134 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 no. stages word g roup declarative im perative interrogative num bers w ord g roup & num bers im ages total percentage 9 product information 25 47 5 4 11 1 93 5,45 % 10 company image 3 3 0,18 % 11 company info 4 1 5 0,29 % 12 company name 26 19 1 2 3 51 2,99 % 13 address 1 1 22 24 1,41 % 14 telp 1 1 12 14 0,82 % 15 fax 9 9 0,53 % 16 web site 14 14 0,82 % 17 email 6 6 0,35 % 18 halal logo 12 12 24 1,41 % 19 environment awareness image 11 11 0,64 % 20 net weight 2 31 33 1,93 % 21 country of origin 16 10 1 27 1,58 % 22 bar code 19 16 17 52 3,05 % 23 expired date 11 2 9 5 22 49 2,87 % 24 production date 1 4 5 0,29% 25 serving 1 1 6 8 0,47% 26 unsealing point 2 4 3 9 0,53% 27 batch number 2 2 0,12% 28 costumer service 1 6 2 9 0,53 % 29 production date 5 5 0,29 % 30 opening house 1 1 0,06 % 31 country logo 1 1 2 0,12 % 32 imported countries 5 5 0,29 % total 694 152 40 0 36 651 133 1706 40,68 % 8,91 % 2,34 % 0,00 % 2,11 % 38,16 % 7,8 % 100% table 2 illustrates that there are 32 stages and 1706 clauses in the label. the most and less dominant stages in food labels are explained as follow: 1. nutrition information the label is dominated by nutrition information. 494 clauses or 28,96 % of tion information. the example is written as follows. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 135 nutrition facts serving size 60g serving per container about 1.3 amount per serving calories 314 calories from fat 222.5 % daily value* total fat 24.7g 37.9% saturated fat 7.2g 38% trans fat 0g cholesterol 120mg 40.8% sodium 998mg 41.5% total carbohydrate 2.2g 0.7% dietary fiber 0g sugar 0g protein 20.6g vitamin a 0% 0% calcium 25.2% *percent daily values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. the example above shows the detailed information of nutrition in the product that covers energy, yielded after consuming the product, protein, cholesterol or carbohydrate which is in the product. the nutrition information is important as it will attract the smart consumers. here, the nutrition information is realized mostly in word groups and numbers. 2. ingredients the next stage that dominates the label is ingredients. 445 of 1706 clauses or 26,08 % are composed for making this stage. the realization of this stage is word group, declarative and word group and numbers. the example is at the following box. ingredients are the materials needed for making the product and some labels mention the quantity of each material. 3. product information 5,45 % of labels is product information. it is realized mostly in declarative sentences. the following clauses is the example. based on the example, it can be seen that green day informs the strengths of product. by having this stage, it is expected that buyers will buy the product without any doubt. ingredients peanuts 75.5%, dried anchovies 16.4%, green onion 4%, spice(red chili) 4%, salt 0.05%, msg 0.05%. 136 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 4. logo the example of logo is depicted below. logo can be images, word groups or the combination of pictures and word groups. in this study, logo is realized in images mostly. further, word groups and numbers also contribute in this stage. logo is drawn in the labels since it can make the buyers easier in recognizing the company that produces the product. 5. health information this stage is usually additional information. the consumers who have some allergies will be really aware to this stage before buying a product. health information is written in declarative, word group, word group and numbers, and numbers. here, declarative sentences dominates this stage. 6. pre product name preproduct name appears in words, phrases or clauses next to product name. it makes customers read as soon as they read the product name. in this case, preproduct name is written down as attractive as possible to attract the buyers. then, it usually explains about the product deeper. the word group below is the example of pre-product name. real fruit & veggie 7. product name there are 53 clauses that are categorized as product name. the example is written below: product name is located at the middle front side of the product. usually, it has the biggest font size. it usually becomes a part of promotion. consumers will read this stage first before read the other stages and buy the product. 8. bar code bar code is thick and thin vertical lines and some numbers. it is for making the transaction of buying and selling easier. the example is below. mixed fruit chips green day 100% natural, gluten free, nopreservatives which is made from the finest raw materials via highlyadvanced technology, without any additives, preservatives and food coloring. our products are crunchy, low in fat and contain high fibre content which are widely proved to be the perfect snack for all ages. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 137 next, a detector can detect the price of a product through bar code. the realization of this stage is number and line images. 9. company name company name is also part of label. its realization is word group, declarative sentences, images, numbers, numbers and word group. 10. product image product image represents the product offered. it is not only for giving information, but also for persuading the buyers to buy the product. the example is illustrated below 11. net weight net weight is realized in numbers or word group and numbers. moreover, word group and numbers dominates this stage. the example is written as follows. net weight: 40g 12. country of origin country of origin is the country where the products are produced. it is realized in word group mostly. the others are in declarative sentences. the example is below. australian owned 13. storage storage is how to keep the products. they are written in imperative sentences. the example is at the following box. 14. address used for having correspondence, sending complaints and applying a job. the example is as follows. tong garden food(malaysia), sdn bhd (company no: 812327-v)32, jalan mega 1, taman perindustrian nusa cemerlang 79200 nusajaya, johor, malaysia. 15. halal logo halal logo is written in word group and images. it is very important for the moslem people. before buying a product, they will look at this stage. if they do not find this logo, they will not buy the product. the example is below store in a cool, dry place. keep away from sunlight. product of malaysia manufactured by: maiji seika (s) pte ltd 36, quality road singapore 618806 product of singapore 138 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 16. web site web site is an address that can be found in the internet. it is written in word group. the example is in the box 17. telephone telephone which is written in word group and number is used for asking questions or complaining. the example is below. ph. +65 6264888 18. environment awareness image this stage shows the care of company to th environment such as throwing the wrapper in the dust bin. they are dominated by images. the example is 19. customer service the realization of customer service are declarative sentences, imperative sentencees and word group. however, it is written in declarative sentences mostly. 20. unsealing point this stage can make the customer easier in opening the product. it illustrates in images, declarative sentences, word group and imperative sentences. the following picture is the example: 21. fax it can be used for complaining or communicating between customers and company produce the product. it is realized in word group and numbers. fax: +65 6265 4441 22. serving serving is suggestion from producer in serving the product. the realization is word group and numbers, word group, imperative sentences, and, images for example, 23. email the realization of this stage is a word group and the example is as follows. email: edfsb@streamyx.com 24. production date in order to avoid choking, please chew and swallow carefully. for further information about this or go natural other products please call our consumer hotline 1800 062 558 or look our websitewww.gonatural.com.au go natural and the go natural & bee device are registered trademarks of go natural australia pty. ltd website: www.tonggarden.com e-mail:customercare@tonggarden.com open here language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 139 it is the date when the product is produced. the realization is word group and numbers, and word group. the example is below. prod date: 10/11/2011 25. imported countries the realization of this stage is word group. 26. expired date expired date is the date when the consumers can consume the product. after the expired date, the product is not good to be eaten. there are two ways in writing down this stage; they are: a. best used before dd/mm/yy b. use by dd/mm/yy the realization is declarative, imperative, word group and numbers, and numbers. the example is written below. best before shown on packager dd/mm/yy 27. company information this stage describes the history of company. the realization is imperative sentences, and word group and numbers. the example is sejak tahun 1991, wonderlanmunchy telah memulai produknya di batu pahat, malaysia. bentuknya yang bervariasi menjadikan produk ini menjadi produk makanan unggulan dengan kualitas premium dan telah menjadi ikon produk makanan dengan rasa sempurna, kualitas superior, serta menekankan pada kesegaran produk. 29. company image it is realized in images, as it is drawn below 30. batch number the realization of this stage is word group and numbers. the example is stated below. batch no: a719 31. country logo country logo is a logo that indicates where the product comes from. it can be a symbol or flag of country. it is realized mostly in imported by : 1. lion city distribution pie ltd 9. woodlands link, singapore 738723 tel: 65-6584 2775 fax: 65 6584 2558. 2. asia express food spoortraat 56, 5271 rh ijsselmuiden, the netherlands, telp 31 38-332 9082 fax: 31 38-332 9045 email: info@asiaexpressfood.nl web: www.asiaexpressfood.ni 3. al maya international limited (fzc) p.o.box 8476, dubai, uae. tel: +97143473500 fax: +97143473501 140 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 images; but it can also be word group or declarative sentences. here is the example 32. opening hours opening hours is information about the time given by a company to serve the consumers. it shows that the owner of the company is serious in helping the buyers to purchase or complain. the example is in other words, it can be said that word group and word group and numbers dominate the label. according to martin (1997: 12), word group is classified as the minor clause. it cannot be analyzed since there is not any mood and residue. it usually appears in spontaneous oral text. it indicates that the use of minor clause is the way of food producer communicate with consumer. besides that, the producer want to give complete concise and clear information. then, declarative and imperative sentences also play role in the label. declarative sentences are for giving information, while the imperative sentences are used for asking someone to do something. finally, images also support the label. it is for persuading the consumers to buy the product. conclusion after having many steps in the research, it can be summarized that the stages from the most frequently used up to the less frequently used are product name, ingredients, net weight, bar code, and expired date, nutrition information, product image, pre-product name, company name, address, logo, serving, country of origin, health information, product information, environmental awareness image, storage, web site, halal logo, phone, batch number, imported countries, fax, e-mail, production date, company image, unsealing point, customer service, opening hours, and country logo. here, the stages of labels under the study do not have in common. in addition, product name, product image, ingredients, bar code, expired date always appear in the labels. unluckily, some labels miss some important stages. in fact, they are needed by the consumers before buying a product. the realization of stages in food label are word group, word group and numbers, imperative sentences, declarative sentences and images. knowing the findings, the owners of small and medium enterprises should think about labelling if they want to export their products. then, in education , teachers of english for specific purposes should inform about this genre for supporting them to be an enterpreneur. references eggins, s. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 141 gerot, l. and wignell, p. 1994. making sense of functional grammar. sydney: antipodean educational enterprises hafsah, m.j. (2004) upaya pengembangan usaha kecil dan menengah (ukm) infokop nomor 25 tahun xx, 2004 http://www.smecda.com/deputi7/file_infokop /edisi%2025/pengemb_ukm.pdf (13 may 2009) halliday, mak and hasan, r. 1989. language, context and text: aspect of language in a social semiotic perspective. oxford: oxford university press. harthana, t. 2009 ukm belum perhatikan takaran dan label kemasan produk http://kemasanukm.com/ news/2/ukmbelum-perhatikan-takaran-dan-label kemasan-produk (accessed on february 2012) hyland, k. 2004. genre and second language writing. michigan: the university of michign press kemenkop. 2010. data kementerian koperasi & ukm 79,41% ukm pangan tanpa label http://www.depkop.go.id/ index.php? (accessed on 11 february 2009) kuncoro, m. 2009. usaha kecil di indonesia: profil, masalah dan strategi pemberdayaan.http://www.mudrajad.com/ upload/journal_usaha-kecilindonesia.pdf (accessed on 14 may 2009). kotler, p. and keller, k. l. 2009. marketing management. surabaya: erlangga. kothler, p. and keller, k. l. 2006. marketing management. new jersey: prentice hall kotler, p. 1997. manajemen pemasaran. new jersey: prentice hall. madrid, m.n. ruiz. 2006. banner ads in efl web pages: a genre-based analysis www.unizar.es/aelfe2006/alefe06/1.di scourse/33..pdf (accessed on 5 february 2009). nugraha, p.b. et all. 2009. ukm harus garap ke iindustri kreatif dan pariwisata http://www.kabarbisnis.com/ keuangan/aneka-bisnis/287881-m_ harus_garap_ ke_industri_kreatif_dan_ pariwisata.html (25 december 2009) patpong, p j.. 2008. a corpus-based study of thai persuasive texts: a transitivity analysis of talisman advertisements. http://scidok.sulb.uni-saarland.de/ volltexte/2008/1698/pdf/pattama_form.p df (accessed on 16 accessed on may2009) thompson, g. 1996. introducing functional grammar. auckland: arnold , j. 2006.the language of advertising: analysis of english and lithuanin advertising texts. www.ceeol. com (accessed on 5 february 2009) undang-undang no 8 tahun 1999 tentang perlindungan konsumen http://www. mastel.or.id/files/regulasi/uu_no._8_ta hun_1999_tentang_perlindungan_kons umen.pdf. language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 71 inventing voice of identity through l2 poetry writing: a construct of mindfulness-based strategy in remote learning kadek sonia piscayanti universitas pendidikan ganesha sonia.piscayanti@undiksha.ac.id issy yuliasari universitas negeri semarang issy.yuliasri@mail.unnes.ac.id abstract voice of identity can be found in an expressive writing such as poetry writing. in l2 learning context, poetry is a medium to learn a new language in a creative way. language is developed through mindfulness and creativity. as language develops, l2 learners make use of their sensitivity to language and create or produce the language that represents the voice of identity themselves. this article focuses on how l2 poetry writing can invent voice of identity in the l2 learners by using the construct of mindfulness-based strategy. in the pandemic context where offline education is not possible, mindfulness-based strategy is best implemented in l2 remote learning since it has four main principles in language learning such as finding novelty in learning, being sensitive to context, actively engaged in the present moment, and stimulate opennes and multiperspectives. by online learning, poetry is taught with mindfulness concepts and they are guided mindfully on how they become language learners creatively and effectively by writing their poetry about their life during the pandemic. the data collected are poetry and reflection diary and analyzed through the construct of poetry in mindfulness framework. the results indicated that poetry writing can represent voice of l2 learner’s identity; their new perspectives of the world, reflection and sensitivity to context, choices of life, present moment engagement, opennes and multiperspectives keywords: poetry, mindfulness, voice, identity, language learning introduction the concept of mindfulness was firstly introduced by ellen j langer in 1989. the core principles of mindfulness are discover the new things and make new distinctions. the essence of mindfulness process in noticing new things and drawing novel distinction are built from the flexible state of mind. when mind is flexible, the new things are entering the mind and novelty can be found. this practice of mindfulness is revelant with the l2 language learning in the sense that l2 is the new language that is learned by the students. by having mindfulness concept the idea of accepting new things becomes the core of language learning. however the process is not only a matter of accepting new things but also learning to make a novel distinction, how it is different from the language learned previously, how it is possible to be done and how it is built from within the learners. according to the theory of language there are three approaches to learn language namely the environmentalist approach, innatist approach and interactionist approach. in environmentalist approach, language is treated as a behaviour to be taught. in this approach, language is considered as habits and learners are exercised through the habitual actions. according to moafian et.al (2019), the environmental approach presented the strategies of how children learn some basic principles of language. however this approach could not give solution to children how to learn difficult grammar. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 72 in innatist approach, language is built within the learners through language acquisition device. in this approach, learners are the subject of learning in the sense that they are using different mental strategies to meet the system in the target language (moafian et.al, 2019). the learners are stimulated to use their minds to see, to reflect, to analyze, and to produce. however this approach neglects the function of language and how it is operated in the process of learning. in interactionist approach, according to halliday, language is the means of communication. there are three functions of language. first, the interpersonal function which means the language is used to communicate with others. second, the ideational function which means language is used to communicate the ideas. third, textual function in which language is used as linguistic tool of ideational and interpersonal functions to make texts both verbal and written (moafian et.al, 2019). mindfulness, on the other hand, is a new concept in language learning that covers all the principles of language learning. langer’s conceptualization of mindfulness have been elaborated previously. the two core principles are noticing new things and finding novel distinctions. in the context of language learning, the two principles are the main keys to learn second or foreign language. but other than those two are engagement and flexibility. the other two relate with the interaction with the other language users and also to be flexible with the context of communication. these four principles are the main foundations in language learning, because language is in a dynamic state of development. one should be actively engaged and flexible on communication. mindfulness has become a key in learning process. to be able to learn, mindfulness takes place at the first stage. in the context of language learning, one can access language and understand language only if they are mindful. in this context, l2 is accessed when learners are able to accept new language with the new system that allows them to process new language and respond them. it is also a room for drawing novel distinctions in the sense that it becomes a new knowledge in their mind. in this research, poetry is used as a tool and medium of expression to reveal voice and identity. poetry, in this l2 learning is a gate way to introduce the new language to l2 learners. through poetry also their voice of identity is revealed. poetry is used as a medium to explore creativity and productivity. mindfulness strategy is used to build a bridge between the language learners and the l2. however, the use of poetry and mindfulness in l2 language learning in the pandemic has rarely been studied. in this context, poetry is used to be a medium of learning l2 by using mindfulness. the voice of identity is revealed through poetry. the novelty of this research is that the mindfulness is used in poetry writing to reveal the voice of identity especially in the remote learning context within the pandemic of covid 19. mindfulness leads language learner to find themselves and to develop self-awareness, then to language awareness. self-awareness develops the language awareness because it stimulates sensitivity, curiosity and creativity. mindfulness strengthens the process. mindfulness is proposed by ellen j. langer (1989). there are two major foundations of mindfulness according to langer. first of all, being aware of something new. second, giving attention on a unique difference. according to langer, mindfulness is diversed based thinking and context bound (davenport and pagnini, 2016). when we are in a mindful state, we can think in diversity, to many different contexts, to many different solutions, to many points of views (langer, 1993). mindfulness can be applied to many different contexts. in this state of mind, we accept new things, different point of views, new contexts. the awareness of novel point of views will promote new findings, to reconstruct the previous established knowledge and point of views. in this context, learning english as a foreign language is learning something novel, new. if learners are introduced or exposed to new things, new perspectives and new context, it is likely that they are capable of making meaning in a more interesting and involving way. according to moafian et.al (2019) by having a courage to find novelty in everything, the language learners can https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 73 welcome any new things and information and adapt them in the storage of the brain. one of the new patterns and information can be gained through language. poetry in this context is a product of literature that can be used to hear the learner’s voice of identity. as perrine (1982) stated that poetry is a multi-perspectives way of saying things, emotionally, intellectually, and imaginatively. however in this context, poetry is seen as a product of literary text that symbolizes learners’ voice of their experience and thoughts. the structure of poetry are built from lines, stanzas, and figurative languages such as metaphors, imagery, irony, hyperbole, vision and voice. they are selected carefully and arranged beautifully. therefore the creative process of poetry is never easy. a research by david i hanauer in 2012 showed that there are four principles that he used to make language learning happens naturally. first, by autobiographical writing, second by emotional writing, third by personal insight, and fourth by authentic public access. his findings show that esl/efl literacy instruction based on these prinsiples produces a very different educational experience. the students are directed to really express and explore themselves. the main purpose is to help students extend their language by using their true personal expression. this makes language experience as a personal, emotive and expressive resource. however this article does not explain in detail how the language learning happens from the participant’s perspective. in fact, this is the real things that should be explored. second, a study done by shapiro (2001) who found that poetry and mindfulness are medicine of language learning because poetry and mindfulness together create peacefulness, calmness, and positivity. in this research the students are given alternatife to learning, that they are allowed to listen, feel, and discover in different ways. however this article doesn’t give much information about the students’ perspective on their learning. in 2016, atsushi iida conducted a research on how to portray voice of identity in second language haiku. the study found that the identity of the students is revealed through the haikus they wrote, from which they communicate their life stories. the voice can be heard, felt and valued as human’s life experience and perspectives. it also revealed the use of poetry as a means of literacy learning. in 2020, piscayanti et.al conducted a research on mindfulness in poetry writing class. this research revealed that mindful learning is very effective to be applied in poetry class since it promotes self-awareness through the mindful journal. poetry is used as a voice of identity. as a student wrote, “from mindful learning in poetry i learned that i have ways to express myself better.” this voice is very honest about how the learner perceived poetry as expression channel. a creative process of poetry is never easy. a research by david i hanauer in 2012 showed that there are four principles that he used to make language learning happens naturally. first, by autobiographical writing, second by emotional writing, third by personal insight, and fourth by authentic public access. his findings show that esl/efl literacy instruction based on these principles produces a very different educational experience. the students are directed to really express and explore themselves. the main purpose is to help students extend their language by using their true personal expression. this makes language experience as a personal, emotive and expressive resource. however this article does not explain in detail how the language learning happens from the participant’s perspective. in fact, this is the real things that should be explored. second, a study done by shapiro (2001) who found that poetry and mindfulness are medicine of language learning because poetry and mindfulness together create peacefulness, calmness, and positivity. in this research the students are given alternative to learning, that they are allowed to listen, feel, and discover in different ways. however this article doesn’t give much information about the students’ perspective on their learning. in 2016, atsushi iida conducted a research on poetic identity in second language writing. the study found that the identity of the students is revealed through the haikus they wrote, from https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 74 which they communicate their life stories. the voice can be heard, felt and valued as human’s life experience and perspectives. it focuses on poetry writing as a tool of meaningful learning in efl classroom. the gap between previous research with the context of this research is that l2 poetry writing as a voice of identity is rarely studied. actually, poetry in l2 context is a representation of learners’ voice. this a tool where the voice of identity can be represented. the novelty of this research is to explore voice of identity that is born from mindfulness learning. therefore this research tries to explore how voice of identity is revealed through l2 poetry writing. the benefits of this research are as follows. first, by knowing the voice of identity, the learners can learn to know themselves better and language is produced personally, contextually and meaningfully. second, the benefit of this study can be used as a sample to teach poetry in l2 learning context especially in revealing the voice of identity. methods the research design of this study is qualitative research with narrative inquiry method. this method was used to record human experiences through their personal stories (webster & mertova, 2007). in this research context, the voice of identity is explored through poetry. mindfulness intervention in the creative process helps to stimulate the voice of identity to be heard. respondents the respondents are 10 efl learners in poetry course in english language education ganesha university of education taught by mindfulness. they were chosen through purposive sampling technique. the research object is poetry writing from which voice of identity can be identified, analyzed and interpreted. instruments the instruments used are writing journal, poetry, and three poetic analysis combined with the construct from mindfulness framework. data collection procedures the procedures of research are as follows. first, mindfulness intervention was given during the creative process of poetry writing, which covers three stages namely pre-writing, whilst writing and post-writing. in this research, students poets are given mindfulness treatment in remote learning mode in order to stimulate their thinking. in the process, the students were given series of stimulation on how they perceived moments and experience in their life which relate to their voice of identity. the students are given free writing stages to create narration of their life (past, present, and future moments). the second was to reflect on their narrative and to choose the best moment and poetic experience to be explored more. the last stage is to produce the poetry from which they have reflected their voice of identity inside. data analysis according to hanauer’s (2010 in iida, 2016) methodological guidelines for poetic identity investigation. the data analysis was categorized under three classes of analysis namely context of writing, content and literary choices. the first category is the context of writing. in the l2 learning, context is very important. it helps the students to understand where the language is produced and how it is produced. according to hanauer (2012) the process of language learning involves their responses to understanding of contexts. the second category is content analysis. according to hanauer (2010 in iida, 2016) the poetic identity includes the content in the poem such as chronological moments, inspirations, feelings, and thoughts. this is to consider what is the content presented, why is it presented and how it is presented. the third category is linguistics analysis of figurative language. poetry writing represents the idea to construct meaning through language. these categories then combined with the construct of poetry with mindfulness framework which is formed by categories of novelty in learning, being sensitive to context, actively engaged in the present moment, and stimulate opennes and multiperspectives. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 75 finding and discussion from the analysis of the poetry from three categories combined with mindfulness framework there are some important voices that are born from the l2 poetry writing in this research. first is the new perspective of the world voice in which the voice is born from the search of identity to the self. mindfulness is used as intervention when the poetry is written in many stages which helps the construct of voice revealed in the poetry. second, the reflection and sensitivity to context. the voice of reflection can be heard from poetry since the identity can only be felt if they are reflected from the sensitivity to context. third, choices of life. how life is viewed and how perspective is built are the voices of identity that can be brought into the meaning of life. choices of life are there to show that identity exists in the voice of poetry. the last is openness and multiperspectives voice which help to construct the identity in many different points of views. new perspective of the world new perspective of the world is the core principle of mindfulness strategy which is used wisely in l2 poetry writing process. it is stimulated through stages of writing. the following is a poetry which can be used as an example of representing the voice of identity, in this context is building new perspective of the world. childhood (student 1) when i was child i want to be an adult i can be free i can go everywhere i want i can do everything i want i can buy what i want to buy but when i grow up i feel that being an adult is not that beautiful as i imagine i feel that being an adult is boring i feel that being an adult is like a bird in a cage trapped in responsibility i want to go back to my childhood when i have much time to play with my friend when i do not have to think about my future now it is just a memory a memory of my childhood a memory just to remember here we can see that the student wants to make a new perspective of the world. his idea can be read from the content, that he previously wanted to be an adult. yet now he is in adulthood, but he wants to have his childhood back. what happens in the adulthood that he wants to bring back the world to childhood world. the idea of comparing childhood and adulthood is to gain new perspective within the writer’s self. adulthood is an area of identity search. readiness to face adulthood is the issue. however, he could not escape from the childhood that is trapped in his memory, of freedom, of playfulness, of many beautiful carefree memories. the world of adulthood on the other hand, built a new perspective on how different it is with the expectation he has. the mindfulness process to reveal the voice of poet is clear here because this poetry can not be born alone without his understanding of himself as adult who wants to be back to childhood. the mindfulness process while writing this is started with reflection on the past and present, continued to the future. the choice of language use here is direct and simple. not metaphorical and poetic, because the issue brought is adulthood versus childhood that needs more direct choice of words. in 2016, davenport and pagnini found that mindfulness practice include observation, articulation, and presentation stimulates students to be aware of the various ways that can be made to a spesific alternative and the possible answers to any issue. in this poetry, observation is done within self in which he reveals the comparison between childhood and adulthood in such a way. articulation and presentation through poetry is a perfect choice to reveal the voice. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 76 l2 learning to contrust identity appears in the poetry writing since identities are multiperspectives, dynamic, and constantly reconstructed through interaction of community in real engagements. adulthood is perceived as a result of community interaction which forms identity of being adult. wenger (1998 in iida, 2016) stated that learning is contextual and our identity have been shaped through the participation in community. another poetry which builds the new perspective of the world is as follows. no, believe (student 2) no there's a stone for the things forgotten and you won't look back on when you choose the one without choice ask, believe the rain it'll dissolve the stone where the forgotten things was hidden no the leaves' acapela promise to bring back yours the leaves' chanting will spin and open your handcuffs they raise up you from drowning lonely being a stone no this poetry is a unique perspective about stone and its mystery. the poet is trying to give voice of how memories and histories are kept in a stone. stone is a metaphor for history that is kept and hidden. sometimes it can be seen sometimes it is still hidden. sometimes the rain erased it. the voice that the poet offers here is the possibility of many, when the stone is treated as dead thing, or when the stone is respected as memory keeper. the nature here supports the idea of mystery around the stone. however the voice of nature and stone here are presented with non-judgmental perspective, as it can be read at the ending “lonely/being a stone/no//” which means that the poet does not want to clearly define whether the stone is mistaken or not. mindfulness is the state of being aware of the present moment, without reflection on the past and without the anticipation of the future nor to solve problems neither to prevent the unpleasant factors of the present. this goes along with the research by teasdale (1995 in tarrasch, 2015) which found that mindfulness is the state of being aware of the present moment, without the need to criticize or evaluate the moment, and without judgment. the voice of this poetry reveals the nonjudgemental perspective of the world. in this context, l2 voice of identity is revealed through mindful attention to the nature, the context and the sensitivity to capture the meaning behind everything including stone. this finding is supported by a research in 2016 by wang and liu who found that mindfulness can be cultivated and benefits l2 learners in relation to their foreign language learning. reflection and sensitivity to context reflection and sensitivity to context are essentials in l2 learning context. in poetry writing, the two are stimulated through mindfulness based strategy and resulted in poetry as below. stressed out (student 3) when the rain falls again i am made like i am in blindness everything cannot be seen even you hide, might be behind the curtain everything is out of mind for the first time i am made helpless even my breath is hard to get out of my nose it makes me hopeless like i am being cursed i am trapped and stressed there is nothing i can hope i beg whoever it is helped this poor human https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 77 get me out of this torture and god that is watching me please crush this situation to make me escape the tightness of this atmosphere from this poetry it can be seen that sensitivity to context is very deep. in the beginning it is written “when the rain falls, i am made like i am in blindness”. what voice is he trying to speak about. what made this happens. the context of rain, which made him feel trapped, stressed, and tortured can be the metaphor of his problem, his voice of insecurity and his hope to be helped out of the problems. poetry helps his voice out of the deep chaotic feeling. the style of language is not metaphorical yet more natural as a conversation to god. the ideas are represented through denotation rather than connotation. however this does not decrease the essence of poetry, since the meaning can be created mindfully. mindfulness happens here since the voice is naturally expressed and presented. according to hanauer (2012), l2 learning happens because every personal experience is expressed and the natural voice of poetic identity is heard. poetry allows this authenticity happens. therefore l2 language learning happens naturally. in 2020, stevenson found that as mindfulness is framed an inner intelligence, it is not a result of observational learning, but a result of our internal intelligence system. however it should be activated, stimulated and developed. choices of life and present moment engagement the choices of life and present moment engagement are very important in the voices of identity in l2 learning context. talk (student 4) i just want to talk talk about everything i want i just want to share my thought petrified mind in the brain can i talk now ? please listen to my heart can you hear that? i hope you can but why am i speechless when i am with you? i am a statue when i am with you the wind is not dare enough to whisper on my ears my mouth seems tightly sewn oh god how can i talk with him? please give me a way to talk with him i just want to say my deep feeling no matter what happens in this poetry the poet wants to share the needs to talk, the voice to express herself and her thought, however it seems to be silenced when the poet comes with the man. this simple poetry does not come with many metaphors, instead the poet use denotation more rather than connotation. the choice of life and the engagement with present moment is more real with the simple language than with the metaphoric language. with this arrangement, the poet chooses her voice to be as clear and direct as possible, avoiding the figurative language. the identity of the poet is revealed clearly because she has used the language to express her voice. according to hanauer (2012), when you use the second language as a tool to represent your voice as ideas and experiences, it changes the perspective of language. this is the point where l2 is a tool and becomes a personal touch and an ‘originally-owned’ language. though the language is simple and not metaphorical, but the idea of ‘owned’ language happens, therefore the students’ language acquisition must be better if taught by mindfulness and introduced with poetry writing. mindfulness leads to freedom of choices and this is very important in l2 learning. in 2011 sherretz did research and shows consistency with langer research (1997) who found that mindfulness matters in the sense that when freedom of choice is given and information is different, the individual is forced to be mindful observer. openness and multi-perspectives openness and multi-perspectives are also the principles of mindfulness which is very https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 78 relevant to the voice of identity in l2 learning. the poetry which shows this is as follows. eternity of love (student 5) you are my moonlight illuminate every dark knights like a flickering starlight which adorns the vastness of the dark sky your softness is like a pure white cloud your smile is like the morning sun illuminating the bottom of the heart your faithful never fades even though time is getting worn out your charm is like a flower that blooms when spring arrives become a colour for the world my world that never feels empty thanks to your presence which always soothes the heart no day passes without a spark of your warm love all stumbling blocks are in the way will not be able to change everything i feel to you even one day your body is no longer here the one i want to believe your eternal love will always accompany you either you or i first met that destiny don't worry about it let's hold hands tight wade through this river of life together in this poetry the poet wants to be open and speak about her voice to thank her lover of his presence. the voice of identity as a partner in love clearly be seen from the choice of words, lines and stanzas. the feeling is expressed directly and openly without much metaphoric expressions. the openness and perspective that is built within this poetry is simply understood by the simple lines and stanzas. from this poetry, it can be understood that emotional identity of the poet is revealed. mindfulness in this context happens naturally to deal with emotional intelligence. in 2017, cotler et.al found that there is a significant effect on the growth of emotional intelligence by combining both direct instruction and mindfulness. l2 poetry here is an example of how voice and identity can be stimulated through mindfulness. according to hanauer (2016) poetry has the power to make l2 meaning making practice much intimate, individual and close. it allows l2 writers to invent themselves during the process. another poetry that can reveal the emotional identity is this poetry. old wounds (student 6) i'm not the one who is wrong he is also not wrong, but you you made all this make old wounds come again your diatribe imprint on the heart it is okay, if it makes you good you always see everything like trash it is okay, if it makes you happy you always underestimate someone because your money goes blind because of the position, you become deaf even ties have become dust but you remember... wealth and position will not last long who you think of as rubbish some time you will also become trash the voice of opennes can be felt here, however the voice is like a blame on someone. the perspective of the poet is like a victim of action committed by the subject referred to in the poetry. the linguistic perspective is sharp, cynical, and sarcastic. the language use is full of emotions, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 79 with condensed composition. this is a result of mindful process of writing. according to langer and moldoveanu (2000) mindfulness can cause awareness of the present, build sensitivity to context, and stimulate diversity. this strengthens langer’s ideas that this multipoint of views decreases our tendency to refer to the past. in 2020, mckay and walker found that mindfulness had a powerful positive link with positive mental health, personal happiness and positive character. this can lead to creativity and productivity. it goes along with piscayanti (2017) who found that mindful learning is very effective to be used in poetry class because it has the power to make learners more sensitive, productive and innovative. the students are encouraged to invent their own language on their self-contexts. cooper and boyd (1996) in wang and liu (2016, p.143) proved that mindfulness promotes new things, innovative dynamic learning. this finding is strengthened by davenport and pagnini (2016) who found that mindful learning can help learners to have innovation, invention, creativity, and collaboration power. conclusion this article focuses on how l2 poetry writing can invent voice of identity in the l2 learners by using the construct of mindfulness. the results indicated that poetry writing can represent voice of l2 learner’s identity; their new perspectives of the world, their reflection and sensitivity to context, their choices of life and present moment engagement, opennes and multiperspectives. voice of identity is stimulated and engaged in a direct interaction with the mindfulness within self, in which the l2 learners learn to hear the voice of themselves, trying to figure out what feeling is that, how they are constructed and how they are presented through poetry. furthermore it is the process to ‘own’ the language through poetry writing. the moment when l2 learners can produce poetry in l2 is the moment where they really “produce” their own language. the current study was done with very limited exploration of how the poetry becomes the invention of l2 language and how that happens. however this study convinced that l2 poetry writing can be an effective tools to be used to present the unheard voices and identities of l2 learners. in the future it needs more exploration on how mindfulness can deepen and sharpen the productivity of l2 in terms of poetry writing. references cotler, j. l. et al. 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(2007). using narrative inquiry as a research method. routledge. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104043 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9939-y teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 73 developing english interactive multimedia students’ e–worksheet for fourth graders of elementary school haris rizqi arifin semarang state university abstract technology can change the paradigm of teacher-centered to be student-centered. one of the advantages of the technology is in making multimedia material. multimedia material is one type of media that can be used as the solution to improve the student motivations in doing tasks in the worksheet. this study is a research and development of designing an eworksheet which is based on multimedia technology and internet network. there are seven stages to develop this e-worksheet. they are need analysis, product design, expert and teacher validation, first product revision, field test, second product revision and final product. this study aims at developing interactive multimedia e–worksheet for the fourth graders of elementary school. it was tried out to the students and the results the students’ interest, motivation, and concentration in learning english, by using the interactive multimedia e-worksheet was high. the level of difficulty of the e-worksheet was well. the students’ activeness was very high. from these findings, it is suggested that english teachers need to learn how to design and develop multimedia material by using various computer programs. for students, they should be control in utilizing computer and internet. key words: worksheet, research and development, multimedia and technology introduction english has been introduced as a local content curriculum at the elementary school. in an educational process, students or learners are expected to undergo changes. given this view, we expect that each program, course and educational unit brings about some significant changes to the students. student worksheet is one of the appropriate learning materials for students. it is helping students to add information about the concept learned through systematic learning activities (suyitno, 1997: 40). but in reality worksheets that have been owned by learners has not been able to assist in finding the concept, as it contains only the material and questions. however, the presence of lks as student work book is still very minimal and has not been effective as a means of learning both in terms of appearance, contents, and practically. to optimize the lks in terms of both appearance and quality of learning based transformation needed convergence of information technology and telecommunications (ict). print worksheet function can be replaced by interactive worksheets. so, that a variety of subject matter could be more alive, more in-depth and can enhance 74 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 innovation and increase the creativity of students. english for elementary school in countries where english is not the first language, such as indonesia, english lessons that are taught in elementary school are aimed at enriching the basic vocabularies which children should know before starting to make simple statements or sentences such as alphabet, numbers, parts of the body and animals. simple expressions are also taught to them such as greetings, how to ask for help or how to borrow something from a friend. the basic reason why english learners must practice conversation is to increase their fluency and understanding of the english language. by answering questions below, students will be able to recognize the appropriate response of the english language. practice of english conversation everyday so that you will be familiar with any situations. try to find some friends around your neighborhood so that you can communicate with them in english. the english curriculum for elementary school elementary school curriculum consists of 8 and 10 subjects consecutively, local content, and self development. local content is curricular activities in order to develop competency adjusted with unique local characteristics and potential, including local advantages where the content cannot be clustered into the existing subjects. local content is determined by individual educational unit (school or alike). english is one of the local content which is taught in indonesia curriculum. according to the ministry of national education (mone) policies, english for elementary school is started from the fourth grades (bsnp, 2006: 404). english for fourth graders teaching english to elementary school students in indonesia as a local content is the students are expected to have skills of the language in simple english with emphasis on listening, speaking, reading, and writing skill using selected topic related to their environmental needs. related to the objective above, the material for the fourth grade, most topics are about center of interest that they often face in their life. the topics include things inside a class and things around a school. those topics are so familiar with students that may see it every day when they attend to their school. so, it is easier for them to perform and absorb the words given which are about things inside the class and things around the school. there is no basic rule on how many words should be given to the fourth graders of elementary school. as ten up to eleven years old children, the fourth graders should not be given too many words. it is better to give them about seven or eight new words at one time. according to english syllabus (pemkot semarang, 2004: 15), the english materials for fourth graders are greeting language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 75 and parting, color, things around us, number, part of the body, family, hobbies, calendar, toys and games, shopping, school activities, fruit and vegetable. in this study, the writer used color for developing e-worksheet. interactive learning interactive learning means that students are active participants in the learning process. according to sessoms (2008), it necessitates the students to interact with the content through a combination of the abstract and the concrete. he further stated that while the traditional models of learning require a teacher-centered approach, this kind of learning transform the teacher-centered approach to a student-approach. in the student-centered approach, interactive learning is supported by tools that actively engage the students. the common problem faced by the learner is to focus on what they learn. an alternative to solve such problem is using interactive media in learning. interactive multimedia interactive multimedia is a media which allows or active participation by the recipient, hence interactivity. it means that the media can be used by students every time and everywhere, so they can learn by themselves. the teachers and students will operate the multimedia by using the computer as an assisted tool. according to mayer (2003:5), in computer-based environment, known as multimedia, the external representations may include spoken word, which enter through the ears, and animation, which enter through the eyes. worksheet student worksheet is one of the appropriate learning activities for students. it is helping students to add information about the concept learned through systematic learning activities (suyitno, 1997: 40). research and development research and development (r & d) is a system of research which is finding or developing new products. according gall and borg (2003), educational research and development is an industry-based development model in which the findings of research are used to design new products and procedures, which then are systematically field-tested, evaluated, and refined until they meet specified criteria of effectiveness, quality, or similar standards. furthermore, borg and gall (2003:570) is conducted in ten steps, they are: 1) assess needs, 2) planning, 3) developing preliminary form of products, 4) preliminary field testing, 5) main products revision, 6) main field testing, 7) operational product revision, 8) operational field testing, 9) final product revision, 10) dissemination and implementation. discussion the study of this research is using the research and development approach. it 76 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 aimed to develop an english interactive multimedia students’ e–worksheet to help the elementary student grade fourth in majoring english. it is using ten steps conducted by borg and gall. they are 1) assess needs, 2) planning, 3) developing preliminary form of products, 4) preliminary field testing, 5) main products revision, 6) main field testing, 7) operational product revision, 8) operational field testing, 9) final product revision, 10) dissemination and implementation. however, according to borg and gall, the above r & d cycle can unlikely be conducted by graduate students for the cycle is very expensive to carry out. therefore, the writer used the following seven r & d stages, which was half of the borg and gall’s (2003: 570). it started from mapping of the students and teacher’s needs analysis which was beneficial to give information to the development of the product, namely interactive multimedia e–worksheet for the fourth grade students of elementary school. the second stage was developing preliminary form of products, including the syllabus, students’ worksheet book and interactive multimedia. the third stage was expert and teacher validation. the products were validated by the experts and english teachers, and they were revised based on the experts’ and the teachers’ judgments and suggestions. then, the next stage was main field testing which the products were trying out in one class to see the clarity of the materials and the interactive multimedia, attractiveness, level of difficulty, practicality and effectiveness of the products. after having the try out, i would make improvements if they were necessary. next, after having the final revision, the learning material was ready to produce. the following is the table which offers a framework for developing the product. need analysis product design expert and teacher validation first product revision field test language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 77 model of r & d design adapted from borg and gall (2003: 570) in developing the interactive multimedia of listening comprehension, it began with the need analysis stage. this stage was the initial stage which was intended to get the initial data and also the need of the students in the teaching and learning process. by doing the need analysis, the interactive multimedia eworksheet was developed based on condition and situation faced by the students. basically the purpose of this step was to study the basic problem possibly faced by the students in doing their textbook worksheet. it provided an evaluation of the need in order to deal with their basic problem. this step was conducted by doing interview. the purpose was to know how textbook worksheet was conducted in the english lesson, and what the teacher and students’ problem in the teaching and learning process. in designing the e-worksheet for year four students of elementary school, it was necessary to construct the materials and tasks based on the content standard consisted of standard of competence, basic competence, language skill, number of meeting. the materials were taken from syllabus and some books as the sources. it made according to the need analysis stage and suitable for the fourth grades. the writer combined the materials from the books and some webs. after the set of the materials and tasks had been established, the step for designing the initial draft of the eworksheet was begun. the purpose of this step was to design the prototype of the media developed. the develop stage contained the experts and teachers validation and also the developmental testing. the experts’ validation towards the interactive multimedia e-worksheet developed was conducted upon the aspect of substance of the material, the media design aspect, and the quality of the media aspect. such validation was intended to find and fix the possible shortcomings as well as improve the quality of the media developed. the learning material was validated by three experts and a teacher. the teacher who was responsible for the validation was the teacher who taught for many years and had many experiences in teaching english at elementary school. the next validation final product of interactive multimedia e–worksheet second product revision 78 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 was asked from two senior lecturers were competent in designing curriculum for english course. the last is an it expert who competence in designing multimedia products. receiving the teacher’s and expert’s validation, i made some revisions to make my product better. some suggestions that the teachers and experts proposed became the basis of the revision. during the study in some elementary schools in semarang, there were two actions that were taken. they were the preparation of try out and the try out. before conducting the try out, the writer tried to get the permission from the schools dealing with the study that i would conduct. the writer met the headmasters and got the permission. then, the writer discussed the try out schedule with the teachers. the final step in the preparation was to meet the english teachers, to discuss the technical process in doing the e-worksheet materials. after that, the writer handed the e-worksheet tutorial including the passwords for their students and ask their email. the try out was conducted for a day. the try out was started by the introduction from the teacher about the use of the eworksheet. the teacher gave some explanation to the students about the eworksheet that would be used. on the same day, the teacher asked the students to open the website of the eworksheet. in this day, the students were asked to do the tasks. after trying out, the writer had the second revision. the revision was done according to the result of the questionnaire given to the students on the last day of try out. the teacher’s and students’ suggestions would also be a consideration to determine what change should be made. from the result of the questionnaire from both teacher and students, it can be concluded that the interactive multimedia e-worksheet since the point was 40. it means that was very well and there were no any recommendations which were given, the interactive multimedia eworksheet would not get revised again. after having the final revision, i created the fixed learning material to the students. the material which had passed the essential steps by acquiring several improvements from the experts, teachers and students was edited and revised in order to generate better products. the final interactive multimedia e-worksheet of english could be opened on www.hariseduworksheet.com. conclusion referring to the development and implementation of the interactive multimedia e-worksheet, four points are taken as the conclusion. first, in the need analysis of the define stage, the result of interview between the teacher and the writer shows that the teacher has difficulty in conducting teaching and learning process because the teacher is only equipped with a textbook http://www.haris-eduworksheet.com/ http://www.haris-eduworksheet.com/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 79 worksheet with limited source. besides, the result of interview shows that the students have difficulty in understanding the materials given by the textbook worksheet. it is caused by their lack in understanding the instructions giving by the book. this condition makes the students difficult in doing the tasks in the textbook worksheet. second, it has been developed an interactive multimedia cd, which is already relevant to the material substance, media design, visual communication design, and media quality. it has been conducted through three stages of the define stage, design stage, and development stage. it begins with the define stage in which the writer does the need analysis, learner analysis, and task and concept analysis. conducting an interview and an observation are two activities in collecting the data related to the need of the students and teacher in the teaching and learning process. the next stage is the design stage. in this stage, the process of making the prototype of the multimedia is begun. the media selection, media selection, format selection, and initial design are the three phases in conducting the design stage. in this stage, the multimedia material is developed by combining various types of media format. it provides the material by combining audio, pictures, video, and text. in develop stage, the product then is evaluated by some experts until it has reached the final revision. the experts of the aspect of substance of the material, media design aspect, and media quality aspect have been asked to conduct validation toward the relevant aspects. third, the use of the interactive multimedia e-worksheet gives some positive influences for the students in the teaching and learning process. it is proved by the result of the questionnaire given to the students. it shows that the use of the e-worksheet can increase their interest and motivation in learning english. besides, the use of the e-worksheet also influences the students’ awareness, attention, inquiry and discovery, and communication ability in the teaching and learning process. fourth, the use of the interactive multimedia e-worksheet is very effective to make students more discipline in doing the tasks given by the teacher. they can do the tasks anywhere as long as there is an internet network there. there is no more reason not to do the tasks given by their teacher. it can be showed in the checklist of the observation. being able to teach is not the only task for teachers. they also need to develop the material used in teaching process since not all the materials are provided and suitable with the students’ need. the teacher’s ability in utilizing multimedia is definitely required. nowadays, most teachers are able to use computer. computer is not only used to type documents. however, computer enables teachers to explore their creativity in creating an innovation in teaching process. they need to learn how to design 80 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 and develop multimedia material by using various computer programs. based on the result of this study, there are some suggestions for the students offered by the writer as follow: students need to have more practices in learning english since english is a gate that connected people around the world. by having a lot of practices, they will get more input in improving their english. most students are able to operate computer now. they even like to use internet access for different purposes. by looking at this condition, students should be to control their ability in utilizing computer and internet. the utilization of computer and internet by students need to be guided to learn english because there are many english materials available in the internet. references alessi, s.m, & trolip, s.r. 2001. multimedia for learning: methods and development. massachussets: allyn & bacon. andrade, estela lizbeth munoz. carlos argelio arevalo mercado & juan 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[accessed on 27/12/11] wichadee, s. 2010. defining the effectiv english language teacher: students’ and teachers’ perspective. in a.m. stoke (ed.), jalt 2009 conference proceedings. tokyo: jalt (19 january 2012) wijaya, cece. 1992. kemampuan dasar guru dalam proses belajar mengajar. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya http://llt.msu.edu/vol11num1/pdf/ramirez.pdf http://llt.msu.edu/vol11num1/pdf/ramirez.pdf attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaab3b301048 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaad0e861143 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ______________________________________________________________________________ 1 emergence and development of bullet comments in china aiqing wang abstract danmu denotes user-generated dynamic and contextualised comments scrolling across the screen. owing to its resemblance to a bullet curtain, such a text-over-screen technology is referred to as ‘bullet comment/message’ or ‘barrage subtitling’. since being adopted from japan, danmu has expeditiously developed from a niche subcultural entity into a prominent property of chinese online video culture. danmu obtains popularity among young audiences, in that it establishes social media co-viewing, creates a sense of belonging, allows self-expression and facilitates social connectedness. moreover, danmu enables creators to demonstrate a sense of existence, especially via informative, alerting and spoiler comments. the popularity of danmu in china is ascribed to diversified and concise literacy practice. more significantly, it is attributed to linguistic and cultural prerequisites: the chinese written language is featured by a high information density and robust parafoveal preview effects; the chinese culture is marked by a high level of polychronicity and collectivism, as well as conspicuous social and peer pressure. keywords: bullet comments, chinese online videos, information density, parafoveal preview effects, polychronicity, collectivism introduction in china, one of the most illustrious and fastgrowing online video-sharing entertainment platforms is bilibili (https://www.bilibili.com) which was founded in 2009 and nicknamed ‘b zhan’ (‘b site’) (li, 2019). according to statistics gathered in the first quarter of 2019, the streaming video operator bilibili reported total revenue of 1.37 billion rmb, with monthly active users (mau) exceeded 101 million and paying mau amounted to over 4 million (china internet watch, 2019; zhang & cassany, 2019c). during the second quarter of 2020, its mau became 172 million and the revenue reached 2.62 billion rmb, with a strong year-on-year growth of 70% (china business, 2020; liao, 2020). in comparison with youtube that has approximately 2 billion loggedin users each month (youtube, 2021), figures regarding bilibili manifest its quintessential status and immense commercial success. as a result, in a transaction which valued bilibili at us$8 billion, it has attracted us$400 million equity investment for a minority stake from sony corp america (frater, 2020; li,2020; sony.net, 2020). in the domestic market, bilibili has attained tremendous popularity among the generation z (‘gen z’ for short), or igen, who are the digitalnative second wave millennials born in 1990s and 2000s (tulgan ,2016, pp. xii-xiii, twenge, 2017; walker, 2020). data shows that gen z users account for over 80% of bilibili’s user base (parklu 2019), and their indulgence in bilibili can be epitomised by their average daily expenditure of 81 minutes on this website (china internet watch 2019), which substantially eclipses its competitors such as tiktok: an average user only spends around 45 minutes per day on the latter (holmes 2019). a salient attribute of the gen z lies in their obsession with the japanese acg (anime, comics and games) subculture (wang, 2014; cai, 2016; fung et al, 2019, lu & zhang, 2019). led by a 42year-old serial entrepreneur chen rui, who is a self-confessed anime fan, bilibili is an acg-based website that has constructed a formidable niche to compete with internet giants such as baidu, alibaba and tencent which dominate china’s enormous online video market (wang & olsen, 2018; perez, 2020; zhang, 2020). albeit being acgbased, bilibili positions itself as ‘a full-spectrum online entertainment world’, the operations of which range from mobile games to video clips and live broadcasting, and it has extended from its renowned user-generated short-format content to professionally-produced material and full-length https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://www.bilibili.com http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 2 films and documentaries (frater, 2020; bilibili, 2021). the popularity of bilibili can also be reflected by its stringent approach to issue membership: candidates have to sit a 100-question online examination in 120 minutes, which contains absurdly detailed niche questions even challenging to devoted acg fans; such a requirement for indepth knowledge of acg subculture renders bilibili the only online community in china that imposes a threshold for membership (shen, 2018a; borak, 2019; law, 2019). notwithstanding discernible assessment, 89 million netizens have passed the entrance screening by the second quarter of 2020 (bilibili, 2021), which indicates the popularity of bilibili among young audiences. among all features that inspire a high degree of engagement and enjoyment, the most embraced function of bilibili is that this platform permits users to post scrolling danmu (‘bullet comments’, ‘bullet messages’ or ‘barrage subtitling’) superimposed directly upon footages, which can be either synchronised to playback times or left by previous viewers pegged to specific time points of video clips (global times, 2018; shen, 2018b; cao, 2019; liao, 2019). both senders and viewers can personalise danmu’s text size, colour, transparency and movement speed, and there are options to filter or deactivate danmu, which is indispensable under circumstances when viewers find danmu swooping across the screen distracting or when they are bombarded with myriads of danmu (chen et al., 2015; li, 2016; ye, 2018, pérez-gonzález, 2019; zhang & cassany, 2019c). for instance, the prodigious amount of danmu appertaining to hit videos, such as the bbc’s sherlock, can reach 8,000 (li, 2014), rendering the screen pictures barely visible to viewers or totally invisible, as shown by the screenshots in (1) and (2) respectively. (1) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ______________________________________________________________________________ 3 (2) history of danmu and ‘danmu’ in history although bilibili is frequently credited for popularising danmu, the pioneer of such a textover-screen technology is the largest japanese video-sharing website called niconico (nicovideo.jp), which is inextricably intertwined with acg fan culture, communities and practices formed around media mix projects (qin 2014, tarnoi et al 2019). through transforming and producing content, niconico users can establish subcultural and local networks that foster innovative formats of media mix. moreover, niconico encourages dynamic creativity and collaborative creations by means of integration of secondary materials, viz. ‘n-level creation’ (li 2017, steinberg 2017, hernández 2018, nakajima 2019). in 2006, niconico introduced a feature called danmaku that projected dynamic, contextualised and quasi-bullet-curtain comments scrolling across the screen, thereby enabling ‘polyphonic representation’ and multitasking user participation (johnson, 2013; li, 2017). since danmaku was introduced into china in 2008, it has been referred to as danmu in chinese and been denoting both the system and individual comments (cao, 2019; zhang & cassany, 2019a). the leading chinese website that is modelled on niconico and equipped with the danmu function is acfun (nicknamed ‘a site’), and it has inspired the founder of the ‘b site’ (global times, 2018; wang, 2018; ye, 2018; nan, 2020). after being adopted into the chinese video market, danmu went viral expeditiously: on bilibili only, there are approximately 1 billion and 1.4 billion pieces of danmu in 2018 and 2019 respectively (zu, 2018; bilibili, 2019). notwithstanding an imitation of niconico, bilibili has overwhelmingly outperformed it: niconico possesses 13 million videos and 70 million accumulated playback times (tarnoi et al., 2019), while bilibili hosts approximately 4.9 million pieces of content per month, collectively submitted by 1.8 million monthly creators (liao, 2020). spurred on by the rocketing visibility and prosperity of bilibili, an array of mainstream online video services such as tudou and youku have also introduced this collaborative video annotation system, in that the conventional, danmu-free visualisation has been losing its capacity to entice and retain users. as a consequence, by 2014, virtually all video-streaming https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 4 platforms in china have been featured by the danmu function to engage users, which marks the prominent evolvement of danmu from a niche subcultural entity into a preponderant standard design for the online video culture in contemporary china (he & zhang, 2014; chen et al., 2015, 2017; he et al., 2017; li, 2017; zhang & cassany, 2019a). in addition to user-produced danmu, these globalised platforms also begin to accommodate transnationally and crosslinguistically constructed media products that are generated by users, instead of website owners (benson & chik, 2011; zhang & cassany, 2019b). currently, watching danmu-enriched videos has become a well-established routine and a subculture for the gen z in china. due to its correlation with entertainment, informativeness and sociability, danmu is sometimes more popular than the videos per se, and it even serves as an incentive for audiences to watch certain works (hsiao, 2015; zhang, 2016; yuan, 2017; cheng, 2019; nan, 2020; yang, 2020), as exemplified by a frequently-occurred danmu text ‘i just came here to watch barrage subtitling’ (nakajima, 2019, p. 107). apart from the entire online video service, danmu has expeditiously dispersed to and penetrated other forms of media, including social media, television and cinema. in 2014, tcl technology, a chinese electronic corporation manufacturing smart products, launched an innovative tv with a danmu feature, which could be linked to china’s largest social media platform wechat and thus enabled users to interact with friends’ comments on their tv screens (fan, 2014; li, 2014). in the same year, three chinese feature films experimented with the danmu effect in theatrical screenings: cinema chains allowed audiences to input comments via smart phones during screenings and charged them to have their texts displayed on the big screen and overlay films in real time (billington, 2014; jiang, 2014; qin, 2014; li, 2017), thereby deploying the interactive potential of second screen participation (blake, 2017) and satisfying the need for both cinema and mobile device of audiences (ma, 2017, p.210). nonetheless, such a novel attempt is unanimously castigated for jeopardising artistic value of films and for only being suitable for non-cinematic films (beijing news, 2014; china news, 2014; china youth daily, 2014; li & han, 2014; su, 2014). danmu’s intertextuality property determines that the original video is reduced to the background, yet the multi-layered, heteroglossic discourse in the foreground acts as the fundamental element that attracts viewers’ attention (zhang & cassany, 2019b). additionally, there is incompatibility between a cinematic gaze and a cybernetic scan, namely, absorption required by cinema and distraction triggered by danmu (li, 2017). despite the fact that the danmu culture did not enter china until 2008, an analogous genre has been existing in chinese literature, exemplified by the margin comments on hong lou meng (aka ‘dream of the red chamber’ or ‘story of the stone’), a chef d’oeuvre of cao xueqin (circa 17151763) chronicling the travails of an affluent and populous aristocratic clan as well as its miraculous prosperity and catastrophic perishment. unanimously acknowledged as the milestone and pinnacle of chinese fiction, this full-fledged polyphonic masterpiece has invited a multiplicity of perspectives of interpretation owing to its kaleidoscopic richness (yu, 1989; wang, 1992, p.6; edwards, 2001, p.1-2, zhou, 2001; 2013, pp. 2-3, ferrara, 2009; chan, 2020). prior to the completion of the entire novel, the author circulated it in manuscript form among friends and relatives, who had left an enormous quantity of margin comments. among all margin critics, the most influential commenter was the pseudonymous zhiyanzhai (‘red inkstone studio’) with an unknown identity, whose comments were illuminating, philosophical and analytical (edwards, 2001, pp. 11-13; ge, 2002; li, 2004, p. 202, wang, 2006; zhou, 2013, pp. 238-242; ferrara, 2015); zhiyanzhai’s comments also occurred in great volume, parallel to danmu comments. apart from thought-provoking reappraisal and the impressive quantity, zhiyanzhai’s margin comment is also featured by an entertainment effect, analogous to danmu as its ‘contemporary counterpart’. for instance, in chapter 19, next to the line fangpi ‘bullshit’ said by the heroine lin daiyu, zhiyanzhai’s margin comment is ruwen which https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ______________________________________________________________________________ 5 means ‘as if i heard it myself’. similarly, danmu comments also demonstrate posters’ multimodal humour (yus, 2019), through non-aggressive, playful teasing, allusions and retorts, as well as multimodal resources such as colour, layout, symbols and pieces of javascript code that exhibit particular effects or applications (chen et al., 2015; zhang & cassany, 2019c). of course, zhiyanzhai also added less informative comments such as xiao ‘laughing’ and miao ‘wonderful’, parallel to internet neologisms ‘23333’ (‘lol’) and ‘666’ (‘awesome’) respectively. the existence of margin comments in classical chinese literature accounts for the current embracement of danmu from a historical perspective. there is no denying the fact that there are two contextual discrepancies between margin comments in hong lou meng and danmu in the cyberspace. for one thing, the critic of hong lou meng encapsulates the highly exclusive educated elite in pre-modern china, yet danmu is the embodiment of an inclusive subculture of the grassroots. to be more specific, zhiyanzhai, who was arguably surmised to be female (see deng, 2012; wang, 2016, among many others), belonged to the intellectual class (yu, 1997,p. 5; edwards, 2001, p. 2-4, 12; ge, 2002), which can be reflected by the fact that during the imperial qing (1644-1912) era when hong lou meng was composed, the literacy rate of women was only 2%-10% (rawski, 1979, p. 23, jin & liu, 2010, p.155); even if zhiyanzhai was male, men who were privileged to receive education in qing china only occupied 30% to 45% of the entire population (rawski, 1979, p.23, jin & liu, 2010, p.155), not to mention becoming a renowned literary critic as intelligent as zhiyanzhai. therefore, it is reasonable to propound that the margin comments in hong lou meng are ascribed to a member of the educated elite. online danmu producers in contemporary china, however, are not limited to literati: according to the latest data released by the china internet network information centre, there are approximately 989 million netizens in china in december 2020, whereas only 9.3% of them have received higher education or above (china internet network information centre 2021). therefore, it is reasonable to presume that a considerable proportion of danmu is not ascribed to the educated elite. for another, hong lou meng, as one of the four great masterpieces of chinese literature acclaimed by both the literary and academic fields (yu, 1997, p. 3; wong, 2014, pp. vi-vii; ferrara, 2018), has been profoundly advocated by statelevel, mainstream cultural institutions in a quasipolitical sense (zhang, 2018). for instance, during an official visit to south korea, the then premier of china discussed hong lou meng with local fans of this novel (china news, 2010); five extracts of hong lou meng have been included in textbooks of china’s secondary education (bai, 2005; wang, 2011). by contrast, the production and permeation of danmu by ordinary netizens are voluntary and unofficial, and as an inclusive manner of online communication adopted by the grassroots, danmu heavily relies on netizens’ access to the internet as well as a range of portable and transportable electrical equipment. social functions of danmu since danmu is produced by users, it is categorised as user-generated content which involves voluntary creative effort and is publicly available on online platforms (leung, 2009; shneiderman et al., 2011; mcnally et al., 2012; naem & okafor, 2019). as propounded by the uses and gratifications theory, gratifications obtained from user-generated media are comprised of: 1) consuming the content, for information seeking and entertainment; 2) participating, for social interaction and community development; and 3) producing new content, for self-expression and self-actualisation (shao, 2009). in this section, i analyse the social functions of danmu and the motivations of its producers and consumers in these three aspects, focusing on the latter two. first, danmu accommodates audiences’ need for information and entertainment. to be more specific, danmu satisfies a utilitarian need for information and a hedonic need for entertainment, relaxation, arousal and escaping from the reality (han & lee, 2014). a preponderant subcategory of https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 6 interactive danmu is information-seeking, and restricted by time and space, chinese danmu users have coined a list of well-established fixed phrases for this purpose, which are concise yet still courteous. it is notable that this type of bullet questions generally receives answers, and there are viewers who offer information voluntarily and proactively even if nobody asks, thereby exhibiting their knowledge, meticulousness and deductiveness, as well as their sense of humour if their texts are amusing. more significantly, danmu has constructed and nurtured a multifaceted and dynamic participatory culture in china (zheng 2016, chen 2018), and has established a social arena for free speech and potential democratic participation (yin & fung, 2017; zhang & cassany, 2019c). second, danmu enables social interaction and communication between producers and consumers, so as to facilitate community development. danmu satisfies users’ social needs by means of establishing social media co-viewing, thereby creating a sense of belonging. danmu establishes social media co-viewing via a prominent property, viz. ‘pseudosynchronicity’, which meets users’ desire for company and to overcome loneliness (perse & courtright, 1993). messages launched during distinct viewings follow the playback time of videos, thereby gathering all audiences from all viewings as one cohort. the movement and synchronisation of danmu enable audiences to derive excitement triggered by the synchronicity of texts and screens, as well as experience of coviewing with peers, in spite of divergent times and locations (cohen & lancaster, 2014; chen et al., 2015). that is to say, as long as the broadcast is not live, the text-over-screen effect can preserve crowd dynamics in terms of opinions and/or sentiments, without the physical presence of crowds (johnson, 2013; chen et al., 2015; li, 2017; cao, 2019), in that online communities, as ideological figures, exist more in a mental arena than in empirical reality (zwick & bradshaw, 2016). additionally, the synchronic attribute of danmu offers special gratifications concerning sympathy and social connectedness among peers, which are discrepant from those obtained from traditional post-viewing commenting videos (chen et al., 2015, 2017; hao, 2020). in this way, danmu generates a sense of belonging to communities among the young generation, which might be triggered by peer pressure (cheng et al., 2014; wirtz & göttel, 2016). as a consequence, danmu promotes communication between producers and consumers. spontaneous interactions, defined as ‘sociability’ (simmel & hughes, 1949), occur among danmu posters and viewers, and the purposes of interaction are to convey meaning and to proliferate communication and expand networks (nakajima, 2019). in particular, the danmu system enables users to communicate in a more direct fashion, deriving a real-time sharing experience (he et al., 2017). there is no denying the fact that according to cao (2019), a danmu text should not be regarded as a message, in that it does not intentionally target a specific addressee; besides, it does not call for a response, though it may receive responses and resonances. the nature of a danmu text is actually an ‘idiolect’, viz. an individual’s distinctive manner to express thoughts without an intention to converse with an addressee (jakobson 1987: 104). in other words, bullet texts entail semiotic idiolects that are not always discursive. nevertheless, i argue that a considerable proportion of danmu texts are indeed intended for communication, exemplified by three categories: information-seeking, gratitude-expressing and discussion-provoking danmu. first, as mentioned previously, when viewers are in seek of information regarding videos and related background, they may turn to co-viewers for help, which does not address any specific individual but expects an answer. second, danmu may be employed to express thankfulness to specific individuals, especially uploaders and voluntary, unofficial subtitlers. third, viewers may post comments in a hope to provoke discussions on plots, scenes, props and acting skills or to seek resonances, via questions like ‘am i the only one who finds the costume an eyesore’ and ‘am i the only one who finds my iq has been insulted’. under most circumstances, posters receive https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ______________________________________________________________________________ 7 responses like ‘the person in front of me, you’re not alone’. third, danmu facilitates self-expression and constructs a sense of existence. the most archetypal paradigm concerning the self-expression function of danmu is spoilers. from the perspective of reception and consumption of this paratext, spoilers can diminish suspense and annihilate viewers’ enjoyment (johnson & rosenbaum, 2015; levine et al., 2016; rosenbaum & johnson, 2016), but they generally have a modest and positive impact (leavitt & christenfeld, 2011, 2013; daniel & katz, 2018; ellithorpe & brookes, 2018; johnson & rosenbaum, 2018; johnson et al., 2020). spoilers can be categorised into non-toxic ones that are accidental, formative, sociable or politically correct, as well as toxic ones that are intentional, driven by pleasure or vengeance. as for the act of spoiling, which is constituted of both production and circulation of spoilers, it functions as an interpersonal communication practice based on knowledge exchange and a source of sociability and empowerment, whereas it may trigger social and cultural disputes (meimaridis & oliveira, 2018). in terms of danmu spoilers, they are embedded and overlaid on videos, so they are ineluctable, disparate from traditional comment sections that can reduce spoiler exposure through spoiler alerts for those who wish to avoid prematurely discovering plots or endings. therefore, if danmu producers are fully aware of the unwantedness of spoilers yet still intentionally reveal essential plot details, they might be motivated by pleasure and/or vengeance. moreover, since all danmu comments are sent anonymously, even without the display of pseudonyms (zhang & cassany, 2019b), spoiler posters are immune to fear of revenge. nevertheless, the degree of toxicity of danmu spoilers might not always be high, in that spoiler creators can be perceived as craving attention and a sense of existence, possibly triggered by their social inferiority in real life contexts. another highly frequent danmu for selfexpression purposes is qianfang gaoneng ‘high energy warning ahead’, which ranked among top ten danmu buzzwords on bilibili in 2018 (zu, 2018). according to chen et al. (2015, p. 155), qianfang gaoneng is to forewarn co-viewers of upcoming ‘surprising, frightening or shocking’ content, thereby building a feeling of companion. i postulate that in addition to this purpose, posters of alert comments also aim to show their experience from previous viewing(s) and even a sense of achievement as veterans. to some extent, alert danmu functions as an alleviated subtype of spoilers. expression-oriented danmu comments can also be deployed to convey viewers’ opinions on videos, and to joke around about content of videos (billington, 2014) or other related topics such as casts, subtitle translation, image quality, other danmu texts, etc. furthermore, celebrities’ fanbases treat the bullet screen as a showcase or even a battlefield to hype or adulate their idols, and they typically employ fandom neologisms that demonstrate an upward transmission direction as well as a potential to enter the mainstream lexicon by means of being cited by traditional media (author, 2020). it is worth mentioning that as a cyberspace subculture, danmu comments tend to contain internet buzzwords that not only construct communicative activity and subjectivity in china (meng, 2011), but also surge in english dictionaries as the embodiment of the internationalisation of the chinese language (he, 2015). by means of employing neologisms exclusive to specific groups of fandom and on the internet, danmu users can further strengthen online community development. in terms of danmu’s function to boost a sense of existence, it creates contributing experience for individuals who feel constrained by social roles in daily life, so as to promote a sense of personal efficacy (shao, 2009). as posited by cao (2019, p. 15), ‘[t]he spectacle of bullet screen stands in for other life activities and diverts attention from actual social gaps, assimilating the income discrepancies and the differences in capacity to participate on the screen’s flattened surface. this is how the text-screen coordination of bullet screen aestheticizes social inequality and anesthetizes people’s relation to it’. i further hypothesise that online video viewers employ such a discursive interface to convey their sense of existence, which https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 8 serves as an outlet for a sense of powerlessness for social inequality and as a strategy to boost visibility in the cyberspace. it is noteworthy that on phenomenal chinese interactive streaming platforms providing live streaming entertainment services, apart from posting cost-free bullet texts, users can also purchase and send virtual gifts to reward pleasing performances and/or promote rapport with hosts, because their preferred hosts can convert the virtual gifts into real income (cao, 2019; chen & xiong, 2019). the power imbalance between hosts and donors induced by costly gifts intensifies their interaction. furthermore, spurred on by the giftgiving model and/or financial incentive, hosts customise their performances and ingratiate themselves with audiences, which bestows donors a sense of control that they tend to lack in their real-life environment (fan & zhang, 2018). such audience psychology is particularly conspicuous among young, low-income urban netizens, who are void of superiority in social life (song, 2017). as for danmu, although it is not monetary, it enables creators to demonstrate a sense of existence. given the fact that 75% of bilibili’s users are under the age of 24 (liu, 2015), it is almost unrealistic for this user base to have a strong sense of control or to address social inequality at the current stage. consequently, they resort to danmu for self-expression and visibility in a virtual world. to summarise, apart from provision of information and entertainment, the social functions of danmu lie in its capability to enable young chinese netizens to interact with peers within the same social groups, thereby establishing individuals’ group identity and facilitating social connectedness. by means of social media coviewing, danmu has generated a sense of belonging for the gen z; by means of establishing channels of self-expression and communication, danmu has created a sense of existence and visibility in a virtual environment. prerequisites for the popularity of danmu constrained by the amount of characters suitable for the screen, chinese netizens invent and integrate a wide range of writing scripts and semiotic resources in the nonstandard, multilingual literacy practice and discourses, including standard mandarin and various dialects, traditional characters and romanised chinese, foreign languages and their transliterations, emoticons and arabic numbers, etc (zhang, 2017; zhang & cassany, 2019b). danmu users’ plurilingual repertoire can also be manifested by their adoption of the writing of kaomoji, a japanese emoticon style representing facial expressions and/or actions by means of incorporating japanese characters, punctuation marks and latin letters (zhang& cassany, 2019c). i propound that apart from diversified and concise literacy practice, the popularity of danmu in contemporary china is also attributed to both linguistic and cultural prerequisites. to be more specific, the chinese written language is characterised by a high information density and parafoveal preview effects. as for the chinese culture, it is featured by polychronicity, as well as conspicuous social influence and peer pressure induced by collectivistic orientation. first, the chinese language is marked by a high information density, rendering it more efficient to read. 90% of chinese words are constituted of one or two characters/syllables, and single-character (mono-syllabic) words are particularly frequent in casual discourse, accounting for two-thirds of the entire volume of words (wu & liu, 1988; xing, 2006, basciano & ceccagno, 2009; taylor & taylor, 2014, pp. 25-26). the basic structural unit of the chinese language is character-based, rather than word-based (xu 2001), and using chinese characters as the basic semantic units is more efficient (zhao et al., 2011a, 2011b). additionally, chinese readers display a wide perceptual span (mcconkie & rayner, 1975) of one character to the left and three to four characters to the right of fixation, which is consistent with the fact that chinese characters exhibit a high information density (inhoff & liu, 1998; scotter et al., 2012; yan & minnhagen, 2015; yan et al., 2015). therefore, information is more densely packed in chinese than its counterparts in alphabetic writing systems (yan et al., 2009; li et al., 2015), which renders danmu possible and popular in china, but https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ______________________________________________________________________________ 9 not in countries adopting alphabetic writing systems. second, chinese readers demonstrate robust parafoveal preview effects, disparate from their counterparts reading alphabetic scripts. preview benefit is defined as an effect that readers can benefit from previewing the upcoming word in parafoveal vision: when moving their eyes, the visual information delivered to readers’ brains is derived not only from the currently fixated word in the fovea, but also from nonfixated words in the parafovea (rayner, 1998; 2009; drieghe et al., 2017, vasilev & angele, 2017). there is a palpable effect of parafoveal semantic information in reading chinese, and there is more preponderance of parafoveal processing in chinese than in alphabetic scripts (bai et al., 2009; 2011; sommer et al., 2014; li et al., 2015; liu et al., 2016; zhang et al., 2019). although parafoveal processing efficiency reduces in oral reading than silent reading (ashby et al., 2012; inhoff & radach 2014; pan et al., 2017), i assume that when reading danmu comments, viewers tend to read without articulating the texts, due to presence of the sound of videos, so the preview benefit is less likely to be impaired. that is to say, chinese danmu can be processed more expeditiously than alphabetic scripts, and thus its unique success in china. in terms of chinese culture, it is widely acknowledged as a typical polychronic time system, and this characteristic contributes to the embracement of danmu. as illuminated by previous research, chinese people exhibit loose attention to schedules, punctuality and deadlines, as well as a propensity to combine activities, which falls into the category of polychronic time orientation. equipped with polychromic-oriented values, chinese people incline towards preoccupation with people and social experience. in sharp contrast to their monochromic counterparts, chinese people place more emphasis on relationships and leisure events, even at the cost of interruption or distraction (hall, 1976; benabou, 1999; adams & van eerde, 2010; xupriour et al., 2014). previous research also unravels that viewers who prefer danmu-enriched videos tend to seek more information and manifest a higher level of polychronicity, viz. the preference for simultaneous involvement in two or multiple events (hall, 1973), in that the synchronicity of text and video requires viewers to ‘multitask’. therefore, high polychronicity in china may function as a driving force behind danmu watching (chen et al., 2015; cao, 2019), as danmu requires multitasking, enables interpersonal interaction and enhances social rapport. this hypothesis is consistent with the fact that danmu is not widespread among audiences from monochromic cultures. furthermore, china’s collectivistic culture is more conspicuously featured by social and peer pressure, which accelerates the proliferation of danmu. owing to collectivistic orientation, asian people tend to be more susceptible to social influence than their individualistic equivalents (markus & kitayama, 1991; sun et al., 2004), because in collectivistic cultures, there is a higher frequency of meeting others and a larger amount of interpersonal communication (goodrich & de mooij, 2014), and groups are perceived to be able to bind and mutually obligate individuals (du et al., 2015). as a consequence, in cultures emphasising a collectivistic self-concept, individuals regard themselves from the aspect of relations with other people, rather than personal traits or self-achievement (brand 2007), which means individuals in collective societies are more intertwined with groups (bochner 1994). significantly, in relationship-oriented collectivistic cultures (hofstede, 1980), collectivists rely on social media to a greater extent as opposed to individualists (goodrich & de mooij, 2014). as a form of social media co-viewing, danmu satisfies chinese people’s need for interaction with coviewers. additionally, impinged upon by such as relationship-oriented collectivistic culture as well as confucian ethos of social harmony (fang, 1999; dong & lee, 2007), chinese people place a high value on face than their counterparts from an individualistic cultural background (ting-toomey, 1988; ting-toomey et al., 1991; ting-toomey & kurogi, 1998; wong & ahuvia, 1998; ting-toomey, 2005; 2009). the chinese conception of face is https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 10 multifaceted, entailing individual, relational and group layers (haugh, 2005; gao, 2009, he & zhang, 2011, p. 2369, chang & haugh, 2013; li, 2017). in terms of danmu use, it is perceived as an embodiment of group face or identity, so failing to do so might be deemed as loss of face and rapport with peers within the same social communities. moreover, young chinese people are particularly prone to peer pressure even compared with their equivalents from other asian countries with analogous collectivistic orientation, as the one-child policy determines that growing up without siblings strengthens the correlation between young chinese and their peers (zhang & huang, 2010; liu, 2017) and hence their susceptibility to peer influence (falbo & poston, 1993; mcloughlin, 2005; demotta et al., 2012). in terms of danmu use, an overwhelming majority of bilibili’s users are aged between 18 and 35, amounting to 78% of the entire group (bilibili, 2021), and this cohort coincides with the 35-yearlong one-child policy that ended in january 2016 (gu et al., 2007; wang et al., 2016). these individuals endeavour to attain a social identity derived from membership of a social group along with values and emotional significance attached to the membership (tajfel, 1978, p. 63), as well as a collective identity, viz. the self in relation to others (briggs & cheek, 1986; luhtanen & crocker, 1992). in this way, this cohort of young people ensure that they can construe themselves as members of particular groups and differentiate themselves from out-group members (brewer, 1991; deaux, 1993; li et al., 2020). therefore, it is justifiable to posit that young chinese people are more subject to influence from peers, so they are willing to embrace danmu that has penetrated their social communities. conclusion upon first entering the chinese market, danmu was marginalised as a niche subculture, yet its rapid transformation renders it dispensable for online video platforms, especially those targeting specifically at the gen z. the popularity of danmu among young chinese audiences is attributed to a range of reasons: 1) the experience of co-viewing, which alleviates loneliness by means of pseudosynchronicity; 2) a sense of belonging, which might be correlated with peer pressure; and 3) selfexpression, which may promote a sense of personal efficacy. additionally, viewers can express a sense of existence, predominantly via comments that contain information, alerts or spoilers. furthermore, although danmu was not introduced into china until 2008, an analogous genre, viz. margin comments, has been existing in chinese literature, which accounts for the embracement of danmu from a historical perspective. the popularity of danmu is also attributed to its functions of establishing individuals’ group identity and facilitating social connectedness and communication. despite the fact that danmu has attained phenomenal success in china’s online video culture, its prosperity would not be possible without linguistic and cultural prerequisites. the chinese language per se is efficient and concise, which is ideal for the limited length of danmu text on screens. to be more specific, chinese is characterised by a high information density, as information is more densely packed in characters than in alphabetic expressions. additionally, discrepant from their counterparts reading alphabetic scripts, chinese readers display a wide perceptual span and noticeable parafoveal preview effects, which permits them to read characters more expeditiously. the chinese culture, as a typical collectivistic culture, also accelerates the proliferation of danmu among young netizens. chinese people demonstrate a high level of polychronicity, which means they incline towards multitasking, preoccupation with people and social experience. since danmu’s synchronicity of text and video requires multitasking and enhances interpersonal interaction and social rapport, the polychronic time orientation of the chinese culture serves as an indispensable prerequisite for danmu’s embracement. the other salient property of the chinese culture is its conspicuous social and peer pressure. in stark contrast to their counterparts from an individualistic background, chinese https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ______________________________________________________________________________ 11 people place more emphasis on face, and they are more impinged upon by their peers from the same social communities. such a phenomenon is further intensified by the one-child policy that renders young people more susceptible to influence from peers, due to lack of siblings. driven by social and peer pressure, danmu becomes accepted norms among video viewers of the gen z. of course, danmu’s popularity also benefits from chinese netizens’ invention of innovative multilingual literacy practice that incorporates various writing scripts and semiotic resources. references adams, simon j. m. and wendelien van eerde. 2010. time use in spain: is polychronicity a cultural phenomenon? journal of managerial psychology 25.7: 764-776. ashby, jane, jinmian yang, khris h. c. evans and keith rayner. 2012. eye movements and the perceptual span in silent and oral reading. attention, perception & psychophysics 74: 634640. author 2020 bai, weiguo. 2005. gaozhong yuwen keben hong lou meng xuanpian luantan [discussion on extracts of hong lou meng in middle school’s chinese textbooks]. chinese language learning 5-6. bai, xue-jun, xiao-yu hu and guo-li yan. 2009. parafoveal-on-foveal effects in chinese reading: the influence of semantic transparencies of word n on word n-1 processing. acta psychologica sinica 41(05): 377-386. bai, xue-jun, juan liu, chuan-li zang, man-man zhang, xiao-feng, guo and guo-li yan. 2011. the advance of parafoveal preview effects in chinese reading. advances in psychological science 19.12: 1721-1729. basciano, bianca and antonella ceccagno. 2009. the chinese language and some notions from western linguistics. lingue e linguaggio viii.1: 105-135. beijing news. 2014. zai danmu mianqian, dianying haowu zunyan keyan [in front of danmaku, cinema has lost all its dignity]. beijing news. 07 august 2014. http://media.people.com.cn/n/2014/0807/c4060 6-25418334.html. benabou, charles. 1999. polychronicity and temporal dimensions of work in learning organizations. journal of managerial psychology 14.1: 257-270. bilibili. 2019. b zhan 2019 niandu danmu chulu! baolu nianling de shihou daole [b site’s 2019 annual danmu is ready! it’s time to see how old you are]. bilibili. 04 december 2019. https://www.bilibili.com/read/cv4093976/. bilibili. 2021. guanyu women [about us]. bilibili. https://www.bilibili.com/blackboard/aboutus. html. billington, james. 2014. chinese cinemas use ‘bullet screens’ to encourage texting during movies. news.com.au. 21 august 2014. https://www.news.com.au/technology/online/ social/chinese-cinemas-use-bullet-screens-toencourage-texting-during-movies/newsstory/0c1b022af3c311dde18a9a6a1d467f15. blake, james. 2017. second screen interaction in the cinema: experimenting with transmedia narratives and commercialising user participation. participations 14.2: 526-544. bochner, stephen. 1994. cross-cultural differences in the self concept: a test of hofstede’s individualism/collectivism distinction. journal of cross‐cultural psychology 25: 273-283. borak, mash. 2019. streaming site demands users take a test before they can watch anime. south china morning post. 18 february 2019. https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/ 3029166/streaming-site-demands-users-taketest-they-can-watch-anime. brand, manny. 2004. collectivistic versus individualistic cultures: a comparison of american, australian and chinese music education students’ self-esteem. music education research 6.1: 57-66. brewer, marilynn b. 1991. the social self: on being the same and different at the same time. personality and social psychology bulletin 17(5): 475-482. briggs, stephen r. and jonathan m. cheek. 1986. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? 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https://doi.org/10.1075/ip.00038.zha http://big5.ftchinese.com/story/001066413?full=y&archive http://big5.ftchinese.com/story/001066413?full=y&archive http://media.people.com.cn/n1/2018/1229/c40606-30494263.html http://media.people.com.cn/n1/2018/1229/c40606-30494263.html language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 364 feminism and its impact on the literature of love md. abu saleh nizam uddin assistant professor department of english language and literature international islamic university chittagong (iiuc) bangladesh nizam_cu13@iiuc.ac.bd abstract writers, readers and critics of literature have long been engaged with the appreciation of feminist characters and feminist themes in literary texts. but analyzing feminism itself, to know about its impact on the literature of love is also an area to be explored. when feminism is studied, we find in it traits opposing the love of mankind, which increases misery for women and others resulting in the decrease and even disappearance of the literature of love, a priceless possession of human beings. thus, this paper aims at exploring how feminism is antagonistic to the love of mankind by being prone to exclusionist and utilitarian politics, hostile to men and children, catalytic to separation in family, and indifferent towards rape and illegal men-women physical relationship eventually contributing to the increase of human misery reflected by and resulting in the gradual extinction of the literature of love. in this research thematic analysis was followed applying bowen family systems theory, reader-response theory and theory of phenomenology. the finding of the research may ignite the search of a love-based, family-centric and holistic approach to ensure a misery-free happy life to women which will be reflected in the rejuvenation of the literature of love. keywords: antagonism, feminism, human misery, the gradual extinction, the literature of love introduction in literature, myriads of critics come up with their feminist purview and give their points of view on how characters in literary pieces exhibit feminist spirit against the oppression or deprivation of society. but critiquing feminism itself, to examine its success in removing the misery of women which have a connection with the literature of love deserves critical attention too. literature concentrating on love existing in men-women, children-parents and individualsociety relationships has been a glorious achievement of human beings and it will continue to remain so if no factor opposing love is made popular at macro level. literature of love gives gesture to the beautiful feeling of love and affection on which depends marriage, family, society, and the well-being of the next generation. so, creation and appreciation of the literature of love is an indicator to the sound health of the society. on the other hand, the impact of feminism is undeniable in the present world. when women were constantly under torture and deprivation, there appeared the ideas and movement called feminism. the definition of feminism states it is the concept that men and women are supposed to have equality in the domains of law, politics, sexrelated freedom and personal decision, “[a] social movement that advocates for economic, political, and social equality between women and men” as well as a theory-based point-of-view saying that oppressions on women are unique and systematic posing questions to traditional genderand sexrelated roles (open education sociology, 2013, definitions of feminism). so, the achievement of feminism from its being an idea to becoming a social movement to finally reaching the stage of a theoretical perspective is obviously visible. this development occurs through three waves of feminism. mcafee (2018) observes ‘[t]he period from the mid-nineteenth century until … 1920 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 365 counts as “first wave” feminism’, its revival towards the end of 1960s and at the beginning of 1970s as the second wave feminism and with some significant changes that have recently taken place, feminism is deemed reaching the third wave. feminists belonging to the third wave more often than not criticize the second wave feminism because of its failure to give proper attention to all women irrespective of financial, racial, religious, national and ethnic identities (“what is feminism?” para. 3). this is how there have been development and progress in feminism. but has feminism been successful in ensuring development and progress to women? has it been successful in emancipating women from torture and deprivation? or, has it been ironically emancipating women from happiness and love? these questions are inevitably to be asked when still women suffer. then question arises whether failure or features of feminism have an impact on the conspicuous existence, production and appreciation of the literature of love. as society is mirrored by literature, due existence and functionality of love in society can be understood by the condition of the literature of love. based on the questions when there has been effort to critically understand the activities and features of feminism, and its resultant impact on humans reflecting on the literature of love, we visualize right in its history the tendency of exclusionism and the politics of morality-less utilitarianism. we see feminism in general exhibits hostility towards men and children, exerts influence for separation in family resulting in human sufferings in a family-less life, and maintains direct or indirect link with the alarming rates of rape and men-women physical relationship without marital tie. the definition of rape says, “rape is unlawful sexual activity typically involving sexual intercourse done forcibly or under threat of injury against a person’s will” (rape statistics, n.d., para. 1). here we indicate this rape as rcs (rape in conventional sense) and men-women physical relationship with no marital ties as amr (agreement-based mutual rape) because whereas the former is done by force, the latter is done on mutual consent. giving consent to physical relationship without marital tie is not the matter of an individual autonomy; rather, it is the breach of an obligatory rule set by a family-based society, rational faculty, morality, religion, and sensible men who are human beings, not creatures. the first one forces a person; the second one forces the set rule. however, those features and proneness of feminism act against the life blood of humanslove. consequently, misery of women and others increase which is reflected in the decrease and depreciation of the literature of love. thus, this paper aims at exploring how feminism, with the history of exclusionist and amoral utilitarian politics, general tendency of antagonism towards children and men, influence prompting separation in family, and indifference or indulgence towards rcs and amr, tends to build a love-less world of misery which results in and reflected by the depreciation and gradual extinction of the literature of love. literature review doing the review of literature for the present study, we find research concentrations to locate and glorify feminist characters or themes in various literary pieces. likewise, one study places italian poet christine de pizan (1364-1430), english poet marie de france (1160-1215) and japanese poet murasaki shikibu (978-1014) as founders of feminism in medieval europe and asia respectively (bashpinar, 2015). besides indicating poems like “lanval” by marie de france, the study mentions pizan’s the book of the city of ladies and shikibu’s the tale of genji as feminist literary pieces. another research with feminist lens sees how desdemona in othello and lady macbeth in macbeth by shakespeare in elizabethan period meet their tragic ends because of the males. the research writes, “whereas desdemona portrays the victim, lady macbeth is the agent of male action” (naranjo, 2010, p. 169). one research explores feminist spirit in hawthorne as he portrays the protagonist hester in his novel the scarlet letter (wang, 2017). critics shed light on bathsheba everdene of far http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 366 from the madding crowd and eustacia vye of the return of the native by hardy and claim that the two female characters, with their feminist power, challenge the oppressive system of their society (rahaman & nilufer, 2017). a research figures out how nora in a doll’s house by henrik ibsen shatters patriarchal bondage (bhat, 2017). similarly, another research shows how bangladeshi writer rokeya sakhawat hossain, in her writings “sultana’s dream”, “padmarag” and “aboradhbashini” , upholds or imagines a world where women, with no help from men, make advancements with education being selfdependent (sanjida, 2016). but concentrating on feminism itself, exploring its role against love of mankind that results in human misery with concomitant impact of decrease, even extinction of the literature of love is perhaps still unaddressed. this research gap our present study addresses. methodology the present study was done based on thematic analysis. at first drawn into our critical parlance was the literature concentrating on love, affection and sympathy nurtured by men, women and children while playing the roles of husbands, wives, parents, sons, daughters and the like, which has been the scenario in this world since time immemorial. then we analyzed various tenets of feminism and found that it is against the love of mankind. thus we figured out how feminism, acting against the love of mankind, increases the misery of women and all other humans, and contributes to the extinction of the literature of love among other irreparable losses. as we advocated love among mankind, within the family members of a family in particular, while opposing the tendencies of feminism opposing the love of mankind, we applied bowen family systems theory. schiff (2006) states, “murray bowen's family systems theory, while relatively new and unfamiliar to humanities scholars, offers great potential to the field of literary studies” (abstract). the definition of the systems theory states, [it] is a theory of human behavior that views the family as an emotional unit and uses systems thinking to describe the unit’s complex interactions ... people solicit each other’s attention, approval, and support, and they react to each other’s needs, expectations, and upsets. this connectedness and reactivity make the functioning of family members interdependent . (the bowen center, 2021, para. 1) as we consider relations in a family far stronger and deeper than simply being “an emotional unit”, we made use of reader-response theory in order to accommodate our legitimate responses. the reader-response theory opines that in critiquing a literary piece, readers are unquestionably in a deserving position to have upperhand over the views of others, and the theory has recently been a widely-discussed research yardstick in the field of literature (as cited in mart, 2019, p. 79). when in a family-less life, women were discovered in untold sufferings which was their direct subjective experience in their consciousness with other impacts, we utilized the theory of phenomenology which achieves perfection at the beginning of 20th century through the contributions of husserl, heidegger, sartre, merleau-ponty and others.. definition and the details of the theory of phenomenology states, phenomenology is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the firstperson point of view. the central structure of an experience is its intentionality, its being directed toward something, as it is an experience of or about some object. an experience is directed toward an object by virtue of its content or meaning (which represents the object) together with appropriate enabling conditions. phenomenology as a discipline is distinct from but related to other key disciplines in philosophy, such as ontology, epistemology, logic, and ethics ... phenomenological issues of intentionality, consciousness, qualia, and firstperson perspective have been prominent in recent philosophy of mind. (smith, 2018, paras. 1-2) the research was carried out collecting relevant books, articles, dissertation and essays in printed version and in soft copies from various reliable internet sources. then data were carefully http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 367 collected and duly analyzed. this is how the study was done to reach its findings and draw a conclusion. result and discussion the literature of love mirroring and promoting essential and beautiful love humans, nurturing love and care among them, have lived in this earth generation after generation. they receive valuable teachings of love from such greatest personalities as prophet muhammad (pbuh), jesus christ (pbuh) and gautham buddha. afterwards, to humans with proneness to love, contributions emphasizing love come from leaders like abraham lincoln and nelson mandela, philosophers like socrates, imam gazzali and karl marx, and poets like homer, william shakespeare and kazi nazrul islam (1899-1976) of bangla literature. when poets transmit love in a varied ways in their literature, poet nazrul, in one of his songs, turns exquisitely romantic and metaphysical as he wishes to adorn his beloved wife. poet exhibits his unfathomable depth in his aptitude of using rarest and sweetest metaphors. poet is able to do it because he is empowered by a feeling of love for his beloved. poet (1997) writes, come darling and be my love ! i shall adorn thy hair with flowers of stars, and thy ears with rings of the young spring moon. and around thy neck shall i put a garland white as a row of swans, and thy cloud-coloured disheveled hair i shall gather and bind in dazzling ribbons of silvery lightning. i shall mix sandalwood with moonlight and with it wash thy body. i shall snatch the red from the rainbow and with it paint thy feet. with the seven tunes of my song i shall build thy wedding-bower. and around thee will sing the nightingale of my poesy. (p.584) again poet nazrul does feel the severe pain of a man when his beloved wife leaves because of a misunderstanding though it is so rare in a society of just men and women. poet imagines the condition of such a man whose beloved wife has departed from his life and home which he laments pouring his soul. representing his anguished feeling, nazrul (2018) writes the song stating, at a pre-evening moment birds have returned to nests but not you to your home, dark is my home as light is not lit and what pain does not my heart feel being alone. in the front yard beside the empty pitcher whole day remains fallen not receiving any care your dupati and marigold as if filled with love-laden anger in bosom. nazrul views that to a man with a good sense, his beloved wife is like the light of his home. her absence means darkness to prevail everywhere. for such a man, similar is the feeling of his wife. this is the beauty of human life which is encompassed by the literature of love. english metaphysical poet john donne’s (1572-1631) “a valediction: forbidding mourning” is another poem widely discussed as a love poem. in this poem, addressing his beloved, a line appears saying, “our two souls therefore, which are one” (encyclopedia. 2021). in the poem, the poet is about to take leave of his beloved for a brief period of time, and wants to say that she must not be sad. then the poet deems their souls as the two feet of a compass. the manner in which one foot of a compass remains fixed and another foot draws circle, and after drawing of the circle is over, the roaming foot returns to the fixed foot, in the same way the lover builds a world of love to live with his beloved and when building of the world is over, he returns to his beloved. poet writes, “thy firmness makes my circle just, /and makes me end where i begun”(encyclopedia. 2021). interestingly, two feet of a compass is joined at the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 368 top. similarly, the poet and his beloved are joined inseparably in their souls. this is how the songs by nazrul and the poem by donne represent all the beautiful literary pieces concentrating on love. upholding the essential beauty and virtue called love, they inspire it among mankind. likewise, there are literary pieces where a father nurtures love for his daughter and prays for her. w.b. yeats’s poem “prayer for my daughter” is such a poem. wordsworth sees six years old child hartley coleridge, the son of s. t. coleridge, playing with his toys. to wordsworth, the child manifests divine light; every moment he remains within the love, care and blessings of his parents. in “ode: intimations of immortality from recollections of early childhood”, poet writes, […] behold the child among his new-born blisses, a six years' darling of a pigmy size! see, where 'mid work of his own hand he lies, fretted by sallies of his mother's kisses, with light upon him from his father's eyes! […] (2021) poet shamsur rahman of bangla literature, in his poem “an ode to freedom” hints at how much dear to him the softness of his father’s jainamaj or prayer mat. accordingly, he mentions how deeply he is fond of his mother’s shari that signifies love and care. then, poet writes how divinely beautiful is the reflection of sunlight on the delicate cheeks of his small daughter. he loves these charming aspects of life related with the loved ones and thus he enjoys the scope to compare them with essential freedom of the country. poet writes, […] freedom, you’re the velvety touch, father’s chivalrous prayer-mat. freedom, you’re the ripples on mother’s unadorned sari stretched in the yard. […] freedom, you’re: the colorful kurta on a young boy. the playful sunlight on a girl’s supple cheeks […] (n.d.). this is how the literature of love reflects and promotes among mankind essential and beautiful attributes of love, affection and kindness. impact of feminism on the literature of love in 20th as well as 21st century, feminism is allpervasive. so, it successfully addresses especially the educated class. hence, writers, readers and critics of literature across the world are also addressed, and most of them uncritically or without due critical understanding, accept it being exposed to “the global hegemony of western scholarship” (mohanty,1984, p.55). but an analysis of feminism itself unfolds it acts against the essential love of mankind causing misery for women and gradual disappearance of the literature of love. exclusionist and utilitarian politics at the beginning of feminist history feminist movement began with the milestonic first ever women convention in 1848 in seneca falls, new york. almost all participants were quaker white women. women of other christian entities were not there. likewise, there was no nonwhite woman. at last in 1851 sojourner truth, the first ever non-white black woman appeared in the women’s right convention in akron, ohio. but in her speech as she emphasized common issues like slavery and land ownership where women’s affair was also inherently present, feminist history does not seem to recognize her as it does other pioneering figures, and accordingly, britannica (2021) writes, “truth did not dedicate her life to women’s rights. instead, she promoted abolitionism and a land-distribution program for other former slaves” (para. 3). the manner in which 1848 women convention was represented only by quaker white women with no other http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 369 participation from other women from other colors and christian entities, feminist history also sidelines sojourner truth, the only black women among the pioneering feminists, who spoke on common issue. here feminism seems to play the roles of exclusionism or separatism in its politics. besides, the political right to vote the early feminists could gain remaining in and giving priority to family. as they did not do it, they were afamilial. however, even the feminists to have given birth to the first wave feminism with the seneca convention did not hesitate to adopt clever and shrewd political maneuver by keeping a male in their conference. he was the abolitionist frederick douglas, a former slave. keeping a male figure in their conference gave a gender-neutral universal complexion to that conference which actually it was not. if douglas had told that family is of first priority for women, had the feminists tolerated him there? besides, douglas was an abolitionist, that is, he was a prominent figure of anti-slavery movement. anti-slavery movements have always been supported by all the humanitarian people of the world. by keeping abolitionist douglas in their convention, feminists were trying to give an impression that feminist movement was equally valid and urgent like anti-slavery movements. this may be marked as morality-less utilitarian politics. hostility towards men and children actually, for the women of the first wave feminism, mary wollstonecraft’s feminist writeup a vindication of the rights of women (1792) achieved almost seventy years’ maturity. in that book, wollstonecraft (1792) writes, “yet they [women] are told, at the same time, that they are only like angels when they are young and beautiful; consequently, it is their persons, not their virtues, that procure them this homage” (p. 99). thus, men in general are interpreted as the type of human beings who can only eulogize women’s beauty, not virtue. thus, when men are indiscriminately set in an antagonistic position, it indeed discourages family life. in this manner, women did get suffrage and right to education through the first wave feminism, still there was a blow on family life consisting of tender children and helpless old among other areas of utmost care. during the second wave feminism towards the end of 1960s and at the beginning of 1970s, the already conceptualized feminism, with its already inherent aggressive nature, grew more collision-prone. this is how, for the universally agreed issue of women’s misery, having a solution turned more complex. in 1970s a common feminist slogan would say, “a woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle.” (as cited in charen, 2018, para. 3). however, feminist views become even more intolerant and inimical in 21st century. accordingly, feminist lena dunham of 21st century states “i’d honestly rather fall into one million manholes than have one single dude tell me to watch my step.” (as cited in charen, 2018, para. 2). thus, with the passage of time, feminist hatred for masculine identity of men proliferates ignoring the most important truth that man-woman love can build a beautiful world. for the sake of argument if we agree that all men do injustice against all women, yet it does not give legitimacy to women to do injustice even to a single man. but this truth is what feminist scholars have been failing to notice. the psychology and attitude of feminism are similar to those of the unjust among men which feminist scholars mark as injustice done against women century after century (o’sullivan & pacorino, 2002). to shed light on feminist scholar beauvoir, she, besides her misandry familiar to all, also reveals her position in favor of remaining childless. referring to her interviews, patterson (1986) says “that she never had any desire to have children of her own and that she never regretted her decision to remain childless” (p. 90). with regard to having children, beauvoir even expresses her antagonism. patterson (1986) posits, “[beauvoir] approached the whole question of motherhood obliquely in her fiction before theorizing about it in the second sex” (p. 90). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 370 however, some feminist views do keep family within their purviews but they equate women’s roles in family and children with those in outdoor jobs, and for this purpose, try to find out a mid-point (young, 2000). but for women, family and children are the exclusive areas whereas outdoor jobs are the non-exclusive ones. so, the effort to introduce a mid-point means decreasing or devaluating the worth of family. resultantly, the significance of family decreases which prompts a feminist voice to globally demand a suitable salary for anybody who will take care of children at home (brooks, 2020). it is as if the money will satisfy a woman, not the result of her care reflected in the good health and bright future of the children. in being against family life with children and husband or in devaluation of it, feminist concentration predictably enters into the sphere of lesbianism. this point is authenticated when we see that all lesbians are feminists though all feminists may not be so. that feminists may end up as lesbians will be clear when we see beauvoir, who “… was certainly accused of being a lesbian in at least three instances” (altman, 2007, p. 211). when a problem remains in a web of problems in society, solution must be holistic. but feminism separates women issue from the rest and unholistically makes an approach. from a different angle, it is as if feminism would rescue only the women from a sinking boat exposing to death all other passengers children, men and the old. even when feminism includes children with women, it does not forget to omit men. its example may be found in a feminism-centric write up which states that disastrous impacts of covid-19 pandemic “were failing women and children”, overlooking the tragic plights of millions of men across the world resulting from their incomerelated crisis (as cited in uddin, 2021, p.529). so, feminism promotes among women selfishness to be shown to others in the society, and thus “feminists praise self-centeredness and call it liberation” (as cited in tyler, 2007, p. 173). feminism is hostile not only to men but also to women, and builds negative history. it exhibits the hostility by offering to a woman “…the bad life [which] is the life of isolation, separation and selfcentricity”, where satisfaction of life with near and dear ones is quite impossible (uddin, 2021, p. 534). prompting separation in family in the real world now if we look at the real world taking the example of the usa starting from the late 19th century till today in the first quarter of 21st century, we will find during this 150 years period a very high rate and a disappointing picture of women’s departure from family through separation or divorce. olito (2019) writes, “divorce rates steadily increased from the mid1800s to the 1950s”, “the biggest increase in divorces was between the '60s and '70s” and the rate has been decreasing since the beginning of the 21st century (introduction). the report on recent decrease in divorce has nothing to be delighted with because when marriage itself has not been taking place for the preference of live-together, divorce is irrelevant. the report says, “[t]he decline is due to the smaller amount of millenials getting married” (olito, 2019, “since the turn of the 21st century”, para. 2). here, we can simultaneously look at what a research states. the research states, “the new feminist wave is often accused of having played a role in the recent upsurge in divorce rates” in north america (ambert 1985, p. 265). having implication from this research, seeing the range of the history of feminism and visualizing the impact of feminist trends, we can widen our perspective and say that in the last 150 years’ history of europe and america women’s departure from family through separation or divorce has taken place mainly because of feminism. here, of course, those who are unjust among men are not less responsible. human sufferings in a familyless life http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 371 familyless life, to which feminism contributes, may give birth to various misery for all including women. in its extremity, it can even take the shape of murder because of the absence of true human bonding that gives forth love and care. a 2019 report of psychology today states, “in the us, three women used to be killed by an intimate partner each day. the figure is now up—closer to four women a day” (lambert, 2019, para. 1). here the very wording of “an intimate partner” convinces us that the killer is not a spouse in most of the cases. thus, in a feminism-ruled world, when family and society are on the verge of extinction, humans hardly have any natural, traditional and commercialism-free institution to learn value, love, dignity and humanity from, and resultantly, even murders of women are becoming a common place affair. in such misery, women may even take attempt of self-destruction. to this truth, beauvoir herself unknowingly gives testimony. in the second story of her collection the woman destroyed (1967), beauvoir depicts how a woman living away from her family, inflicts intense physical pain upon herself. focusing the woman character of the story, patterson (1986) writes, feeling abandoned and alienated from the social circles in which she would like to move, she imagines unorthodox methods of forcing her second husband to move back in with her, and derives a sadistic glee from the thought of opening her veins in front of her eleven-year-old son and splattering her blood everywhere. (p. 93) discouraging family and society, and by encouraging self-centric isolated life, the happiness feminism guarantees to a woman is actually not happiness. it is pleasure, that is, satisfaction of bodily organs. when this bodily pleasure is short lived, but people consider it their happiness, they want such happiness again. and in extremity, they become addicted. the result is the gradual slippage into various physical and mental complexities. scholar psychiatrist paul (2015) asserts, there is a huge difference between happiness and pleasure. pleasure is a momentary feeling that comes from something external … but this happiness does not last long because it is dependent upon external events and experiences. we have to keep on having the good experiences more food, more drugs or alcohol, more money, more sex, more things -in order to feel pleasure. as a result, many people become addicted to these external experiences, needing more and more to feel a short-lived feeling of happiness. (para. 2) then, paul explains the remedy which the scholar psychiatrist gives to one patient. in that case, the name of the patient is thomas. paul’s remedy being explained to thomas, and maintained later, there is a positive result. paul (2015) writes, thomas learned that happiness is the natural result of being present in each moment with love and kindness toward himself and others, rather than with being attached to the outcome of things and trying to control the outcome regarding events and others' behavior. ( para. 6) here, of course, by “love and kindness” to be shown “toward himself and others”, paul means family in the first place. to have family, marriage is the sacred formality to be performed, and “marriage is a key pillar of stability for both sexes and especially for children” (charen, 2018, para. 6). it is of crucial need for women as well as men. but ignoring this truth, feminism plays major role in exposing women to murder, rape, singlemotherhood, loneliness, pleasure-addiction etc. alarming rates of rcs and amr, and negative role of feminism a recent report says south africa, botswana and lesotho top the list of the regions where most rape occurs (countries with the highest rape, 2020). now we can reflect upon the reasons behind this disastrous scenario in those countries. actually, in a post-colonial world the west has different strategies of hegemony over nonwestern countries with the help of their advancement in science and technology. the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 372 hegemony is multi-dimensional by being politics, economy-, educationand culture-centric. so, there cannot be any denying of the fact that the highest rate of rape in south africa, botswana and lesotho, including other non-western countries in that list, is chiefly the impact of all-dimensional hegemony of the west that propounds feminism by offering capitalism and modernism. coulombe (2017) duly says, feminism “is an ideology to impose on developing nations in order to continue to exploit and control them, all under the guise of liberation and justice” (para. 30).when feminism is self-centric, materialistic and familyreluctant, it is inevitably unhuman and inhuman, which rather inspires people not only to remain indifferent about but also to go against humanity and prepare ground for rape. here we are not denying the role played by the domestic factors. however, when feminism maintains the characteristics which are mentioned, yet focuses on punishment for the rapists, it is almost giving inspiration to a crime while simultaneously talking about punishment for it. again, its focus on punishment seems only verbal for which “97% of the rapists in the united states [for example] will walk free” while the usa is deemed the capital city of feminism (countries with the highest rape, 2020, “usa”, para. 1). also, feminism has no say about the sinful and self-abasing amr or agreement-based mutual rape though it recognizes rcs or rape in conventional sense as rape. it seems to imply that if all the rapes that take place at present occur based on mutual consents of men and women, feminism will satisfactorily declare the world as a rape-free human habitation. this is one gruesome drawback of feminism. so, due to the indirect impact of feminism, rcs is reckless in south africa, botswana and lesotho. due to its direct impact, sinful and selfabasing amr is rampant in the usa and many other parts of the world. its consequence is disastrous which is shown by charen in her study on american society. she writes, forty percent of american children are now born to single mothers. this rate of non-marital births, combined with the nation’s high divorce rate, means that around half of all american children will spend part of their childhood in a single-parent home. social scientists across the political spectrum agree this family chaos is destructive. (charen, 2018, para. 7) further insights into the role of feminism against love the unacceptable features of feminism found from the discussion and analysis done so far is further authenticated if we look at some scholarly views. one of such opinions states feminism has “staunch contention with family life” with direct or indirect “misandry” (uddin, 2021, p. 529). one feminist viewpoint, while trying to encourage feminist movement, admits the chaos caused by it. the viewpoint posits, there have always been many feminisms in the movement, not just one ideology, and there have always been tensions, points and counterpoints. the political, social and intellectual feminist movements have always been chaotic, multivalenced, and disconcerting; and let's hope they continue to be so; it's a sign that they are thriving. (rampton, 2015, para. 20) the question is when will the “thriving” be complete when it has not been able to do it in 170 years. actually, it is not “thriving”, it is perhaps the symptom that it is failing and the failing will not change into succeeding because the features of feminism do not match with women. so, when a viewpoint states that among common people feminists have not been able to provide a positive impression about their history (tyler, 2007), it may be asserted that it is the weakness of feminism in general. this is how feminism is a turmoilsome idea and movement to give forth a loveless world where, among other losses, the literature of love loses attraction and faces the jeopardy of extinction. what is noticeable is the similarity between the miserable condition of nature at the hand of developmental activities of commercial trend and the miserable condition of women at the hands of feminism. to understand the misery of nature in wider scenario, destruction of nature by http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 373 modernized developments of commercialism in the caribbean may be taken as an example. for catastrophe in caribbean nature, poet walcott expresses his deep anguish. uddin (2020) writes, “[w]hen caribbean nature faces jeopardy at the time of raising eco-unfriendly money-minded touristic structures, industries and urban constructions, poet is full of concern for nature” (p. 61). the manner in which modernized development seems enriching yet it causes destruction of nature, in the same manner feminism ostensibly turns out to be a solution to women’s problems, yet it increases their misery by generating a loveless world which results and reflects in the devaluation and deprecation of the literature of love. significantly enough, feminism, with its standpoint against love, does not represent women and womanhood. so, feminism and feminine quality of women or women themselves are not synonymous. thus, feminism is to be written with capital letter “f” at the beginning to indicate it as a proper noun. accordingly, the due endeavor to critique and oppose feminism is not an attempt against women and womanhood. but if feminism claims that it is so, the tendency appears to be hegemonic proving its weakness in intellectual debate and true functionality. examples to clarify the impact of feminism on the literature of love due to the impact of feminism, hester of the scarlet letter by hawthorne is repeatedly glorified by critics in unison with the author, claiming that she has challenged the oppressive patriarchal system. but there is hardly any critiquing that focuses her and dimmesdale’s adultery as an unhuman corruption opposing sacred love. in a doll’s house by ibsen, nora, being mentally hurt by her husband’s treatment, leaves her family. critics in numerous researches uphold nora’s action of feminist spirit. an extremely few number of researches are there to appreciate linde who builds family with love instead of leaving from it like nora. many other examples may be cited to clarify that critics critically give support to feminist theme and characters in literature, not theme and characters attached with love. writers and readers are likewise more interested in feminist creations. as a result, literary pieces highlighting love like those of donne and nazrul have not been produced. poets like t.s. eliot, lamenting a loveless world, writes “the waste land”, yeats writes, “things fall apart; the centre cannot hold”. eliot and yeats seem to reveal their pain of not having a world of love which could happily inspire them to write beautiful poems of love. thus, feminism, by contributing in giving forth a loveless world, exerts a negative impact on the literature of love. conclusion in retrospect, for the injustice and torture of those who are unjust among men, feminism comes into being. conscious minds, with proper sense of human feeling, wish to see women’s happy condition, not only the emancipated one. but in this regard as the concerned idea and movement feminism has failed, a judicious enquiry into it yields the result that it exerts morality-less exclusionist and utilitarian politics at the beginning of its history, antagonizes men and children, provides stimuli to cause separation in family proliferating human misery, and directly or indirectly contributes to the increase of rape or rcs and self-debasing live-together or amr that expresses utmost disregard to marital tie. thus, assuming a stance of frustration, anger, agression and selfishness leading to materialism, feminism turns antagonistic to love and emits impact. like many, readers, writers and critics of literature embrace the impact, and appreciate space to feminism in literature, not love. resultantly, the literature of love gradually loses popularity and eulogy. thus, one priceless possession of mankind finds itself at the verge of extinction. here the finding may inspire engagement to excavate into the reason behind the grim scenario of misery women are in eventually bringing into the forefront the failure of feminism prompting to find out and conceptualize a new holistic approach to women’s emancipation and http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 374 happiness causing the recuperation of full-fledged and universally acclaimed literature of love. references altman, m. 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11 high, 10 middle, and 15 low learners; 17 using mindmaple, and 19 without using mindmaple. a three-way analysis of variance test was applied to perform data analysis. the finding indicated that a different effect occurred for gender (f=8.780; p=0.007); socio economic status (f=4.421; p=0.023), writing strategy using mindmaple (f=36.023; p=0.000) on writing performance. the study indicated an interaction effect occured between gender and socio-economic (f=6.927, p=0.004). here, females performed better than males; high socio-economic learners did better than the others; learners using mindmaple ware performed better than without using mindmaple. in contrast, the finding found that interaction effect did not occur between gender and writing strategy (f=1.135, p=0.297); socio-economic and writing strategy (f=0.198, p=0.822); gender, socio-economic and writing strategy using mindmaple (f=0.437, p=0.651). the study concluded that gender, socio-economic and writing strategy did not give significant contribution simultaneously on writing performance. it gave new insights on the implementation of mindmaple in l2 writing class. keywords: gender, socio-economic status, mindmaple software, writing performance. introduction the idea of mind map was originated from meaningful learning concept (ausebel, noval& hanesian, 1978). historically, mind mapping was introduced tony buzan, in 1960s (buzan, 2014). buzan (2007), the founder of mind mapping, states that it is an effective way, since it includes the left and right hemisphere. in efl writing classes, teachers are concerned with the process writing. in facts, learners got difficulties in writing essay, since the writing process needs many cognitive and linguistic strategies (maghsoudi & haririan, 2013). as learners begin writing, their ideas are not welldisorganized. although they provide some good ideas, they fail to write well. firmansyah (2015) states that the main problems in writing are that they have less ability to generate ideas. second, learners got difficulties in writing paragraphs with the topic. learners also got difficulties in selecting words or phrases because of inadequate vocabulary. the researchers assumenthat it was caused of teacher’s teaching strategies, the model of writing activities in classroom setting, or less chance to practice writing. in contrast, teachers view that writing is difficult to follow (akinwamide, 2012). alsamadani (2010, p. 53) confirm that writing is a hard process, since it needs many skills such as formulating statement, writing evidences and developing topics, revising the errors they made and making editing. besides, writing needs adequate knowledge of grammar, word choice, written convention, and organizing ideas. mind mapping is assumed to be the most effective way in classroom writing activities, especially in pre-writing. it is a diagram applied to convey the connection of ideas linked to a main idea (deshatty & mokashi, 2013). it is a proper equipment to help learners organize ideas. it aids learners connect ideas (buzan, 2010). in the other words, mindmap is a collection of words which circles drawn and lines connecting them to other words (grant, 2006). howitt (2009) states that it is http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:sabarunwhs@gmail.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tony_buzan language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８５ a visual display to generate ideas, and develop concepts. the development of technology enabled to use mind mapping software, for example, cmaptools (alberto, et.al, 2004), mindmaple lite (2018), xmind and mind vector (2018); gwo, et. al., (2013). mind maple lite is software facilitating to make digital mind map. mindmaple enables users to combine all data into one mind map (mindmaple. 2013). this is an example of mind mapping using mindmaple lite. lite mindmaple lite has size 14 mb and a simple interface that is easy to use for teachers and students. mindmaple lite already has standard features that are very inadequate for use in mapping concept. several investigations were done on mind mapping, such as chan (2004); jasvir kaur (2004); saed and al-omari (2014); naqbi (2011); and jones et al. (2012) many other researchers (e.g ahangari& behzady, 2011, lee & cho, 2010 found that it is helpful for learners. despite the facts the existing valuable number of researches investigating mind mapping on the learners’ writing performance, there were still limited investigation involving gender and socioeconomic status as predictor variables. this investigation is needed to validate the previous findings. gender difference becomes a variable contributed to this study, since men and women do in fact have differences in structures and function in the brain. therefore, the research questions: (rq1) does gender give effect to writing performance? (rq2) does socio economic status give effect to writing performance? (rq3) does writing strategy give effect to writing performance? (rq4) do gender and socioeconomic status give effect to writing performance? (rq5) do gender and writing strategy give effect to writing performance? (rq6) do socio economic status and writing strategy give effect to writing performance? (rq7) do gender, socio economic status and writing strategy give effect simultaneously to writing performance? methodology research design the investigation belonged to a quasiexperiment research using test as research instrument and documentation (ary, lucy, chris, and asghar, 2010, p.648). the documentation was used to collect the demographical data about gender and socio-economic status. in contrast, the test was used to see the learners’ writing performance. the participants were 36 l2 learners, as follows: table 1. the participants types of treatment socio-economic status total high middle low m f m f m f mind maple software (mms) 1 7 3 3 1 2 17 non mind maple software (nmms) 1 2 2 2 9 3 19 sub total 2 9 5 5 10 5 36 total 11 10 15 36 data collection the data were collected through several stages. first, the pre-test was given the participants in order to know the early writing http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８６ ability. then, the treatment group was treated using mindmaple software (mms). the mindmaple software was given to the experiment class. meanwhile, the control group was treated using outlining strategy. finally, participants of both groups were given writing posttest. data analysis a three-way anova test was applied to analyze data. it was applied to investigate the interaction contribution among variables: gender, types of pre writing strategy and socio-economic status toward learners’ writing performance. there were three categorical variables: gender (malefemale), socio-economic status (high, middle, and low), and types of writing strategy (mindmaple software and nonmindmaple software); and one outcome variable: learners’ writing score. high socio-economic status refers to learners’ parents who earns above 10.000.000 per month. middle socio-economic status refers to learners’ parents who earns between 3.000.000 up to 9.500.000 per month. low socio-economic status refers to learners’ parents who earns below 2.950.000 per month. result and discussion asumption test the test of normality resulted the sig. value (p value) for 0.690>0.050. therefore, it was normally distributed. then, the levene's test was (p=0.504 >0.050), indicating the data were not homogenous. data presentation the learners’ writing performance was seen below. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８７ table 2. the mean score gender sosioeconomic writing strategy mean std. deviation n male high using mindmaple software 85.0000 1 without using mindmaple software 75.0000 1 total 80.0000 7.07107 2 middle using mindmaple software 80.3333 4.50925 3 without using mindmaple software 61.5000 2.12132 2 total 72.8000 10.84896 5 low using mindmaple software 63.0000 . 1 without using mindmaple software 51.2222 8.28821 9 total 52.4000 8.65640 10 total using mindmaple software 77.8000 9.09395 5 without using mindmaple software 54.9167 10.29968 12 total 61.6471 14.46090 17 female high using mindmaple software 88.1429 4.52506 7 without using mindmaple software 66.0000 5.65685 2 total 83.2222 10.70955 9 middle using mindmaple software 85.3333 9.50438 3 without using mindmaple software 67.0000 7.07107 2 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８８ total 78.0000 12.58968 5 low using mindmaple software 88.0000 2.82843 2 without using mindmaple software 70.3333 5.03322 3 total 77.4000 10.40673 5 total using mindmaple software 87.4167 5.46823 12 without using mindmaple software 68.1429 5.14550 7 total 80.3158 10.87838 19 total high using mindmaple software 87.7500 4.33425 8 without using mindmaple software 69.0000 6.55744 3 total 82.6364 9.92243 11 middle using mindmaple software 82.8333 7.19491 6 without using mindmaple software 64.2500 5.31507 4 total 75.4000 11.41344 10 low using mindmaple software 79.6667 14.57166 3 without using mindmaple software 56.0000 11.36982 12 total 60.7333 15.09715 15 total using mindmaple software 84.5882 7.85063 17 without using mindmaple software 59.7895 10.79907 19 total 71.5000 15.67801 36 the output indicated that the average score of male high learners using mindmaple software was 85.00; middle 83.00; low 75.00. the mean score of male high learners using non mindmaple software was 75.00; middle 69.83; low 75.00. the mean score of male high learners with nongraphic organizer was 65.66; middle 71.50; low 58.50. in addition, mean score of female high learners using mindmaple software was 89.67; middle 85.67; low 87.00. the mean score of female high learners using nonmindmaple lite software was 78.67; middle 71.60; low 68.60. the average performance of female high learners with nongraphic organizer was 63.75; middle 62.25; low 50.60. findings to respond the seven questions, the table was seen below. table 3. the three-way annova source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 7564.087a 11 687.644 15.885 .000 intercept 124068.9 1 124068.9 2.866 .000 gender 380.071 1 380.071 8.780 .007 socio-economic status 382.713 2 191.357 4.421 .023 writing strategy 1559.385 1 1559.385 36.023 .000 gender*socio economic status 599.737 2 299.869 6.927 .004 gender*writing strategy 49.147 1 49.147 1.135 .297 economic status* writing strategy 17.116 2 8.558 0.198 .822 gender*socio economic status * writing strategy 37.848 2 18.924 0.437 .651 error 1038.913 24 43.288 total 192644.000 36 corrected total 8603.000 35 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １８９ the table indicated that the value of gender was 0.007 (f=8.780) or lower than 0.05; gender gave influence to writing performance. the value of socio-economic status was 0.023 (f=4.421) or smaller than 0.05; socio-economic status gave contribution to writing performance. the value of writing strategy (mms and nmms) was 0.000 (f=36.023) or smaller than 0.05; writing strategy gave effect significantly to writing performance. the value of gender and socio-economic status was 0.004 (f=6.927) or smaller than 0.05; gender and socio-economic status simultaneously gave contribution to the learners’ writing performance. the value of gender and writing strategy was 0.297 (f=1.135) or > 0.05; gender and writing strategy simultaneously did not give effect significantly to writing performance. the value of socio-economic status and writing strategy was 0.198 (f=0.822) or higher than 0.05; socio economic status and writing strategy simultaneously did not give contribution to writing performance. the value of gender, socio economic status and writing strategy was 0.437 (f=0.651) or higher than 0.05; gender, socio economic status and writing strategy simultaneously did not give contribution to writing performance. gender did not give effect to writing performance. to response the first research question: “does gender give effect to writing performance? table 3 explained the answer. the significance value (sig.) of gender was 0.007 (f=8.780) or lower than 0.05; gender gave contribution to the learners’ writing performance. here, female was better than male in writing performance. the mean score of male was 69.34 and female was 77.47 as seen below. table 4. male and female gender mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound male 69.343 2.178 64.848 73.837 female 77.468 1.666 74.029 80.908 socio economic status did not give effect to writing performance. to response the second ones: “does socio economic status give effect to the learners’ writing performance? table 3 explained the answer. the significance of socio-economic status was 0.023 (f=4.421) or < 0.05; socio-economic status gave contribution to writing performance. in this case, high socio-economic status performed better than middle or low socio-economic status in writing performance. the average score of high socioeconomic status learner was 78.54 followed by middle socio-economic status was 73.54; and low socio-economic status was 73.54female was 68.14 as seen below. table 5. socio-economic status socioeconomic status mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound high 78.536 2.674 73.017 84.055 middle 73.542 2.123 69.159 77.924 low 68.139 2.294 63.405 72.873 dealing with this finding, socio economic status got high relationship with learners’ performance. additionally, caponera and losito (2016) found that socio economic status was an urgent factor affecting learners’ achievement. it was clear that higher socio-economic status tent to lead higher learners’ achievement and lower socio-economic status tent to lead lower achievement. aikens and barbarin (2008) stated that low socio-economic learners had slower language acquisition. relevant studies found that socio economic status influenced learners’ outcomes (eamon, 2005, hochschild,2003). writing strategy did not give effect to writing performance. to response the third ones: “does writing strategy give effect to writing performance? table 3 explained the answer. the significance of writing strategy (mms and nmms) was 0.000 (f=36.023) or < 0.05; writing strategy gave contribution to writing performance. in this case, writing strategy using mindmaple software performed better than http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９０ writing strategy without using mindmaple software middle in writing performance. the mean score of writing strategy using mindmaple software was 81.64; and writing strategy without using mindmaple software was 65.18, as seen below. table 6. writing strategy writing strategy mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound using mindmaple software 81.635 1.995 77.518 85.752 without using mindmaple software 65.176 1.882 61.292 69.059 gender and socio-economic status did not give effect to writing performance. to response the fourth ones: “do gender and socio-economic status give effect to the learners’ writing performance? table 3 explained the answer. the significance of gender and socioeconomic status was 0.004 (f=6.927) <0.05. it meant that gender and socio-economic status simultaneously contributed significantly to the learners’ writing performance. in this case, male and female learners with high socio-economic status performed better than male and female learners with middle and low one. the average score of male and female learners with high socioeconomic status were 80.00 and 77.07. in contrast, the average score of men and women learners with middle socio-economic status were 70.92 and 76.17, as follows: table 7. gender and socioeconomic status gender economic status mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound male high 80.000 4.652 70.398 89.602 middle 70.917 3.003 64.719 77.115 low 57.111 3.468 49.954 64.268 female high 77.071 2.638 71.628 82.515 middle 76.167 3.003 69.969 82.365 low 79.167 3.003 72.969 85.365 gender and writing strategy did not give effect to writing performance. to response the fifth ones: “do gender and writing strategy give effect to the learners’ writing performance? table 3 above explained the answer. the significance of gender and writing strategy was 0.297 (f=1.135) >0.05; gender and writing strategy did not contribute to writing performance. in this case, the average score of both male and female using mindmaple software was 76.11 and 87.16. the mean score of both without using mindmaple software was 62.57 and 67.78, as seen below. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９１ table 8. gender and writing strategy. gender writing strategy mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound male using mindmaple software 76.111 3.350 69.197 83.025 without using mindmaple software 62.574 2.784 56.829 68.319 female using mindmaple software 87.159 2.167 82.687 91.631 without using mindmaple software 67.778 2.532 62.551 73.004 socio economic status and writing strategy did not give effect to writing performance. to response the sixth one: “do socio economic status and writing strategy give effect to writing performance? table 3 explained the answer. the significance of socio-economic status and writing strategy was 0.198 (f=0.822) or > 0.05; socio economic status and writing strategy simultaneously did not give influence to writing performance. in this case, the mean score of high socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 86.57. the mean score of high socioeconomic status learners without using mindmaple software was 70.50. the mean score of middle socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 82.83. the mean score of middle socio-economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 64.25. the mean score of low socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 70.50. the average score of low socio-economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 60.78, as illustrated in table 9. table 9. socio economic status and writing strategy economic status writing strategy mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound high using mindmaple software 86.571 3.517 79.313 93.830 without using mindmaple software 70.500 4.029 62.185 78.815 middle using mindmaple software 82.833 2.686 77.290 88.377 without using mindmaple software 64.250 3.290 57.460 71.040 low using mindmaple software 75.500 4.029 67.185 83.815 without using mindmaple software 60.778 2.193 56.251 65.304 gender, socio economic status and writing strategy did not give effect to writing performance. to response the seven ones: “do gender, socio economic status and writing strategy give effect to writing performance? table 3 explained the answer. the significance of gender, socio economic status and writing strategy was 0.437 (f=0.651) or > 0.05; they did not give contribution significantly to writing performance. in this case, the mean score of male high socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 85.00. the mean score of male high socio-economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 70.00. the mean score of male middle socio economic status learners using mindmaple software was 80.33. the mean score of male middle socio economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 61.50. the mean score of male low socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 63.00. the mean score of male low socio-economic status learners without using mindmaple software was http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９２ 51.22. meanwhile, the mean score of female high socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 88.14. the mean score of female high socio-economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 66.00. the mean score of female middle socio-economic status learners using mindmaple software was 85.33. the mean score of female middle socio-economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 67.00. the mean score of female low socioeconomic status learners using mindmaple software was 88.00. the mean score of female low socio economic status learners without using mindmaple software was 70.33, as follows. table 10. gender, socio-economic status and writing strategy gender socio economic status writing strategy mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound male high using mindmaple software 85.000 6.579 71.421 98.579 without using mindmaple software 75.000 6.579 61.421 88.579 middle using mindmaple software 80.333 3.799 72.493 88.173 without using mindmaple software 61.500 4.652 51.898 71.102 low using mindmaple software 63.000 6.579 49.421 76.579 without using mindmaple software 51.222 2.193 46.696 55.749 female high using mindmaple software 88.143 2.487 83.010 93.275 without using mindmaple software 66.000 4.652 56.398 75.602 middle using mindmaple software 85.333 3.799 77.493 93.173 without using mindmaple software 67.000 4.652 57.398 76.602 low using mindmaple software 88.000 4.652 78.398 97.602 without using mindmaple software 70.333 3.799 62.493 78.173 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９３ to observe interaction effect among variables was explained in plot diagram, as seen below. figure 1. the interaction effect among variables conclusion the finding confirmed that separately there was a different effect for gender (f= 8.780; p=0.007); socio economic status (f=4.421; p=0.023), and writing strategy using mindmaple lite software (f=36.023; p=0.000) on writing performance. the study also showed that an interaction effect occured between gender and socio-economic status (f=6.927, p= 0.004). here, females performed better than males; high socioeconomic status learners did better than the others; learners using mindmaple software ware performed better than without using mindmaple software. in contrast, the finding found no interaction effect between gender and writing strategy (f=1.135, p=0.297); socio-economic status and writing strategy (f=0.198, p=0.822); gender, socio-economic status and writing strategy using mindmaple software (f=0.437, p=0.651). the study concluded that gender, socio-economic status and writing strategy did not contribute simultaneously on writing performance. dealing with the findings on socio economic status and academic achievement, it was in line with milne and plourde (2006). furthermore, the educational literature confirmed that socio economic status was an academic achievement predictor (reardon, 2011). the results were supported by relevant studies such as al-jarf (2009) revealed that mind mapping software contributed to learners’ writing performance. the composition produced by learners using mind mapping software performed better. naqbi (2011) confirmed that mind mapping increased learners’ http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９４ writing product. then, darayesh (2003) believed mind mapping strategy could develop learners’ writing ability. this study affirmed that mind mapping could perform better writing performance. it was recommended that l2 teachers were encouraged to apply mind mapping in efl writing class to help learners organize ideas and broaden writing skills. this would motivate learners to generate ideas. other researchers were recommended to investigate similar research to validate the findings with wider sample size. references ahangari, s., & behzady, l. 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(2001). refining composition skills: rhetoric and grammar. heinle& heinle publishers. toi, h (2009). research on how mind map improves memory. paper presented at the international conference on thinking, kuala lumpur http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://www.mindmaple.com/ https://www.mindvectorweb.com/ http://cmap.ihmc.us/publications/researchpapers/theorycmaps.htm http://cmap.ihmc.us/publications/researchpapers/theorycmaps.htm teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 17 travel writing; an application of writing workshop to enhance students’ creative writing alief noor farida semarang state university prayudias margawati semarang state university abstract writing is often assumed as uneasy skill to either learn or teach. for students, they find it difficult to develop ideas in writing. on the other hand, teachers, many of them, only ready with the materials but confuse with the appropriate ways to teach. this paper intends to describe and discuss a method of teaching writing namely writing workshop to improve students’ writing skill through travel writing. writing workshop proposed by calkins that consists of mini lesson, work time, peer conferring and/or response groups, share sessions, and publication celebration is applied in writing class for methodological purposes. in mini lesson, teacher offers something to the class that is meant to introduce a writing strategy done at the beginning of the workshop. during work time point, students start their new piece of writing. teacher moves among students conferring with them while checking their works. peer conferences or response groups provide a forum for students to talk about works in progress. when students work in group, one of them could arrange his/ her group needs during the work time. a share session may be varied, one possible way is each group shares their process of writing to other students. at the end of writing class, student writers come together to publish and/ or celebrate their final work. the publication could be in the form of portfolio, students’ diary, blog, or others. travel writing genre is chosen as it could develop students’ creativity in describing/ narrating their own stories during, let say holiday or things they used to see on the way home weekly or monthly. furthermore, travel writing as the product of creative writing teaches the readers of values, characteristics, and way of life. last but not least, a professional writing teacher should set the writing workshop components in variety ways to achieve effective running-class. key words: writing workshop, the components, creative writing, travel writing. introduction twenty five years after my father’s return home to nigeria, i arrive for the first time. i am optimistic though armed with little: a research fellowship, a few names, a binder of letters he wrote to my mother and me back in america when i was a child. i tell myself – and anyone who asks – that no, i have not come to find him. ... i’m hungry for heritage, yes. siblings, perhaps. schooling, the very thing my father out of colonial africa for more than a decade is what calls me back. i plan to enroll at the university of nigeria ... the junior brother explains my plan to spend a year learning “how to be nigerian.” (adiele, 2007:269) dinner my first night in kabul, however, was a revelation. we had spicy little meatballs in a rich sauce, a wonderful rice dish, crisp fried potato cakes, and delicious fresh afghan bread. when i expressed 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 astonishment, a friend explains that we had nabbed the best chef in kabul, and that everyone who came to dinner at our house tried to poach him away. (solomon, 2007:273). … i’ve never had less of a plan in my life than i do upon arrival in bali. in all my history of careless travels, this is the most carelessly i’ve ever landed anylace. i don’t know where i’m going to live, i don’t know what i’m going to do, i don’t know what the exchange rate is, i don’t know how to get a taxi at the airport – or even where to ask that taxi to take me. nobody is expecting my arrival. i have no friends in indonesia, or even friends-of-friends. and here’s the problem about traveling with an out-of-date guidebook, and then not reading it anyway. (gilbert, 2006:225). the quotations above are taken from go your own way, a compilation stories of women travel the world solo, the best american travel writing, and eat pray love, one woman’s search for everything. the paragraphs show how the authors write life experience during their trips through the story. the texts are simple to read although the writing activities is not a simple process. the process basically does not require complex requirements as it is a process of free writing which namely creative writing. technically, creative writing can be assumed as any writing of original composition. specifically, the composition of creative writing tend to acquire needs like the need for keeping records of significant experience, sharing experience with interested group and for free individual expression. the purpose of this writing type is to express thoughts, feelings and emotions rather than to simply convey information. among some works under creative writing category, travel writing is one of popular genres which is quite unfamiliar in writing class. it typically records the experiences of the writer. it may be crosscultural or involve travel to different places within the country. this literature type is closely related to outdoor literature. moreover, the genre itself often overlaps without definite boundaries. an individual work of travel writing is sometimes called a travelogue. travelogue is usually composed by a writer who settles into a locality for an extended period, learning and observing sense of the place with his/ her sensibility. the trip becomes the occasion to study nation or people. in some bookstores or libraries in europe or asia, travelogue is commonly displayed as special genre. it is not included in either literary works or tourism category. travelogue in indonesia’s most bookstores is classified in tourism section as it is similar to travel guide, a book which guides travelers to go on holiday or explore new places. the difference between the two is travel guide principally informs the description of tourism spots in certain places, while travelogue obviously narrates a coherent narrative of writer’s experiences emotionally. it involves writer’s thought, language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 19 impression and personal reflection toward the visited places. writing, as the central topic of this study, to some people is perceived as one of difficult skills among others. it is a complex process that needs basic knowledge in language such as vocabulary, structure and psycholinguistics. if scientific writing refers to obvious data and reference, literary works are based on imagination and creativity. to some degree, writing can be perceived as process of expressing idea. a long progress in writing basically requires creativity which then produces creative writing. the progress itself automatically requires purposes of writing. in line with that, there are purposes of writing suggested by thompson (1996:28); (1) to talk about experience of the world, including the worlds in minds, to describe events and states and the entities involved in them, (2) to interact with other people, to establish and maintain relations with them, to influence their behavior, to express our own viewpoint on things in the world, and to elicit or change theirs., and (3) to organize messages in ways which indicate how they fit in with the other messages around them and with the wider context in which we are talking or writing. in my writing class, most of my students often get difficulties to get, explore, and organize ideas on what they are supposed to write. sometimes they say they know the topic of what they are going to write, but they (possibly we too as writing teachers) often get stuck and stop writing at the same time because of losing the ideas. “how can we always have ideas to express?” brainstorming or free writing could probably help, however how we can write a draft if we do not know how to develop ideas. puji in her conceptual research (2007) wrote that there are types of writing teachers described by the students of writing class from the following quotations, i can honestly say that i was never taught to write. i got more red-pen comments that any other students. circles, cross-outs, underlines, and the worst one ever: the question mark. this didn’t help my writing, it only bruised my ego. not one teacher ever said to me: “this is what i want to see.” they never showed me any example of good writing that i could learn from. i knew i couldn’t write and i knew it, too. but nobody ever tried to change that. there was no such a thing as a first or second draft, only the final. i would just turn something in and hope for the best. now i work for a new teacher and he points out all the positives and helps me to improve the negatives. he shows me what i am already doing well and helps me learn how to fix my problems. i actually have a writing process, not just a piece of paper with million different ideas scattered everywhere. which type of writing teacher are you? from the testimony, it is clear that writing 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 class students basically need sample writing, writing processes, feedback, words of encouragement, and also audience. based on the situation above, this article intends to discuss and describe the application of writing workshop in enhancing students’ writing skill through selected genre which requires visual and non visual imagination namely travel writing. moreover, teaching writing class by applying writing workshop would hopefully help both students to improve their creative writing skills and teachers in developing their professionality in method usage in writing class. discussion writing workshop components it is a method of writing instruction developed by lucy calkins (2006). the key to writing workshop is highly individualized instruction as well as a communal effort that encourages sharing between students or teacher and students. writing workshop is designed for all grade levels, say, for all semester requiring writing classes. this method can accomodate students with an individual basis which allows them to learn at a developmentally appropriate rate (waganan, 2008). with large amount of choice in topics and writing style, students are free to write their ideas or their own lives. teachers, on the other hand, act as mentor author, modeling writing technique and conferring with students as they move through writing process. to support the process, calkins (1994) suggests five components of writing workshop that can be arranged in a variety of different ways. the components are as follows: mini-lessons mostly teachers open the class with brief activity such as mini lesson. this activity may contain reviewing previous lesson or introduction to subject discussed for the day. the teacher might begin, say, “what did you do last weekend?” or “where did you go last week?” then he/ she will start narrating his/ her own activity during weekend. another option for mini lesson activity is in 5 to 10 minutes, teacher reads a piece of experience of someone recorded in narrative story. mini lesson is also possible for the teachers to introduce the topic of the day where students will spend more time in writing it. another possible choice is that teacher or student offers something to class which intended to inspire or to instruct others. in relation to travel writing topic, the teacher may begin by saying: ”i want to read something i promise would be nice ...” work time (writing and conferring) work time is requires the biggest amount of time for about 20 to 40 minutes. during the work time, students go to their desks and work on their ongoing projects. students start to write their experience during, say, holiday or weekly visit to their hometown. the teacher may give them how to begin it, for example; ... this is language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 21 exactly how i arrive in jakarta. my plane landed in soekarno hatta airport around 2 pm. it was august 21. i find my luggage, then find a taxi that took me two hours to reach bekasi where my family live there. i doze on the drive through the city, sometimes waking to look out the window, where i can see crowd of people walking alongside the road. generally, the rule during the workshop is everyone writes. teacher moves among individuals around the class to check the works. when teacher finishes with one piece, he/she moves on to another. teachers may write alongside students for a few minutes of silent work time, then conferring with them. these conferences are at the heart of teaching process. peer conferring and/or response groups the response group frequently begins with the reports from each group represented by one member. the report might contain the process of students works, or one of them reports about the writing activities. friends from other groups are free to response relevant comments. it is also possible to give suggestion toward the reported groups. sometimes, groups will end with each member about the plan of what he or she will do in the next meeting. calkins (1994) suggested that as writers, we need to be able to see what is almost there in a draft; we need to be able to see possibilities. we need to be able to imagine a draft written differently. people learn this special kind of reading by reading work in progress and talking about it. peer conferences and response groups provide a forum for this. this component would take around 5 to 10 minutes. peer conferences are usually student-initiated like five-minute-long talks about works in progress. additionally response groups which usually consist of four to five members are usually formed by students at the teacher’s suggestion. share sessions in 10 minutes of time allotment in writing workshop, share sessions generally begin after the entire class has gathered in one round group. the purpose of the session is to share and support work in progress. share sessions function as public, teachersupported conferences. the formats for a share session are varied. one example is the group shares their writing process, perhaps talking about how they feel about during silent writing time, or brainstorming together on what individual writers can do when they are stuck. these formats provide models for what students can do in their response groups and peer conferences. publication celebrations at certain time throughout the semester, students writers come together to try to publish and celebrate their finished work. teachers should be creative in providing media to post the works. they might post in wall magazine, school magazine, or 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 read by wider context of readers such as personal blog. however, teachers still have to work hard in reading students’ works before they complete with editting conference or final revisions. for celebration, most teachers do different things for the component. they may invite other students from other classes into the classroom for one celebration, or make an audiotape of his or her best work. application of writing workshop in travel writing first of all, writing teachers need to have basic knowledge in this skill. second of all, they should know methodologies in teaching writing. third, they should have passion in both writing and teaching writing. how could they teach writing if they do not write themselves. to begin writing, a writer should read many books. alwasilah in puji (2007) suggests that writing teachers must be writer themselves because a writer teacher does not only know how to teach but also has definitely first-hand experience in writing. non-writer teacher, on the other hand, tends to emphasize theories of writing because of their lack of empirical experience. in brief, teachers should encourage themselves and students to read more to produce pieces of literature. applying writing workshop method in travel writing will be mutually beneficial for both teacher and students. for teachers, they improve teaching writing skill by applying the method and learn students’ perception about everything around as reflected from the works. for students, they are motivated and encouraged during the workshop through comments, corrections, suggestions from both teacher and peers. furthermore, the products of travel writing from students will teach both parties about values, characteristics, way of life of the writers, either teachers or students. finally, applying writing workshop in travel writing would ease the students in the process of writing creatively as they are inspired from mini lesson, given moment to express the feeling in work time, responsed from other peers, be opened in share session, and if they are lucky, their works will be published and read by a lot of readers. conclusion conclusion could be drawn from this study is that to teach a writing class, writing teachers should be creative in applying a method. when they focus on enhancing students’ skill in writing, writing workshop is possible application to be applied in writing class. through the components of the method designed by calkins (mini lesson, work time, peer conferring, share sessions, and publication celebrations) that can be arranged in a variety of different ways, the process of learning in class will be more fun and attractive as students are fully involved in it. teachers have an important roles to set the workshop itself. although writing workshop is definitely possible to be applied in any context of language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 23 writing class, however, it is almost impossible to create an effective one if students write only once or twice a week. students will find it hard to sustain an interest and remember what were they discussing last meeting. as calkins illustrated, like any sport that if we jog once a week, it is hard to break the inertia brought on by six days of not jogging. but if we jog every day, it becomes easier and easier; we get into the rhythm, we find out stride. the same is true of writing (1994:188). moreover, conducting writing workshop in class with more than 25 students would be also considered advantageous. applying writing workshop in travel writing would give benefits for both parties, teachers and students. teachers can improve their teaching skill with selected method, and students through motivations, encouragement and suggestion will expressively share their ideas in pieces of literature. references astuti, puji. 2007. analyzing the needs of undergraduate student writers of the department of english education of semarang state university as a means of evaluating its writing curriculum. unpublished master’s thesis. indonesia university of education bandung. calkins, lucy mccormick. 1994. the art of teaching writing. ontario: irwin publishing. christina. 2007. go your own way; women travel the world solo. emeryville: seal press. coelho, p. 2007. like the flowing river. london: harper collins publisher. frazier, ian. 2003. the best american travel writing. new york: houghton mifflin company. gilbert, elizabeth. 2006. eat pray love; one woman’s search for everything. london: bloomsburry. margawati, prayudias. 2013. travel writing, when travelers meet creative writing. a study of travel writing works by matatita and trinity. proceeding the asian conference on arts and culture 2013 srinakharinwirot university bangkok 13 – 14 june, pp. 367-373 matatita. 2011. ubud travel writing trip workshop handout. yogyakarta: bentang pustaka thompson, g. 1996. introducing functional grammar. new york: arnold. waganan, jennifer. 2008. teaching writing with writers workshop: an individualized method to teaching students how to write. language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 162 a review of machine translation tools: the translation’s ability tira nur fitria institut teknologi bisnis aas indonesia tiranurfitria@gmail.com abstract the objective of the research is to review the ability of online machine translator tools includes google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), systran translate (st), and ibm translator (it). this research applies descriptive qualitative. the documentation was used in this study. the result of the analysis shows that the translation results are different, both from the style of language and the choice of words used by each machine translation tool. thus, directly or indirectly, whether consciously or not, each translation machine carries its characteristics. machine translation technology cannot be separated from the active role of humans. in other words, it will always be the best choice for users to rely on expert translation rather than machine translation. but no machine translator can be as accurate as human skills in producing translation products. in particular, the field of translation is also concerned with machine translation to support the performance of translators in analyzing the diction used as an element of language. in this regard, it needs to be underlined that the existence of machine translation is an additional facility in the world of translation, not as the main means of translation because the sophistication of the machine will not be able to match the flexibility of the human brain's cognitive abilities in adjusting the translation results according to the existing context. accurate translation is sometimes subjective, relatively often temporal. therefore, it is permissible for translating by more than one machine translator. keywords: machine translation, translation tools, translation introduction translation between human languages has been a need in society for thousands of years (trujillo, 2012, p. 3). translate is a transposition of a sourcelanguage text into target-language text (poibeau, 2017). the translation is solving language divergence (bhattacharyya, 2015). there may be differences in vocabulary and syntax between the two languages, making a translation impossible (fitria, 2020a). therefore, in general communication, translation plays a significant role (rahutomo et al., 2019). but, who can resist the sophistication presented by the technological era? the high demands on meeting human needs have led to the consideration of time efficiency as an essential aspect in achieving performance targets. no doubt that the use of automatic "assistant" machines is now widely relied on to make human work easier. machine translation, often known as mt, is a subfield of computational linguistics that studies the use of software to translate text or voice from one natural language to another (al-tuwayrish, 2016). in a research and development field, machine translation (mt) is among the oldest among the various disciplines and applications of computer science to the study of natural language (nirenburg et al., 2003). it is also supported by lin & chien (2009) and chéragui, (2012), machine translation (mt) is a sub-field of computational linguistics that is a contemporary technique of translation using computer aid. as we have seen, machine translation is the use of machine translators to translate text from one language to another. translation in this way has advantages, including the practicality of use, fast results, and the low cost required. we can compare it with human translator services, which are not necessarily available all the time, it also takes time to produce the translation result and also has high costs. because it is not surprising that currently machine translation is used by many people and has become a necessity. it looks like machine translation is slowly shifting the human https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 163 translator profession. it's no wonder professional translators are starting to worry about the existence of this powerful machine, which can produce translation results in seconds and also in multiple languages. although the results of machine translation still have many shortcomings, technology tends to develop and become better. on the internet, we can find anything we want to look for. for example, any information about lessons, all can be found easily on the internet. the presence of the internet can facilitate various human jobs. coupled with the increasingly sophisticated technological devices, the internet is increasingly inseparable from the life of modern society today. the internet can also be very helpful for those of us who work as office workers or students. processing texts or documents may become a daily routine for office workers or students. sometimes there are texts or even documents that contain a foreign language and we do not understand the language. to make it easier to read, we can first translate the document into indonesian. no need to use a dictionary, we can take advantage of document translator sites on the internet. online translation tools for text or documents can also be referred to as translator sites on the internet. of course, the presence of this free online translation site is very helpful for students or teachers who are working on translation assignments or projects. the reason is, we do not have to bother translating word for word from foreign languages. especially if we need an online machine translator to replace it with the foreign language we need. several programs of translation are available for free download. furthermore, this method is useful for saving time for translators since opening dictionaries take a long time (fitria, 2018). several sites provide special services to translate into another language that is understood, in this case, indonesian. apart from being quite practical, these sites allow us to use them for free. there are several choices of complete online translator sites, including. here are some choices of online translator sites that we can choose from. there are now many online machine translators available with various languages ​ ​ and newer and more complete service features such as google translate, bingtranslator, yandex translator, and others. machine translation involves of artificial intelligence (ai) system (wilks, 2008). machine translation system automatically translates a text form or language to another language (chan, 2018). the general machine translation is to learn how to translate from a large corpus of equivalent source and target sentences (utiyama, 2009). this is typically a machine translation framework. we have an input (the source language), an output (the target language), and a model trying to produce the correct output. while quah (2006) states that the initial goal of machine translation is to build a fully automatic high-quality machine translation that did not require any human intervention. research on the capabilities or comparisons of several machine translators may have not been widely carried out. therefore, in this research, the researcher is interested to review and investigate the ability of several online machine translator tools includes google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), and systran translate (st). research method this research applies descriptive qualitative research. hennink et al (2020) state that qualitative research is typically used for providing an indepth understanding of the research issues…”. in other words, in descriptive research, researchers want to describe a certain phenomenon or trait, and not to find or explain the relationship between variables like in quantitative research. so that, the research wants to describe the ability of several online machine translation tools in translating texts. the collection of documentation was compiled during a qualitative study (given, 2008). documentation in this study is used to complete research and to maximize research results. the example of document here is taken from an indonesian article from (fitria, 2020b) entitled “penerapan teknologi informasi dalam pembelajaran: web-based learning dan mobilehttps://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 164 based learning di itb aas indonesia selama masa pandemi covid-19”. there are several steps for analyzing data, they are data reduction, data display, and conclusion (tashakkori et al., 2003). in this study, the researcher reduced the data. a large amount of data and the complexity of the data require data analysis through the reduction stage. the researcher presents narrative/description data into tables, matrices, graphs, networks, or charts. furthermore, researchers conclude by looking at the results of data reduction. this is to find relationships, similarities, or differences to conclude response to the research objectives. findings and discussion findings the ability of several online machine translator tools includes google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), systran translate (st), and ibm translator (it) can be seen below: table 1. translation in abstract section indonesian text :penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis platform atau aplikasi e-learning yang digunakan dalam pembelajaran baik web-based learning dan mobile-based learning di itb aas indonesia selama masa pandemi covid-19. google translate (gt) :this study aims to determine the type of e-learning platform or application used in learning both web-based learning and mobile-based learning at itb aas indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic. collin translator (ct) :this study aims to find out the types of e-learning platforms or applications used in learning both web-based learning and mobile-based learning at itb aas indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic. bing translator (bt) :this study aims to find out the types of e-learning platforms or applications used in learning both web-based learning and mobile-based learning at itb aas indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic. yandex translator (yt) :this study aims to determine the type of platform or the e-learning application that is used in learning web-based learning and mobile-based learning in itb aas indonesia during the period of the pandemic covid-19. systran translate (st) :the study aims to know the type of platform or e-learning application used in learning both web-based learning and mobile-based learning in itb aas indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic. ibm translator (it) the research aims to know the type of platform or application of e-learning used in the learning of both web-based learning and mobile-based learning at itb aas indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic. based on table 1, shows the translation of texts in the abstract section (purposes of the study) by using several online machine translation tools. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian “mengetahui” into english. in google translate (gt) and yandex translator (yt), the indonesian word “mengetahui” is translated into “determine”. in collin translator (ct) and bing translator (bt), the indonesian word “mengetahui” is translated into “find out”. while, in systran translate (st) and ibm translator (it), the indonesian word “mengetahui” is translated into “know”. there is also similarity and difference in translating the indonesian “jenis platform atau aplikasi e-learning” into english. in google https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 165 translate (gt), the indonesian phrase “jenis platform atau aplikasi e-learning” is translated into “type of e-learning platforms or applications”. the words “platforms” and “applications” become plural forms. in collin translator (ct) and bing translator (bt), the indonesian phrase “jenis platform atau aplikasi e-learning” is translated into “types of elearning platforms or applications”. all the noun words such as “types”, “platforms” and “applications” become plural forms. in yandex translator (yt) and systran translate (st), the indonesian phrase “jenis platform atau aplikasi elearning” is translated into “type of e-learning platform or application”. all the noun words such as “types”, “platforms” and “applications” become singular forms. while, ibm translator (it), the indonesian phrase “jenis platform atau aplikasi e-learning” is translated into “type of platform or application of e-learning” which shows plural form. but, this tool is different from yt and st. in yt is written “the learning application”, there is addition of article “the” followed by a noun phrase. in st, is written “elearning application”, there is addition of article “the” followed by a noun phrase. while in it is written “application of e-learning”. there is not followed by the definite or indefinite article “a” or “the”, but using the preposition “of”. table 2. translation in abstract section indonesian text : metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah penelitian gabungan kualitatif dan kuantitatif deskriptif. google translate (gt) : the research method used in this research is a combination of qualitative and quantitative descriptive research. collin translator (ct) : the research method used in this study is qualitative and descriptive quantitative combined research. bing translator (bt) : the research method used in this study is qualitative and descriptive quantitative combined research. yandex translator (yt) : the research method used in this research is the research combined qualitative and quantitative descriptive. systran translate (st) : the research method used in this research was a qualitative and descriptive quantitative joint study. ibm translator (it) the method of research used in this study is a combined qualitative and quantitative research. based on table 2, shows the translation of texts in the abstract section (purposes of the study) by using several online machine translation tools. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian “penelitian ini” into english. in google translate (gt), yandex translator (yt), and systran translate (st), the indonesian phrase “penelitian ini” is translated into “this research”. while, in collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), and ibm translator (it), the indonesian phrase “penelitian ini” is translated into “this study”. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian “gabungan” into english. in google translate (gt), the indonesian word “gabungan” is translated into “combination”. in collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), and ibm translator (it), the indonesian word “gabungan” is translated into “combined”. while it is contrasted with systran translate (st), the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 166 indonesian word “gabungan” is translated into “joint”. the example above also shows that google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), and ibm translator (it) use the linking verb in the nominal sentence “is” to show simple present form, while it contrasted with systran translate (st) which use “was” to show simple past tense form. table 3. translation in abstract section indonesian text : dari hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa dosen tetap itb aas indonesia menggunakan berbagai plartform atau aplikasi e-learning dalam proses belajar mengajar selama masa pandemi covid-19. ada berbagai jenis platform e-learning yang digunakan yaitu berbentuk pembelajaran berbasis web atau web-based learning dan pembelajaran berbasis seluler atau mobile-based learning. pembelajaran berbasis web yang digunakan adalah e-learning yang dikembangkan oleh institusi itb aas indonesia dan dapat diakses melalui situs web. google translate (gt) : from the analysis results show that the permanent lecturers of itb aas indonesia use various platforms or e-learning applications in the teaching and learning process during the covid-pandemic 19. there are various types of e-learning platforms in use, namely in form web-based learning or web-based learning and based learning mobile or mobile-based learning. web-based learning used is e-learning developed by the itb aas indonesia institution and can be accessed through the website. collin translator (ct) : the results of the analysis show that permanent lecturers at itb aas indonesia used various e-learning platforms or applications in the teaching and learning process during the covid-pandemic period. there are various types of e-learning platforms in use, namely in the form of web-based learning or web-based learning and mobile-based learning. web-based learning used is e-learning developed by the itb aas indonesia institution and can be accessed through the website. bing translator (bt) from the results of the analysis showed that itb aas indonesia permanent lecturers use various platform or e-learning applications in the teaching and learning process during the covid-19 pandemic. there are various types of elearning platforms used in the form of web-based learning or web-based learning and mobile-based learning. web-based learning used is e-learning developed by itb aas indonesia institution and can be accessed through the website. yandex translator (yt) from the results of the analysis showed that the lecturer itb aas indonesia using a variety of platform or the application of e-learning in the teaching-learning process during the pandemic of covid-19. there are different types of e-learning platform used is shaped web-based learning or web-based learning and learning-based mobile or mobile-based learning. web-based learning used is an e-learning app developed by the institution itb aas indonesia and can be accessed through the website . systran translate (st) from analysis shows that current lecturers itb aas indonesia uses various platforms or the e-learning application in the learning process during the covid-19 pandemic. there are various types of e-learning platforms used in the form of webbased learning or web-based learning and mobile-based learning or mobile-based learning. web-based learning that is used is e-learning, developed by itb aas indonesia's institution, and accessible through the website. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 167 ibm translator (it) from the results of the analysis showed that indonesian lecturers of itb aas indonesia used various plartform or e-learning applications in the learning process of teaching during the covid-19 pandemic. there are various types of e-learning platforms that are used in the form of web-based learning and web-based learning and learning-based learning or mobile-based learning. the web-based learning used is e-learning which is developed by the itb aas indonesia institution and can be accessed via the website. based on table 3, shows the translation of texts in the abstract section (purposes of the study) by using several online machine translation tools. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “dari hasil analisis menunjukkan” into english. in google translate (gt), the indonesian phrase “dari hasil analisis menunjukkan” is translated into “from the analysis results show”. the word ‘hasil” is translated into “results” become plural form then followed by the verb “show” which refers to an as singular form. in collin translator (ct), the indonesian phrase “dari hasil analisis menunjukkan” is translated into “the results of the analysis show”. the word ‘hasil” is same translated into “results” become plural form then followed by the verb “show” which refers to an as singular form. the type of tenses in the verb “show” also refers to simple present tense. the translation from gt is almost the same as ct. in bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), and ibm translator (it), the indonesian phrase “dari hasil analisis menunjukkan” is translated into “from the results of the analysis showed”. the word ‘hasil” is same translated into “results” become plural form then followed by the verb “show” which refers to an as singular form. the type of tenses in the verb “show” also refers to simple past tense. while, in systran translate (st), the indonesian phrase “dari hasil analisis menunjukkan” is translated into “from analysis shows”. the indonesian word “hasil” is not translated into english. the word ‘analysis” is become singular form then followed by the verb “shows” which refers to an as singular form. the type of tenses in the verb “show” also refers to simple present tense. there are also other similarities and differences in translating the indonesian clause “dosen tetap itb aas indonesia menggunakan” into english. in google translate (gt), the clause is translated into “the permanent lecturers of itb aas indonesia use”. here, there is an addition of articles “the” and “of”. the word “dosen” is translated into “lecturers” which refers to the plural form, then followed by the verb “use” as plural form by using the simple present tense. in collin translator (ct), the clause is translated into “permanent lecturers at itb aas indonesia used”. the word “dosen” is translated into “lecturers” which refers to the plural form, then followed by the verb “used” by using the simple past tense. here, there is also the addition of the preposition clause “at itb aas indonesia”. in bing translator (bt), the clause is translated into “itb aas indonesia permanent lecturers use”. here, there is not added by any preposition like in gt and ct. the word “dosen” is same translated into “lecturers” which refers to the plural form, then followed by the verb “use” as plural form by using the simple present tense. in yandex translator (yt), the clause is translated differently into “the lecturer itb aas indonesia using”. the word “dosen” is translated into “lecturer” which refers to a singular form, then followed by the verb “using” by using the present participle ‘v-ing’. in systran translate (st), the clause is translated differently into “current lecturers itb aas indonesia uses”. the word “dosen” is still translated into “lecturers” which refers to the plural form, then followed by the verb “uses” as plural form by using the simple present tense. in this translation, as we can see, there is not found subject-verb agreement between subject and verb. the subject's “current lecturers” does not fit with https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 168 the verb “uses”. it should be followed by a verb in the plural form “use”. in ibm translator (it), the clause “dosen tetap itb aas indonesia” is translated into indonesian lecturers of itb aas indonesia”. this tool does not translate the word “tetap” even add the word “indonesian” into a double. but, “dosen” is translated into “lecturers” as plural form and translate the word “menggunakan” into “used” to refers to simple past form. the example above also shows the similarities and differences in translating indonesian words into english. first, in indonesian word “menunjukkan” into english. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct) and systran translate (st) translate the word “menunjukkan” into “shows” which refers to simple present tense. while, in bing translator (bt) and yandex translator (yt), translate the word “menunjukkan” into “showed” which refers to simple past tense. second, the indonesian phrase “dosen tetap” into english. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt) translate it into “permanent lecturers”. these translation tools use “permanent” to translate “tetap”. the word “dosen” is the same translated into plural form “lecturers”. in yandex translator (yt), the phrase “dosen tetap” only translated into “lecturers” and removing to translate “tetap”. while, in systran translate (st), these tools use “current” to translate “tetap” and not using the word “permanent” as i indonesian word “menggunakan” into english. both google translate (gt) and bing translator (bt) translated the word into “use” which refers to simple present tense. in systran translate (st) translated the word into “uses” also which refers to simple present tense but different forms of the verb. collin translator (ct) and imb translator (it) translate the word into “used” also which refers to simple past tense. while in yandex translator (yt) translated the word into “using” also refers to continuous or present participle. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “dapat diakses” into english. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt) and imb translator translate the phrase “dapat diakses” into “can be accessed”. but, in systran translate (st), this tool translates the phrase “dapat diakses” into the word “accessible”. while in the translation of phrase “melalui”. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), and yandex translator (yt) translate it into “through”. while, it is contrasted with imb translator (it) which translated “melalui” into via”, not using “through”. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 169 table 4. translation in introduction section indonesian text : pandemi covid-19 telah merubah sistem di seluruh aspek kehidupan manusia, khususnya perubahan di bidang pendidikan. pendidikan dari tingkat dasar hingga menengah saat ini dilaksanakan secara tatap muka kini harus dilakukan secara daring. demikian juga pada tingkat pendidikan tinggi, pembelajaran harus dilaksanakan secara online. semua berubah, sistem pembelajaran tatap muka diganti dengan sistem pembelajaran daring yang membatasi antara siswa dan guru, mahasiswa dan dosen. sekarang ini, proses perkuliahan diarahkan untuk dilaksanakan tidak secara tatap muka untuk menghindari terjadinya perkumpulan manusia yang memungkinkan terjadinya penyebaran dan penularan virus covid-19. google translate (gt) : the covid-19 pandemic has changed the system in all aspects of human life, in particular changes in education. the education system of the elementary to secondary level is currently carried out face-to-face, now it must be done online. likewise at the higher education level, learning must be implemented online. everything changes, the learning system face-to-face is replaced by an online learning system that limits between students and teachers, students and lecturers. currently, the lecture process is directed to be carried out not face to face to avoid human gathering that allow the spread and transmission of the covid-19 virus. collin translator (ct) : the covid-19 pandemic has changed the system in all aspects of human life, especially changes in education. education from primary to secondary level is now conducted face-to-face now must be done online. likewise, at the higher education level, learning must be conducted online. all changed, the face-toface learning system was replaced with an online learning system that restricted between students and teachers, students and lecturers. currently, the lecture process is directed to be conducted not face-to-face to avoid the occurrence of human gatherings that allow the spread and transmission of the covid-19 virus. bing translator (bt) : the covid-19 pandemic has changed the system in all aspects of human life, especially changes in education. education from primary to secondary level is now conducted face-to-face now must be done online. likewise, at the higher education level, learning must be conducted online. all changed, the face-toface learning system was replaced with an online learning system that restricted between students and teachers, students and lecturers. currently, the lecture process is directed to be conducted not face-to-face to avoid the occurrence of human gatherings that allow the spread and transmission of the covid-19 virus. yandex translator (yt) : pandemic covid-19 has changed the system in all aspects of human life, in particular changes in the field of education. education, from primary to secondary level current is implemented in a face-to-face must now be done online. similarly, at the level of higher education, learning should be implemented online. all change, learning systems face-to-face replaced with a system of online learning that limit between students and teachers, students and lecturers. today, the lecture is directed to be implemented not face-to-face to avoid the occurrence of human associations that allow the occurrence of the spread and transmission of the virus covid-19. systran translate (st) : pandemics covid-19 have changed systems across all aspects of human life, especially changes in education. education from elementary to middle level, https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 170 when it is conducted in advance, must now be done online. likewise at the higher education level, learning should be conducted online. all that changes, the face-to-face learning system is replaced by an online learning system that limits students and teachers, students and professors. currently, the course process is aimed at not faceted to avoid human gathering that allow the spread and spread of covid-19 virus. ibm translator (it) : the covid-19 pandemic has changed systems across all aspects of human life, especially changes in the field of education. education from the primary to medium level currently is done in face-to-face is now required to be performed online. likewise at higher education levels, learning must be carried out online. all changed, the face-to-face learning system was replaced by an online learning system that curtailed between students and teachers, students and lecturers. today, the process of lecture is directed to take place not face-to-face to avoid the occurrence of human societies that allowed for the spread and transmission of the covid-19 virus. based on table 4, shows the translation of texts in the abstract section (purposes of the study) by using several online machine translation tools. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “telah merubah” into english. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), and ibm translator (it) translate “telah merubah” into “has changed” or “has + v3” in the form of the simple present perfect tense. it fits with the subject agreement “pandemic covid-19” which refers to a singular form. while, in systran translate (st), translate “telah merubah” into “have changed” or “have + v3” in the form of the simple present perfect tense. it fits with the subject-agreement “pandemics covid-19” which refers to the plural form. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian word “khususnya” into english. in google translate (gt) and systran translate (st) translate the word “khususnya” into “in particular”. while, in collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), and ibm translator (it) translate the word “khususnya” into “especially”. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “dilaksanakan” as passive form into english. in google translate (gt) translate the word “dilaksanakan” into “carried out”. in collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), and systran translate (st) translate the word “dilaksanakan” into “conducted”. in yandex translator (yt), translate the word “dilaksanakan” into “implemented”. while, in ibm translator (it), translate the word “dilaksanakan” into “done”. it shows that all translation tools translated the word “dilaksanakan” into passive form into english. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “demikian juga” into english. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), systran translate (st), and ibm translator (it) translate the word “demikian juga” into “likewise”. but, yandex translator (yt) translates the word “demikian juga” into “similarly” there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “semua berubah” into english. google translate (gt), translates the phrase “semua berubah” into “everything changes”. everything is always singular, so when used in a sentence it is always treated as a singular subject. in collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), and ibm translator (it) translate the phrase “semua berubah” into “all changed”. it tends to be in the form of the past. in yandex translator (yt) translate the phrase “semua berubah” into “all change”. it tends to be in the form of present. while in systran translate (st) translate the phrase “semua berubah” into “all that changed”. there is an additional word of “that” after the word “all”. the verb “changed” tends to be in the form of the past. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “tingkat dasar hingga menengah” into english. in google https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 171 translate (gt), translate the phrase “tingkat dasar hingga menengah” into “elementary to secondary level”. in collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt) and yandex translator (yt) translate the phrase “tingkat dasar hingga menengah” into “primary to secondary level”. in systran translate (st) translate the phrase “tingkat dasar hingga menengah” into primary into middle level”. while, ibm translator (it) ) translate the phrase “tingkat dasar hingga menengah” into “primary into medium level”. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “sekarang ini” into english. in google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), and systran translate (st) translate the phrase “sekarang ini” into “currently”. while, yandex translator (yt) translate the phrase “sekarang ini” different from google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt) and ibm translator (it) translate the word “sekarang ini” into “today”. there is similarity and difference in translating the indonesian phrase “perkumpulan manusia” into english. google translate (gt) and systran translate (st) translate the phrase “perkumpulan manusia” into “human gathering” which refers to a singular form. collin translator (ct) and bing translator (bt) translate the phrase “perkumpulan manusia” into “human gatherings” which refers to the plural form. in yandex translator (yt) translate the phrase “perkumpulan manusia” into “human associations” which refers to the plural form. these tools translate differently from gt, ct, bt, and st which translate “perkumpulan” into the word “gathering”. but, ibm translator (it) translates the phrase “perkumpulan manusia” into “human societies” which refers to the plural form. discussion machine translation tool is software that functions to replace humans in translating source language text into target-language text. human intervention is not required during the translation process (it may be limited to a few clicks) because all processes are pre-programmed. in the direct translation approach, the computer program (mt tool) recognizes the target language text, matches it with the entries in the dictionary then immediately generates the targetlanguage text. with the transfer approach, the mt program will analyze words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs then identify their equivalents in its "database". after that, the target language text can be generated by the system. there are several online machine translator tools analyzed in this research, they are google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt), systran translate (st), and ibm translator (it). every online machine translation tools have similarities and comparisons with other translation machines in translating. first, google translate is provided by google. google developed a feee multilingual machine translation service known as google translator (gunjan et al., 2019). this tool lets users enter what users want to say and it’ll display the translated text to the other person. not only that, but it also gives a dictionary-like approach to learning languages by giving you meanings of the terms, translation information, and example phrases or sentences. google translate can assist us if we have a large volume of text to translate or if we want to translate a whole web page. it also allows users to copy, share, listen to, and store the translated text, as well as produce simple translations sufficient enough for readers unfamiliar with other languages to grasp what they mean. when google translate creates a translation, it searches hundreds of millions of documents for patterns that will help it choose the best translation for users (kerr, 2014). second, collin dictionary translator is not just findings word definitions and synonyms. but, it has an online translator tool that supports over 60 languages and allows users to type in a word, phrase, or sentence and have it translated for them. because its translations are provided by microsoft, users will not have access to as many features as users of the other standalone online translators on this list. it is still handy for fast translations, and the translated text has a simple copy button. third, bing miscrosof translator is provided by microsoft. this translator is a cloud based multilingual translation service. it translates text from one language to another but also fro text to specch as well (dorman et al., 2012). the translator identifies and instantly translates https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 172 whatever text the users type into the input box, especially if they do not know what language it is written in. the users may say the word, phrase, or sentence they want to translate and hear the translation aloud, copy, share, or use bing to search the web if the microphone is turned on. unlike google translate, which supports over 100 languages, bing microsoft translator supports over 60 languages for up to 5,000 characters and adds a feature that allows you to provide some input on the translation. fourth, yandex translate does not translate normal text translations, but it goes further to translate images and websites too for 99 languages, making it the best online translator for multiple uses. it is easy to use, works quickly, and can be used to learn new languages. the users can switch between languages while translating an image without re-uploading it if we upload it for translation. it also includes predictive typing, a dictionary with transcription, pronunciation, examples of how to use the word or phrase, and corrections for poor translations. fifth, systran translate can translate brief documents of up to 3,000 characters. any website or web page may be translated into any language for free, with choices for fluid navigation, alternate meanings, presentation, and more. this tools receive translate on-the-fly text and file translations by email. it is a web-based language translation service that is offered for free. to swiftly translate the information we want, we may rely on this online translation self-service option. sixth, ibm translator (it) instantly translate papers, applications, and websites to reach new markets. this software converts documents from one language to another while maintaining the file's layout and type and all supported file formats. by default, neural machine translation is used for all language pairings. deep learning is used in this innovative technology to increase translation speed and accuracy. every online machine translation tools have similarities and comparisons with other translation machines in translating. in translating of indonesian word “mengetahui” into english, this word is translated differently into “determine”, “find out” or “know”. in translating of indonesian phrase “penelitian ini” into english, this word is translated differently into “this research” and “this study”. in translating the indonesian “gabungan” into english, this word is translated differently into “combination”, “combined”, and “joint”. in translating the indonesian phrase “jenis platform atau aplikasi elearning” into english, this phrase is translated differently into “type of e-learning platforms or applications” become plural form both in “types” and “platforms/applications”, “types of elearning platforms or applications” all plural form, also type of e-learning platform or application” become singular form. in translating the indonesian phrase “dari hasil analisis menunjukkan” into english. this clause is translated differently into “from the analysis results show”, “the results of the analysis show”, “from the results of the analysis showed” also “from analysis shows”. the type of tenses in verb refers to different tenses of simple present tense and simple past tense. in translating the indonesian phrase “dosen tetap itb aas indonesia menggunakan” into english. this phrase is translated differently into “the permanent lecturers of itb aas indonesia use”, “permanent lecturers at itb aas indonesia used”, “itb aas indonesia permanent lecturers use”, “the lecturer itb aas indonesia using”, and into “current lecturers itb aas indonesia uses”. the type of tenses in verb refers to different tenses of simple present tense and simple past tense. in translation of indonesian word “menunjukkan” into english. this word is translated differently into “shows”, “showed” and “showing” which refers to verbs in the simple present tense, simple past tense, and continuous tense. in translating indonesian phrase “dapat diakses”. this word is translated differently into “can be accessed” and “accessible”. in translating the word “melalui” into english, this word is translated into “through” and “via”. in translating the indonesian phrase “telah merubah” into english, this phrase is translated differently into “has changed” or “has + v3” also “have + v3” in the form of simple present perfect tense. in translating the indonesian word “khususnya” into english, this word is translated into “in particular” and “especially”. in translating the indonesian phrase “dilaksanakan” as passive form into english. this word is translated differently into “conducted”, “implemented” and “done”. it shows that all translation tools https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 173 translated the word “dilaksanakan” into passive form into english. in translating the indonesian phrase “demikian juga” into english, this word is translated into “likewise” and “similarly”. in translating the indonesian phrase “semua berubah” into english, this phrase is translated differently into “everything changes”, “all changed” and “all that changed”. in translating the indonesian phrase “tingkat dasar hingga menengah” into english, this phrase is translated differently into “elementary to secondary level”, “primary to secondary level”, “primary into middle level” and “primary into medium level”. in translating the indonesian phrase “sekarang ini” into english, this phrase is translated into “currently” and “today”. the last, in translating the indonesian phrase “perkumpulan manusia” into english, this phrase is translated differently into “human gathering”, “human gatherings”, “human associations” and “human societies”. in the law of translation, it is known as relative truth, which means that no translation is perfect. truth in translation is sometimes subjective, relatively often temporal (kardimin, 2018). therefore, it is permissible for a text or document to be translated by more than one machine translator. thus, the result can be predicted that the translation will be different, both from the style of language and the choice of words used by each machine translation. variations of this translation are often known as variants or hues. thus, directly or indirectly, whether consciously or not, each translating machine will carry its characteristics. these tools have the same goal of developing translation tools is to translate written materials across different languages (kastberg & andersson, 2012). several reasons why machine translation technology cannot be separated from the active role of humans (anugu & ramesh, 2020). in other words, it will always be the best choice for users to rely on expert translation rather than machine translation. with a variety of options, translation tools make the job of translating simpler (daems et al., 2017). but, no machine translator can be as accurate as human skills. it is feasible to meet the translation demand using human translators (rivera-trigueros, 2021). various factors make the role of translation important because machine translation is still not very accurate in producing translation products. first, machine translation is just a passive memory that does not recognize the dynamics of culture. we know that each race has its language and style. more than that, each individual can even bring up various language trends. it is this linguistic trend creation that carries a contextual bias beyond the reach of machines. machine translation is limited to an electronic dictionary containing millions of word entries, which are packed with certain syntactic codes. the performance will be maximized if the source language that is inputted is almost perfect according to the governance of the languages ​ ​ contained in the machine entry. moreover, we cannot deny the existence of various synonyms which may vary in the category of word entry. however, in the full sentence entry category, the translation machine is also unable to perform proper filtering of terms according to the required context and cannot make corrections. second, machine translation has difficulty localizing language variations. new phrases continue to appear in the various existing dialects. the technological revolution has also contributed to the dissemination of this trend throughout the world. machine translation will not be able to adapt to developments like these as humans do. the machine must always be updated regularly to "learn" new phrases according to the intensity of their occurrence. programming finally has to be carried out continuously using various sophisticated algorithms for a significant period. therefore, machine translation will always be several steps behind the achievements of human progress. third, machine translation is unable to replicate language style and language sentiment. each text transcript has a different purpose of use and target audience. this will also affect the language style and language sentiment used. in connection with this point, legal documents will tend to present archaic diction in a very formal and rigid tone. meanwhile, the opinion essay document will appear more flexible and light. fourth, the results of machine translation need to be re-examined. the user may be threatened with wasted time losing. the user also has the potential to do a re-translation of what the machine translator has produced. issues https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 174 related to grammar require an editing and manual reading process to obtain an equivalent meaning between the source language and the target language according to the context to be presented. fifth, in machine translation results, sometimes the confidentiality principle is lacking or not guaranteed. this is can be dangerous. unpaid translation machines usually do not sign an nda (non-disclosure agreement), which is a kind of integrity pact related to the prohibition on disclosing user information. if we work with documents of a sensitive nature, such as medical documentation, financial reports, and employee and client information, we should always be vigilant when using machine translators. due to the absence of nda guarantees, machine translation is free to explore any data we input and list it as new entries for improved translation quality. this can happen to anyone at any time. the complexities of language development must get our special attention to increase our lingual sensitivity. meanwhile, we must respond to the massive disruption of technology wisely. machine translation technology is a reference facility for us, not a means to rely on to produce a final translation product. therefore, it is best to consult a reliable translator for the translation of important documents. in particular, the field of translation also deals with machine translation to support the performance of translators in analyzing diction used as a language element. in this regard, it should be underlined that the existence of machine translation is an additional facility in the world of translation, not as the main translation tool. of course, because the sophistication of the machine will not be able to match the flexibility of the cognitive ability of the human brain in adjusting the translation results according to the existing context. it is not a taboo thing if we as users end up stuck in the middle of confusion when we try to translate a paragraph using machine translation. even though the translation product has good performance and consistent efforts to update the translation product, of course, there are still shortcomings. perhaps, the major difficulties that mt systems confront are correctly resolving the inherent ambiguity of language in the source text and sufficiently conveying its intended meaning in the target language or translation adequacy in a wellformed and fluent manner or translation fluency (popel et al., 2020). therefore, as a user, it is necessary to reconsider the use of machine translation like this if you want to dig up certain information that requires a translation process. conclusion and suggestion conclusion in particular, the field of translation is also concerned with machine translation to support the performance of translators in analyzing the diction used as an element of language. in this regard, it needs to be underlined that the existence of machine translation is an additional facility in the world of translation, not as the main means of translation because the sophistication of the machine will not be able to match the flexibility of the human brain's cognitive abilities in adjusting the translation results according to the existing context. it is not uncommon for translation users to end up stuck in the middle of confusion when we try to translate a paragraph using online machine translation tools, includes google translate (gt), collin translator (ct), bing translator (bt), yandex translator (yt) and systran translate (st) and ibm translator (it). even though the performance is capable and consistent updating efforts are being made. therefore, we need to reconsider using machine translation like this if we want to dig up certain information that requires a translation process. with all the advantages and efforts of developers, several paid and free machine translators have their respective advantages or advantages, but we as users do not have to believe in the absolute truth of machine translation. suggestion although there are many tips on how to translate english that say that translation must be done by humans, it turns out that quite a lot of services still use the help of translation sites or applications. however, you also have to understand that the robot translator from the site will not be 100% accurate. therefore, it's a good idea to do a combination of translations from the website and also manually. while the site does most of the translation, we must read and understand the resulting english translation. if https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 175 we feel that some words are stuck, or their meaning does not match expectations or even the context, then use inference, generalize the meaning and also conclude the correct meaning. in this way, you can also learn about english and make proper translations. 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(2008). machine translation: its scope and limits. springer science & business media. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 45 redesigning english syllabus of the fourth grade based on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (swot) analysis emilius german semarang state university e-mail:germanemilexcellent@gmail.com abstract the objectives of the present study are to (1) evaluate the current english syllabus of the fourth grade of elementary school by employing the (swot) analysis; 2) redesign current english syllabus based on such analysis; 3) evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed syllabus. the present study applied research and development design which is proposed by borg and gall (1983:775). the model was simplified into six stages: information collecting this was done by using the swot analysis and the strategy of taking the advantages of the opportunities to overcome the weaknesses was adopted to redesign the syllabus, developing preliminary form of product, experts and lecturers validation, product revision, field testing, producing final product. the proposed syllabus was tried out at the forth grade of st. joseph elementary schools. it has been tested in try out session. the result shows the significant achievement. thus, teaching english by using the proposed syllabus for elementary schools students can significantly improve their achievement. key words: teaching english for young learners, syllabus, swot analysis. introduction recently, there has been an issue of erasing english for young learners program. this issue led many opinions which were pro and against it. many people didn’t agree with this topic. the chairman of educational board of denpasar city putu rumawan salain was one of those who were against the issue. he said that it is a decline if english is erased in this global era. the english class is supposed to start at grade four if it is burden for the students. in addition putu said that bali is the world tourism gate, therefore foreign language especially english must be taught in earlier age. responding many public opinions on the issue of erasing the english for young english program, finally musliar kalim declared that english for primary school is not erased in the process of developing new curriculum. "english is not erased. in fact english has not been a compulsory subject since it was firstly taught in elementary school." said musliar to kompas.com, monday (12/11/2012). it indicates that teaching english for young learners is still optional. it remains the same with the previous regulation. however, the different is that the government does not provide the standard competence like the previous curriculum. it 46 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 implies that elementary schools have authority to what and how to provide a good english learning for young learners. pangudi luhur foundation has considered that english is very important for young learners. therefore, the foundation has put english for young learners as local content for years since 2005. today english remains important for elementary schools of pangudi luhur. br. markus sujarwo, fic., a headmaster of st. joseph elementary school of pangudi luhur expressed some reasons why english is still considered important for elementary school. first, english has been a need for the society. therefore, the parents have been strengthening the school to include english in the curriculum. second, the school always provides a better education for the children for their future. it provides some subjects which are considered important for students’ future such english and kepangudiluhuran. third, pangudi luhur foundation agree with critical period hypothesis which says that children between birth and somewhere around the age when a child enters puberty can more easily acquire language than post pubescent children. the foundation has been committed to provide the best quality in education especially for english for young learners program. one of the ways to improve the quality of the teaching is to evaluate the current syllabus applied in teaching young learners. this study aims to evaluate the current ilp ypl syllabus and redesign the syllabus made by english teachers. it begins with some theories of teaching english for young learners, methodology, discussions, findings and ends with a conclusion. children and adult are different in learning. children learn in different ways from adults and therefore require a different teaching style. bruner (1996) as cited in musthafa, proposes a hierarchy of children’s learning modes; enactive which means relying on physical activities, iconic which represents residual mental images resulting from the contacts with material entities and symbolic which comes later by way of symbolic means such as language. it implies that teaching english for young learners should cover physical activities and use many images to make english fun for them. it is in line with piaget’s theory as cited in musthafa (2010). he proposes five points of learning principles of young learners. first, children learn from direct experience and from what they can capture using their senses. second, children learn from handson physical activities such as playing with physical objects or making physical movement and this learning tendency has great implication for instructional design. third, children’s thinking is embedded in here and now context of situation which mean that children can easily understand when the teacher explain things which are closed to them. next, children learn from whole to partsholisticallyusing scripts. lastly, children have short attention span. they language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 47 can hold their attention for about 15 to 20 minutes only. this short attention span has a great implication for teaching procedures to avoid boredom on the classroom. young learners mostly do like what babies acquire their mother tongue. they say what they hear others saying and pick up the accent of those around them. in this case, english teachers are similar to mother in many ways. firstly, both mother and teacher talk a lot more than the children do. secondly, they provide a secure and supportive environment which gives the children confidence to try out language. consequently, the english teacher are supposed to speak a lot in the class to provide as many words, phrases and sentences for young learners to be heard, practiced, used for communication. in addition, the teachers are supposed to create a good class atmosphere to encourage students to use the language to communicate. furthermore, activities conducted in the classroom should be in line with the literacy level, learning theories for young learners and the goal of teaching english for primary school. the following are the activities which are regarded suitable based on literacy level, learning theories and the goal of teaching english for young learners. in the first and second language acquisition, listening is the first skill to learn and in order to foster students’ understanding on what they hear, teachers should provide a variety of fun activities for listening. suyanto (2008:23-24) proposed some activities for listening. 1). “listen and imitate” 2) “listen and repeat” 3) “listen and follow instruction” 4) “listen and match”. in addition, slattery and wilhelm (2001: 23-28 in suyanto 2008) proposes others activities such as “listen and color”, “listen and draw”, listen and make”. speaking is the second stages of acquiring a language after listening. in the context of learning foreign language, speaking lesson is a kind of bridge for learners between classroom and the world outside. furthermore he says to build the bridge, speaking activities must have three features. they must give the learners practice opportunities for purposeful communication in meaningful situation. as the result, teachers are supposed to provide activities which give possibilities for students to practice opportunities for purposeful communication in meaningful situation. speaking activities include 1) “listing”. 2) “ordering and sorting”. 3) “matching”. 4) “comparing”. 5) “predicting and problem solving” 6). “sharing personal experience”. 7) “creative work”. besides, suyanto (2008:23-24) presents some activities for speaking such as “short dialogue”, “questions and answer”, “games”, “ role play”, and “ retelling story”. teaching english as a foreign language especially reading skill for elementary school students are challenging in term of how to make the students fond of reading. suyanto (2008:25-26) proposed three things that 48 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 make activities for reading interesting for students. they are 1). using picture as tools to help students’ understanding, 2). giving titles and ask students to guess, 3).providing short sentences. those three points need to consider when we teach reading in order to avoid boring situation in the class. in addition, other activities such as “matching words/phrases with pictures” , “labeling pictures or objects”, “ rearrange jumbled letters to make a word”, “classifying words into sets”, “ ordering sentences in the correct sequences”, and “ guessing the missing word”. writing is a process, from gathering ideas through to checking what has been written. it is also a product. in terms of foreign language learning, they say that writing gives learners the opportunity to find ways of expressing their ideas in a foreign language. in order to create a good opportunity, teachers are supposed to provide activities for writing skills which can help students express their ideas. suyanto (2008:26-27) classify the activities for writing into 2 categories. they are “copy/ write word, sentences or short text”, and “write that demand students’ creativity”. for elementary students the first category is very possible to be applied in the context of foreign language learning. here are the lists of the activities. 1). copy/write from memory the word or phrase that matches the picture. 2).write a label, 3).finish the word st4). write the names of the people in the story, 5). write the story in the write order, 6). copy the phrase/sentences to complete the dialogues. the activities for four skills above are possible to be applied in elementary school level but still teachers are supposed to be able to adjust to suit their particular school environment. a school based curriculum is an operational curriculum which is developed by each school and implemented in that school (depdiknas, 2006). according to the government regulation number 20 year 2006 article 36, a school teachers and school committee develop a school based curriculum and a syllabus based on the curriculum frame work and graduate’s standard of content. devi p. k (1993: 5-6) defines syllabus as the answers of these following problems; 1), the competence that should be learned by students, 2). the material that should be learned, 3). how the teaching-learning process should be, 4) the indicator formulation to reach the content standard, 5) how to know student’s understanding based on the indicator and, 6) time allocation needed to reached certain standard, 7) learning source needed to reach content standard. in conclusion, schoolbased curriculum means that both central and local governments have responsibility in managing education. this can be seen in the process of how a school should set up the curriculum. it has to be developed from standard of content by teachers based on school’s context and potential. syllabus in language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 49 this curriculum is considered as the plan of learning process which comprises eight components; standard competence, basic competence, learning materials, learning activities, assessment, time allocation and resources. thus, a good syllabus is the one which derived from the content standard and which is designed in the form of eight components mentioned above. swot analysis rangkuti (1998: 18) defines analysis swot as a process of identifying many factors systematically to formulate company’s strategy. it was originally developed for business and industry, but it is equally useful in the work of community health and development, education, and even personal growth (http://eclkc.ohs). it is in line with an assumptionthat swot analysis has to identify company’s distinctive competence; certain skills and companies’ resources and strategic ways that they apply. thus the objectives of the swot analysis is to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of organizations or companies in terms of their skills, resources, and strategic ways they apply. one of goals of this study is to identify the weaknesses and the strengths of the current syllabus of first semester and to recognize the opportunities and the threat of the syllabus that has been applied at st. josep elementary school. to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the syllabus, the researcher applies interview and questionnaire instruments. weihrich as cited in hunger and wheelen (1996:231) suggests a tool to reach the objectives of this analysis as it is shown in the following table. table 1 swot strategy formulation internal factors external factors strengths (s) number of internal strengths weaknesses (w) number of internal weakness opportunities(o) the number of opportunities strategy of so strategies to employ the strength to take the advantage of the opportunities strategy of wo strategies to take the advantages of the opportunities to overcome the weaknesses threat (t) the number of threat strategy of st strategies to employ the strengths to ovoid the threat strategy of wt strategies to minimize the weaknesses and to avoid the threat. methodology this study utilizes research and development approach as pointed by borg and gall (1983:772). the study has ten steps to follow but the researcher simplified into six steps. they were 1). 50 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 school need analysis in which swot analysis was employed to evaluate the current syllabus of st. joseph elementary school of pangudi luhur, 2) developing preliminary form of product in which the current syllabus was redesigned based on the result of swot analysis, 3) validation in which experts and practitioners were involved to evaluate the revised syllabus, 4) product revision in which the product was revised based on the validation result, 5) main field testing in which the product was tested, 6) producing final product in which the product was produced and proposed to the school. results and discussion results table 2. information about the result of swot analysis. internal factors external factors strength 1. combination of government and ilp curriculum 2. the availability of education characters 3. help teachers to prepare the lesson 4. the materials are in a good order 5. the competent english teachers 6. the competent outputs for national standard school. weakness 1. the absence of integrated skills 2. written in indonesian. 3. not fun learning activities 4. lack of using classroom language in the class. 5. teacher’s inconsistency in using english at schools. opportunities 1. more application of communicative approach. 2. all students are active to communicate in english well 3. stakeholders will be more satisfied 4. more students are competent in english competition 5. big possibilities for students to be accepted at favorite junior high schools. strategy of so upgrade the teachers knowledge about government and ilp curriculum which is based on communicative approach to enable them create and apply an integrated english syllabus to meet the goal of teaching english. strategy of wo redesign the current syllabus into an integrated syllabus with fun and various activities in english increase the use of classroom language. be consistent in using english at school area. language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 51 threat 1. the absence of content standard in new government curriculum 2. not all parents can communicate in english. 3. students from international schools are more competent in using english. strategy of st create an extra english program to provide more financial support for english teachers and to accommodate students who are interested in english such as creating english conversation club, drama club, and english day. strategy of wt start to apply classroom language in every single english class. start to consistently use english all the time at school(for teacher as model) provide a communication media for teachers and parents to communicate. the matrix above gives clear information to the researcher about how the syllabus is redesigned. the strategy of taking the advantages of the opportunities to overcome the weaknesses was adopted to redesign the syllabus. thus, the current syllabus was redesigned by these steps; 1). transferring the language into english, 2) integrating the skills; listening, speaking, reading and writing which is in line with the feature of the communicative approach.3). providing the various and fun learning activities. 4) supplying the classroom languages to increase the use of english in classroom. the syllabus was then redesigned and the result of redesigning process was “integrated syllabus with fun activities”. the proposed syllabus was tested in the try out session at st. joseph elementary school to know the effectiveness of the product. it began with the pre test to know the students’ condition before treatment. the treatments were conducted in five meetings. another test which is called post test was administered after the treatments. then the result of the pre and post test were analyzed and computed to know the students achievement before and after treatment. the formula of paired sample ttest using spss 13.00 for windows program was employed. in order to know whether ho hypothesis is accepted which means there is no difference between the posttest and pretest average scores before and after treatment or whether ha hypothesis is accepted which means there is a difference between the posttest and pretest average scores before and after treatment, the researcher utilized the criteria that ho is accepted if the -t table ≤ t test≤ t table and ho is rejected if -t test < t table or t test > t table. 52 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 table 3. paired samples test paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviatio n std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 before treatment after treatment -18.263 14.173 3.251 -25.094 -11.432 -5.617 18 .000 the output shows t test = -5.617. the distribution of t table was found on x (significant level) = 5%: 2= 2. 5% (paired samples test) with 18 degree of freedom (df) n-1 or 19-1= 18. with paired samples test (significance 0.025) it is found that the t table is 2.101. thus, the score of – t test < t table (-5.617<-2.101). since the –t test < -t table (-5,617<2.101), ho is rejected. it means that there is a difference between the posttest and pretest average scores before and after treatment. the table of paired samples statistics provides information about the mean before and after the product was tested. the mean before the integrated english syllabus with fun activities was tested was 72.63 and it went up to 90.89 after it was tested. it shows that the implementation of the integrated english syllabus with fun activities for elementary schools students can significantly improve their achievement. discussion the current syllabus of st. josep elementary schools has some weaknesses. those weaknesses influence the students’ achievement. the result of pretest shows that the mean was 72.63. meanwhile teaching english using the alternative syllabus shows the better result than teaching english using the current syllabus. this can be proved by test using t test. the hypothesis test shows that the score of – t test < t table (-5.617<-2.101) which means that ho is rejected. it means that there is a difference between the posttest and pretest average scores before and after treatment. thus, teaching english using the integrated english syllabus with fun activities for elementary schools students can improve their achievement. conclusion number of negative points of the current syllabus caused by internal factors such as the absence of integrated skills and fun learning activities did not significantly improve the students’ achievement. those negative points above were then the basic reasons why the current syllabus needs to language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 53 be redesigned. the process of redesigning syllabus involved five steps; developing preliminary form of product, validation, first product revision, main field testing, and second product revision and producing final product which is called integrated english syllabus for forth grade of elementary school. after the product was implemented, it is found out that teaching english using the integrated english syllabus for elementary schools students can significantly improve their achievement. the final product, “integrated syllabus with fun activities” provides clear information of what to teach, how to teach and how to evaluate the students of forth grade of elementary school. moreover, it provides many fun activities from some resources. however, the teachers are suggested to take them as the references and adapt them based on the students’ need and condition. the next suggestion is to maximize strength points of the previous syllabus. the teachers should upgrade their knowledge about government and ilp curriculum and to consistently use classroom language in every single english class. references borg, w& gall, j. (1983).educational research: an introduction, longman inc new york and london. depdiknas. 2006. kurikulum 2006 standark kompetensi mata pelajaran. jakarta: depdiknas devi p. k dkk. 2009. pengembangan perangkat pembelajaran; pusat pengembangan dan pemberdayaan pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan ilmu pengetahuan alam untuk program bermut; bandung. dewan pendidikan; tinjau penghapusan bahasa inggris: article http://edukasi. kompas.com/read/2012/11/23/222106 35/dewan.pendidikan.tinjau.penghap usan.bahasa.inggris http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ttasystem/ operations/mgmt-admin/planning /planning/2swotanalysiss.htm musthafa b. 2010. teaching english to young learners in indonesia: essensial requirements. journal vol. iv no 2 juli 2010. available on http://file.upi.edu/direktori/ jurnal/ educationist/vol._iv_no._2juli_2010/07_bachrudin_musthafa.pdf accesed on 1 april 2013 rangkuti, f. 2000. analisis swot: teknik membedah kasus bisnis. pt. gramedia pustaka utama: jakarta suyanto, kasihani, e. 2004. pengajaran bahasa inggris di sekolah dasar; kebijakan, implementasi, dan kenyataan( teaching english at elementary school: policy implementation, and reality). the inaugural speech. http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ttasystem/%20operations/mgmt-admin/planning http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ttasystem/%20operations/mgmt-admin/planning http://file.upi.edu/direktori/%20jurnal/%20educationist/vol._iv_no._2-juli_2010/07_bachrudin_musthafa.pdf http://file.upi.edu/direktori/%20jurnal/%20educationist/vol._iv_no._2-juli_2010/07_bachrudin_musthafa.pdf http://file.upi.edu/direktori/%20jurnal/%20educationist/vol._iv_no._2-juli_2010/07_bachrudin_musthafa.pdf http://file.upi.edu/direktori/%20jurnal/%20educationist/vol._iv_no._2-juli_2010/07_bachrudin_musthafa.pdf 54 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/1 october 2013 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfea9dd9d210bf • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １２９ １２９ multimodality reflected in efl teaching materials: indonesian efl in-service teacher’s multimodality literacy perception novia trisanti1 novia.trisanti76@upi.edu didi suherdi2 suherdi_d@upi.edu didi sukyadi3 dsukyadi@upi.edu 1,2,3faculty of language and literature education, upi, bandung, indonesia abstract the digital age, which has impacted efl teaching and learning in indonesia, has compelled educators to uphold higher instruction standards. multimodality is currently an updated topic in relation to digital media in efl learning. this study intends to examine the effects of indonesian efl teachers' multimodality perceptions in the teaching materials. it clarifies how efl teachers in secondary schools use multimodal literacy practices for their students to develop learner’s critical thinking and creativity. a mixed method with an explanatory sequential design was employed, with quantitative data analysis serving as the primary source of support for the results of the qualitative analysis. this study included 38 efl in-service teachers in indonesia. open and close-ended questionnaires with score measurements as well as interviews regarding the multimodal structure expression, content, and preference were used to gather the data. the findings of the participants’ multimodal literacy reveal a respectable mean score of 71.4 and standard deviation of 11. the questionnaire analysis results indicate that utilizing elements of visual (real images), auditory, and written elements is helpful in explaining the teaching and learning materials to the learners and can ensure that they have a thorough understanding of the materials using multimodal expression, content and preference. overall, this shows that indonesian efl in-service teachers have shown adaptability in implementing multimodal literacy in their instructional materials, and they are conscious of switching from traditional to digital mode. as a result, more research is required to investigate the multimodal literacy practices used by efl teachers in indonesia. keywords: multimodality, efl teaching and learning materials, multimodal literacy introduction nowadays, many educational professionals concerned about the effects of the constantly changing communication and technological paradigm on the teaching and learning process (bowman, et.al., 2020; martins, 2014). multimedia teaching and learning have been so advanced that individuals and teachers’ educators use their efforts to provide learners with digital materials (mcclure & pilgrim, 2021; bowman, et.al, 2020). consequently, the rapid of improving skills on technology has been widely improved by all ages of society (mcknight, et.al., 2016). this means that in addition to written and spoken communication, interactions between individuals also involve symbols, images, emoticons, and other digital media platforms. efl teachers are expected to use their imagination when combining different modalities to use language learning media, including in indonesia. the term "multimodal" can be taken into consideration in this situation because it http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:dsukyadi@upi.edu language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３０ １３０ refers to the idea that learning occurs when many modes are used when studying (kress: 2016). regarding this, many students use a range of semiotic resources and modes to generate meaning in their daily lives, despite the fact that computers and new media are becoming more and more significant in people's lives. their literacy activities are consequently becoming more multimodal. (kress and leeuwen, 1996 as cited by yi, 2014). multimodality plays a role in understanding how different semiotic resources, such as verbal, visual, auditory, and spatial ones, are used in communication when learning the target language (camiciottoli & gomez, 2015; choi & yi, 2015). the outcomes when employed in efl classes might be very variable. efl students may be well-planned to connect words (or text) together in the today's and tomorrow's digitally context mediated and various forms of communication (towndrow, nelson, and yusuf, 2013). in addition to verbal and written instruction, sukyadi, hermawan, and dallyono (2016) found that efl teachers in indonesia also use body language and visual cues. the presumption gives rise to the idea that multimodality is addressed in the efl teaching and learning process. since communication demands prudent attention to a range of meanings, whether they are represented by spoken or written words, visual, images, gestures, posture, movement, sound, or silence, language and literacy practices have actually always been multimodal. (mills & unsworth, 2017). subsequently, lim and tan (2018) developed multimodal literacy through teaching the critical viewing of films with the setting was in singapore. they valued high the multimodal approach and instructional content in the efl teaching and learning. the knowledge, experiences, and interests of students should be the foundation of all classroom activities. planning and producing multimodality requires incorporating students' understanding of narrative characterization and structure gained via visual modes, such as movies, videos, and picture books (jewitt, 2008). multimodal literacy is the level of literacy required to comprehend knowledge presentation variation and meaning-making modes that involve two or more communication channels (jewitt, 2008). the process of understanding information by using digital texts and multimedia to view and portray it is referred to as multimodal literacy walsh (2010). one can derive meaning from multimedia and digital texts through reading, watching, comprehending, responding to, producing, and engaging with them. on the one hand, o'haloran & fei (2011) claim that multimodal literacy is about literacy as design that examines the role of diverse semiotic resources disseminated together through numerous modalities, including aural and visual, as well as their integration and interaction in creating a coherent text. the term "multimodal literacy" in a pedagogical context, according to lim, et.al., 2022), refers to two components that need to be carefully considered throughout the teaching and learning process. first, there are issues with the multimodal texts that are frequently communicated through digital media being widely available. second, in order to design engaging lesson experiences, teachers must understand how to include a semiotic repertoire into their pedagogic activities. classroom teaching and learning practices are intrinsically multimodal. considering efl instruction in indonesia, coping with the demands of teachers’ technology literacy improvement, many web and media are advanced and provided to the education field. the use of varied modes in the instruction can be considered as the term multimodality for teaching and learning. it is in line with the study conducted by ryan, scott and walsh (2010) who mention that many current classrooms utilize texts range and new resources, for example the internet, digital programs, and mobile technology, many of which learners have been familiar with those than their teachers. a study conducted by lee (2014) looked into the effects of a multimodal approach that incorporates the arts. the findings indicated that the advance of multimodal-integrated learning gives impacts to the students' stimulus and confidence as evidenced by the learners' writing assignments, their digital stories, their reflective survey responses, and informal conversations http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３１ １３１ with the two pupils documented in the teacher journal. oldakowski (2014) examined the use of multimodal assignments and discovered that doing so not only helped students show what they were thinking, but also helped them make better decisions and have deeper understandings of the material's content. according to eksi and yakisik (2015), multimodal texts encourage students to employ their cognitive abilities and boost their creativity, focus, participation, and output. the use of multimodal texts in language skill courses alters not just the delivery of instruction, assessment, and course participation but also the responsibilities of instructors and students (walsh, 2010). although there are many spreading hardware of multimedia, the teachers themselves that should enrich the perspective or knowledge of multimodal in their teaching experience. by investigating multimodality represented in the materials of teaching and learning process, it would be necessary to know the efl teachers’ literacy of using multimodal in developing the instructional materials. multimodal literacy would also give impacts on the efl assessment when the teachers apprehend and pertain it in the teaching and learning. in this digital era, of course, the demands of multiliteracy to the texts are increasing (walsh, 2010). research on how efl teachers perceive when they prepare and create instructional materials by incorporating multimodality has not been further investigated from the aforementioned earlier studies. therefore, the focus of the current study is on the efl teacher’s multimodality perception concept in the teaching and learning of english as a foreign language (efl), which can be represented in instructional materials that include exercises, tasks, and practice for students when the teaching and learning process is carried out both in-person and online classes. thus, to get ready with multimodal literacy situation in efl teaching and learning context, there is a research question that is raised in this current study. the question concerns on the perception of efl in-service teachers in indonesia. it is “how are the teachers’ perception on the multimodal literacy practices in their teaching materials, in terms of multimodal structure expression, content and preference in efl classroom?” therefore, the current study's objective is to ascertain how efl in-service instructors perceive multimodal efl teaching and learning materials. it also describes how efl teachers in secondary schools use multimodal literacy in their teaching materials to help students develop their critical thinking and creative thinking skills. methodology the research method used in this study was mixed method in which quantitative paradigm was used to measure the data using close-ended questionnaire. the analysis of closed-ended questionnaire then was used to support the analysis of open-ended questionnaire and interview as the qualitative results. the results were related to multimodal literacy applied in the instructional materials, and the participants’ work on their designing efl learner’s worksheet. research design the design used in this study was mixed method using explanatory sequential design which means that the qualitative data analysis result is the central purpose of this study. in order to better comprehend a research problem, cresswell (2012) claims that a mixed method research design is a process for gathering, analyzing, and combining both quantitative and qualitative research and method in a single study. analyses of quantitative and qualitative data were both used to describe the multimodal literacy used in the participants' teaching materials. the statistics descriptive analysis was used in quantitative method using mean scores and standard deviation and to what extent the efl teachers/ participants agreed with the items were found. the items were related to the effect of multimodal literacy to their materials given to the learners in instructional process. then, qualitative data analysis was interpreted based on the evidence of the open-ended questionnaire and interview analysis and the framework of multimodal practices from jewitt (2008), walsh (2010) and lim, et.al (2022). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３２ １３２ data sources participants in this study were efl in-service teachers from some indonesian provinces, which is relevant to the data sources. they are west sulawesi, kalimantan, central java, and east java. the majority of the data, however, came from central java's efl in-service teachers. the authors focused more on multimodal literacy integrated in teaching materials and how participants used it than they did on any one province. the questionnaire shared to the participants was answered during online learning in 2020. the number of the participants were 38 efl in-service teachers who teach in junior high and senior high schools. there are 22 efl teachers of junior high schools, and 16 efl teachers of senior high schools. all the participants answered the closeended questionnaire using scale measurement, and it was analyzed using mean and sd. also, they responded on the open-ended questionnaire and interview as the qualitative data to be analyzed. data collection closed-ended questionnaire was used to gather quantitative data. meanwhile, interviews and open-ended questionnaire were used to collect the qualitative data. additionally, the authors created a rubric to analyze the questionnaire. the participants completed the questionnaires and the interview utilizing google form and zoom meeting because the study was carried out during the covid 19 epidemic in 2020. the questionnaire was in the scope of multimodal literacy that can be applied in the teaching and learning materials. they are (1) multimodal structure expression in the teaching and learning materials, (2) content in multimodal structure in the teaching and learning materials, and (3) multimodal structure preference. those three subtitles then are classified again into some items related to the aspects of multimodal implementation. data analysis the quantitative data analysis was done by using mean and sd measurement. the qualitative data analysis was done from the participants’ responses on the google form open-ended questionnaire and online interview. the frameworks used to analyze the qualitative data were modified from jewitt (2008), walsh (2010), and lim, et.al (2022). the aspects of multimodal literacy represented in the instructional materials comprised of multimodal structure expression, multimodal structure content, and multimodal preferences. result and discussion the findings were resulted from the two paradigms, those were quantitative and qualitative methods since the study used mixed method. the quantitative analysis of initial result is available. descriptive statistics were utilized in the study of the quantitative data in order to obtain the evidence of numerical outcomes connected to the integration of multimodal literacy in the teaching and learning materials. quantitative analysis result of openended questionnaire the mean and standard deviation as the quantitative analysis results show the relation of the multimodal literacy aspects implemented in the efl teaching and learning materials. thus, the following is the measurement result of mean and standard deviation (sd) in the table 1. table 1. statistics measurement of efl teacher’s multimodal literacy. according to table 1, indonesian efl in-service teachers completed multimodal literacy practices n min max mean std. deviation multimodal literacy 38 50.00 90.00 71.4474 11.61941 valid n (listwise) 38 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３３ １３３ in their teaching materials on average of 71.4. the scores were distributed as expected. the minimum and highest scores were 50 and 90 respectively. it shows that efl in-service teacher have decent multimodal literacy on exhibit in their teaching materials. the participants in this study had effectively included advantageous multimodality elements into their designs. the design element were varied, such visual, auditory and written elements. the majority of the participants from the junior high school required more improvement to switch from traditional teaching to multimodal methods, according to some of the data. table 2. detailed statistics result of multimodal literacy according to table 2, the mean is 71.44 and the median score is 70, which is a respectable performance. overall, it is thought that efl inservice teachers must be aware that simply using loose materials is insufficient in the digital era of learning and must be utilized in combination to other resources, even though the mean suggests that the score might be judged appropriate for acquiring multimodal literacy implementation. to discover more about the effects of multimodal literacy implementation in teaching materials done by efl in-service teachers in indonesia. the following qualitative data analysis results provide a percentage breakdown and descriptive discussion of the aspects of multimodal literacy that have been incorporated into the teaching and learning materials as well as the learner's worksheet. results of open-ended questionnaire and interview the following is the results of analysis on openended questionnaire. the questions answered by efl in-service teachers were three questions with the topics of (1) multimodal structure expression, (2) multimodal structure content, and (3) multimodal structure preference. all comprise of some aspects related to the designs elements of multimodality integrated in the instructional materials. table 3. analysis result on the question of the multimodal structure expression multimodal literacy n valid 38 missing 0 mean 71.4474 median 70.0000 std. deviation 11.61941 range 40.00 minimum 50.00 maximum 90.00 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３４ １３４ regarding the multimodal structure expression given by the participants, it shows that they have discerning perspective of the multimodal design elements. it is supported by the fact that the participants share a common trait in that they have been teachers for a number of years and have completed a credential program for teacher development in central java, indonesia. as a result, some of the findings are reliable or have helped to advance the application of multimodal literacy practices in the teaching materials. the information in table 3 above demonstrates how efl teachers view on multimodal implementation in terms of structure expression embedded in teaching and learning materials in their classroom and online learning environments. the term "multimodality" has an impact on how they use digital media, which is mirrored in the teaching and learning materials. regarding the multimodal structural expression's features of multimodal literacy, 82% of all respondents said that the impacts primarily relate to creating and utilizing interactive media, such as online video or film that has been obtained from youtube. the fact that efl in-service teachers in this survey said that they must truly prepare before adopting interactive media is not at all surprising. they are already aware of the importance of properly preparing digital media for their students. they responded that the video interactive for their media and material make multimodality pedagogy more challenging. the second highest percentage element is on the media of using pictures, sound and writing texts which they consider important in applying multimodality in the instructional materials. it is 41% with 16 respondents. they highlighted that efl instructors hardly ever use powerpoint alone in the classroom or for online instruction. students are more at ease when instructors use video to present and communicate knowledge to them. in addition to the visual, audio, and written elements, they think the video they are using also contains a distinct speech aspect. it makes sense to include written, audiovisual, and graphic components in digital media. meanwhile, adding music and picture in the texts was point to be considered essential for the participants. in organizing the teacher’s thought, few of them mentioned that gestures were needed when explaining some confronted meanings to the learners, or specific terms in a text. however, they noted that textual content in a lengthy text should be present in the teaching materials since students need to examine the text content to develop their critical thinking skills, even though sound and pictures were thought to be important in aiding the learner's understanding. in addition to the findings of the multimodal structure, the following describes how indonesian efl in-service secondary school teachers in this current study perceive the multimodal structure content of the teaching material. table 4. analysis result od multimodal structure content questions the table 4 above shows that mostly efl inservice teachers decide to use visual, auditory and written elements in understanding the varied texts, it is more than half of respondents, they are 29 persons, it is 74.4%. it relates to the high multimodal design elements integrated in teaching materials during their instructional process. so far, they have already been unconscious that they actually have implemented respectable multimodal media in teaching using various modes especially in listening and speaking. while the second one is 43.6 which is the sub aspect of the way of efl in-service teachers relate the various visual and verbal information in http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３５ １３５ explaining texts. one point that should be noted that the efl teachers need to consider the various resources as the accurate ones or not. they have to adapt well the resources that they adopt in the materials of worksheet. there is one finding that needs to be paid attention on, that is using body language is such a thing that efl secondary school in-service teachers do not prefer to do when explaining the materials content they deliver. while, if it is concerned with, they also have to consider that multimodal implementation can also use real humans as the digital media given to the learners in the video shown in lcd in the classroom or video during online learning. as what already mentioned that the study also has purpose to investigate the efl teachers’ preference of using multimodality implemented in instructional materials, the following is the third aspect of the multimodal structure preference. figure 2. analysis result of multimodal structure preference on the basis of the results in figure 2 above. the outcomes are interesting to see. by using video to transmit the materials, multimodality can be used to enhance teaching and learning. the video that the efl in-service teachers used were mostly contained visual (moving picture/ real humans), music or audio, and verbal text (41%) following the visual dan auditory. the second favorite of using multimedia to express the multimodal structure preference was power point which contained of interactive visual and auditory (28.2%). discussion of teacher’s perception on multimodality reflected in the teaching materials related to the aspects to be considered by efl inservice teachers in having multimodality in teaching materials and its effects to the implementation in the teaching and learning process, there are three aspects to be discussed in this part. they are multimodal structure expression, content, and multimodal preference. the following is the table of teacher’s responses regarding the three aspects of multimodality used in the teaching materials design in instructional process by efl in-service secondary school teachers as the participants in this current study: table 5. aspects of multimodality applied in efl instructional materials aspect implementation aspects multimodal structure expression adding music and pictures in power point adding pictures in explaining texts (based on genre) preparing and using interactive media, for example video and interactive tasks organizing thought using systematically outline and tables on the board using pictures, sound, and writing text exist together explicitly in media. content in multimodal structure visual, auditory, and written elements are all necessary in explaining the materials relate various visual and verbal information in explaining texts using body language when explaining the materials (in speaking) http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３６ １３６ gesture is somehow beneficial in learner’s text comprehension of specific terms interpreting information from various resources able to decide the information in the media (newspaper, tv, you tube or other media) is true or not. multimodal structure preference video which contains images and verbal/ spoken text to be listened video which contains real visual, music/ audio, and verbal text power point with interactive visual and auditory using the power of verbal expression in explaining loose copied materials contains images and written elements in this study, it is crucial to look into those three aspects of efl in-service teachers' multimodal literacy practices because they may have impacts on how multimodality which is incorporated into efl teaching and learning materials to their lesson plan, classroom administration, time management, and students. it was clarified from the participants' responses that they had a sufficient understanding of multimodality. the reasons were varied, but it was found that the participants used various semiotic resources in preparing their teaching materials. from the aspect of multimodal structure expression, the participants chose the sub aspects mostly on preparing and using interactive media, for example video and interactive tasks. however, there are some aspects which were not chosen by the participants since they had reasons of limited access if they wanted to download the authentic materials like video and interactive web from the internet. so, the limited access is also one of the reasons in the result of interviewing the participants. the second aspect is about content in multimodal structure, the participants mostly believe that visual, auditory and written elements are beneficial in explaining the materials. the third aspect is multimodal structure preference applied by efl teachers, they mentioned and chose the videos which contained real visual, music and verbal text would give advantageous situation in delivering the teaching and learning materials. the responses related to consequences of using multimodality were varied and, surprisingly, they had a perception that transitioning from the traditional to multimodal using technology gave them a challenging mood. this was based on the findings of the quantitative and qualitative data analysis results, added by the interview result and asking the participants to give examples of what they had designed. according to the results of the interview, the participants said that when multimodality is used in the teaching and learning process in the classroom, the media that they should prepare and use in their teaching is interactive media or task, then they prefer to use video and it definitely contains real visual, auditory, and written texts that follow the story in the video. additionally, they think that in order to effectively teach the information, the elements of textual, auditory, and visual components are all required. they believe that seeing such video content will help students focus better. they said that for more thorough comprehension of the readings, their students must listen intently while viewing. it supports the perspective that using video gives effective time to learners to potentially more comprehension of the texts provided. another aspect is regarding print or authentic materials. they prefer using loose materials with the visual and written contents on those materials instead when there is limited access to downloading the movie. the power of visual and written would help their students to get more engaging with the content and context of the text. it is evident that accessing downloadable media, such as videos from free websites like youtube, is a challenge for efl in-service teachers in indonesia when facing with the internet connection and various addresses of http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １３７ １３７ websites. however, preparing the visual and written loose materials to their instructional process is kind of encounter when facing with the teacher’s time management and content knowledge. the following example of loosematerials on a learner's worksheet created by one of the participants used both written and visual elements that were shared to the learners. figure 2. example of learner’s worksheet designed by the participant in the study the respondent was already aware that using worksheets with multimodality in the exercises could assist students in providing thorough responses by utilizing both written and visual components. the interview findings and the participantsubmitted examples have demonstrated how communication media have been modified and arranged by culture into a variety of meaningmaking systems. for example, the medium of sounds has been included into speech as a linguistic mode. then, the movement of the body has been articulated into a variety of modes to express a range of meanings. the picture has been associated with the written element into a comprehensive meaning-making of the learners. conclussion there are two main points that may be drawn from the results. the first is the results of the participants data analysis have showed that the mean score is 71 and the sd is 11, indicating that the multimodal literacy of the participants is respectable. the second one is the multimodal literacy practices in terms of multimodal structure expression, content and preference attained by the efl in-service teachers. it can be summarized that the efl in-service secondary school teachers picked interactive media, either video and online worksheet as the expression of using multimodality in teaching materials. it is in contrast to the multimodal structure content, the participants chose visual, auditory and written elements to design teaching materials. meanwhile, power point is also one of the participant’s preference instead of video as the multimodal structure in the teaching materials. although some of them note that there has to be more access to online resources for downloading media when they cannot design themselves, they have already been effective at using multimedia. alongside the teaching and learning resources that they have designed; the impact of multimodality literacy is comparatively balanced. the learner’s worksheet materials by having the multimodality that the participants designed have shown that the use of images and written elements in the worksheet has shaped the meaning-making systems and improve the efl learners’ comprehensive retention on the language to be taught in the classroom. also, the efl in-service teachers in indonesia have responded that the inclusion of visual, aural, verbal, or written elements after the text is helpful in the manner when they explain the teaching materials and aid the learners in text understanding. references bowman, m.a., et.al. 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(2014). possibilities and challenges of multimodal literacy practices in teaching and learning english as an additional language. lang. linguist. compass. 8, 158169. https:/doi.org/10.111/inc3.1276possibilities http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal lof language and literature x/2 (april 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________ 201 sufi poem “johnny cash goes to hell”: the universal of morals taufiqurrohman ufiq1289@gmail.com islamic university of nahdlatul ulama` (unisnu) jepara received: 1 october 2015. revised: 1 february 2016. accepted: 10 march 2016 abstract this research is aimed at finding the theme of a unique sufi poem expressed by tiel aisha ansari entitled ―johnny cash goes to hell‖. the analysis used is riffaterre‘s semiotic theory. the theory uses two stages of signification. the first finds lexical meaning that is called heuristic reading. it functions as the footstep for the next signification. the next one explores second meaning that is called hermeneutic reading. this signification consists of four steps: hypogram actual, hypogram potential, model and matrix. the result of research says that this poem uses character johnny cash and st. peter as the signified. the dialogue was used by tiel to share johnny‘s thought. johnny, the icon for sufis, was considerate with what people had suffered from. the hypogram potential says that a sufi sacrifices his comfort just for making people who are trapped by wrongness can go back to expedience. the model makes the distribution of meanings to be two, namely morals and universalism. the morals, especially considerate, can be universal. it can go across religions. this can be proved from the using of inter-religion symbols in the poem. that‘s why ―the universal of morals‖ is the theme can be got here. keywords: unique poem, riffaterre‘s semiotics, universal, morals. how to cite: taufiqurrohman. 2016. sufi poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖: the universal morals. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2. introduction one of poem genres in the timeline of literature is sufi poem. sufi poem is one of poems written by a sufi 2 . this definition is indirectly stated by schimmel as has been quoted by hadi (1985:vii) that the harmony between one poet‘s experience and his works must be the standard for the existence 2 in book ―the elements of sufism‖ (1993:3), shaykh fadhlalla haeri said that a sufi is a moslem who always purifies his heart, protects it from anything can makes it dirty until achieving one point of harmony between a servant and his creator. of a poem. wachid (2002:179) also gave an understanding that if a poet never does what he has written in his poem, this kind of sufi poem has to be asked its truth. based on those two definitions, it can be concluded that the main point of sufi poems is in ―experience‖. thus, what is called sufi poem is a poem that is written by a real sufi who has experience in sufism. there are many sufi poets worldwide who are recorded in the timeline of history. for instance in classic era, schimmel (2011: 274 and 325) gave the examples of two most popular sufi poets, they are ibn al-farid (1181-1235 a.d) as the mystical poet and mailto:ufiq1289@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 202 jalaluddin rumi (1207-1273 a.d) as the musical poet. meanwhile, in this contemporary era, if indonesia has musthofa bisri (born in 1944) and emha ainun najib (born in 1953) 3 , so america has danielle abdal hayy moore (born in 1940) and tiel aisha ansari (born in 1964). in a scientific speech on june 6 th 2006 reported in internet (http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.as p?parentid=47288), kevin matthews, a senior american writer, said that moore is the contemporary american sufi who is most productive in writing sufi poems. on tiel aisha ansari, moore appraised her as a woman sufi talented poet with china-afro-indian descendant 4 . this appraisal is proved from her book in 2008 ―knocking from inside‖ and in 2012 ―highvoltage lines‖ and her four poem e-books year 2011, namely ―ideas in abundance; the madness of richard madoc‖, ―killing time‖, ―47 haiku‖ and ―illuminations from inside‖. there is a uniqueness in her book ―knocking from inside‖. there is one title, ―johnny cash goes to hell‖, that looked strange in its readers‘ assumption. the title uses one blues musician johnny cash and combined with ―hell‖ which seems unique due to its term of ―hereafter‖. additionally, this is a sufi poem that of course is written by a moslem. yet, tiel used st. peter, as one popular profile in catholic, as one of his main characters in her poem. 3 this information can be seen in abdul wachid b.s‘ book religiositas alam (dari surealisme ke spiritualisme d. zawawi imron) year 2002 page 181. 4 http://www.famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/tiel_ai sha_ansari/poems/22914 then the case above emerges to be one thing needs to be answered as the root cause. the root cause can be found by determining the substantial idea that constructs the poem. in ―a hand book to literature‖, holman and harmon (1986:502) said that the substantial idea of a literary work is called a theme. that‘s why this research is aimed at finding the theme of tiel aisha ansari‘s poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖. methodology do to the aim of the research in finding the theme of a literary work, so this research is categorized into qualitative research. according to thohir (ed.) (2011:34), the method that is used for looking into qualitative research object is such theory or approach. therefore, the researcher has to choose the suitable approach to reveal the theme of a literary work. then the researcher has to choose semiotic approach for it is important for this research to come into some technical stages for revealing the theme of the poem. in this case, the researcher chooses riffaterre‘s semiotic model. the researcher has two reasons why he chooses this model of semiotics. those are: a. due to the importance of finding the theme, so the needed theory is that which has some stages of analysis, even the stage of finding the core meaning of the poem. there is one theory that can answer that urgency, namely riffaterre‘s theory. b. for revealing the theme, it is urgent to use two stages of signification, either on poem‘s paraphrase or the socio-cultural meaning behind the paraphrase. then riffaterre‘s semiotic theory has both of them. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=47288 http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=47288 http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=47288 http://www.famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/tiel_aisha_ansari/poems/22914 http://www.famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/tiel_aisha_ansari/poems/22914 taufiqurrohman. 2016. sufi poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖: the universal morals. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 203 semiotics, as the knowledge on sign, has two principles, namely signifier and signified. according to pierce as has been quoted by pradopo (1995:121), based on the relation between the signifier and the signified, there are three kinds of basic sign, they are icon, index and symbol. icon has a similar relationship between the signifier and the signified such as photograph with the man photographed. index is the relation shows cause and effect like smoke beckons fire. meanwhile, symbol shows arbitrary relations based on the convention of people generally. it is like language. in case of semiotics of poetry, pradopo in jabrohim (ed.) (2003:86), when he translated ―princetown encyclopedia of poetry and poetics‖ (1974:980-982), said that poem can be defined as semiotic system level two. this conclusion indicates that the language expression written in a poem have been decorated with effects and meanings variety that are quite different from language expression level one. while language expression level one just uses lexical meaning, language expression level two undergoes displacing of meaning, distorting of meaning and creating of meaning. that‘s why pradopo (1990:123) concluded that interpreting one poem is identical to understanding the significance. to find the substantial meaning of a poem, according to riffaterre (1978:4-6), there are two stages of signification, namely heuristic reading and hermeneutic reading. if heuristic reading is based on the language convention, so hermeneutic reading is divided into four stages, they are hipogram actual, hipogram potential, model and matrix. riffaterre (1978:5) said that heuristic reading needs a skill of language competence to reveal the first meaning or the denotative meaning of a poem‘s lyrics. that‘s why the readers are demanded to know the level change of the first meaning that would be into the second meaning. after a reader does heuristic reading, he has to do hermeneutic reading with the explanations as follows. riffaterre (1978:1318) explained that poem is like doughnut. something presents textually is the doughnut‘s meat. while something is not present is described as one round space at the middle of the doughnut that makes it called doughnut. therefore, something which is not present textually defines one poem to be a poem. the space often be called hypogram. then hypogram is divided into two, namely hypogram actual and hypogram potential. hypogram actual is present based on the other passages outside the poem can be related to the poem while hypogram potential is present based on the signification of symbols reflect many socio-cultural phenomena. determining the hypogram potential can be helped via the concepts icon, index and symbol. besides, the unstated statement or the round space can be found also functions as the core meaning of a poem. this core meaning is called as matrix. then the actualization of matrix is model. so riffaterre (1978:19) said that model can be words, phrases or lyrics/lines that are so poetic. the model also functions as the miniature of a poem because the readers can see an extension of lyrics by only seeing this miniature. next, riffaterre also said that matrix functions as the substantial idea because it lies in the core of finding the meaning of a poem. thus, finding matrix also means finding the theme. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 204 analysis below is the poem that would be analyzed. johnny cash goes to hell well, johnny he said to st. peter 1 “you know that i just can‟t stay 2 i‟m grateful for all that you‟ve done for me 3 but i just can‟t be living this way 4 while there‟s people suffering in hell.” 5 “well, when i came up here to heaven 6 you gave me a suit of white 7 and i put it on just to please you 8 but you know that it just ain‟t right 9 „cause there‟s people suffering in hell.” 10 st. peter he says to johnny 11 “i‟m sorry, but those are the rules 12 i can‟t let you move out of here, johnny 13 son, what you want me to do 14 for the people suffering in hell?” 15 “let me play for the damned souls in hell 16 let me play them „folsom prison blues.‟ 17 let me play for the lost and the struggling 18 do the job like i used to do 19 for the people suffering in hell 20 st. peter he says to the devil 21 “turn the damned souls out of their cells 22 the man in black, he‟s comin‟ 23 to give a free concert in hell 24 for the people suffering in hell.” 25 st. peter he says to johnny 26 “i‟ll send you an angel bodyguard.” 27 johnny he laughed and said: “thank you 28 i ain‟t scared of no prison yard. 29 ain‟t no-one gonna hurt me in hell.” 30 the stadium‟s big as the whole wide earth 31 the damned souls were packed ear to ear 32 taufiqurrohman. 2016. sufi poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖: the universal morals. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 205 when they heard him say: 33 hi! 34 i‘m johnny cash! 35 well, you should have heard them cheer! 36 cheers from the damned souls in hell! 37 and a million souls let go their chains 38 and the souls flew up to the sky. 39 and when peter asked: “how do you come here?” 40 they said: “johnny cash made me cry 41 and i‟m done with suffering in hell.” 42 so johnny he‟s wearing the black 43 and he plays for the damned down in hell. 44 and he won‟t let them send him back to heaven 45 till he empties out every last cell 46 and there‟s no-one suffering in hell 47 …in hell, in hell 48 johnny‟s playing the damned out of hell. 49 (tiel aisha ansari. knocking from inside, 2008: 37-39) heuristic reading it is impossible for such sufi poem above to use denotative meaning as the precise meaning. there must be any explanations of symbolism there. perhaps there are meanings for johnny cash, man in black, damned souls, heaven and hell, etc. those are automatically the signified in the poem. two analysis below will reveal the meaning of the signified by using the combination of hypogram potential and hypogram actual. hypogam actual this poem uses abundant references. this is seen from the mixes of religion terms with popular things in this world, especially in music. below is the exploration of the references respectively. johnny cash (1932-2003) is a scotland descendant who was born in arkansas, usa. he is a country-blues musician (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_blues_ musician). meanwhile, st. peter is a name for one apostle of twelve apostles of jesus 5 . hell is contrast to heaven. if hell is the reckoning for those who don‘t get god‘s mercy, heaven is for those who get his mercy. the damned souls refer to the general paradigm that those who did bad deeds in the world would get reckonings in hell. their soul is considered damned because they are in friend with iblis, human bad temper. they tempt men in order to distort them to the insult way of life. these satans 5 in a dictionary of islam (hughes, 2001:153) and in kitab perjanjian baru part peter (1) chapter 1 verse 1 (www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=67). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_blues_musician http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_blues_musician http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_blues_musician http://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=67 language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 206 cannot be seen in this world but clearly seen in hell. folsom prison blues is one name for a song composed and sung by johnny cash. this 1995 and re-released in 1968 song is concluded into blues music, rock music and country music (http://en.wikipedia/org/ wiki/folsom_prison_blues). the song tells about wills to get out from criminality, jail and poverty. then the little information above can be used to reveal the meaning of symbols written in the poem. below is the signification. hypogram potential this poem uses the interaction of talks between johnny cash with st. peter and the hell inhabitants. based on the information from part hypogram actual above and symbols on sufism, below is the extensive analysis. for sufis, a man who is sad seeing others get suffering is called as person who has brilliant heart. he is not only ideal in worshipping god but also in interacting with others. those are what attached to the sufis. this is what tiel aisha ansari has symbolized in her poem. he uses johnny cash as the icon for a sufi. it is legal for a poet to use a musician profile, perhaps, either based on universal importance and the poet‘s favor. so attaching johnny as the icon for a sufi comes from subjective reason but is aimed at using universal reason so that sufism can be accepted for everyone. a sufi, represented by johnny cash, should be considerate in seeing the sufferings of others. even this poem uses care to others as the icon made by tiel for any kinds of positive morals to others who undergo sufferings. even it is in hell that the play has been written by tiel so it is just a fiction thing. so it is true that drama in the hell is made icon for happenings in this world. an-naisabury (2006:347) says that people who are considered as the true sufi are those who are matched with what junaid al-baghdady, a sufi master, has ever said about: ―the sufis are like earth; all dirt is thrown for it. yet it never makes something grow but nice plants. the sufis are like earth; stepped either by the pious or the sinners. a sufi is also like cloud; shading everything below, like rain water; flow anything.‖ based on the aphorism above, it can be known that a real sufi is not only those who concentrate focusing on worshipping god, but also those who are social, care to others. ―stepped by everyone‖ means owning empathy and mercy in others‘ sufferings. it also means that everyone should be able to accommodate others‘ problems without seeing the religion or the backgrounds. in this poem, the profile explained is symbolized with black suits worn by johnny. it is due to common symbol or convention that black is symbol for neutrality and absorbing everything. the morals described above are clearly shown by the highest sufi profile, namely muhammad. after being born he said, ―o people… o people… (ummatī..ummatī...)‖. then before passed away, he also said the same, ―o people… o people… (ummatī..ummatī..)‖. even, an-naisabury (2006:268) said that muhammad will also keep saying ―o people… o people… (ummatī...ummatī...)‖ on the resurrection day at the time everyone says, ―myself...myself‖. the case above shows that human should be considerate to others, http://en.wikipedia/org/%20wiki/folsom_prison_blues http://en.wikipedia/org/%20wiki/folsom_prison_blues http://en.wikipedia/org/%20wiki/folsom_prison_blues taufiqurrohman. 2016. sufi poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖: the universal morals. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 207 especially in having empathy and sympathy to others. human should have noble morals to have attention to others. considerate to others‘ suffering in this poem functions as the icon for johnny‘s considerate character to feel pity for those who are suffering in hell. in turn, hell is the icon too for everything unworthy done in this world. so johnny, as representative for sufi, feels pity for those who do everything not in line with god. this kind of noble character is clearly written in the qur‘an surah at-taubah verse 128, ―now hath come unto you a messenger from amongst yourselves: it grieves him that ye should suffer, ….‖ this verse is clearly in line with what has been the morals showed by johnny in the poem. this is what sufis should be. tiel, as a sufi, indirectly also gave one message to other sufis to remember about the noble character taught in the verse above. next, the considerate character doesn‘t mean influenced by the people of unworthy deeds, but wanting them to be able to go back to the worthy path. in this poem, being not influenced is symbolized with no guard for johnny to have concert in hell. then concert in hell can be the symbol for leaving and forgetting all worldly things. this is reflected by the vanishing sufferings of hell inhabitants when they watch johnny‘s concert. johnny just has concert for entertaining them, not staying with them. it is briefly seen when st. peter at first refused johnny‘s request to move to hell, yet finally accepted because of single motivation to have concert only. the largeness of the stadium told in the poem symbolizes the large hope to call on people to go back to god‘s straight path. while the cheers of hell inhabitants when johnny came to hell symbolize delicate sufi method in which sufis could make bad people can smile or laugh at. the main song sung in the concert in the poem is ―folsom prison blues‖. this song contains a wish to get out from badness has been done, from jail life and from fettering poverty. that‘s why tiel is good at symbolizing the delicate persuasion with the daily familiar song. it is also about hope to live better for criminals. it is down to earth for touching the readers. universal of the message can also be felt. finally tiel emphasizes the importance of feeling considerate to those who act unworthy and their success in persuading them delicately. those two things are symbolized with johnny‘s success in making hell inhabitants feel out of hell. in case of st. peter, it is used by tiel to symbolize wisdom master who perhaps could control one group of people in heaven. that‘s why, as a common man, johnny needed to have permission to st. peter as the leader in heaven. symbolically, johnny, as a sufi, needs a spiritual permission from one great religious magnate to call on criminals to get repentance. something unique can be withdrawn is that the poem uses symbols out from islam. extrinsically, it is out of the limitations from sufi religion, namely islam. but intrinsically this symbolization is universal for it can be taken advantages for men of any religions. furthermore, tiel actually takes perennial wisdom as the mindset of his poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖. it means it is wise to relate one religion to others because in turn they will meet in one point, god as he is, without names. it is in line with what has been stated by qamar-ul huda (2003:278-305) that the central focus language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 208 of religion followers is god and human struggles to always be conscious before one deity. besides, tiel tended to use spirituality in transferring his mind into the poem. it is based on what has been said by hill et all (2000:51-77) that religiousness and spirituality are in different constructs. religiousness is in formal line while spirituality is in inner transcendental line. that‘s why, tiel uses other religion‘s profile to make the poem more universal and more spiritual. focusing on theme of human struggle to be advantageous to others is done by tiel to achieve the high spirituality before one god for all religions. this is what tiel has concentrated in. that‘s why the focus plane of poem johnny cash goes to hell is actually the morals itself. the morals on how a man could be considerate to anyone others and be open in heart and mind for opening their consciousness. in turn, a man will be able to help releasing them from their sufferings and to provide an advantageous spot for everyone to be used for betterments. this inference is reflected as the summary of the poem. it is about johnny cash who wanted to have concert in hell for releasing the inhabitants from their sufferings. the signification has been got above is in line with the fact that morals do not depend on religions. morals are always universal. it goes beyond the borders of religions. every single person of a religion could do anything worthy. it can be seen as good for every one of other religions. even people often evaluate someone‘s religiousness through his / her morals. this is also what ―morals is universal‖ means. in case of the thing above for a moslem scholar, zaroug (1999:53-54), introduced morals in islam with islamic ethics (akhlāq). he said that islamic ethics are those universal standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do as taught in the qur‘an and demonstrated by the prophet in the exemplary either in words or in actions. this is what happened to tiel aisha ansari too as a moslem poet. she intends to introduce universal morals that spread beyond religions. she showed it through her poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖. model based on the conclusion has been got in hypogram potential, so the model must be one lyric that can reflect the conclusion. it is ―… suffering in hell.‖ this lyric actually is repeated seven times, they are in line 5, line 10, line 15, line 20, line 25, line 47 and line 52. this repeating has an effect in emphasizing the theme that has been given by the poet. although the wordings of the model in each stanza are different each other, they have the similarity in expression ―suffering in hell‖. among nine stanzas of the poem, there are seven stanzas which use lyric ―suffering in hell‖. the meaning of each seven stanzas is ended up by that lyric. the expression ―suffering in hell‖ refers to the meaning of the poem itself; ―suffering‖ refers to morals of someone to be considerate to anyone suffers from anything bad; ―in hell‖ refers to the universal of the poem. it means tiel used cross-religious expression in which ―hell‖ as the meeting point. besides, the model has been got makes this poem shape its own plot. it is repeated in using it so that the impression of the lyric‘s spirit can be felt many times. the poet‘s message on having good morals to taufiqurrohman. 2016. sufi poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖: the universal morals. __________________________________________________________________________________________ 209 others, especially considerate, indeed can be underlined in readers‘ mind. matrix based on the results of analysis both from hypogram potential and model, it can be concluded that matrix of poem ―johnny cash goes to hell‖ is the universal of morals. this is the substantial idea that constructs the poem. this substantial idea divides the poem into two distributions of theme maker, namely good morals in which considerate as the description and universal across religion symbols. ―the universal of morals‖ can be a simple phrase that explains the meaning and the content of the poem. the phrase also functions as the constructor of the poem‘s content. conclusion the aim of this research is to find the theme of a unique sufi poem entitled ―johnny cash goes to hell‖. the theme, at the same time, is the substantial idea that constructs the poem. it is found in matrix. so, the theme of the poem is ―the universal of morals‖ as described in matrix part. based on this finding, it can also be concluded that tiel aisha ansari has developed her sufi poem entitled ―johnny cash goes to hell‖ with some features that can decorate its content (stanzas and lines) so that it can be a unique sufi poem. references al-qur‟an terjemah indonesia inggris. 2008. solo: qomari. an-naisabury, abul qasim al-qusyairy. 2006. risalah qusyairiyah, induk ilmu tasawuf. translation by muhammad luqman hakiem. surabaya: risalah gusti. ansari, tiel aisha. 2008. knocking from inside. philadelphia: the ecstatic exchange. hadi w.m., abdul. 1995. sastra sufi. jakarta: pustaka firdaus. haeri, shaykh fadhlalla. 1993. the elements of sufism. usa: elements book, inc. hills, p.c. pargament (ed.). (2000). conceptualizing religion and spirituality: points of commonality, points of departure. journal for the theory of social behavior, 30 (1), 5177. holman, c. hugh and william harmon. 1986. a handbook to literature. new york: macmillan publishing company. huda, qamar-ul. 2003. knowledge of allah and the islamic view of other religions. theological studies, 64(2), 278-305. hughes, thomas patrick. 2001. a dictionary of islam. new delhi: asia educational service. jabrohim (ed.). 2003. metodologi penelitian sastra. yogyakarta: hanindita graha widya. pradopo, rachmat djoko. 1990. pengkajian puisi. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university. riffaterre, michael. 1978. semiotics of poetry. bloomington and london: indian university press. schimmel, annemarie. 2011. mystical dimensions of islam. usa: the university of north carolina press. thohir (ed.), mudjahirin. 2011. refleksi pengalaman penelitian lapangan ilmu-ilmu sosial dan humaniora. semarang: fasindo. language circle: journal of language and literature, x/2 (april 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________ 210 wachid, b.s., abdul. 2002. religiositas alam (dari surealisme ke spiritualisme d. zawawi imron). yogyakarta: gama media. zaroug, abdullah hasan. (1999). ethics from an islamic perspective: basic issues. the america journal of islamic social: basic issues, 16, 53-54. http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/folsom_prison_blues http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_blues_musicians http://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=67 http://www.famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/tiel_aisha_ansari/poems/22914 http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=47288 http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/folsom_prison_blues http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_blues_musicians http://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?id=67 http://www.famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/tiel_aisha_ansari/poems/22914 http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=47288 language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 47 safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clil) classes sri wuli fitriati sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id english department universitas negeri semarang indonesia received: 15 september 2016. revised: 20 september 2016. accepted: 25 october 2016 abstract this article is drawn from a larger ethnographic case study of a state senior high school in a city in the province of central java, indonesia. the study was classroom discourse analysis, focusing on identifying and examining classroom interactional and pedagogical practices in content and language integrated learning (clil) lessons. clil is a type of bilingual education in which some content areas (such as sciences) are learned through a foreign language. the research participants in this study were indonesian teachers of mathematics, biology, and geography who were encouraged to teach their subjects in english language because of the political ideology and educational policy at the time the data collected. the data emerged from classroom observations notes, lesson transcripts, and post-lesson interviews with videostimulated recall. the interpretation and analysis of the data involved cross-checking different sources of evidence. braun and clarke‟s thematic analysis (2006) was employed in the analysis of the data. the finding reveals that there was a salient pattern in the interactional and pedagogical practices of the subject teachers which can be called safetalk. the finding also shows that safetalk hinder the students‟ second language acquisition and development. this article offers deeper insights on the interaction and pedagogy in clil classes, which can promote critical reflection and contribute to future english bilingual teacher education, particularly in the indonesian educational contexts. key words: clil classes, interactional practices, safetalk, classroom discourse analysis. how to cite: sri wuli fitriati. 2016. safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clhil) classes language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. ________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction this article focuses on examining classroom practices of three indonesian senior high school teachers in their attempts to use english alongside indonesian in the teaching of biology, geography, and mathematics. the context of this study was in the year 2011 to 2013 when the indonesian central government enacted the educational policy on the use of english alongside indonesian in some selected indonesian public schools. the educational policy was eventually withdrawn following the decree of mahkamah konstitusi/the indonesian constitutional court in 2013. this article will not re-open the controversies over the use of english to teach content subjects in some selected state schools, but it will provide deeper insights on what was happening in the classrooms when the subject teachers were expected to teach mailto:sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ bilingually. this article is divided into four sections. first, in the introduction, i provide the background to the study, the context of the study, the literature review, and the research objectives. then, i briefly explained the methodology used. in findings and discussion, i discuss the prevalent interactional and pedagogical practices observed in the three bilingual science classrooms. finally, some educational implications of the findings are discussed in the conclusion. the use of english as the medium of instruction alongside indonesian in some selected schools might be classified as a form of bilingual education. among the many definitions of bilingual education, baker (1993), one of the most influential scholars in the field of bilingual education, sometimes used the term bilingual education “to refer to the education of students who are already speakers of two languages, and at other times to the education of those who are studying additional languages” (p. 9). compared to baker‟s (1993) definition, garcia (2009) referred to bilingual education programs as those that use a second or a foreign language “as a medium of instruction; that is, bilingual education programs teach content through an additional language other than the children‟s home language” (p. 6). bilingual education is different from language education programs that teach a second or a foreign language. second or foreign language education programs teach the language as a subject, whereas bilingual education programs use the language as a medium of instruction. the use of english in teaching science and mathematics as first enforced by the government was categorized as content and language integrated learning (henceforth, clil). in the united states, it is sometimes called content-based second language instruction, while in europe, it is referred to as content and language integrated learning clil (baker, 2011). it is not about teaching english language for its own sake as in second or foreign language lessons, but teaching content subjects by using english as the language of instruction. the content subjects are those which are currently studying by students in their school classes, such as history, science and mathematics. in this article, i use the terms bilingual education, bilingual teaching, and clil interchangeably as they convey the same meaning, that is, teaching content subjects through an additional language in which the main goal is to prepare students for the integration of language teaching with discipline subject content instruction. clil develops access to subject-specific target language terminology and improve overall target language competence, including develop oral communication skills (daitonpuffer, 2007). the promotion of the bilingual teaching in the selected schools set the main goal to enable school students and school leavers to communicate with the outside world and to provide the language skills which are marketable, aiding employment and status. the theoretical foundation for clil is drawn from second language acquisition theories and research. according to krashen (1985; 1994), second language acquisition occurs when the learner receives comprehensible input, not when the learner is memorizing vocabulary or completing grammar exercises. therefore, teachers in bilingual education contexts should be competent in the target language and take account of second language learning pedagogy to be applied in classes (baker, 2011; garcia, 2009; graaff, koopman&westhoff, 2007; snow, 2001). in bilingual education contexts, there sri wuli fitriati. 2016. safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clhil) classes language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ emerged some prevalent patterns of classroom interactions which chick (1996) called „safetalk,‟ a recurrent feature in bilingual settings. safetalk is a very common interactional strategy of classroom language practice. the notion safetalk was termed by chick (1996) who investigated the characteristics of interactions in schools for black people in south africa under the former apartheid system. chick‟s background of study was that he observed classroom practices which were “highly centralized, with teachers adopting authoritarian roles and doing most of the talking, with few pupil initiations, and with most of the pupil responses taking the form of group chorusing” (p. 21). hornberger then collaborated with chick (2001) to examine safetalk practices in peruvian and south african classrooms. they defined safetalk practices as language practices in which teachers and students preserve their dignity by hiding the fact that little or no learning is taking place (hornberger& chick, 2001). in research which employed a discourseanalytic study to look at classroom language practices in two classrooms, primary and secondary, in two rural schools, martin (2005) found that safetalk practices were present. his study was against the backdrop that beginning in the year 2003 malaysia decided to implement a policy to switch the medium of instruction in mathematics and science from malay to english. his findings revealed that what usually went on in bilingual classrooms were slot-filling, labeling and chorusing. martin (2005) suggested that “such practices can create an illusion that learning (of both content and english) is taking place” (p. 83). following chick (1996) and hornberger and chick (2001), martin (2005) used the term “safe” but he claimed that he gave his own emphasis that safetalk practices allow classroom participants to be seen to accomplish lessons. according to him, safetalk is “a pragmatic discourse strategy (linguistic strategy) that is “safe” in that, potentially, it facilitates comprehension” (martin, 2005, p. 80). while martin (2005) asserted that safetalk was used at least for two functions to be seen to accomplish a lesson and to facilitate comprehension – chimbutane (2009, 2011) emphasized that “the use of safetalk strategies was prompted by the language barrier and by the teachers‟ limited preparation to using appropriate secondlanguage teaching strategies to minimize this barrier” (p. 87). that is to say, teachers used safetalk strategies because of their limited proficiency in the medium of instruction. chimbutane (2009, 2011) conducted an ethnographic study in two primary bilingual schools in mozambique. a language-ineducation policy in mozambique shifted from a portuguese-only-system of education (which is a second/foreign language for most mozambican citizens) to a situation in which local african languages were promoted in formal education through the gradual introduction of a bilingual program. in subject classes in which portuguese was the medium of instruction, chimbutane (2011) observed that most of the pupils used chorusing, that is they chorused responses and chanted. he concluded that the teachers and their pupils were aware of the lack of communication between them. therefore, in order to preserve their dignity and give the sense of accomplishment, they colluded in using safetalk strategies such as group chorusing and clued elicitation. to sum up what safetalk is, chimbutane (2011) explained that safetalk is “a term used to refer to teachers‟ and pupils‟ use of interactional strategies that allow them to preserve their dignity by avoiding opportunities for displays of academic or language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ linguistic incompetence” (p. 27). chimbutane (2011) further explains: the key pattern of safetalk is that of teacher prompt and pupils‟ choral responses, that is, teachers routinely provide cues to which pupils respond in chorus. the prompts or cues used by teachers to trigger such pupils‟ chorusing responses include yes/no questions and oral gap filling exercises. in these exercises, teachers provide incomplete words or sentences in which they raise the tone on accented syllable leaving an oral gap for pupils to fill in, for example, with a syllable, word, of phrase (pp. 27-28). teachers and students may use safetalk to respond to their constraints including language barriers. the use of safetalk is a pervasive discursive strategy used to ensure classroom interaction flow in bilingual and multilingual contexts. following consideration of the background to the study, research context and literature review i explained above, i developed a key focal area for investigation. this study endeavored to address the following question: how were teachers‟ interactional and pedagogical practices in their bilingual science classrooms? therefore, my study aimed to identify and examine the teachers‟ classroom interactional and pedagogical practices as they were expected to teach their subjects bilingually, in indonesian and english languages. methodology the school as the site of the study was a state senior high school in a city in the central java province, indonesia. during my fieldwork in 2012 to 2013, the school had been implementing english bilingual education since 2009 where science and mathematics teachers were expected to teach their subjects bilingually, indonesian alongside with english. the study was classroom discourse (chimbutane, 2011). the participants in this study were the teachers of mathematics, biology, and geography. the teachers were qualified with a bachelor degree from local universities. none of them had experienced special training in english bilingual education program during their study at university, but they took english as a compulsory course for one semester. the three teachers undertook short english language training during their in-service at the school. each lesson ran for 90 minutes. the techniques of data collection were classroom observations, including classroom observation notes and classroom video recordings, and post-lesson interviews with video-stimulated recall, which means that after the classroom observation, i showed the video to the teachers and conducted in-depth interviews with them to seek views on their language behaviors and interactions. i transcribed all the recorded lessons, and analyzed the transcripts to identify the commonalities of classroom interactional and pedagogical practices by using discourse analysis (palmer, 2011). to analyze and interpret the emerging patterns of the classroom observation notes and interviews, i used thematic analysis (braun & clarke, 2006). the three datasets (classroom observations notes, lesson transcripts, and in-depth interviews with video-stimulated recall) functioned to provide “descriptive complementarities” (palmer, 2011, p. 109). therefore, the interpretation and analysis of the data of the current study involved triangulation of multiple sources of data and used multiple data-gathering techniques which led to the trustworthiness of this study. trustworthiness is “validity of the data collection and analysis methods” in sri wuli fitriati. 2016. safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clhil) classes language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ qualitative research (mills, 2007, p. 308). i also employed debriefing (creswell, 2013) for the trustworthiness of the current study. after data collection phase, i showed my participants my preliminary analyses consisting of description of themes. by this way, i tried to seek my participants‟ alternative interpretations to my analysis. in the discussion that follows, all the names of the teachers are pseudonyms, and the transcription conventions used in this study can be seen in the appendix. findings and discussion the findings revealed that, aware or unaware, teachers together with students appeared to hide their poor command of english which might have given a sense of accomplishing a lesson. the apparent dominant language practices were: students‟ chorused responses to teachers‟ questions and cues, teachers‟ elongating and raising intonation of the last word of phrase of their questions, and response slot. students’ chorused responses chorusing or answering teachers‟ questions together occurred often during the lessons, as can be seen in extract 1 which comes from the mathematics lesson. in this episode, after the orientation stage of the lesson, ms tuti attempted to elicit her students‟ responses to define the concept of cyclical permutation. extract 1 (math lesson – cyclical permutation): 1 ms tuti : ok, yuk, let we define about cyclical permutation. 2 if we have two volunteers, we get one arrangement. and if we 3 have three volunteers, we have two arrangements. and if we 4 have four volunteers, we get six arrangements. one if you written 5 in one factorial permutation one equal? 6 ss : one factorial. [chorusing] 7 ms tuti : and two? 8 ss : two factorial.[chorusing] 9 ms tuti : two factorial. how about six? 10 ss : three factorial. [chorusing] it can be seen in extract 1 that the students provided choral two-word answers, shown in lines 6 to 10. despite asking her students to voluntarily raise hands to respond to her cues (lines 1 to 5), ms tuti let her students answer in chorus (lines 6, 8, 10). this extract suggests that the teacher assumed that all her students must have understood the concept of cyclical permutation by the use of choral responses. stutz‟s teaching practice shows classroom interactions lacked individual spot checks as a means of checking students‟ understanding of the lesson content. the episode transcribed in extract 2 was taken from mr. cho‟s class where the teacher was eliciting names of parts of the skull in latin from his students. extract 2 (biology lesson – the skull) 1 mr. cho : apa itu? [pointing on the slide/screen] 2 ss : [students were mumbling; their voices were indistinct; some were laughing] 3 mr. cho : occipital. [teacher provided a correct answer] 4 mr. cho : number seven? 5 ss : mandibula. [chorusing] 6 mr. cho : number six? 7 ss : {spenoid. [chorusing] language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8 {zigomaticum. [chorusing] 9 mr. cho : zigomaticum. [confirming the answer] my classroom observation noted that not all students stated the correct names of parts of the skull that the teacher pointed to on the slide. from the extract 2, it seemed that the teacher was satisfied with the class chorus, but when the teacher selected a student to answer, this student provided a wrong answer. most students mumbled, saying words quietly and unclearly (lines 7-8) to the teacher‟s question until the teacher himself answered his own question (line 9). these characteristics of interactions demonstrated that the teacher tolerated choral responses and lacked individual spot-checking required to enhance the accomplishment of learning the content. however, mr. cho had his own point of view. by allowing the students to chorus their responses to his questions, mr. cho justified to himself that he was using a strategy to encourage the students to be active and engaged in the class (interview, 28 september 2012). by chorusing or answering the teacher‟s questions together in english or latin, they would not be afraid of making mistakes, since the students and the teacher would not notice which student was answering incorrectly, and this would avoid students‟ embarrassment particularly for the shy students (mr. cho, interview, 28 september 2012). this assumption is only partially correct since observation found that there were some students who simply did not answer or respond to the teacher‟s questions. these students were just silent, and it seemed that they relied on other students to answer the questions. there is no harm in a certain amount of chorused responses, but it is not good practice in terms of the learning process because it will never support creative production in students. if this happens all the time during the study in the school, it is possible that some students will depend on their peers and will not achieve maximum progress in the learning process. response slot safe talk practices also included teachers‟ particular questioning techniques. my observations suggested that the teachers mostly used a certain type of questioning technique, that is, elongating and raising the last word of phrase of their questions. for example, on several occasions in ms. lis‟ lesson, she elongated some last words (see the underlined words in extract 3 line 6). by elongating and raising her intonation for the last words in her questions, she expected her students to complete the slots with correct words or answers. extract 3 below (line 6) illustrate that the teacher employed a question technique in which she created gapped contexts for which the students provided the deleted element, that is, a one-word or single phrase answer. extract 3 (geography lesson industry) 1 ms. lis : next number two. segala seasuatu untuk memenuhi kebutuhan 2 : manusia, to daily needs, untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup sehari 3 : hari. for example? ilham [pointing a student]. please mention the 4 : example. kebutuhan sehari-hari apa? 5 ilham : garmen. 6 ms. lis : garmen. ada kata dihasilkan, berarti ada proses...? 7 ss : pembuatan. [chorusing] another example (extract 4) was taken sri wuli fitriati. 2016. safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clhil) classes language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ from the closing stage of ms. tuti‟s lesson where the class was encouraged to synthesize or conclude about the concept of permutation. extract 4 (math lesson – cyclical permutation) 1 ms tuti : ok... about cyclical permutation. first to make conclusion about 2 : our lesson today. siapa yang mau membuat kesimpulan mengenai 3 : pelajaran kita hari ini? about cyclical permutation. who? who? 4 : every body? who? okay, please you, you can make conclusion. [pointing to a student who is voluntarily raising her hand] 5 s : the conclusion of permutation, we can learn the conclusion is 6 : the number of cyclical permutation is of n object is p equal and 7 : minus one factorial. [the student pointed by the teacher is reading from the textbook] 8 ms tuti : ok, good! 9 ms tuti : the cyclical permutation, the number of cyclical permutation in 10 : of element is...? 11 ss : p equals n minus one factorial. [chorusing] 12 ms tuti : ok, good! after several prompts from the teacher to make her students say the definition of cyclical permutation (lines 2 to 4), one student voluntarily raised her hand. this student then read from her textbook the definition of cyclical permutation, instead of constructing the definition in her own words. the teacher complimented this student‟s willingness to participate (line 8). then, the teacher repeated the definition by giving a cue that the whole class had to complete her utterance. the cue was when the teacher paused to cause the students to finish her incomplete utterance (extract 4 line 10). elongating words (extract 3 line 6 and extract 4 line 10) was a questioning strategy which has been called “response slot” by martin (2005, p. 80), a term similar to “gap filling” by swain and johnson (1997, p. 177). response slot or gap filling appeared to be a common language practice used by the teachers, regardless of whether they used indonesian, english, or mixed the two languages. the language practices, students‟ chorused responses to teachers‟ questions and cues, teachers‟ elongating and raising intonation of the last word of phrase of their questions, and response slot, might be considered by the teachers as safe strategies to potentially facilitate comprehension (martin, 2005). chick (1996:26) referred to this type of strategy, that is, the “completion chorus phenomenon” as “safe-talk” which enabled teachers and students “to hide their poor command of english,” and “to obscure their inadequate understanding of academic content”. when being questioned about her safetalk practices, ms. lis explained: that sort of behavior is very typical of students and commonly found in classes. it happens in year 12 and also in year 10. they usually answer without raising hands first but directly answer in chorus and they mumble. i think it is because they do not have self-confidence. so, it seems that when they raise hands and their answer is not correct, they feel embarrassed. i think they are too worried. if i ask them to raise their hands, they do not answer, they are even silent. that is a language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ weakness. when they are speaking together at the same time, it seems all students are active, and the class sometimes becomes disoriented. i must be able to control and manage the class, so i give them turns and say which student should speak first. (ms. lis, interview, 6 september 2012 – translated from the indonesian language by the researcher) ms. lis‟s response suggested that the possible cause of chorus answering was that the students were not confident enough to speak independently. they were afraid of making incorrect answers. it seemed that when there were students who raised their hands, the class‟s attention was directly drawn to a particular student, and if her/his answer was not correct, she/he would feel embarrassed. ms. lis reflected on her classroom practices in the following way: i have asked students to put their hands up before answering, but the class became quiet, not what i expected. actually this has become a concern of mine. i often ask them what makes them afraid to raise their hands or ask questions. i say that they must have guts, but they say that they are afraid if they answer incorrectly. the more i demand them to raise hands, the more the class becomes silent. when the situation was like this, i myself did not feel comfortable. finally i let it go. (ms. lis, interview, 6 september 2012 translated from the indonesian language by the researcher) analysis of classroom observations revealed that students‟ chorus answers, teachers‟ elongating questions, gap-filling or slot response, and teachers‟ lack of individual spot checking were common practices in the three classrooms observed as these practices “allow the classroom participants to be seen to accomplish lessons (martin, 2005, p. 89). the nature of the teacher and students‟ interaction was the gauge of the quality of teaching and learning process in the classrooms. the illustrations of the data provide evidence that the teachers appeared to hide inadequacy of their english language competence. the teachers and the students might be aware of the lack of communication between them so, in order to give the sense of accomplishment the impression that the students understood the subject contents they used the safetalk strategies. the data presented in this section confirmed that the use of english in the classrooms was regarded as a heavy task both for the teachers and the students. instead of giving the students a language model integrated with teaching content, the teachers‟ language practices in the classroom interactions could hinder the students‟ english language acquisition and development. in a pedagogical viewpoint of bilingual education, teachers‟ language use is their students‟ language input, and this input has a determining function in the acquisition of language (ellis, 2008). so, if too often teachers gave inaccurate model of english language use in classrooms, it would make the students exposed to what might be unacceptable english use. based on the features of interactional and pedagogical practices in bilingual classrooms presented above, i can conclude that the teachers used the english language as to be seen complying with the expectation of the government despite their language barrier. this study showed that the teachers were in need of the knowledge of second language pedagogy and guided practices in bilingual education, not to mention improving and developing their own english communicative competence. taking into account all the evidence found in this study, i believe it was sri wuli fitriati. 2016. safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clhil) classes language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ such a wise and appropriate decision when the government determined not to continue the enforcement of using english in teaching content subjects. conclusion the teachers in their clil classes engaged in interactional and pedagogical practices in what can be called safetalk practices. in the way the teachers performed their talk to interact with their students, they tended to employ the salient features, such as chorusing and response slot with the teachers‟ raising intonation, which were seen as if all the students understood and accomplished the lesson. in my discussion, i have shown that interactional practices in the three classrooms observed lacked adequate language pedagogical practices. the teachers, who were not english language experts, and were not trained as bilingual teachers in teacher education need to learn about second language acquisition theory and language pedagogy so that they would be aware of the importance of providing their students second language comprehensible input. it is essential that teacher education, particularly, those which prepare english bilingual teachers, be informed about the types of classroom practices which i have illustrated in this article and then make critical reflection in order to promote best practices in bilingual lessons. i hope this research might push teacher educators, particularly those who train english bilingual pre-service teachers in teacher education colleges and in-service teachers during professional development, to incorporate values of second language acquisition principles and pedagogy into their teaching. teacher educators should assist prospective english bilingual teachers to be aware of the tendency of safetalk practices which pedagogically impede the learning of the content subjects and the english language as well. this study gave rich data about the particular context. findings of the current study can reflect what occurs in other settings in the indonesian educational context and, therefore, the findings can shed light on understanding of the english bilingual education implementation, not limited in former selected schools which implemented english as the medium of instruction, but also other schools, including private schools which set out to establish bilingual education programs. to sum up, there is an urgent need for teachers to explore classroom interactional and pedagogical practices which might best contribute to english language learning as well as to clil classes. . references 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(unpublished doctoral dissertation).the university of southern queensland, australia. garcia, o. 2009.bilingual education in the 21st century: a globalperspective. united kingdom: wiley-blackwell. graaff, r. d., koopman, g. j., &westhoff, g. 2007. identifying effective l2pedagogy in content and language integrated learning (clil).viewsvienna english working papers, 16(3), 12-19. hornberger, n. h., & chick, j. k. 2001. co-constructing school safetime: safetalk practices in peruvian and south african classrooms. in m. heller & m. martin-jones (eds.), voices of authority: education andlinguistic difference (pp. 31-56). london: ablex. krashen, s. 1985. the input hypothesis. beverly hills, ca: laredo publishing company. krashen, s. 1994. bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. in b. e. office (ed.), schooling and language minoritystudents: a theoretical framework (2 ed., pp. 4775). los angeles, ca: california state university, national evaluation, dissemination andassessment center. martin, p. 2005. 'safe' language practices in two rural schools in malaysia: tensions between policy and practice. in a. m. y. lin & p. martin (eds.), decolonisation, globalisation: language-in-education policyand practice (pp. 74-97). clevedon: multilingual matters. mills, k. a. 2007. access to multiliteracies: a critical ethnography.ethnography and education, 2(3), 305-325. palmer, d. 2011. the discourse of transition: teachers' language ideologies withintransitional bilingual education programs. international multilingual research journal, 5(2), 103-122. snow, m. a. 2001. content-based and immersion models for second andforeign language teaching. in m. celce-murcia (ed.), teaching englishas a second or foreign language (3 ed., pp. 303-318). usa: heinle&heinle. swain, m., & johnson, r. k. 1997. immersion education: a category within bilingual education. in r. k. s. johnson, m. (ed.), immersioneducation: international perspective. uk: cambridge university press. notes: the transcription conventions used in this study: s : student (unidentified student) sri wuli fitriati. 2016. safetalk practices in content and language integrated learning (clhil) classes language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ ss : ss students (several or all students are speaking in chorus) plain font : indonesian language bold font : english language [ ] : commentary on what is happening in the classroom { : overlapping speech underlining : indicates raised intonation from the teacher where the teacher expects students to orally “fill in the blank” language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 264 assessing students during online learning: a case study on a linguistic subject teacher’s experience aulia adilla aji university of malang aulia.adilla.2002128@students.um.ac.id yazid basthomi university of malang ybasthomi@um.ac.id abstract online learning has caused major shifts, including the assessment process inside the english language teaching classroom. through a series of in-depth interviews and thorough observations, this study explored a linguistic subject teacher’s experience in implementing an online assessment using a learning media system (lms) application called microsoft teams. the use of the microsoft teams application helped to improve efficiency in uploading the files of students’ assignments, correcting and giving feedback to their works. however, based on the interviews, some obstacles were found during the teaching, learning and evaluation process. these include network problems, shorter time of classes and massive collusion among students make the students’ performance in doing their assignments do not always reflect their understanding and ability. while network problems and shorter face to face interaction often hinder the teaching and learning process as well as the assessment of students’ active participation, the use of blended learning in the school required teachers to be more creative and assertive in the assessment process. keywords: online assessment, learning management system (lms), microsoft teams, assignments. introduction the teaching and learning process had a major shift because of the covid-19 pandemic that occurred several months ago. due to this, teachers, students and educational institutions must be able to rapidly change the teaching and learning process from offline to online learning. concurring to wong, baars, davis, van der zee, jan-houben & paas (2019) online learning can be explained as a medium of learning that takes place online. this type of teaching and learning will allow educators to creatively design innovative teaching and learning; as well as it will assist educators in adapting to unprecedented situations (mayer, 2019). it will also enable students and educators to minimize the space between the educator and the student through the use of webbased technologies (lee-post & hapke, 2017; ryan, kaufman, greenhouse, she, & shi, 2016). the sudden change from offline to online classes has caused many challenges (gillett-swan, 2017; morgan, 2020; shapiro, 2020). ali, uppal and galiver (2018) stated that there are four major barriers to online learning usage, these being technology, individual, pedagogy and the teacher factors. assessment is a method of examining students’ knowledge and behaviour during the teaching and learning process (shaw et al., 2020). additionally, assessment has the aim of controlling every stage of learning; as well as to objectively measure students during the teaching and learning process (richmond, salazar, & jones, 2019; yüksel & gündüz, 2017). this will allow teachers to identify whether students can achieve the learning outcome (care, kim, vista, & anderson, 2018) http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:aulia.adilla.2002128@students.um.ac.id mailto:ybasthomi@um.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 265 as a teacher, it is a must to have assessment literacy because the language teacher can conduct the assessment process based on their current knowledge, conceptions and skills; as well as teachers can assist students in improving learning and in achieving learning outcomes (luthfiyyah, basyari, & dwiniasih, 2020). there are many ways of assessing students, starting from tests, quiz and other forms of evaluation (khairil & mokshein, 2018). assessments also help students to deepen their understanding, especially the type of assessments that asks analytical questions (ustun & tracey, 2019). in creating an assessment, the teacher must consider whether the assessment is accountable and valid. accountable means that from assessing students, the assessment provides reliable information of students’ achievement (nikmard & zenouzagh, 2020). meanwhile, validity is the fairness of the test result (weideman, 2019). moreover, the assessment itself has the objectives of learning, for learning and as learning. assessment of learning refers to using assessment to evaluate students towards the end of an instructional unit. second, assessment for learning is an assessment to monitor students’ progress during the teaching and learning process. meanwhile, assessment as learning is aimed to make students self-assess themselves (lam, 2020). the use of technology in the teaching and assessing stage helps teachers during the teaching and learning process, which include online assessment (novitasari, wijayati, & roekhan, 2020). akimov and malin (2020) define online assessment as an assessment method that is conducted via an asynchronous and synchronous method. in developing an online assessment, the main challenge was deciding on how to develop online assessment tools to accommodate traditional assessments that were designed based on a curriculum system (amin et al., 2021). veena and mahlawat (2020) asserted that online assessment is important to develop as the teaching and learning process needs to be efficient and provides an accurate analysis of students’ tests. to assess students online, there are some global recommendations. first, the assessment should be continuous and should compromise the whole theory. second, the teacher ought to make use of the familiar application as it will ease both students, teachers, parents and educators. last, to prevent plagiarism, the educator is recommended to ask students to submit their work using microsoft word and pdf format (garcía-peñalvo, corell, abella-garcía, & grande-de-prado, 2021). in assessing students, there are two ways; either through a direct or online assessment. direct assessment is done through face-to-face observation; whereas online assessment employs technology (bahari, 2021). veena and mahlawat (2020) stated that online assessment advances from direct assessment as it is not limited to the amount of paper usage and create online quiz instantly and can give instant feedback by using online assessment tools. furthermore, bahari (2021) said that online assessment offers authenticity, accuracy, reliability and validity, and clarification of our understanding of language skills. online assessment tools range from quizzes, discussion boards, video presentations, peer assessments, reports and e-portfolios (akimov & malin, 2020). these tools will enable students to build knowledge, solve problems and achieve the appropriate task response (gunawardena, moore phd, barril, & thabotharan, 2020). in doing so, there are several applications that the teacher can use to assess students online, such as google forms, kahoot!, testmoz and quizzes (veena & mahlawat, 2020). during its application, it is undeniable that there are advantages and disadvantages of utilizing both online and offline assessments. yilmaz, ustun and yilmaz et al. (2020) said that online assessment is beneficial for both students; as well as teachers. for students, online assessments enable students to gain instant key answers and feedbacks. as for teachers, online assessments facilitate teachers to save their time and do other work in regards to teaching and learning (alruwais, wills, & wald, 2018). nonetheless, there are also disadvantage of an online assessment. kocdar, karadeniz, peytcheva-forsyth and stoeva (2018) underlined http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 266 that online assessment cannot ensure whether students do their given assignments individually. this is because there is a high possibility of cheating and plagiarism whilst doing the assignments, especially for reading and writing skills. to successfully conduct an online assessment; both teachers and students must have adequate gadgets and stable internet connections (alsadoon, 2017; kocdar et al., 2018). on the contrary, offline assessment offers some advantages. the teacher can directly observe and conclude students’ competence in class, including active participation. second, students can only take the test items once without the questions being spread by other students (alsadoon, 2017). last, it is reachable for all students as they do not need internet access (alruwais et al., 2018). offline assessment is time-consuming for both teachers and students as they have to manually grade and write answers on the answer sheet (veena & mahlawat, 2020). besides that, offline assessment cannot present instant key answers and feedbacks as the teacher have lots of work to grade (karaoglan-yilmaz, ustun, & yilmaz, 2020). the objective of this study is to know the linguistic subject teacher’s experience in conducting online assessment whilst doing teaching and learning process at sma negeri pakusari, jember, east java, indonesia. moreover, the researcher also wanted to know what difficulties the teacher had while conducting the online assessment process. here, the researcher focuses on the case of a linguistic teacher’s online teaching experience at senior high school pakusari, jember because sman pakusari is located in a peri-peri area where the variation of students’ socio-demographics background is relatively more heterogeneous compared to that in the city or rural area. it is therefore assumed that their access online is more varied. this variation is important, as the researcher wants to analyse the teacher’s experience and portrays the difficulties faced on assessment during the online teaching and learning process. thus, this study proposed 2 research questions: 1. how is the assessment process during the pandemic of covid-19? 2. what difficulties did the teacher have when assessing their students in the pandemic? how did the teacher overcome it? this study is expected to have practical and empirical impacts. first, practically, it is expected that this study improved the way the teacher assessed their students through an online platform; as well as overcome the difficulties that the teacher have in online assessment of the upcoming teaching and learning process. next, empirically, it is hoped that this study identified the perspective of the teacher towards the effectiveness of online assessment and to know the teacher’s method to solve the obstacles during an online assessment. methodology this study uses a qualitative case study as the design of the study with in-depth interviews with a key informant of a linguistic subject (ls) teacher as the main data source. interview guideline was used as the main instrument of the study. it is a guideline that ensures the interviewer follows a standard process of designing several related questions before conducting the interviews (creswell, 2014). in addition to in-depth interviews, to obtain more reliable data, the researcher also observed the online teaching and learning process by joining and observing the learning process and assessment outputs, such as student works and student assessment learning outcomes. data from interviews were transcribed and analyzed using miles and hubberman’s thematic analysis (miles & huberman, 1994) which comprises of (1) data collection; (2) data display; (3) data condensation; (4) concluding the data. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 267 figure 1. qualitative data analysis process (source: miles and hubberman, 1994) result and discussion based on the interviews with the linguistic subject (ls) teacher, it can be inferred that the findings of the first research question: “how is the assessment process during the pandemic of covid-19?” that since heterogeneity of students’ social economics background, sma negeri pakusari, jember, east java had given two options of the learning system for students, namely online and offline learning. in the online learning system, the school applied an application-based learning management system (lms), especially microsoft teams application. microsoft teams application can be accessed from either the website or mobile phone by downloading the application from android google playstore. according to the linguistic subject (ls) teacher’s elaboration during the interview, microsoft teams application is an efficient platform for teaching and learning. the reason is that microsoft teams application provides a video-conferencing tool, such as zoom video conference application that enables students and the ls teacher to lively interact with each other based on the decided schedule. besides that, microsoft teams application allows the ls teacher to automatically record students’ attendance during linguistic class. microsoft teams application also supports a commenting section that helps the ls teacher responding to students ‘questions if they do not understand specific materials. as for the assessment system, the ls teacher also used some functions or facilities provided by the microsoft teams application. microsoft teams can be utilized as a medium to upload the assignments, give several feedbacks to students, and correct students’ work without because it does not require a separate platform, for example from zoom or google meet to google classroom or whats app. according to the teacher, microsoft teams application is a flexible application as it can be used as a video conferencing application, moodle-like application, and a grading application at the same time. however, as the school provided two options of online and offline choices for students, the teacher needs to be more assertive in combining the online and offline assessments. this is since the students’ access to online learning facilities are not equal. according to the ls teacher, students who do not have access to technology and or could not afford to buy internet data or quota tend to choose offline classes. in an extreme situation, there were students who only attend offline classes, so some components of online assessments, such as student active participation in the online class or online presentation tasks, must be replaced by alternative offline assessments. meanwhile, for the offline learning system, the school offers a shift scheduling system with a tight protocol with a maximum of 20 students per class and a maximum of 2 hours per session with at least 5 minutes breaks between the classes starts from 10 a.m for the morning session and 2 p.m for the afternoon session. based on the teacher’s statement during the interview, dividing the students into two sessions systems supports the government’s decision of social distancing and protects students from getting the virus. moreover, splitting students into the morning and afternoon let the teachers take a rest and prepare for the next session. he further stated that the 2 hours class is beneficial for the ls teacher and students because it will assist students to review http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 268 and study for a longer duration and gain a deeper understanding of the materials. nonetheless, during the pandemic, the teacher-student interaction is shorter and far less intense compared with that before the pandemic, especially in terms of time to deliver materials to students. this situation leads to material coverage reduction and thus let students learn themselves and find more information from other sources. most students use the internet especially google to get more information and solutions to do their tasks. some students also use resources from education material or information website providers such as brainly or wikipedia. from the findings of the second research question: “how is the assessment process during the pandemic of covid-19?” the discussion stated that senior high school pakusari, jember, east java provides parents with options of online learning, offline learning or blended learning. the choices were given due to the covid-19 pandemic that occurred two years ago. as the school provided two options for students, the ls teacher had to merge and combine online and offline assessments for his students. the ls teacher argued that during the pandemic, teachers are required to be more creative as with blended systems and shift scheduling systems, the teacher needs to make different questions for each shift to reduce the probability of collusions among students, which otherwise may lead to bias in the assessment process and outcome. furthermore, in applying the blended system, the teacher mixed between utilizing microsoft teams application, such as submitting students’ assignments and extra sessions of videoconferencing. in doing that, the teacher must be creative in creating supplementary materials. the supplementary materials included powerpoint, canva, etc. not only that, but also the teacher made use of several quiz applications like quizzes, and kahoot to assess students’ achievement at the end of each session (formative evaluation) and the end semester (summative evaluation). the ls teacher's creativity engages students' active participation during the linguistic class and gains better grades for the subject. as for the offline class sessions, the ls teacher provides students with individual and group projects related to the current material obtained from the linguistic subject syllabus and textbook. the details of students’ assessment conducted by the ls teacher based on its purpose is described in table 1. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 269 table 1. types of assessments conducted by the ls teacher no. assessment purpose online assessment offline assessment 1 formative student active participation: q&a, less intense interactions schoolwork and homework: little or fewer school works, more variations of homework individual projects: essays end session evaluation: quizzes and kahoots (required teacher it literacy and creativity) student active participation: q&a, more intense interactions schoolwork and homework: more school works based on lks – students worksheet module end session evaluation: quiz based on the textbook (or lks – students worksheet module), individual presentation in front of the class (reading and speaking) 2 illuminative group projects: less comprehensive, i.e., powerpoint presentations, posters group projects: more comprehensives, i.e., group discussions, group works such as conversations or performances 3. summative end semester exams: google forms, quizzes and kahoots (online assessment – required teacher it literacy and creativity) end semester exams: multiple choices tests, essay test (written exams) source: primary data from in-depth interviews, 2020 furthermore, from the third research question: “what difficulties did the teacher have when assessing their students in the pandemic? how did the teacher overcome it?” the ls teacher said that the difficulties he faced when assessing their students in the pandemic are assessing writing and reading because the teacher cannot confirm whether students were honest in doing their assignments without discussing with their friends, cheating, and to convince or educate them not do so, especially concerning with high degree of plagiarism. therefore, the teacher must monitor students in doing their assignments. in online assessments, the ls teacher made a regulation for students to use the video-conferencing tool while filling out the learning management system (lms) provided by microsoft teams application. as an example, when assessing writing and reading, students must turn on their video conferencing while writing their essays or other related texts at a particular timeline on a session. as for the reading task, the ls teacher asked students to read aloud and summarize the content and explain the moral values of the reading text. after the ls teacher implemented such a cheating prevention method, the ls teacher saw the differences in the assessment results, found better variation in the student’s achievement thus he was able to distinguish between high, middle, and low-achiever students eventually. nevertheless, given a shorter time allocation for face-to-face interaction in class, based on student’s evaluation results, during the pandemic students’ achievement is generally lower than before the pandemic. according to the ls teacher, it is not surprising given shorter interaction between teachers and their students, unless the student is active in finding information from other sources, the students’ understanding generally tends to be lower since students rarely get feedback from teachers. this situation may lead to learning loss and students’ less understanding in turn. for this http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 270 reason, the ls teacher always tries to give some feedback to students, for example by giving them answer keys for their homework. however, he acknowledged that unlike before the pandemic, the feedback he had given to his students is very limited. especially, for speaking and writing skills, with a very limited time given in the schedule for face-to-face interaction, it is more difficult to give thorough evaluation and feedback. our findings are generally consistent with and strengthened by the previous research results. purwanto, pramono, asbari, wijayanti and hyun (2020) found out that online classes have several constraints, such as less coverage of materials, lack of technology skills both from students and teachers, limited feedback and higher internet bills. this type of teaching and learning allowed educators to creatively design innovative teaching and learning; as well as it helped to adapt in unprecedented situations (mayer, 2019). moreover, online learning is flexible in terms of time and space as it can be done anywhere using some software, such as microsoft teams and various activities (piskurich, 2006; singh & thurman, 2019). as for the assessment and the online classroom, the linguistic subject teacher used microsoft teams as it offers flexibility for conducting the assessment processes and video conferencing for the online classroom. this argument is in line with koceski and koceska (2013) who believed that videoconferencing is a technological tool during online learning that enables stimulation, a collaboration between the various sites, to support and foster student, educator communication; as well as allow flexible learning. however, while it is argued that online learning may reduce the cost of education by connecting students and teachers who are indifferent location (karal, cebi, & turgut, 2011), on the contrary, in the situation where technology is still expensive, and people access to online technology is relatively limited, the on-line learning system is perceived to be expensive. as noted above, some students’ reason for not choosing to attend online learning and coming to school for offline classes instead was due to the relatively high cost of the internet data package. furthermore, video conferencing may promote a student-centred type of learning as they have to be disciplined in following the class schedule online (lawson, comber, gage, & cullum‐hanshaw, 2010). thus, the video encourages flexibility in terms of the schedules and interaction created between students and teachers (karal et al., 2011). our findings also show that this technology helps the teacher and student to keep interacting during the pandemic and promote student active learning. however, with a limited time of interaction, teachers found that there has been some learning loss, so students’ understanding during the pandemic tended to be lower compared to that before the pandemic. meanwhile, for the learning management system (lms), it is an information system that facilitates e-learning by supporting teaching and learning, perform and manage administrative and pedagogical tasks; as well as facilitate communication between teachers and students (holmes & prieto-rodriguez, 2018; ouadoud, nejjari, chkouri, & el-kadiri, 2017). similarly, our findings show that while this technology could help the students to keep interacting with the teacher and facilitated teaching-learning process, limited schedule of interaction, infrastructure and access to technology had come up with some constraints for the teacher as well as students in the teaching, learning process which may lead to bias in the assessments. conclusion to conclude, online assessment is an impressive alternative to assess students whilst unpredictable times. this is because online assessments offer several features, namely learning management systems (lms) that enable students and teachers to create their accounts, interact with each other via virtual chat rooms, share materials and study autonomously; as well as videohttp://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(2) april 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 271 conferencing applications to continue teaching and learning process virtually. besides that, online assessments also offer flexibility and reliability as they can be adjusted based on the schedule and they can offer automatic correction. nonetheless, especially during the covid-19 pandemic when online learning is forced by condition and become necessary while infrastructure is often limited or people are not ready yet, there are several challenges of the online learning process and its assessment, namely the facilities, e.g.: gadgets and stable internet connection. not only that, but the users of online assessment must also be technology-literate as it eased the process of doing and submitting the assignments online. the online assessment also causes some problems as students can perform academic dishonesty, such as cheating, plagiarism and teamwork with their friends. as with blended and shift scheduling systems, during the pandemic teachers need to be more creative to create and use multi assessment methods in order to reduce the probability of students’ collusion that may lead to biases in evaluation. they also need to be assertive in combining the results of online and offline assessments so that it can guarantee fairness in which the assessment reflects the potential of each student. as a suggestion for future research, it is advised to see the perspective from both students and teachers to 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(2017). formative and summative assessment in higher education: opinions and practices of instructors. european journal of education studies. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 97 technique and ideology of vocatives and proper names in the hobbit weni ratnasari wenibolo@gmail.com sman 1 tembilahan hulu, indonesia issy yuliasri issy.yuliasri@gmail.com universitas negeri semarang, indonesia rudi hartono rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com universitas negeri semarang, indonesia received: 5 august 2016. revised: 20 october 2016. accepted: 28 october 2016 abstract the aim of this present study is to reveal the technique and ideology of vocatives and proper names in the hobbit. to be more precise, this study also examine translation quality of vocatives and proper names by assessing its accuracy, readability and acceptability. this study applied descriptive qualitative research. aside from getting data from the hobbit, the data are gotten from target readers’ and expert raters’ questionnaire. based on the analysis, the translator applied 9 techniques in translating 75 vocatives. in dealing with proper names, the translator used 7 translation techniques. this study reveals that the translator adopted more foreignization ideology in rendering vocatives and proper names into indonesian. it can be concluded that the translator intend to keep the originality of this novel, since he mostly copied the name of characters and georagphical name that appeared in this novel. dealing with the quality of translation, it is proved that there are various translation quality of vocatives and proper names found in the hobbit. it covers accurate, less accurate, inaccurate, acceptable, less acceptable, inacceptable, high readability, sufficient readability and low readability translation. keywords: ideology; proper names; technique; vocatives. how to cite: ratnasari, w., i. yuliasri, r. hartono. 2016. technique and ideology of vocatives and proper names in the hobbit. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. introduction ideology has become increasingly central in translation studies. hatim and mason mention the ideology of translation is a basic orientation chosen by the translator (in hatim and munday, 2004). if the translator believes that culture in source language needs to be preserved, it means the translator embraces the ideology of foreignization. conversely, if the translator considers a translation should be more concerned with culture in target language, so the translator embraces the ideology of domestication. for most of us, names are titles used to distinguish one person to another, and any possible further functions or meanings of names receive little or no attention at all. yet if we look at names and address term from different angle, we discover a fascinating world full of meaning and description (ainiala in makinen, 2010).when naming a literary character, many writers pay careful attention to find the most befit name to the fictive person they are crafting. the name, if it is chosen properly, can also describe, sum up and portray the characteristics of the fictional figure, help the reader in getting mailto:wenibolo@gmail.com mailto:issy.yuliasri@gmail.com mailto:rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 98 familiar with the story and the fictive world, and last but not least, also entertain and enliven the reading experience (bertills, 2003). in regard to the translation, to translate vocatives and proper names are not simple. the translators mostly face a complicated case while they are translating vocatives and proper names in novel since proper name usually has various allusions indicating gender, age, geographical terms, history, specific meaning, playfulness of language and cultural connotations (kalashnikov, 2006). as jaleniauskiene and cicelyte (2009) point out that the translation of proper names is one of the most challanging activities every translator faces. they also add that the translation of proper names is one of the most difficult areas any translator usually faces while working on adult or children’s literature. regarding the difficulties, the translation ideology of vocatives and proper names is interesting to discuss further. the aim of this present study is to reveal translation ideology which is reflected in translation of vocatives and proper names found in the hobbit or there and back again. to be more precise, this study also tries to identify the techniques applied by the translator to transfer the vocatives and proper names into target language and examines the quality of vocatives and proper names translation by assessing its accuracy, readability and acceptability. translation technique the translator should apply an appropriate translation technique to produce a good translation product. molina and albir (2002) argue that translation techniques are able to portray the steps used by translator during the process of translation in each textual microunit and to get the clear data about the general methodology chosen. in translating vocatives and proper names, the translator is demanded to make the translated text natural for the readers. the reason is that vocatives and proper names have singular references. they refer to particular person, place, or thing. proper name can also bring the cultural value on which the setting is set. if the translator just leave the names as they are without any necessary adjustment of the tl culture, it is possible that the translation will sound strange and unacceptable. on the other hand, when the translator changes the names, he or she does not transfer the message of sl because of omitting the culture brought by the author. molina and albir (2002) propose 18 translation techniques that can be used by the translator, they are adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalence, generalization, linguistic amplification, linguistic compression, literal translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution, transposition, and variation. in addition, fernandes (2006) proposes ten techniques which translator can adopt when dealing with names in fiction. they are rendition, copy, transcription, substitution, recreation, deletion, addition, transposition, phonological replacement and conventionality. as discussed below, the indonesian translator of the hobbit draws on a number of these techniques. translation ideology in the field of translation, ideology is defined as a principle or belief of right or wrong for a translation. ideology in translation also can be said as a perspective or belief to which a source language is oriented. in addition, hatim and mason (in hatim and munday, weni ratnasari, issy yuliasri, rudi hartono. 2016. technique and ideology of vocatives and proper names in the hobbit. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 99 2004) assume that ideology in translating is the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating within a social and cultural context. this translation ideology divided into two; foregnization and domestication. foreignization is one of the ideology of translation that invite readers to enter the scope of foreign cultures. it offers local color and atmosphere of the source language. foreignization is oriented to the source language and it implies and attempts to preserve the culture of the source text. venuti (1995) proposes that the notion of foreignization can alter the ways translations are read as well as produced. foreignization can be done by retaining or importing some essential concepts of source culture in tt. through foregnization, the tt can evoke not only the spirit of the st but also can enrich the reader’s knowledge about various cultures around the world. domestication is obviously the opposite of foreignization. domestication is resulted in translating a text with the transparent, fluent and invisible style in purpose to minimize the foreignness in the tt (yang, 2010). it can be done by exploiting and turning some significant foreign and unfamiliar concepts of the st into some familiar ones so as to make the translated text intelligible and easy for target reader. venuti (1998) adds that domestication is a natural tendency of translation and consists in translating in a fluent, idiomatic, and transparent way which tends to erase the foreignness of the source text and to conform to the needs and values of the target culture. when adopting domestication, translators assimilate the text to the target culture’s values, both linguistically and culturally. while when opting foreignization, translators retain some considerable features of the original, taking the reader “to the foreign text”. in other words, foreignization is sourcetext oriented ideology while domestication is target-text oriented ideology. as regards children’s literature specifically, the tendencies vary quite much; in some countries the aim is to domesticate as much as possible, whereas in others more features of the original are retained. various aspects, ranging from names of characters to genres and settings, can be domesticated or kept in original form. finally, in the context of children’s literature and fantasy novel, the choice between domesticating and foreignizing vocatives and proper names is a sensitive topic. certain tendency can result an inaccurate image of fictious figure and address term in the target text. thus, translation of vocatives and proper names in a fantasy novel is a prime example of how domesticating and foreignizing are present in this study. vocatives daniel and spencer (in sonnenhauser and hanna, 2013) mention that vocative is a form used for calling out and attracting or maintaining the addressee`s attention by using a term referring to her/him. all languages have made use of vocatives to call people by certain means. parrot (2010) mentions vocatives are addressee-oriented linguistic units that can be used in a variety of speech acts such as greetings, calls, commands, or requests. leech and svartvik (2002) add that vocatives can be used to mark the speaker’s relation to the hearer. moreover, zwicky (1974) points out that vocatives can express attitude, politeness, formality, status, intimacy, or a role relationship, and most of them mark the speaker as belonging to a language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 100 subculture, social class, or geographical dialect. proper names pour (2009) mentions proper names refer to a specific referent, that is, these names serve to distinguish a particular individual from others. j. soltesz (in vermes, 2001) defines proper names as expressions indicating unique things and parts of the linguistic system of the community to which the denotation of the name belongs (p.4). in addition, kiefer (in vermes, 2001) explains proper names are labels, which are used to identify entities. actually, proper names bring their meaning, personal name, for instance, the name sometime represents the identity of the object, which is totally indicate in which culture the characters belong. translation quality the translation is considered as a good translation when it has three elements. those three elements serve as a measure of the quality of translation. they are accuracy, acceptability and readability. accuracy deals with how accurate the translator delivers the message from st to tt. it implies the notion of keeping the original meaning as appeared in st then visualizing it by using equivalence words in tt. acceptability refers to the naturalness of the translation, whether the vocative and proper names used are acceptable with norms, rules, culture in target language. readability concerns on how easily written materials can be read and understood. it means, readable translation will not make the target reader get confused and there are no ambiguous words. methodology this study is descriptive qualitative research. the source of data used in this study are the original novel of the hobbit or there and back again and its indonesian translation the hobbit atau pergi dan kembali. this study used translation quality instrument by nababan which contains the scale of each classification. in collecting data, the writer applied content analysis and questionnaire. content analysis is applied to collect the data related to translation technique used by the translator in transferring vocatives and proper names into indonesian. the categorization of technique used by the translator will lead the writer in determining what translation ideology adopted by the translator. questionnaire is used to get opinion, response, and further information from the readers related to the quality of translation. questionnaires contains the scales of readability are distributed to 16 target readers. to validate the data, the writer applies triangulation by method or multi-method triangulation. in this study, there will be validation by three experts raters related to translation quality; accuracy, acceptability, and readability. the writer uses questionnaire and in-depth interview. the writer distributes the questionnaire containing the scales of accuracy, acceptability, and readability to the expert raters. in-depth-interview is conducted with the expert raters to validate responses or statements they give in the questionnaire. results and discussion translation technique and ideology of vocatives language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 101 table 1. translation technique and ideology of vocatives no translation technique translation ideology frequency percentage (%) 1 copy foreignization 37 38.54 2 literal translation 26 27.08 subtotal 63 65.62 3 discursive creation domestication 11 11.46 4 reduction 8 8.33 5 addition 6 6.25 6 generalization 5 5.21 7 established equivalent 1 1.04 8 deletion 1 1.04 9 transposition 1 1.04 subtotal 33 34.37 total 96 100 as seen from table 1, there are 9 techniques applied by the translator in rendering vocatives into indonesian. it is also noted that in the translation of vocatives, foreignization was the tendency utilized by the translator. foreignization ideology covers the use of copy and literal translation. domestication ideology is realized by the use of discursive creation, reduction, addition, generalization, established equivalent, deletion and transposition. copy this technique is similar with borrowing technique in which the words or phrases in the source language is borrowed directly, without any changes. most of them were in the form of personal name (full name, first name, last name and nickname). the analysis of the data will be pointed in example 1: example 1 from the vocative data above, “o gandalf” is categorized as personal name; first name. copy technique was done by the translator to translate the vocatives “o gandalf”. in this novel, mostly vocatives in term of personal name from st is mostly copied by translator from source language into target language, and even vocatives in term of title, such as “mr”, is retained by the translator (mr.bilbo baggins or mr. baggins), even it could be translated into “tuan”,“pak”,”bapak”. it indicates that the translator tries to maintain the message of the original author or remain the uniqueness of character’ names by reproducing the same name “gandalf” in the st into “gandalf” in tt and keep “the foreigness” from source text. st: “farewell! o gandalf!” said the king. tt: “selamat berpisah! o gandalf!” ujar raja peri. bt: “farewell! o gandalf!” said the elven language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 102 king. literal translation this technique was applied by translator to translate vocatives in the form of short and simple word, and does not contain specific and complicated expressions. in other words, this technique was used in translating the vocatives which is relatively easy and simple. the analysis of vocatives data will be discussed in detail below: example 2 st: “don’t dip your beard in the foam, father!” tt: “jangan cemplungkan janggutmu ke dalam buih, bapa!” bt: “don’t dip your beard in the foam, father!” the vocative “father” is included in honorific term. father can be applied as term to honor or address a superior. the elves called thorin as “father” because thorin was seen by the elves as a chief, ruler, and king. the vocative “father” has literal meaning “bapa” in target language. it means literal translation technique was applied by the translator. translation technique and ideology of proper names table 2. translation technique and ideology of proper names. no translation technique translation ideology frequency percentage (%) 1 copy foreignization 59 64.8 2 conventionality 10 10.9 subtotal 69 75.7 3 recreation domestication 12 13.2 4 adaptation 5 5.5 5 addition 3 3.3 6 generalization 1 1.1 7 deletion 1 1.1 subtotal 22 24.2 total 91 100 table 2 shows there are 7 techniques applied by translator in dealing with proper names. in addition, translator adopted more foreignization ideology in transferring proper names. most of characters’ name in the hobbit was fully borrowed by the translator. copy technique is considered as technique that refer to the foreignization ideology since the translator does not make any translations; he takes a word or expression straight from the source text into target text. conventionality was used by the translator to deal with name of temporal unit; name of day as in “wednesday” translated into “hari rabu”, “thursday” was rendered into “hari kamis”. conventionality was also used in dealing with another temporal unit: name (month and season) as in april, may, june, weni ratnasari, issy yuliasri, rudi hartono. 2016. technique and ideology of vocatives and proper names in the hobbit. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 103 autumn, winter. the rest was used to translate the name of species. in spite of that, domestication ideology was also applied by the translator as realized by the use of recreation, adaptation, addition, generalization and deletion. translation quality of vocatives from 75 data of vocatives, the writer found 48 (64%) vocatives translation which considered as accurate, 25 vocatives translation (33.3%) are less accurate, and 2 data (2.7%) are categorized as inaccurate vocatives translation. the data are qualified into accurate translation when the meaning of vocatives in the source text is completely transferred in the target text, no distortion meaning, and relevant to the context of situation. the examples of accurate translation can be seen below: example 3 st: “well, thief! i smell you and i feel your air.” tt: “nah, maling! aku mencium baumu dan aku bisa merasakan kehadiranmu” bt: “well, thief! i smell your scent and i feel your presence.” the vocative “thief” was uttered by smaug to address bilbo baggins who take smaug’s wealth by stealth. the vocative “thief” was translated into “maling” in target text. all raters consider that the message from source text has been transferred well into target text. the word “thief” is accurately translated into bahasa indonesia “maling” as its equivalent word. “maling” means taking someone’s property by stealth. so the translation is accurate. vocatives data belong to less accurate translation since there is distortion of meaning or double meaning which disturbs the wholeness of message. an example of the analyis is pointed below: example 4 st: “where is the old galion, the butler?” said one. tt: “dimana galion tua, si pelayan?” kata seorang peri. bt: “where is the old galion, the waiter?” said one of elves. example 4 was found in the novel telling one of the elves asked where galion to the butler as he had not seen him at the feast that night. the vocative “the butler” in st was translated into “si pelayan” in tt. in fact, the butler refers to “kepala pelayan”. in addition, they argue that the addition of “si” made distortion meaning to the translation. in bahasa indonesia, “si” is one of the articles that used to accompany the person's name, or a noun formed from another type of word, as in “si cantik”, “si manis”, “si kelinci” etc. in this case, the translation “si pelayan” is not suitable to the context of the situation of the conversation. it is better to simply translate into “kepala pelayan” without the addition of “si”. the vocative data are classified into inaccurate translation since the translation of vocative totally has different meaning or omitted by the translator. further analysis is exemplified as follows: example 5 st:“at your service, o master of the wide wooden halls!” tt: (omitted by the translator) as seen from example 5, the vocative “o master of the wide wooden halls” was eliminated by the translator. vocative “o master of the wide wooden halls” was referred to beorn who had a wooden house, in the region between the misty mountains and mirkwood. yet the translation can be simply “tuan pemilik rumah kayu”, or“pemilik language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 104 rumah kayu yang luas.” all raters consider that this translation is not accurate since the vocative was deleted and the message from st did not deliver by the translator. in term of acceptability, the writer noticed that 52 vocatives translation (69.3%) are categorized as acceptable, 22 less acceptable (29.3%), and 1 vocative data (1.4%) considered as inacceptable translation. while concerning to readability, the writer found 56 (74.7%) vocatives translation are considered as highly readable, 18 (24%) vocative translation are classified into sufficient readability and 1 (1.3%) has low readability level. translation quality of proper names out of 88 data of proper names, there are 72 data of proper names (81.8%) which are categorized into accurate translation, 12 data (13.6%) that classified into less accurate translation, and 4 data (4.6%) belongs in inaccurate translation. the calculation is based on the assessment given by expert raters. dealing with acceptability of proper names, the writer noticed that 78 proper names translation (88.6%) are categorized as acceptable, 9 (10.2%) less acceptable, and 1 data (1.2%) is included in inacceptable translation. the translation of proper names is said to be acceptable if translated proper name is familiar to the reader, common in use and does not sound strange. example 6 st: is all should know the first day of the last moon of autumn on the threshold of winter. tt: kebanyakan orang mengenalnya sebagai hari pertama bulan terakhir musim gugur di ambang musim dingin. bt: most people know it as the first day of the last month of autumn on the verge of winter. “autumn”, also known as fall and “winter “are two of the four temperate seasons. “autumn” marks the transition from summer into winter, in september or march. one of autumn main features is the shedding of leaves from deciduous trees. “winter” is marked by the existence of snow. the translator rendered “autumn” in st into “musim gugur” and “winter” into “musim dingin” in tt. even though indonesia has only two seasons, wet and dry, “musim gugur” and “musim dingin” are widely known and famliar by indonesian people. so the translation is classified into acceptable translation. proper names are classified into less acceptable translation since the translation of proper name is not so natural and not familiar to the reader, rarely in use and it sounds a bit strange. further analysis is exemplified below: example 7 st: they differed from the high elves of the west. tt: sifat mereka berbeda dengan peri tinggi dari barat. “high elves” are distinguished from other fantasy elves by their place of living, as they usually dwell in stone cities, instead of woods, like wood-elves. “high elves” was considered as the most purely good race and they are usually have the most magically and powerful power of all elves, such as the ability to see ringwraiths and other shadow creatures, and to combat such entities. the translator translated “high elves” into “peri tinggi. this translation caused the ambiguity and it sounded a bit strange, whether the name “peri tinggi” refer to a position of that elves, to show the height (body) of that elves, or even to state that “peri tinggi” is the king of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/temperate https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/season https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/summer https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/winter https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/leaf#seasonal_leaf_loss https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/deciduous_trees weni ratnasari, issy yuliasri, rudi hartono. 2016. technique and ideology of vocatives and proper names in the hobbit. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 105 other elves. consequently, the translation is included in less acceptable. from the total 88 data of proper names, the writer found only 1 data which is classified into inacceptable translation. the data is presented as follow: example 8 st: very quickly he was plain mr.baggins of bag-end, underhill, again. tt: dalam sekejap ia kembali menjadi mr.bilbo baggins dari bag end yang menyukai ketentraman. bt: in a flash he was back to being mr.bilbo baggins from the bag endwho like tranquility. as noticed from example 8, the proper name “underhill” was omitted by the translator. the raters agreed that the translation is in acceptable since the translator did not convey the proper names from st to tt, and he deleted the name instead. the translator added the information into “mr.bilbo baggins dari bag end yang menyukai ketentraman”. this additional information is not presented where the “under hill” is, and has no association with original novel. it shows that this translation is inacceptable. in addition, there are 66 (75%) data of proper names considered as high readability, 21 (23.8%) sufficient readability and 1 (1.2%) translation of proper name classified into low readability. conclusions based on the findings of this study, the translator applied 9 techniques in translating 75 vocatives data within the hobbit. these 9 translation techniques are copy, literal translation, discursive creation, reduction, addition, establish equivalence, generalization, deletion and transposition. in dealing with proper names, the translator used 7 translation technique. they are copy that used 59 times (64.8%), recreation that was used 12 times (13.2%), conventonality was used 10 times (10.9%), adaptation was applied 5 times (5.5%), addition was applied 3 times (3.3%), and the rest were generalization (1.1%) and deletion (1.1%) that applied 1 times. this study reveals that the translator adopted more ideology of foreignization in transferring vocatives into indonesian. it is realized by the use of copy and literal translation technique that applied by the translator to transfer 67 vocatives data, while 29 vocatives data were domesticated. this study also reveals that the translator adopted more foreignization ideology when deal with proper names. 69 data of proper names were foreignized by the translator, while 22 data were domesticated. it can be concluded that the translator intend to keep the originality of this novel, since he mostly copied the name of characters, name of place, and even fully borrowed other names that appeared in this novel. dealing with the quality of translation, it is proved that there are various translation quality appears in the translation of vocatives and proper names out of 75 vocatives data, 48 vocatives translation are accurate, 25 vocatives translation are less accurate, and 2 data are categorized as inaccurate vocatives translation. in term of acceptability, 52 vocatives translation are acceptable, 22 less acceptable, and 1 vocative considered as inacceptable translation. in term of readability, 56 vocatives translation are included in high readability category, 18 vocative translation are classified into sufficient readability and 1 has low readability level. meanwhile, from 88 data of translated proper names, 72 data are accurate, language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 106 12 data are less accurate, and 4 of them belong in inaccurate translation. in addition, 78 data of proper names are categorized as acceptable translation, 9 data are less acceptable and 1 data is included in inacceptable translation. in term of readability, 66 data of proper names considered as high readability, 21 data have sufficient readability and 1 translation of proper has low readability 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(2013).vocative!: addressing between system and performance. berlin: walter de gruyter. tolkien, j.r.r. (2001). the hobbit: there and back again. new york: houghton mifflin company. venuti, l. (1995). the translator’s invisibility. new york: routledge. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa44dce10e5 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 53 l’analyse semiotique de la nouvelle les yeux de soie de françoise sagan (semiotic analyse in françoise sagan’s the eyes of silk) mohamad syaefudin semarang state university abstract this writing aims to reveal that behind women’s weakness and tenderness there is an invisible power that can overturn men’s domination. while care seems more effective to get women’s love and respect, men tend to rely on domination. this, in fact, does not always work. semiotic is a kind of analysis used to uncover the meaning of signs in a text. in literature this analysis serves to show different types of meaning. in this novel, there is a couple jerome and monica, and their friend stanislas. jerome dominates and excels in everything. he spends time hunting wild animals and doing man’s other sports. monica is a housewife who is thirsty of her husband’s attention. she makes an affair with stanislas, her husband’s friend. one day jerome takes monica, stanislas and another woman to deer-hunting. later he finds out that there is something between her wife and stanislas. driven by jealousy, he decides to kill them both. the writer used semiotic analysis because there are many signs of syntagmatic and paradigmatic meanings to discover. key words: sémiotique, littérature introduction le texte est une série de mots dont l’agencement produit un sens et parfois est employé dans un sens plus étendu pour designer toute sorte d’ensembles de signes, de quelques langages qu’ils relèvent. ainsi, un texte peut être lu littérairement dès qu’il suscite un quelconque plaisir esthétique, dès qu’il peut être signifiant par sa forme et dépasser de la sorte la seule fonction utilitaire. le texte littéraire peut donc être à la fois un objet de plaisir, un réservoir d’idées et d’images offert au lecteur, et un lieu d’une forme de savoir et de connaissance du réel. « les yeux de soie » est une des nouvelles de françoise sagan, parue dans le livre en même titre. cette nouvelle contient 231 pages dont l’éditeur flammarion datant du 8 janvier 1992. cette nouvelle s’agit du problème familial chez les berthier. le récit s’entoure au cercle amour—trahison—jalousie de leurs personnages. problématique cette communication découvre donc le signe et le sens. en analysant les relations syntagmatique et paradigmatique dont les éléments comprennent les séquences, la fonction principale, les personnages, l’aspect, entre autres, on peut connaître bien l’idée et la pensée de son auteur. cela nous mène à la compréhension du récit. les problèmes dans cette présentation sont « comment analyser la nouvelle « les yeux de soie » en appliquant la théorie de la sémiotique? ; quels sont les sens cachés dans le domaine syntagmatique et paradigmatique? ; quel message que sagan voudrait transmettre aux lecteurs? » application de sémiotique à la littérature language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 54 pour découvrir le sens d’un œuvre littéraire, zaimar (1991) conseille d’étudier d’abord dans le domaine syntagmatique « la séquence, la fonction et l’ordre des récits», consécutivement au domaine paradigmatique « le personnage, l’aspect, le figure de mots. le sens syntagmatique veut découvrir la relation in praesentia. ce sont les éléments qui pourraient être observés directement et dans l’ordre des séquences. tandis que le sens paradigmatique est un élément in absentia qui se disperse dans toute partie d’énoncé. on peut le trouver n’importe où sans regarder l’ordre. pour rendre le répartissant de sens d’une façon plus facile, morris in noth (1990) a divisé la sémiotique en trois catégories linguistiques : la syntactique, la sémantique, et la pragmatique. analyse de nouvelle les yeux de soie la syntactique la première analyse dans le domaine syntagmatique est de chercher les séquences dans le récit. la séquence est, d’une façon générale, un segment de texte qui forme un tout cohérent autour d’un même centre d’intérêt. une séquence narrative correspond à une série de faits représentant une étape dans l’évolution de l’action (schmit et viala, 1982). les yeux de soie a 70 séquences qui construissent les histoires par hiérarchie. après avoir connu les séquences, on arrive à la fonction principale dans le récit. la fonction principale a pour but de regrouper des idées ayant le même sens. il y a 28 fonctions et ils représentent dans le schéma suivant. (1) la vie tranquille du couple. (2) le caractère de jérôme qui est très dominant dans la vie conjugale : c’est lui qui décide tout et qui fait tout. il n’a jamais loupé de rien, il aime la chasse. (3) l’ennuie de la femme, monica. (4) la fréquentation de l’ami d’enfance de jérôme : stanislas qui est un coureur de jupon. (5) la relation amoureuse entre monica et stanislas. (6) l’événement important : la chasse. le couple amène stanislas et sa maîtresse, betty à la chasse. (7) la joie de jérôme pendant le voyage. (8) l’amour de jérôme pour monica était grand. (9) la position dans la voiture : betty est assise à côté de jérôme, devant ; monica est à côté de stanislas, derrière. (10) l’action de jérôme de baisser le rétroviseur, par hasard il voit la main de stanislas qui s’est appuyé à celle de monica. (11) la demande de stanislas à monica de se débrouiller de trouver le temps et l’excuse pour le rendez-vous avec lui. (12) la jalousie de jérôme. (13) la musique de la tosca à la radio. on arrive au moment où scarpia décide de tuer mario par jalousie. (14) l’accord de stanislas à cette action de scarpia. (15) la décision de jérôme de tuer stanislas. (16) au chalet de chasse, jérôme a envie de faire ce qu’il veut à sa femme, mais monica le refuse gentiment et elle lui dit de se coucher tôt plusieurs fois. (17) la jalousie de jérôme augmente. (18) a la chasse, jérôme essaie de tirer sur stanislas mais il a raté jusqu’à 3 fois. (19) la décision de jérôme de suivre une grande et belle isard qu’il a baptisée monica. (20) l’action de jérôme : il a suivi cet isard jusqu’à dehors du lieu de chasse. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 55 (21) l’effort de jérôme pour tuer l’isard : il avait marché pendant 10 heures. il était épuisé, il s’est engagé dans une marre mais il a réussi d’en sortir. (22) la proie l’attend : il pourrait tuer cet isard mais il n’a pas osé de tirer sur lui. (23) l’arrivée de jérôme au rendez-vous de chasse. (24) l’angoisse de monica qui a attendu jérôme depuis long temps. (25) l’attitude de monica : elle est très pâle et elle a pleuré. (26) la réponse de monica à la question de jérôme : elle a peur que son marie meure. (27) le bonheur de jérôme. (28) le mécontentement de stanislas. les 28 fonctions peuvent être désignés dans le schéma suivant. résumé de la fonction principale la vie de la famille de jérôme est tranquille. il a épousé monica depuis 13 ans, mais il ne se communique pas avec sa femme. jérôme est un homme dur, très dominant, pas seulement dans la famille mais aussi dans la vie conjugale, parmi ses amis. jérôme décide et fait tout, dans tous les affaires et il est toujours réussi. sa femme, monica est ennuie de cette condition. stanislas, qui est l’ami d’enfance de jérôme profite de cette situation. il fréquentait chez eux, il faisait même une relation amoureuse avec monica. stanislas, lui-même, est un playboy. la demande de stanislas à monica de se débrouiller de trouver le temps et l’excuse pour le rendez-vous avec lui. jérôme ne sait pas la vérité que sa femme avait une relation spéciale avec son ami, jusque le jour quand il allait à la chasse : son activité préférence. il fréquente tous les quinze jours. a ce jour-là, il a amené monica, stanislas et sa maitresse, betty à la chasse en allemagne. pendant le voyage, jérôme est très heureux grâce à la nature, à la musique et surtout grâce à la présence de sa femme. avant, elle ne le suivait jamais. dans le voyage vers chalet de chasse, il y avait un changement de siège. betty et assise à côté de jérôme, devant ; monica est à côté de stanislas au derrière. par hasard, quand jérôme a baissé le rétroviseur, il voit la main de stanislas 3 1 8 1 1 5 1 0 1 2 2 4 6 7 9 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 56 s’est appuyé à celle de monica. cela lui fait jaloux. pendant le voyage au chalet de chasse, ils écoutaient la musique de la tosca. quand on est arrivé au moment où scarpia décidait de tuer mario par jalousie, jérôme a demandé à stanislas sur son opinion. stanislas s’est accordé de l’action de scarpia. cette réponse légitimait l’idée de jérôme de tuer stanislas. au chalet de chasse, jérôme avait envie de faire ce qu’il voulait à sa femme, mais monica l’a refusé gentiment et elle lui a dit de se coucher tôt plusieurs fois. la réjection de monica a augmenté la jalousie de jérôme. à la chasse, jérôme essayait de tirer sur stanislas mais il a loupé jusque 3 fois. alors, il a décidé de suivre « une grande et belle isard » qu’il avait baptisé monica. il l’a suivi jusque dehors du lieu de chasse. il a essayé très fort pour tuer l’isard : il avait marché pendant 10 heures et il était épuisé. même il s’est engagé dans une marre mais il a réussi d’en sortir. enfin, il a trouvé sa proie qui l’attendait. jérôme aurait pu le tuer mais il n’a pas osé de tirer sur lui. ensuite, jérôme est rentré au chalet sans sa proie. là-bas, tout le monde était inquiet, monica aussi. elle était très pâle et elle a pleuré de peur que son mari soit mort. la réponse de monica lui a beaucoup plu. jérôme et monica étaient heureux. au contraire, stanislas devient mécontent. sémantique on cherche dans le sémantique le personnage, l’ambiance, l’idée, et le sens. (zaimar 1991 :14). dans cette analyse je focalise sur le personnage et l’aspect (lieu et temps) auxquels l’histoire dépend. vous trouverez ci-dessous le personnage et l’aspect de cette nouvelle. le personnage on va parler de trois personnages principaux dans ce récit. ce sont jérôme, monica et stanislas. jérôme jérôme a un physique fort qui est suivi également de son caractère dominant, viril, et tranquille. sagan a décrit comme suivant : « stanislas brem était aussi long, flexible et inquiet d’allure que jérôme était sûr, solide et décidé. » … « les gens disaient de lui qu’il était un homme simple, presque brutal, … » « il était un homme viril, fidèle, et tranquille ». ; « jérôme avait toujours les premier prix et, quand on se battait en récréation, il avait le meilleur coup de poing, et souvent pour me défendre ... » ; « comme d’habitude, il se sentit le responsable, le pilot de cette cabine spatiale qui les menait à la hutte de chasse. » il aime toujours sa femme. on peut voir dans la citation : « … depuis treize ans qu’ils étaient mariés, il assurait à cette femme –la seule qu’il eût jamais aimée--…. ». c’est à cause de cela qu’il a un sentiment amoureux si profond mais il n’exprime qu’un peu devant sa femme. la conséquence, il tombe dans la jalousie. la citation suivante montre le fait de jérôme : « … la petit glace du rétroviseur et ce qu’il vit, ce fut la main longue de stanislas appuyée, paume à paume à celle de monica,… qu’il voulait bref que cet homme-là meure … ». l’effet de sa jalousie est qu’il devient revanchard. regardez la citation suivante : « alors, il retira sa main, … réfléchissait méticuleusement, ….dont il pourrait … éliminer de la vie, et surtout de la vie de cette étrangère à ses côtés, un connu … nommé stanislas. » ayant les critères d’un homme masculin, il garde même en lui un côté mélancolique. regardez la citation suivante : « …, la voix extravagante de la caballe envahit la voiture, … jérôme se sentit les larmes lui monter aux yeux. » ; « je pourrais language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 57 me retrouver vers elle, pensa-t-il, la prendre dans mes bras, … et quelqu’un en lui, quelqu’un en puéril, de faible et d’affamé …. » ; « … et il faisait mauvais et j’étais triste. » stanislas stanislas a le figure et caractère tout différemment de jérôme. il se décrit comme un homme grande, flexible et inquiet. « stanislas brem était aussi long, flexible et inquiet d’allure que jérôme était sûr, solide et décidé. » mais il est un gens intéressant. « il était extrêmement séduisant dans le genre gai, un peu dégénéré, un peu play-boy, un peu loup. ». sa qualité pourrait séduire monica : « … ce fut la main longue de stanislas appuyée, paume à paume à celle de monica,…». monica monica est une belle dame, tranquille, calme ayant le caractère mystérieux : « et sa femme, la belle monica ... » ; « parfois, cependant, il se demandait ce qu’il y avait derrière la tranquillité, les yeux sombres et calmes de sa belle monica. » en vérité elle aime bien son mari. mais à la suite d’absence de l’attention, elle tombe dans le scandale avec l’ami de jérôme. stanislas. de plus stanislas connaît bien comment communiquer avec elle : la situation que n’obtient pas monica de son mari. mais à la fin du récit, elle aperçoit que jérôme reste une figure irremplaçable dans la vie. l’aspect il y a deux aspects que les lecteurs pourraient observer. ce sont les aspects de temps et de lieu. temps le temps peut montrer le sens qui présente les différentes ambiances du récit. j’ai noté quatre temps principaux dans cette nouvelle. premièrement, c’est le temps de tranquillité : on pourrait trouver dans les temps suivants : le matin au voyage, le soir au chalet, le matin à l’aéroport. ce sont les temps qui suivent la tranquillité d’histoires où il n’y a aucune surprise. les problèmes n’apparaissent pas. jérôme n’a pas appris le véritable problème auprès de sa famille. deuxièmement, c’est le temps de misère. c’était le temps où jérôme a trouvé la situation douloureuse lors du soir avant de la chasse. le soir est un signe de l’obscurité ; il se ressemble au moment où le rayon du soleil disparaît. a ce moment-là, jérôme était ensemble avec monica, mais rien ne supporte leur ensemble. monica ne montre pas l’attention, voire elle a demandé plusieurs fois à son mari de bientôt se coucher. troisièmement, c’est le temps de transition : on trouve deux transitions : celle de la joie à la misère et celle de la misère à la joie. la première transition se fait lors de l’après-midi au voyage vers le chalet. avant jérôme était ravi de passer leur journée de chasse. mais ayant vu vers le rétroviseur, la main de stanislas s’est appuyée sur celle de monica dans la voiture, il s’est mis en mauvais humour. en plus les fantaisies lui dirigeait de tomber plus profond dans la jalousie : ce qui devient la raison pour tuer stanislas. mais, il y a également la transition de la misère à la joie: il se fait à l’après-midi, vers cinq heures après la rencontre de l’isard pour la sixième fois. c’est l’isard qu’il avait nommé monica. l’isard est un signe d’animal séduisant, mais il n’est pas facile à capturer. la rencontre pour la sixième fois de cet animal, après l’échec de le tirer, renforce le fait qu’il aime toujours l’isard : le représentant de monica. quatrièmement le temps du bonheur. comme dit le proverbe « après la pluie, le beau temps », jérôme a enfin retrouvé l’amour de sa femme. c’était le temps de bonheur qui s’est fait à la language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 58 soirée après la chasse devant la cheminée. l’inquiétude de monica de la sécurité de son mari a prouvé que l’amour existe dans son cœur. lieu il y a huit lieux dans cette histoire dont les sens sont comme suivants : la route vers chez stanislas a le sens de la tranquillité et la domination ; l’aéroport roissy charles de gaule a le sens de la domination ; l’avion est comme représentant de la séduction ; la route vers le chalet de chasse porte le sens de la jalousie ; le chalet de chasse montre la domination ; la forêt à bavière (bayern, allemand) a le sens de la jalousie et la revendication ; la marre devient la transition entre le désespoir et le soulagement, entre la haie et l’amour, entre faible et fort ; et la dernière, c’est la chambre. il y a deux sens de l’existant de la chambre: la chambre avant de la chasse a le sens du soupçon, souffrant, et jaloux, tandis qu’après la chasse montre le bonheur. analyse pragmatique le pragmatique étudie le rapport entre le sens utilisé dans le contexte communicationnel avec d’autres personnes. on cherche dans la pragmatique l’ordre d’événement, la durée d’événement, la fréquence et le point de vue (zaimar 1991 :17). on peut ajouter aussi la figure de styles pour connaître le point de vue de l’auteur. mais dans cette analyse on va se concentrer sur la figure de style. il y a deux figures de styles proposées, ce sont la métonymie et la métaphore. métonymie françoise sagan a mis beaucoup de métonymies pour enrichir l’histoire : ce sont (1) l’aéroport roissy charles de gaule ; (2) cabale dans la citation « la voix de caballe envahit la voiture. » caballe est une cantatrice célèbre ; (3) tosca : tosca est un opéra en trois actes de giacomo puccini, sur un livret de luigi illica et giuseppe giacosa, d'après la pièce de victorien sardou. il fut créé le 14 janvier 1900 au teatro costanzi de rome. c’est un des personnage dans cet ’opéra. il réfère à un nomme d’une chanteuse célèbre, floria tosca ; (4) scarpia, dans la phrase « ils en sont à l’instant où scarpia décide de tuer mario par jalousie. » mario et scarpia sont les personnages dans l’opéra de la tosca. mario cavaradossi est un peintre et scarpia (le baron scarpia), est chef de la police ; (5) bavière : dans la phrase « … en bavière à l’automne ». bavière (bayern) est une région en allemagne où se trouve la forêt ; (6) cognac : il se trouve dans la phrase « stanislas lui donna du cognac. » cognac est une eau-de-vie fine, produite dans une région délimitée centrée autour de cognac, en pratique sur la quasi totalité des départements de la charente et de la charente-maritime, et en respectant des normes et des règles de production afin de pouvoir obtenir l'appellation cognac. métaphore la métaphore opère une transformation des termes en se fondant sur la ressemblance entre leurs signifiés : l'homme est un loup pour l'homme. on la reconnaît à ce qu'il y a " semblable à " " comme ", " pareil à " dans une phrase sans en changer le sens. elle exprime une réalité qui est en général plus concrète, plus sensible et plus immédiat. l’auteur utilise la métaphore pour décrire les personnages et la situation soit concrète, soit imaginaire: jérôme l’auteur a décrit la tristesse de jérôme en utilisant la phrase « il pleuvait des seaux. » cette expression est utilisée pour décrire la pluie. elle a décrit également le fait de jérôme comme un http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/op%c3%a9ra_%28musique%29 http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/giacomo_puccini http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/luigi_illica http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/giuseppe_giacosa http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/victorien_sardou http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/victorien_sardou http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/victorien_sardou http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_janvier http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900_en_musique_classique http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/op%c3%a9ra_de_rome http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/op%c3%a9ra_de_rome http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/op%c3%a9ra_de_rome http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/rome http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/eau-de-vie http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/cognac_%28charente%29 http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/charente_%28d%c3%a9partement%29 http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/charente-maritime http://yrol.free.fr/littera/rhetorique/m.htm language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 59 homme viril « ce n’était pas un homme à somnifères, ni à amphétamines. mais un homme à rien, « un homme simple », pense-t-il ….. stanislas l’auteur a décrit stanislas comme un loup, un animal très malin dans la phrase « il était extrêmement séduisant dans le genre de gai,… un peu loup. d’autre occasion, elle le décrit comme un gibier. « son gibier avait les cheveux blonds, un costume de daim et de cuir fauve, … » ceci était une phrase dite par jérôme pour appeler stanislas, parce qu’en ce moment-là, il allait le tuer. monica monica est décrit comme isard dans la phrase « il avait baptisé cet isard « monica », … ». l’isard est un animal très séduisant pour le chasseur : il a du charme, de la tranquillité, mais difficile à capturer. isard l’auteur a beaucoup décrit l’isard dans telles expressions : « il était toujours aussi beau, un peu trempé de sueur, et ses yeux bleu-jaune, ses yeux de soie, … » ceci est une description très détaillé d’un isard. ce regard est destiné à la beauté de cet isard mais il est représentant aussi de monica. et jérôme a avoué la beauté dans la phrase « peut-être fut-ce à cause de cet effort désespéré et maladroit, peut-être cette beauté simple. » il rencontre un isard, le seul objectif de la chasse, même il est vis-à-vis de cet animal, mais il n’ose pas de tirer sur cet animal-là. situation la description de la situation est plein de métaphore. on peut trouver les phrases telles que le mur, l’enfer, les odeurs de classique. dans les phrases « mais le jeu des phares, des essuieglaces, le bruit de moteur interposaient entre lui et les autres une sorte de mur si désagréable », l’auteur va décrire une sorte de barrière qui dérange jérôme en conduisant la voiture. puis il y a une description « les virages étaient très durs et il faisait déjà nuit noire » pour exprimer la situation désagréable. la description la plus claire se trouve dans l’expression « après, il y eut roissy, l’enfer de roissy, … ». ceci décrit la situation insupportable dans l’aéroport entre bruit, chaleur, et silence du personnage. pour jérôme, cette situation ressemblait à l’enfer. enfin, le mot ‘chasse’ a également le sens péjoratif que jérôme essaie de chasser son amour, après avoir appris les cotés lacunaires en tant qu’homme simple ! conclusion l’analyse sémiotique de la nouvelle « les yeux de soie » de françoise sagan nous emmène à une lecture profonde sur le signe et son signification. on peut trouver le sens dans trois domaines : syntactique, sémantique et pragmatique. quant à syntactique, on a trouvé 70 conséquences dans 28 ordres principales. la sémantique se couvre le personnage et l’ambiance. on trouve 3 personnages principaux avec leurs caractères et l’aspect qui sert à l’enrichissement de l’histoire. enfin, la pragmatique analyse la figure des mots utilisés. ce sont la métonymie et le métaphore. bibliography m. p schmit et viala. 1982. savoir lire. paris. nöth, winfried. 1990. handbook of semiotic. bloomington and indianapolis: indiana university press. zaimar, okke k.s. 1991. «sémiotique et son application sur la littérature » l’article paru dans « le stage de la théorie littéraire et les language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 60 courants dans le monde littéraire» yogyakarta : 25 – 28 février. sitographie http://yrol.free.fr/littera/rhetorique/rhetori que3.htm http://yrol.free.fr/littera/rhetorique/rhetorique3.htm http://yrol.free.fr/littera/rhetorique/rhetorique3.htm language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 125 the implementation of ctl method in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang rahmad risan ilmu keolahragaan, fakultas ilmu keolahragaan, universitas negeri makassar sulawesi selatan indonesia rahmadrisan@unm.ac.id hasriani pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas bahasa dan sastra, universitas negeri makassar sulawesi selatan indonesia hasriani@unm.ac.id maemuna muhayyang pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas bahasa dan sastra, universitas negeri makassar sulawesi selatan indonesia maemarasyid@gmail.com abstract this research shows the implementation of contextual teaching and learning conducted by the english teachers of man 1 enrekang in teaching english. man 1 enrekang is senior high school that is located in enrekang regency, sulawesi selatan, as one of the schools where most of the teachers there implement ctl method in teaching, include teaching english. however, sometimes the students still find it difficult to understand the material being taught, especially english. this research employed descriptive qualitative method, in which the data collected and analyzed qualitatively by giving description about the phenomena or facts have been found in the field. the subjects of the research were the english teachers of man 1 enrekang. they are english teachers who have implemented ctl in teaching english. based on the result, it can be concluded that the implementation of ctl method in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang was not totally or fully conducted. there are seven elements should be applied in teaching and learning for implementing ctl. they are constructivism, inquiry, modeling, reflection, learning community, questioning, and authentic assessment. eventhough the teachers understood and admitted implementing ctl in teaching english, the result of the observation shows that the english teachers applied only five elements of ctl in the classroom, while there were two elements of ctl those have not been applied because of the limited time in teaching and learning process, they are constructivism and inquiry. the element of ctl that was applied frequently is questioning. keywords: ctl, teaching english, elements. introduction english as a foreign language is functioning as a tool of expressing ideas, opinions, and feelings. it is the first foreign language, which is very important in acquiring and developing science, technology, culture and keeping the rela tionship among countries all over the world. as the foreign language that has many functions, english is taught as a compulsory subject from the first year of junior high school up to the freshman year of university, even now it is taught start from elementary school as a local content curriculum. policy makers set a high expectation when english was adopted as a first foreign language to https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:1rahmadrisan@unm.ac.id mailto:1rahmadrisan@unm.ac.id mailto:2hasriani@unm.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 126 be taught in secondary schools in indonesia. teaching of english in junior high schools was intended to prepare students to enter senior high school and then university. furthermore, the facts occur that the majority of the students in the school are unable to apply what they have gained in the classroom to the real world situation. they can’t make connections between what they are learning and how that knowledge will be used. it is caused by the process of the information and their motivation in learning that is still conducted by the traditional method. the students have some difficulties to understand the given academic concept (such as language concept). of course, they desperately need to understand the concept as that is related with their surrounding and their large society activities, or the workplace and the larger society in which they will live and work. traditionally, students have been expected to make these connections on their own outside classroom. beside that, kasbolah, said for years it has been a teacher-oriented approach-everything comes from the teacher and the students were supposed to sit sweetly and quietly and listen. but then, because of the development of other countries and also this globalization era we have to do something. our students need to see the real world. not just from the textbooks and from the teacher’s knowledge (kasbolah k, 2002) a lot of efforts have been made to improve english teaching: curriculum, methodology, and technical aspects such as classroom, textbooks, and the media. but the result is still unsatisfactory. what is the best way to convey the many concepts that are taught in a particular course so that all students can use and retain that information? how can the individual lessons be understood as interconnected pieces that build upon each other? how can a teacher communicate effectively with students who wonder about the reason for, the meaning of, and the relevance of what they study? how can we open the minds of a diverse student population so they can learn concepts and techniques that will open doors of opportunity for them throughout their lives? these are the challenges teachers face every day (risan & g, 2019) however, growing numbers of teachers today (especially those frustrated by repeated lack of student success in demonstrating basic proficiency on standard tests) are discovering that most students' interest and achievement in math, science, and language improve dramatically when they are helped to make connections between new information (knowledge) and experiences they have had, or with other knowledge they have already mastered. students' involvement in their schoolwork increases significantly when they are taught why they are learning the concepts and how those concepts can be used outside the classroom. and most students learn much more efficiently when they are allowed to work cooperatively with other students in groups or teams. instructional approaches in indonesia education system, especially in english teaching and learning have been changed several times, but the optimal result were not shown yet. in this case, it can show the fact in the field that most students could not speak english well and they have low grades in the result of the national leaving examination. contextual teaching and learning approach represents a concept that involves connecting the content of the students’ learning with the context in which that content could be used. connecting content with context is an important part of bringing meaning to the learning process. ctl helps students discover meaning in their studies by connecting academic material with the context of their daily lives. they make significant connection that yield meaning by practicing self regulated learning, collaborating, thinking critically and creatively, respecting others, reaching high standards, and participating in authentic assessment task. ctl is a conception of teaching that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations, and motivates students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 127 there are some elements that must be applied in implementing ctl method in teaching or learning. a classroom can be said implement ctl method if the seven elements are applied in the teaching and learning. 1) constructivism, kasihani (2007:17) states that constructivism is a learning theory that claims that people construct or build their own sense and meaning from new experiences based on their prior knowledge and belief. a constructivist teacher need to learn his/her culture, life experiences and knowledge and then structure learning experiences that give students new opportunities to deepen that knowledge in a way that challenger his/her exiting beliefs. deep understanding of a concept is developed where the teacher poses questions to students to challenge their thinking. 2) inquiry, the term of inquiry is one complex one. there is no definite of certain definition on what inquiry is however as requesting for help or information about something, trying to find out about something, asking, investigating. the cycles of inquiry are: observation –> questioning –> hypothesis –> data gathering –> conclusion. 3) modeling, modeling is an important component in ctl. the objective of modeling is to make the students able to know, see and do well of what has been shown or demonstrated by the model. by imitating and or following the model, it will be easier for the students to cutch or understand what the teacher wants to them to do. in the teaching and learning process not only teacher can be a model but also students. by giving modeling, the teaching and learning process will be more efficient since the students will be able to master the skill or competence being taught. thus this kind of learning will be more satisfactory and enjoyable, either to the teachers or the students. 4) reflection, reflection derives from greek “refletere” meaning to see real word as flashback. suriati in tahasse (2007) says that a teacher who conducts reflection think back what he/she gazes internationally or thinks back. in this case reflection should not misinterpret with the word reflex which connotation of involuntary. although reflection owns the aspect of spontaneity and intuition, reflection represents the systematic opinion. suriati added further that teachers’ conducting reflection pay attention to the essentials of their instruction and they will be opened to voice opinion or suggestion from the other. 5) learning community, learning community is collaboration between students to solve problem in group. its concept argues that the result of learning that has been gotten by the students is as the result of cooperating with the others. the result of learning is gotten from sharing among the students or groups. in ctl class, the teachers are suggested to divide the students into groups in learning activity. 6) questioning, questioning can motivate the students to train using language function with good grammar, contextual vocabulary based on the certain theme. questioning can also stimulate other language skills, for example the teacher asks the students to write a short report of their partner’s answer or to retell their group’s experiences. it is clear that good questioning between teacher and students, among students and students, or between students and other facilitators, the learning process will run better more natural more effective and interesting. questioning activity is useful for: (a) gathering information, (b) checking the students understanding (c) rising the response of the students (d) identifying the students’ need (e) identifying the students’ knowledge (f) focusing the students to the teachers’ need (g) rising more questions from the students (h) refreshing the students’ knowledge. 7) authentic assessment, authentic assessment hold great promise for esl students method although the challenge to modify existing method of assessment and to develop new approaches is not an easy one, benefits for both teachers and students are great. the ideas and models persecuted here are intended to be adoptable, practical, and realistic for teachers who are dedicated to creating meaningful an affective assessment experiences for esl students. authentic assessment can give add values and motivate teachers in order to develop the learning materials and to appropriate https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 128 assessment especially for the english activities in the classroom. method this research employed descriptive qualitative method, in which the data collected and analyzed qualitatively by giving description about the phenomena or facts have been found in the field. the subjects of the research were the english teachers of man 1 enrekang. the researcher chose three english teachers from each grade; first, second, and third grade. they were interviewed and observed in order to know the implementation of ctl in teaching english at man 1 enrekang. they are english teachers who have implemented ctl in teaching english. there were two forms of data source, oral and written data. oral data was recording interview, while written data was the transcription of the interview and observational field note. in this research, the writer was the main instrument in collecting and analyzing the data supported with the following instruments. 1) interview guide, in sugiyono (2009) defines interview as a meeting of two persons to exchange information and idea through questions and responses, resulting in communication and joint construction of meaning about a particular topic. in this research, interview was a purposeful interaction in which the researcher tried to obtain information from the teachers about the implementation of ctl in teaching english. 2) classroom observation checklist, classroom observation checklist has been used by the researcher to obtain data by simply watching the subjects, in this case three english teachers, while the teaching and learning process were going on. descriptive analysis has been used in analyzing the data, in which the researcher analyzed the data collected through the instruments previously mentioned. miles and huberman in sugiyono (2009) suggest that the data which is gained from instrument will be explained on the basis procedure for qualitative research. firstly, the researcher collected the data from the result that has been gained by interviewing the english teacher out side of classroom and next observing teaching and learning activity in the classroom. the researcher tried to get information about the implementation of ctl in teaching english based on the seven elements of ctl. secondly, the researcher analyzed the data through data reduction in which the researcher summarized, chose the main things, and focused on the important points of the data has been collected. after reducing the data, the next step was data display, in which the researcher gave brief description about the information gained. the last step in analyzing the qualitative research data is conclusion (drawing/verifying) in which the researcher took the conclusion about the information that was got from the collected data. in order to get the information, the researcher observed the activity of teaching and learning process, whether seven elements of ctl applied or not. if the seven elements of ctl were applied in teaching english, it means that the implementation of ctl method in teaching english at man 1 enrekang was fully or totally conducted. in the other hand, if only half or some of the elements were applied, it means that the implementation of ctl was not fully or totally conducted. while if none of the seven elements of ctl applied in teaching english, it means that ctl method has not been implemented yet. result and discussion the result deal with the data analysis about the implementation of contextual teaching and learning method in teaching english to the students of madrasah aliyah negeri (man) baraka. the discussion presents the detail of the result. result through classroom observation, there were some elements of ctl applied by the teachers in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang, those can be seen in the following tables. the tables are divided into three based on the class or the subject of the research. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 129 table 1. elements of ctl applied in teaching english (subject i) meeting elements of ctl constructivism inquiry modeling reflection learning community questioning authentic assessment 1st √ √ 2nd √ √ 3rd √ √ 4th √ √ 5th √ 6th √ √ based on the table 1 above, there were five elements of ctl applied in classroom by subject i. the elements are modeling, reflection, learning community, questioning, and authentic assessment. the five elements could be identified by observing the activity being conducted at that time. the activities can be seen as follow:  modeling 6th meeting: the teacher taught about suffixes of noun. she pronounced some words one by one and then asked the students to follow her.  reflection 2nd meeting: before starting the lesson, teacher asked the students about material in the previous lesson, whether the students still remembered or understood about that material, about the meaning of some expressions. 3rd meeting: as in the second meeting, the students were asked about previous material they have learnt, whatever they understood and didn’t understand about compliment expressions. 5th meeting: the teacher asked the students to recall the expression how to invite someone to do something as she assigned in the previous meeting. most of the students directly expressed it.  learning community 4th meeting: the teacher divided the students into four groups, there were two groups of men and so were the women. there were two passages, 1st group of men and women took passage 1 and 2nd group of men and women took passage 2. all of groups were asked to read and try to understand the passage they have, and then answer the questions of the passage. they worked together to solve the problem they found.  questioning 1st meeting: after reading and practicing a dialogue, besides being assigned to answer some questions based on the dialogue, the students also asked the teacher about the meaning of some statements in the dialogue: “i must say it suits you!”. 2nd meeting: the students asked the teacher about the meaning of some compliment expressions they learnt at that time. 3rd meeting: before starting the lesson, the teacher asked the students about their previous knowledge related to the material would be being taught. they were asked to give some examples of adjective before the teacher told them about form, position and order of adjective. 4th meeting: the teacher asked the students how to invite someone to do something by using some expressions based on their own experience. that material would be discussed in the next meeting. 6th meeting: the teacher asked to the students to identify one of three words given suffixes (power‐ful, dust‐er, magnet‐ic) which was suffix of noun.  authentic assessment 1st meeting: the students were assigned to practice a dialogue with their seatmate in order to assess the ability of the students in speaking skill. the teacher assessed the students based on the accuracy, pronunciation, and expression of the students. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 130 table 2. elements of ctl applied in teaching english (subject ii) meeting elements of ctl constructivism inquiry modeling reflection learning community questioning authentic assessment 1st √ √ √ 2nd √ 3rd √ √ 4th √ √ 5th √ √ 6th √ the table 2 above shows that there were also five elements of ctl applied by subject ii in the classroom that was resulted by observing teaching and learning activity in class. the five elements are modeling, reflection, learning community, questioning, and authentic assessment. the activities in the classroom are revealed as follow:  modeling 1st meeting: the teacher pronounced ten english words and asked the students to repeat what the teacher said. after pronouncing each word, they were asked to find the meaning of the word. before observation, the researcher got information about the application of modeling in teaching and learning english by interviewing subject ii. interview (subject ii): “selanjutnya pemodelan dimana saya biasanya membahasakan gagasan saya agar siswa mengerti akan apa yang seharusnya mereka lakukan, terutama dalam speaking dan juga writing”  reflection 1st meeting: in the end of the meeting, the teacher asked the students to pronounce the ten words themselves. besides they were asked to say the meaning of those words. 3rd meeting: in the end of the meeting, the teacher gave reflection about personal pronoun the students have learnt at that time. the teacher just mentioned the subject pronouns and let the students to mention the object pronouns, possessive adjective and possessive pronoun. 4th meeting: the teacher gave chance to the students to tell about whatever they still didn’t understand about lesson in that meeting. in the result of interview that was conducted before conducting observation, the teacher one of the subjects of the research admitted applying reflection. interview (subject ii): “disamping itu, elemen lain dari ctl yakni refleksi juga sering saya terapkan dimana siswa dilatih untuk berpikir tentang apa yang telah mereka pelajari serta menelaah dan merespon terhadap kejadian dan pengalaman, bagaimana mereka menuliskan atau bahkan menceritakan aktivitas atau pengalaman mereka, saya rasa itu sering sekali saya lakukan”  learning community 2nd meeting: the students were divided into two groups based on gender. both groups had to read and understand about the passage “the thirsty crow” and answer some questions. members of each group discussed with their friends to answer the given questions. 6th meeting: the teacher divided the students into three groups then asked the students to read a passage and discussed with their friends in their group. each group was given different question to be answer. in the result of interview, learning community was admitted has been applied. interview (subject ii): “kemudian selanjutnya masyarakat belajar, saya rasa dikelas sering diterapkan karna siswa diberikan waktu untuk bertukar pikiran satu sama lain”  questioning https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 131 1st meeting: after studying about expression of love and sadness, one of the students asked the meaning of expression: “i have crush on you”. 3rd meeting: after explaining about personal pronouns, the teacher gave chance to the students to give her question related to personal pronouns, after that the teacher had turn to give the students questions. 4th meeting: the teacher asked the students about what usually makes them very angry. every student had different answers based on their experience. 5th meeting: one of the students (rahmad) asked to the teacher about how to pronounce word “research” in different functions (noun and verb). result of interview toward subject ii. interview (subject ii): “…..komponen bertanya juga sering saya terapkan dikelas”  authentic assessment 5th meeting: the teacher assigned the students to read and act the dialogue in font of class in pairs. as usual, the teacher assessed the accuracy, pronunciation and the expression of the students in speaking skills. subject ii said that she used to apply authentic assessment. interview (subject ii): “selanjutnya penilaian sebenarnya (authentic assessment) juga telah tercakup dalam pembelajaran saya dikelas” table 3. elements of ctl applied in teaching english (subject iii) meeting elements of ctl constructivism inquiry modeling reflection learning community questioning authentic assessment 1st √ √ 2nd √ √ √ 3rd √ 4th √ √ 5th √ √ 6th √ √ in the table 3 above, it can be seen that there were also five elements of ctl applied by subject iii in the classroom. the elements are modeling, reflection, learning community, questioning, and authentic assessment. the activity of the teacher has been observed while teaching and learning process were going on. the five elements of ctl applied are shown as follow:  modeling 1st meeting: the teacher gave example how to stress the word after adding a suffix. for example; a’pply ---> appli’cation, applica’bility, ‘applicant. the teacher gave example how to pronounce the words and asked the students to follow her. 5th meeting: the teacher taught about the different function of stressing words. there were some words in the same form those have different functions in the sentences according to whether it is given a full stress. the teacher pronounced each word and explained to the students about the kinds of the words. 6th meeting: the teacher practiced a dialogue about expression of making prediction and speculation. after that, the teacher gave chance to the students to do the same thing she has done. based on interview, subject iii stated the example of modeling she applied. interview (subject iii): “saya berikan contoh kegiatan pemodelan, biasanya siswa disuruh untuk keluar ruangan kemudian mengambil sebanyak‐banyaknya benda‐benda yang ada diluar, dan membawanya kedalam kelas, biasanya dalam pembelajaran vocabulary. disini mereka ditugaskan untuk mengumpulkan benda dari luar kemudian mencari bahasa inggris dari benda‐ https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 132 benda tersebut, menyebutkan setiap kata‐kata benda itu dan menunjukkan kepada temannya”  reflection 2nd meeting: it was reflection about previous material. when one of the students expressed some expressions of regrets, the teacher found there was passive voice in the sentence uttered by the student (hasniah). she said: “i regret to announce that tonight’s show is canceled”. the teacher then asked the students whether or not they still could remember or identify the passive voice, in this case the pattern. 4th meeting: in the previous meeting, the students have learnt about adverb of adjective. while reading the passage in the 4th meeting, there were some adverbs of adjectives found like scarcely, instantly, wisely. the teacher then asked the students about kind of those words. through interview, subject iii admitted applying reflection in her classroom. interview (subject iii): “setiap akhir sebuah sk dan kd, saya selalu tanyakan kepada anak‐anak, sejauh mana pemahaman mereka tentang apa yang telah saya jelaskan kepada mereka dan mereka biasanya merespon”  learning community 5th meeting: the teacher divided the students into some groups; each group consisted of four people. the teacher assigned the students to find some other words of the same form those had different functions as they learnt at that time. through interview, subject iii also admitted applying learning community. interview (subject iii): “learning community biasanya saya terapkan karena setiap siswa memiliki pebedaan individu jadi mereka saling sharing jika ada kesulitan yang mereka temukan atau dengan kata lain dalam pemecahan masalah”  questioning 1st meeting: after reading and completing the missing words of a passage “bawang merah and bawang putih”, the teacher asked the students about moral value of that story. 2nd meeting: the students asked the teacher about some difficult words they found. they found it difficult to understand about some english words that probably have different meaning as they found in the dictionary, like temper kid, punctual, stuff, sloppily, etc. 3rd meeting: after studying about past perfect that had been explained by the teacher, one of the students asked about the negative form of past perfect because at the time the teacher only explained about positive form. before answering the question, the teacher firstly gave chance to the other students to answer the question. after that, the teacher continued to explain about the negative form of past perfect. 4th meeting: the material at the time was past perfect progressive. after reading some sentences in past perfect progressive, the teacher asked the student about the formula of past perfect progressive. after finding the formula, there was student who asked about the negative form of past perfect progressive just like in the third meeting. through interview, the teacher also stated that they used to apply questioning in the classroom to measure to what extent the students’ understanding about material being taught at the time. in interview (subject iii): “pada umumnya siswa ditanya tentang materi yang telah diajarkan oleh guru untuk mengetahui sejauh mana pemahaman mereka tentang apa yang telah diajarkan atau dijelaskan sebelumnya. jadi kegiatan bertanya lebih banyak terjadi dari guru ke siswa. dari pertanyaan itulah mereka biasanya baru mengerti”  authentic assessment 2nd meeting: the teacher assessed the ability of the students in speaking. the students were assigned to study a story of a dialogue and then practice in front of the class in pairs. after that, the students were asked to answer some questions orally. at that time, the teacher assessed the students based on the accuracy, expression, and intonation of their way of speaking. 6th meeting: after practicing the dialogue, the teacher gave chance to the students to practice the dialogue in pairs. the teacher wanted to see whether the students could suit what they say with the expression. about authentic assessment, one subject said that it was conducted in her teaching. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 133 interview (subject iii): “sebagai guru, kita harus menilai secara total semua aspek dalam pembelajaran, baik itu cognitive, affective dan psychomotoric, semuanya harus dinilai secara keseluruhan. saya selalu menilai proses, tidak cuma hasil” before observing the activity of english teachers in the classroom, the researcher interviewed them in order to get information about the implementation of ctl in teaching english. within the twelve meetings observed, there were two elements of ctl those have not been found by the researcher while teaching and learning process were going on, they are constructivism and inquiry. it was probably caused by the limited time of teaching and learning process. commonly the three subjects said that they have implemented ctl in teaching english even though there were still many weaknesses in implementing it, which is caused by some factors, include facility. it was stated by one of the subjects, she said that it is hard to implement ctl totally because some factors, especially facility. in interview (subject iii): “pada umumnya ctl telah diterapkan tapi agak sulit untuk menerapkan secara total karena melihat fasilitas sekolah yang kurang memadai” while another one said that time is not enough for the effectiveness of the implementation of ctl. even though they have implemented ctl, it is impossible to complete all elements of it just in one meeting. it needs much time. in interview (subject i): “kalau menurut pengalaman saya dalam pembelajaran, seingat saya semua elemen dari ctl hampir total terlaksana, namun tidak mungkin pada satu pertemuan semuanya teraplikasi sekaligus” discussion based on the result, by interviewing three english teachers as the subjects of the research, it can be said that ctl method has been implemented in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang, even though through observation, there were still elements of ctl those have not been applied. the activity of the teacher and students in the classroom could prove that most elements of ctl were applied in teaching and learning process. the result of classroom observation shows that five elements of ctl have been applied; they are modeling, reflection, learning community, questioning, and authentic assessment. based on the result, the elements of ctl applied in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang will be analyzed and assessed as follows: 1. modeling. modeling is an important component in ctl. the objective of modeling is to make the students able to know, see and do well of what has been shown or demonstrated by the model. by imitating and or following the model, it will be easier for the students to cutch or understand what the teacher wants to them to do. in the teaching and learning process not only teacher can be a model but also students. by giving modeling, the teaching and learning process will be more efficient since the students will be able to master the skill or competence being taught. thus this kind of learning will be more satisfactory and enjoyable, either to the teachers or the students. based on the result, modeling was applied in the classroom, in which the teacher asked the students to do something the teacher wanted for the students to do that. when the teacher practices or acts something and asks the students to follow, it means the teacher is the model, while if the teacher asks a student to do something in front of the class in order that the other students can imitate or follow it, it means that student is the model. 2. reflection reflection means seeing real word as flashback. suriati in tahasse (2007) says that a teacher who conducts reflection think back what he/she gazes internationally or thinks back. in this case reflection should not misinterpret with the word reflex which connotation of involuntary. although reflection owns the aspect of spontaneity and intuition, reflection represents the systematic opinion. suriati added further that teachers’ conducting reflection pay attention to the essentials of their instruction and they will be https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 134 opened to voice opinion or suggestion from the other. in the finding, it can be seen that reflection has been done by the teacher in order to identify about the material has been taught. the teacher used to do reflection in the end of the lesson to know whatever the students got in that lesson and reflection is also used to be done in the beginning of lesson to know whether or not the students still could remember about the material in the previous meeting. however, reflection is the activity that used to be conducted frequently besides questioning. 3. learning community learning community is collaboration between students to solve problem in group. its concept argues that the result of learning that has been gotten by the students is as the result of cooperating with the others. the result of learning is gotten from sharing among the students or groups. in ctl class, the teachers are suggested to divide the students into groups in learning activity. another word of learning community can be cooperative learning that refers to an approach that organizes instruction using small learning groups in which students work together to achieve learning goals (holubec, 2001). based on the result, learning community was used to be conducted in learning activity. the students need to share with their friends in study, especially in solving problem. they usually need friends to discuss in order to get more information. after interviewing one of the english teachers as the subject of the research, it can not be denied that students are different individual so they need friends to complete what the thing they need while they don’t have. students will be influenced by and will contribute to the knowledge and beliefs of others. learning groups, or learning communities, are established in workplaces and schools in an effort to share knowledge, focus on goals, and allow all to teach and learn from each other. when learning communities are established in schools, educators act as coaches, facilitators, and mentors. 4. questioning questioning activity between teacher and students, among students, or between students and other facilitators, will make the learning process run better, more natural, effective, and interesting. questioning activity is useful for: (1) gathering information, (2) checking the students understanding (3) rising the response of the students (4) identifying the students’ need (5) identifying the students’ knowledge (6) focusing the students to the teachers’ need (7) rising more questions from the students (8) refreshing the students’ knowledge. orlich in nurhadi et.al., (2003) stated that questioning is the common teaching strategy and it can be applied in every subject. through systematic questioning technique, the teacher can decide the previous knowledge of the students in certain subjects. in the result, just like reflection, questioning is the element of ctl that mostly applied in every meeting. it was conducted frequently between teachers toward students, students toward teachers, even among the students. 5. authentic assessment. authentic assessment hold great promise for esl students method although the challenge to modify existing method of assessment and to develop new approaches is not an easy one, benefits for both teachers and students are great. the ideas and models persecuted here are intended to be adoptable, practical, and realistic for teachers who are dedicated to creating meaningful an affective assessment experiences for esl students. authentic assessment can give add values and motivate teachers in order to develop the learning materials and to appropriate assessment especially for the english activities in the classroom. in foreign language learning, in this case english, the student who has good ability in speaking skill is the student who will get good score, it is not based the result of written test or grammar (nurhadi et.al., 2003). based on the result, it can be seen that the teachers conducted authentic assessment because they didn’t only assess the students ability in writing but tended to assess the students ability in speaking skill as the real assessment in learning foreign language (english). https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 135 the other elements of ctl, in this case constructivism and inquiry, were not applied in teaching and learning activity. it was caused by the limited time, while the implementation of ctl needs much time and probably facility. based on the result, the teachers as the subjects of the research said that the implementation of ctl couldn’t be fully or totally conducted because teaching and learning activity is limited by the time. even though they understood and admitted implementing ctl, but in another hand they also realized that it couldn’t be fully or totally conducted. conclusion based on the result, it can be concluded that the implementation of ctl method in teaching english to the students of man 1 enrekang was not totally or fully conducted. there are seven elements should be applied in teaching and learning for implementing ctl. they are constructivism, inquiry, modeling, reflection, learning community, questioning, and authentic assessment. based on the result in the previous chapter, there were still elements of ctl those were not applied in teaching and learning english in man 1 enrekang. even though the teachers understood and admitted implementing ctl in teaching english, the result of the observation shows that the english teachers applied only five elements of ctl in the classroom, while there were two elements of ctl those have not been applied because of the limited time in teaching and learning process, they are constructivism and inquiry. the element of ctl that was applied frequently is questioning. in every meeting, the questioning activity was used to be done by the teacher and also by the students. besides questioning, reflection used to be conducted by the teacher, either in the beginning or the end of the lesson. references abinuddin. 2007. improving the ability of the students of smpn 3 lilirilau to use conjunctions in writing compound sentences using ctl. thesis of fbs unm. ananda, s. 2001. “authentic assessment” a web‐ based system for the proffesional development of teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. berns, r., and erickson, p. 2001. the professional development of teachers in contextual teaching and learning. bowling green state university. brockman, d., and brockman, m. 2001. multiple intelligences. a web‐based system for the professional development of teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. buck institute for education. 2001. “project based learning”. a web‐based system for the professional teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. cresswell, john w. 2008. educational research planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. new jersey: pearson prentice hall. holubec, e. 2001. “cooperative learning”. a web‐ based system for the professional development of teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. huda, n. 1999. learning language and teaching. issues and trends. ikip malang publisher: ikip malang. johnson, elaine b. 2002. contextual teaching and learning. california: corwin press, inc. kasbolah and hunggeled. 2002. indonesian teachers learn ‘in context’ skills at uw. kilmer, s. 2001. “developmentally approppriate practices”. a web‐based system for the professional development of teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. mcpherson, k. 2001. “service learning”. a web‐ based system for the professional teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 136 university. moffit, m. 2001. “problem-based learning”. a web‐based system for the professional teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. nurhadi, et al. 2003. pembelajaran kontekstual dan penerapannya dalam kbk. malang: universitas negeri malang. risan, r., & g, h. (2019). using juxtaposing pictures in improving descriptive writing skill of the second year students of sman 3 enrekang. language circle: journal of language and literature, 14(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.15294/lc.v14i1.21474 sapon-shevin, m. “teaching for diversity.” a web‐ based system for the professional teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. sugiyono, 2009. metode penelitian dan kualitatif dan r & d. bandung:alfabeta. tahasse. 2007. improving the ability of the students of smpn 1 marioriwawo to use prepositions in writing sentences using ctl. thesis of fbs unm. untung, 2003. the implementation of ctl in teaching speaking to the second year studens of sltp 1 and sltp 4 kendari. thesis of fbs unm. winograd, p., and paris, s. 2001. “self-regulated learning”. a web‐based system for the professional teachers in contextual teaching and learning project. bowling green, oh: bowling green state university. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 113 the reality of language indrawati semarang state university abstract language possesses a very significant role in the formation of reality inside the mind of its users. three elements comprising of society, language, and thoughts are interrelated in constructing the reality of language in society. society produces thoughts; thoughts create society, and language mediates the process of formulation of reciprocal relation between thoughts and society. sexism in language use in society prevails in favours of men culture that is directly responsible for the way people see their world, as an important means of reinforcing sexist assumptions. as life flows to its natural course, this linguistic habit is challenged in its being rational and logical by linguistic feminists, of which both female and male. keywords: sexism in language, linguistic feminists introduction when people discuss the reality of language, they try to comprehend how language exists and functions in reality for people to communicate their concepts and ideas. in referring to saussure’s statement (1916) that language is the social facts, some linguists and laymen believe that language is the product of social framework and mirror through which one can see and learn a particular society (coulmas 2003: 563), that this idea means that concept owned and formulated by people are represented in their language. language users tend to use different words to describe the roles of man and woman. this discriminatory system continues to exist when it is underpinned by powerful ideologies in believing that men’s role is dominant or patriarchal in meaning, whereas women’s role is complementary (acker 1989:15). since the mid 1970’s research on language and sex have concentrated on the role language plays in the location and maintenance of women in a disadvantageous position in society (coates 1986:42). and as the reflection of people’s concern in sexist language, people start thinking of reformulating the meanings of some words because of the changing roles of men and women. this paper wants to see how concept of reality influences the use of language and how language determines concepts of reality in people’s minds. language and culture concepts and thoughts are expressed through language, so language is a complex system that reflects what meanings are attached to attitudes, behaviours, and ways of life (hinkel 1994: 4). in supports to the idea, kramsch mentions that language reveals cultural reality as language refers to mass experiences related to attitudes and ways of life (kramsch 1998:4). those statements explain that concepts and ideas precede words or language. in contrast to the idea, language creates social reality, as people create meaning through language orally and in written forms. language is inseparable from culture, it relates to how people see the world (eastman, 1975) (kramsch, 1998). relationship between language, thoughts, and reality can be explained through the idea that 114 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 language determines the limit of our world which constructs our reality (spender 1980: 139). in view of this, the determinist view of language is believed to be one of ideas in linguistic traditions. anthropologists edward sapir and benjamin lee whorf famous for sapir-whorf hypothesis or whorfianism stated that linguistic differences determine differences in people’s world view. or the way people see the world is constructed by the language they use. the language system is the shaper of ideas. language guides people’s mental activities (carroll 1956: 212). those statements explain that words or language precedes concepts or ideas. the latter hypothesis is difficult to sustain. words or language does not precede concepts. in fact, language system is shaped by the functions it serves. language reinforces and reflects cultural and ideological practices which it describes. concepts and ideas of the world come first, and then recorded through language. in other words, concepts and ideas are lexicalized in language and the system of language expands or contracts relative to the concepts it needs to express. the following is the discussion on how concepts precede language. there are three ways how the reality of language is formed. first, through the understanding of the physical and social realities, which are emerging. the naming of objects or events is often influenced by particular conditions and preferences. people would name a particular body organ genital rather than the one less decent and impolite. people use the word homicide rather than murder; or mutilation rather than cut the dead into fractions. another instance is that people of the marginal groups such as pdip or pdi struggle party and gepeng (gelandangan pengemis) name themselves as such to create sympathy. the naming of objects or events is important as it is assumed that the more the name is mentioned the better understanding people have on something (kress and hodge 1979:5). the association of particular opinion to gender type as man or woman causes different treatments towards man and woman. society sees that men are strong, whereas women are weak (poynton 1989:13). the idea is supported by the result of a research towards babies. in a research of several nine-month old babies, when they are at peace, courageous, and happy, the researchers regard them male babies. researchers believe that those dimensions of behaviour belong to male. on the other hand, when babies react to stimulus nervously and frightfully, researchers believe the babies to be female ones. this fact might explain the causes of why society differentiates man from woman in terms of behavioural dimensions (condry and condry in poynton 1989:13). the association of characteristics attached to man and woman becomes the prevailing reality in a society as long as society believes it. the term ‘gender’ as applied to grammar is originated in the linguistic scholarship of ancient greece. the word is derived from a word meaning class or kind which refers to the division of greek nouns into three different classes: masculine, feminine, and neutral. the term is not used to describe the biological sexual characteristics by which we identify females and males but to include the social roles, attitudes, and values which society considers as appropriate for one sex or the other. the association of woman with feminist characteristics as weak, submissive, obedient, amusing, and emotional, and the association of man with masculine characteristics as strong, creative, rational, and leadership is called gender ideology which is partial in nature and based on untruthful conditions (kress and hodge, 1979). second, through spontaneous, direct, and routine language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 115 ways of using language. in conducting a communication, both parties work together to create a natural communication (berger and luckmann, 1966). natural communication may create possibilities to build social situations required for interpersonal relation and process of socialization. casual conversation refers to routine of a taken-for-granted world to organize social situation as a foundation for socialization. this is asserted by halliday who says that a speaker has selected which linguistic forms to be used to interpret meaning. this in turn creates the structure of reality. besides, both communicators have realized forms and meanings of language in the level of phones, lexical and discourse in ordinary conversation as part of the process of taking on particular social roles as ways of enacting social processes that are functional (halliday in poynton 1989:14). when it comes to using discourse, communicators are able to implement various genres to serve their communication goals. those genres are recount, exposition, narrative, argument, and many others and the combination of them. in teaching, for example, a teacher may implement narrative or descriptive genres to explain objects, persons, and events. a student could apply genres of recount and argument to answer questions and do the assignment. third, the existence of specific grammatical categories as language characteristics. a society may have a complete term for a particular concept. the way of regarding gender and race because of biological factor is a reality in society providing that the differences are natural, common, and inevitable. the feminists regard the issue the mechanism of justifying power of male gender over the other gender that is female (wearing, 1984). further, this opposition of characteristics requires that one gender is more admitted and recognized than the other. western capitalistic society supports this tendency, stating that it is true that men’s characteristics as logical, competent, active, and resourceful are the basic characters to conquer nature and human beings. as a result, people belonging to society in which society cherishes gender ideology will trust this false ideology. the following is how words or language precedes concepts. cameron states that people’s linguistic habits often perpetuate ideas about things which are no longer embodied in law, but which continue to have covert significance in the culture. and people’s attitudes and assumptions cause the deep-rootedness of sexism (cameron 1985: 16). the relation among language, thoughts, and reality explains linguistic practices to reinforce and naturalize sexist divisions in society in the following ways: (1) sexism in language is inherent in the system of language. this system is intrinsically biased. communicators actively construct the inequality existed between men and women. (2) sexism is encoded into language and used either consciously or unconsciously. western society’s gender ideology and its implication. western society is organized in terms of patriarchal order. this is a behavioural system in which men simply have power over women. patriarchal is endemic to all types of social interactions and organizations (simpson 1993: 161). the term ‘androcentrism’ appears to describe a male centered world view, wherein male activities are evaluated positively and female activities negatively. usages of language attributed to men are regarded more favourably than those attributed to women (coates, 1986: 15). for example, in the eighteenth century, when language change was taking place in the forms of new language constructions, women 116 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 were blamed for this happening. by the turn of the twentieth century when linguistic change was inevitable and started to attract scholars to study, men were not to blame, on the contrary, recognized as chief language innovators. this explains that androcentric rule states that men’s linguistic behaviour fits the view of what is admirable or desirable, while women are blamed for being reprehensible. it is generally true, that men have constructed supremacy of social position to oppress and exclude women by a straightforward act of linguistic appropriation (spender, 1980: 19). it has been the dominant group, in this case males who have created the world, invented the categories, constructed sexism as its justification and developed a language trap which is in their interest. the chain reasoning to connect this type of linguistic domination and the existence of the patriarchal order is shown as follows. (1) men made language (2) language controls reality (3) men control reality (4) men control women many everyday words reflect trapped expressions because their meanings have been fixed by men. for example, the word frigidity has become codified in dictionaries as failing to become sexually aroused. however, this negative evaluation is not carried over into the male equivalent impotence which spender argues is defined as not failure but an inability to become aroused. thus, this can be concluded that women fail where men through no fault of their own are simply unable. spender sees it as asymmetric and calls for reinvention and rejuvenation of the english language. in this way, sexism in language can be tackled head on (spender, 1980: 20). this strictly determinist approach to sexism in language is problematic to tackle, just like paul simpson’s statement that tries to remove sexual bias from society by altering the lexicon is like trying to cure a patient of measles by painting over their spots (simpson, 1993: 167). this pessimistic point of view proves that sexist language has been used for as long as people live. accordingly, it is impossible to be reformulated into a more gender-free in nature. gender discrimination as the effect of western society’s gender ideology is prevalent in almost all countries in the world. its practices can be recorded through various media orally, visually and in written forms. in identifying subjects, separate terms are sometimes used for the same job title. one term is supposed to indicate greater ability or skills. the term that is supposed to indicate greater ability of skills is often referred to males while the lesser terms are used for women. fasold (1999:111) provides the example as follows: each bicyclist must dismount and walk his bicycle across the intersection, where it is not known and it does not matter whether any particular bicyclist is female or male. language in a newspaper can influence people’s way of using language. people tend to use words that often appear in newspaper for the reason of practicality, efficiency, and fame. newspaper is to lead and give examples of using accepted language (cameron, 1985:101). the effect of newspaper on the change and development of language is clear that journalism could not have arisen without a manifested need for it and a growing appreciation for the language. lindstrom (1956:51) shows the practice of stereotype in using a word or diction. the term turncoat was the only word by which it was journalistically permissible to refer to american soldiers who had gone communist and in which they must state publicly about their disconnection to american citizenship. the research on the use of biased words in the jakarta post issued in october 2001 shows language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 117 that there were eleven words of that kind in the form of pronoun. from those eleven pronouns, ten pronouns show man’s pronouns and just one pronoun shows woman’s pronoun. the two examples are as follows: ‘we did not ask for his name.’; ‘the chairman of the indonesian muslim brotherhood’. in addition, there are forty four words of noun which show man’s nouns and only four nouns of woman’s nouns. the two examples are: ‘in pakistan tribesmen waving taliban flags.’ ; ‘the spokesman insisted that the taliban remained united’. those male-gender language use clearly explains the newspaper’s support to man’s domination (anggraini, 2002: 29). as with the concept of man’s language in advertisement, cameron states that the extract of advertizing booster showers appeared in an edition of the magazine exchange contract shows the subject position is constructed as that of a married male, and that the magazine targets are potential house buyers, as one who has financial means and responsibility for decision making. women as a group occupy, by contrast, only an oblique relationship to the text and moreover only a sexual relationship to men (simpson, 1993:175). the phrase your wife constructs a subject position to be occupied by a married man, one who, moreover, needs a little excitement. the specific target of a notional bread winning head of the family shows the husband’s connection to the plumber who fixes the shower. the advertisement as arranged in a columnar format against a background of squares resembling bathroom tiles is read as follows: give your wife a hard time in the bathroom turn on a little excitement. choose your shower pressure. the stuart monsoon booster makes it easy. show this advertisement to your plumber. he will know just what you are after. the advertising language shows sexism that the subject being focussed is a married man. the question arises whether or not sexism language can be denaturalized. people need to replace determinism with a more functional view of language. it may be that the angle of telling adopted in a text represents the world in a sexist way. linguistic analysis can unpack the angle of telling and the representation which it produces, thereby, denaturalizing these types of discourse. one attacks the discourses primarily by becoming aware of them and by developing rival discourses or ways of representing that people will eventually incorporate their own method of dealing with reality (simpson, 1993:167). the use of biased words or gender discriminatory words might be naturalized through six possible ways, as follows: first, using double plural pronouns to refer to someone, for example: he/she; s/he; him/her. second, using plural pronouns, without changing the sentence meaning, for example: they/them. third, using words such as: human, person, humankind. humanity, human being, human race, people. fourth, using more inclusive words, for example: chairperson, worker, adult sized. fifth, using neutral words, such as assistant, officer, student. sixth, using similar words which are applicable for both sexes, for example: artist, singer, student (anggraini, 2002:30). the reality of language in the context of indonesian moslem family in indonesia where most people are moslem, there is a well-known wise saying that is 118 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 supposed to reflect a family while at the same time to guide them: a happy family is a family which lives on the aspects of sakinah, mawadah, and warahmah. in reality, however, the above terms if associated with the concept of happy family, have not been preserved fully. the language that is used to reveal and express reality does not fulfill the task. in reality, the terms do not show their true meanings. the question is: ‘how can that be?’ and the answer is: ‘because of the patriarchal type of indonesian society’. the society regards men to be the leaders or masters of the family. accordingly, men could do things they feel like doing, despite the wife’s agreement. sakinah family means family that is harmonious, peaceful, and loving. this peaceful atmosphere exists in the expense of the wife’s suffering. wives work hard to meet the aspect of sakinah themselves as expected by the society. they create harmonious, peaceful, and loving family probably without the husband’s involvement. the wives are the ones responsible for the sakinah family. an ideal wife is a woman who is sholihah, the one who never disobeys her husband, who is patient, and submissive to her husband. the noble behaviours are conducted and performed for the sake of being sholihah. in spite of her husband’s ignorance, a wife must be sholihah, amuses as well as entertains her husband and makes him happy and contented, that her husband assures her of going to heaven. this implies that a wife’s happiness is a gift of a husband. the aspects of mawadah and warahmah mean mutual understanding, respect and appreciations between husband and wife. this brings the sense that a wife is not supposed to suffer, oppressed, and exploited. a wife who tolerates a husband’s immoral conducts will not help him, on the contrary, will put him down graded towards hell. it is a must that husband and wife need one another, that without the other, he or she is not complete. the terms sakinah, mawadah, warahmah as language reality do not reflect the true meaning of the concept. wives are offered happiness in heaven for their wise conducts, being denied their fundamental rights granted by god the almighty as individuals to obtain worldly satisfaction and happiness (siti nuriyah a. wahid: 2008). in relation to language that precedes concept, it is for the terms above, that sakinah, mawadah, waramah are noble values that should guide indonesian moslem families to live their life. patriarchal society might get in the way of fulfilling the expected harmonious, peaceful, and loving families. conclusion the determinist linguists influenced by whorfianism propose that language system creates the limits of people’s understanding and perception of reality. thus, sexist language creates a sexist world. in an attempt to counter the unequal and biased words, the alternative model relying more on words function is proposed. a functional model is the way of using a language which is conditioned by the functions it serves. references acker, sandra. 1989. teachers, gender and careers. philadelphia: the falmer press. anggraini, d.s.2002. analysis of gender discriminatory language in the jakarta post. unpublished final project, semarang state university. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 119 berger, p.l. and luckmann t. 1996. the social construction of reality. penguin: harmondworth. cameron, d. 1985. feminism and linguistics theory. london: macmillan. caroll, j.b.1956. language, thought, and reality. selected writings of benjamin lee whorf. cambridge massachussets : mit press. coates, jennifer. 1986. women, men, and language. london: longman. coulmas, florian. 2003. sociolinguistics in mark arnoff and jamie reesmiller (ed) the handbook of linguistics. oxford: blackwell publishing, ltd. de saussure, ferdinand. 1916, (1973), (1988). pengantar linguistik umum. terjemahan oleh rahayu s.h. yogyakarta: gajahmada university press. eastman, carol, m. 1975. aspects of language and culture. san fransisco; chandler and sharp publishers, inc. fasold, ralph. 1990. the sociolinguistics of language. oxford: basil blackwell ltd. hinkel, eli. 1999. culture in second language teaching and learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. kramsch, clair. 1998. language and culture. oxford: oxford university press. kress, g. and hodge, r. 1979. language as ideology. london: routledge and kegan paul. lindstrom, carl. 1956. the characters of news. new york: the praeger publishers. poynton, cate. 1989. language and gender: making the difference. oxford: oxford university press. spender, d. 1980. man made language. london: routledge. wahid, siti nuriyah a. 2008. moslem family life. unpublished paper. jakarta. wearing, b. 1984. the ideology of motherhood. sidney: allen and unwin. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaac1bd1123a • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 149 構造言語学に理論的基盤を置く日本語教育 (japanese language education based on the theory of structural linguistics) ai sumirah setiawati semarang state university abstract structural linguistics is an approach to linguistics originating from the work of swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure. saussure stressed examining language as a static system of interconnected units. structural linguistics involves collecting a corpus of utterances and then applying discovery procedures to them in an attempt to classify all of the elements of the corpus at their different linguistic levels as the phonemes, morphemes, word classes, noun phrases, verb phrases, and sentence types. after saussure, the history of structural linguistics branches off in two separate directions. first, in america, linguist leonard bloomfield's reading of saussure's course proved influential, bringing about the bloomfieldean phase of phase in american linguistics that lasted from the mid 1930s to the mid 1950s. second, in europe, saussure influenced the prague school of roman jakobson and nikolai trubetzkoy, whose work would prove hugely influential, particularly concerning phonology, and the copenhagen school of louis hjelmslev. teaching methods which are based on structral linguistics are astp (army specialized training program) and audio lingual method (al-method) also known as michigan method, fries method, or oral approach. during world war ii (1943-1044), there were 20 countries which used these teaching methods including japan, and brought a great result especially in japanese language education. keywords: structural linguistics, saussure, astp, audio lingual method, japanese language education はじめに 言語は語学の対象として社会的な活動に欠かせないといけない現像となっている。この 社会的な活動は範囲やそれによっての言語の使用が広いため、言語学の分野もたくさん 現れてきた。例えば、一般的な言語学、記述言語学、対照言語学、構造言語学、人類言 語学の五つの服分野になっている。 ヌルハディ（1995年）は、「構造言語学は行動心理学の理論に基づき、物事の存在が自 150 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 明的(empiric)に証拠された上で認められるp.180。」と述べている。この心理学は、内 面（メンタル）的より、外面的な物事に重心をおいいている。 サルティニは構造言語学は記号学者が参考としてよく使うメソッドであるとのべた。ス イスのフェルヂナンドソシュールによって提唱されたアプローチである。このアプロー チ伝統的なアプローチに対しての対応によって提唱された。構造言語学者は伝統的な分 析に不満足を感じて、新しい形で言語のアスペクトの説明を探した。 構造言語学 1. 構造言語学とは 構造言語学は、スイスのフェルヂナンドソシュールが発表し始めた言語学へのア プローチです。このアプローチは1916年にcourse de linguistique generale または英語のcourse in general linguistics という本を通して発表され、相互連結した単位の静的システムとして言語を調べ ることに強調した。ソシュールは、通時的な（diachronic）分析から共時的な (synchronic）分析へともたらすため、現代の言語学の父として有名である。 kariono（2008）は「ソシュールが提唱した一つのアイデアは言語をラングとパ ロルに区別されたものである。」と述べている。ラングはフランス語である。リ チャーズら（1992）は「ソシュールによると、言語体系、つまりある言語の話し 手が皆同じように知っている、あるいは「使用に同意した」音や語の配列の仕方 を意味する。一方、人々が話したり書いたりする時の実際の言語用法はパロルで あるp.208。」と述べた。 言語学の一つのアプローチとして、ソシュールによる構造言語学は、発言のコ ーパスを対象して、音素、形態素、品詞、名詞句、動詞句と文のタイプという異 なる言語レベルを分類する、とういう手順を試みた。その手順は統合的 （syntagmatic）及び範列的 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/course_in_general_linguistics http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/syntagmatic_analysis language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 151 （paradigmatic）分析であり、シンタクス的及び辞書的な単位を全ての単位との 比較のシステムに基づいて記述する。 2. 歴史 構造言語学は、1916年に出版されたフェルディナンドソシュールのcourse de linguistique generale という本によって知られ始めた。この本は非常に影響力があり、現代の言語学及 び記号学の基盤に提供した。 ソシュールについで、構造言語学の歴史は、2つの方向に分けられるようになっ た。 最初に、レオナルドブルームフィールドがソシュールのコースを読んで、影響を 受けた。そして、1930年代中頃から1950年代中頃にかけては、アメリカの言語学 の段階にブルームフィールドの段階をもたらしました。ブルームフィールドは意 味論と意味のすべての質問は主に答えられないため、言語学へ機械学のアプロー チを奨励した。1957年にノーアムチョムスキーの「syntactic structures」の出版で生成意味論の模範を提唱して、ブルームフィールドの模範 を取り替えた。 次に、ヨーロッパで、ソシュールは、ロマン・ヤコブソンとニコライ・トゥルベ ツコイのプラハ学校に、特に音韻論の研究に注目し、またルイ・イェルムスレウ のコペンハーゲン学校に非常に影響を与えた。構造言語学は、人類学、精神分析 学及びマルクス主義などのヨーロッパの他の分野にも、さらに影響を及ばした。 そして、構造主義として知られている運動をもたらした。 3. 構造言語学の特性 次は構造言語学の特性である。 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/paradigmatic_analysis 152 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 (1) 行動心理学の理論に基づく。 言語の過程は「刺激・反応」（stimulus-response）という過程である。 (2) 言語は発話的なものである。 この特性によると、言語に含むものは発話だけと表す。言語教授法において は、構造の理論はオラルアプローチによる直接法を生み出す。筆記的なもの はジェスチャーのみとして認められる。 (3) 言語は独断的及び様式的な記号体系(語感と語尾)である。 (4) 言語は習慣的なものである。 言語教育は習慣になるまで繰り返したドリルと訓練を通して行われる。 (5) 文法性は一般性に基づく。 (6) 文法性のレベルはちゃんとした線状で示される。 文法性のレベルは音素の最低的なレベルから文という最高のレベルの線状で 示される。つまり、小林（1998）が述べたとおり、「言語の体系を音素、形 態素、語、句、節、文というような線状に連なる相識的構造ととらえる。」 (1) 言語は統合的及び範列的な並びである。 (2) 言語の分析は記述的に行われる。 (3) 言語構造の分析は直接的な要素に基づく。 直接的な要素というのはその構造を直接に形させるというものである。 基本的な理論 構造言語学の基礎は、サインのアイデンティティが統合的、範列的のどちらかによって 他のサインと対立である存在で決定しているという考えである。この考えは、言語から 分離してサインを調べることができるという考えと抜本 ばっぽん 的に対立して、言語学は言語を共時的扱わなければならないというソシュールのポイン トを強調した。 系列的な関係は頭（mind）に存在する音韻的なセットの cat, bat, hat, mat, fatまたは形態的にセットされたran,run, running language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 153 というような単位のセットである単位のセットは、他の単位と同じものを持っていなけ ればならない一方、対立でなければならない。そうしないと、区別されることができな くて、一つの単位に崩れてしまう（en.wikipedia.org）。小林（1998）は「ある構造を ほかの構造と区別する要因を、2頃対立という概念によって区別し、記述するp. 164。」と述べた。 統合的な関係は一時的で“the man hit the ball” 男の人は、ボールを打ちました。）あるいは“the ball was hit by the man”（ボールは、男の人に打たれました。）というようにお互いに対立する単位の列 から成っている。列の各パートで使える単位はそれを囲んでいる単位で測定される。し たがって、統合的と範列的関係の間に混交している影響があります。 統合的及び範列的関係は、講造言学者に、音韻論、形態論と構文（シンタクス）に対す る単純な分類法を提供します。たとえば、形態論をとりあげます。cat と cats のサインは頭で整理されて、cat という言葉で抽象的なパラダイムを生じます。これはcatという単数標識を複数標識化 するために‘s’を加えるに過ぎないと見える。しかし、統合的及び範列的な分析を通 して文の構文を発見することができる。 ヌルハディは「構造の理論は記述分析で有名であり、一般的には『直接的な下位要素の 分析』という主な手順に結合する。p. 182」とのべている。また、その例をヌルハディは次の通りに述べている。 ketika ia datang, orang kampung itu sudah pergi ketika ia datang, orang kampung itu sudah pergi ketika ia datang, orang kampung itu sudah pergi ketika ia datang, orang kampung itu sudah pergi 154 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 そのほかに、次の他の２つの方法でも分析できる。 ///ketika//ia/datang,///orang/kampung//itu///sudah pergi//// あるいは以下の樹形図の通りである。 日本語の場合は、玉村（2001）は次文を挙げて次のように分析できる。 会場 には 若い 人 が たくさん いた。 会場 には 若い 人 が たくさん いた。 会場 には 若い 人 が たくさん いた。 会場 には 若い 人 が たくさん いた。 （p．117） また、庵（2001、p．39）が述べた「とても美しい女性」は次の通りに分析さ れる。 4. 構造言語学の長所及び短所 構造言語学の長所及び短所はヌルハディ（1995、p.181）が述べたものに基づい て説明してみる。 a) 長所 とても 美しい 女性 ketika ia datang, orang kampung itu sudah pergi language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 155 (1) この流派は書記表及び音素の概念を区別した。 (2) ドリルとプラクティスメソッドが習慣的な言語能力を成形する。 (3) 文法性の条件が普通性に基づくため、普通の社会にも認められる。 (4) 文法性の体系を音素、形態素、語、句、節、文というような線状に連なる 。 (5) 事実に基づく。 b) 短所 (1) 形態論と構文ははっきり区別される。 (2) ドリルとプラクティスメソッドは退屈させる恐れがある。 (3) 刺激・反応の過程は機会じゃない人間に対して生理的や機械的で行われる 。 (4) 文法性が普通性の条件に基づくため、正しくなくても一般に認められると したら、正しくなってしまう可能性がある。 (5) 言語分析に歴史的な要因は無視する。 (6) 研究の対象は文だけに限られる。コミュニカティブの要因には注目をしな い。 構造言語学による日本語教育 次は小林（1998、p.164-165）及び石田（2002、p.2021）が述べた構造言語学による日本語教育について要約してみた。 1) astp 第二次世界大戦中に、アメリカでは軍人を対象として、短期間に集中的に外国語 を教えるための特別な訓練を行った。この訓練はarmy specialized training program 以下astpと呼ばれ、構造言語学や行動心理学の理論に基づいた外国語教授法であ 156 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 る。そのとき、様々な言語がこの教授法によって教えられた。1943～44年には日 本語を含めて20数カ国が軍で教えられた。特に日本語教育では、多大な成果を収 めた。 林（1990）によるとastpは次の特徴をもっている。 ｱ. 短期間の集中訓練であること。 ｲ. １クラス10名以内の小クラス編成であること。 ｳ. 言語構造の理解と口頭練習とのバランスがとれるように工夫されたこと 。 ｴ. 口頭練習を重視し、言語習慣形成による学習を目指としたこと。 ｵ. 音素分析と音素記号を利用したこと。 ｶ. 学習言語のネイティブ・スピカーを活用したこと。 戦後、米国における日本語・日本語研究者にはこのプログラムに関与した 人が多い。こうしたことから、astpは戦後の日本語教育に影響を与えた。(p . 116) また、林（1990）は、astpの成功の要因を次の通りに追加している。 ｱ. 学習者が言語適性検査によって選抜された者であったこと。 ｲ. 学習期間中は有給で、将来の保証があったこと。逆に成績の不良者原隊 に戻されるといった条件があったこと。 ｳ. 尐数制のクラス編成だあったこと。 ｴ. 教室内外の事実的な訓練時間が多かったこと。 ｵ. 徹底的な音声指導が行われたこと。 （p.117） 2) オーディオリンガル・メソッド 約2年間ほど続けられたastpはアーミー・メソッドとも知られたが、1950年代の 半ばにオーディオリンガル・メソッド（al教授法）として、外国語としての英語 教育に応用されるようになった。この教授法も構造言語学や行動心理学（behavio language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 157 ral psychology）の理論に基づいた外国語教授法である。al法はミシガン・メソッド 、フリーズ・メソッド、オーラル・アプローチとも呼ばれる。 林（1990）はこのal教授法によって指導法は、次の3で行われる。 ｱ. 理解：本文の意味の説明を、特に新出語句と文構造の説明を中心にし て行う。 ｲ. 練習：二つの段階がある。 ① ミム・メム練習：mimicry(模倣)とmemory(記憶)の略で、学習すべ き文型の例文を教師（あるいはテープ等）に従って正しい発音で模 倣反復する作業をしながら暗記してしまう練習である。 ② 文型練習：代入、変形、拡張、回答などの種類がある。（p.119） ｳ. 確認：ア.とイ.の段階の作業が十分に行われたかを確認する。 （p.119） 終わりに 構造言語学はスイスのフェルヂナンドソシュールがcourse in general linguistiksという本を通して発表された言語学の一つの服分野である。この本でソシ ュールが述べた概念はパロル・ラング、能記所記、及び通時的・共時的による言語の分析である。ソシュールが述べた概念は記号学 者によって参考としてよく使われる。 構造言語学を基盤として教授法はarmy specialized training program 以下astp（アーミー・メソッド）及びオーディオリンガル・メソッド（al教授法、ミシ ガン・メソッド、フリーズ・メソッド、オーラル・アプローチ）である。日本語教育で は、これらのメソッドによる日本語教育は多大な成果を収めた。 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/course_in_general_linguistics http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/course_in_general_linguistics http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/course_in_general_linguistics 158 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 参考文献 hayashi, ookii. 1990. nihongo kyouiku handobukku. tokyo: taishukanshoten iori, isao. 2001. atarashii nihongogaku nyuumon. tokyo: surie nettowaaku ishida, toshiko. 2002. nihongo kyoujuhou. tokyo: taishukanshoten kariono, rabetsa. 2008. bahasa sebagai struktur, wacana, kondisi ksistensial. available [online] http://kuridvanmbouten. blogspot.com/2008/02/bahasa-sebagaistruktur-wacana-kondisi.html [30 oktober] nurhadi. 1995. tata bahasa pendidikan. semarang: ikip semarang press richards, jack. et al. 1992. longman dictionary of applied linguistiks. translated to japanese by masatoshi yamazaki et al. tokyo: nagumodo sartini, ni wayan. 2008. tinjauan teoritik tentang semiotik. available [online] http://www.journal.unair.ac.id [23 oktober] tamamura, fumio. nihongogaku o manabu hito no tameni. tokyo: sekai shisousha wikipedia. 2008. struktural linguistiks. available [online] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ strukturak_linguistiks [ 21 oktober] wikipedia. 2008. perkembangan aliran linguistik. available [online] http:// mengalirsaja. blogspot.com/2008/03/perkembangan-aliranlinguistik.html [21 oktober 2008] http://kuridvanmbouten.blogspot.com/2008/02/www.kuridvanmbouten.blogspot.com/bahasa http://kuridvanmbouten.blogspot.com/2008/02/www.kuridvanmbouten.blogspot.com/bahasa http://kuridvanmbouten.blogspot.com/2008/02/www.kuridvanmbouten.blogspot.com/bahasa http://kuridvanmbouten/ http://www.journal.unair.ac.id/ attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa279121040 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 193 the implementation of project-based learning to direct students in writing a research proposal sri wahyuni sriwahyunifbsunnes@yahoo.co.id semarang state university abstract this paper aims to describe the implementation of project-based learning (pbl) method in atic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and estigated is how the implementation of project-based learning directs students in writing research proposal. the subjects were 30 students of the sixth semester of the english department, semarang state university, 2012-2013 academic year. the subject course provides students with knowledge of the aims, principles, and kinds of linguistic and educational research methods and designs and the skill and practice in constructing research proposals. besides, the research class enriches students understanding about research as a scientific inquiry to solve problems through some stages such as identifying and formulating problem, gathering and analyzing data, and ways to publish the research results (saleh, 2012). therefore, equiping students with skills and experiences in writing research proposal is significantly important. key words: project-based learning, writing, research proposal introduction english department students of semarang state university, like other university students in general by the end of their study are required to write a final project. written based on research on any fields such as english teaching and learning, linguistics, discourse, or translation in which it is expected to yield contributing results to the development of science and technology. moreover, the research itself can be carried out on the basis of field study or library study. therefore, before they come across this period, they are equipped with subject courses such as academic writing and linguistic and educational research in which each comprises 2 credits. academic writing is designed to equip students with skills in reading and writing high quality academic english, and linguistic and educational research provides students with the knowledge of the aims, principles, and kinds of linguistic and educational research and gain the practice of constructing a research proposal. 194 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 practically, the purpose of writing final project for students is to fulfil one of the requirements to be under graduates and enrich academic references. besides, it is aimed at developing knowledge and insightful ideas as a basis for them to write more scientific work. intellectually, the writing of final project is a reflection of all knowledge and language skills gained during the course. the activity of completing a final project involves abilities to understand various research methods, apply cognitive knowledge, explore and read supporting references, and write academically. as a matter of fact, when come to the end of the semester and students are required to propose a final project topic in semester vii, they have difficulties in generating ideas of what they are going to research. students have difficulties in determining topics for their final project proposals. besides, they get confused in starting to write a research proposal and they lack knowledge of how to start doing research. however, there are some factors affecting this condition. during the teaching learning process in linguistic and educational research class, students are not fully aware of the goals and benefits of the subject course. they focus their attention only cognitive knowledge to fulfill the requirements of the exams. the final assignment given in the form writing a research proposal is mostly regarded and done for the sake of completing the final assignment itself. the students do not actually take it as a starting point for them to begin their final project writing. thus, what mostly happens is that students simply copy and paste it from the internet or other available sources. based on the aforementioned description, therefore, an alternative teaching method is required to provide students with knowledge and give practical skills and experiences in indentifying problems and developing topics into research proposals as well. one of the recommended methods which suits this context is project-based learning (pbl). pbl is an instructional method focusing on collaborative teaching learning processes and product-oriented. project-based learning there have been a number of research, as reviewed and reported by thomas (2000), carried out in relation to the implementation of pbl. first, the study was conducted by new american schools development corp (1997). it found out that 9 of 10 schools implementing pbl demonstrated significant improvement in tests. next, gallagher at al (1992) studied that students who took problem-solving courses outperformed control students in the breadth of their ethical appeals and in the extent to which they tended to support their appeals with reasoned arguments. in addition, ljung and blackwell (1996) mentioned that positive transfer following enrolment in project omega; graduates of language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 195 the program all passed their english, us history, and mathematics. based on the aforementioned studies, it can inferred that pbl proved to be effective instructional method in which it -order thinking and active collaboration. project-based learning (pbl) is a systematic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks (markham, 2003: 4). it implies that pbl is developed based on authentic problems occuring in real life and it needs serious preparation of tasks. meanwhile, stripling, et.al. (2009:8), defines pbl as the instructional strategy of empowering learners to pursue content knowledge on their own and demonstrate their new understandings through a variety of presentation modes it means that pbl requires students to work collaboratively involving discussion and presentation activities, and thus these enhance students communicative skills. moreover, it is also mentioned that project-based learning is an instructional model that involves students in investigations of compelling problems that culminate in authentic products . similarly, it can be inferred that the final goal of pbl implementation is product-oriented, and the processes have also become very significant components to take into account, though. furthermore, based on the previous pbl practices, enhances the quality of learning and leads to higher-level cognitive development complex, novel problems. pbl also teaches students complex processes and procedures such as planning and teachers having worked on pbl reported that pbl is a rigorious, relevant, and engaging instructional model that supports authentic inquiry and autonomous learning for students. pbl is an intructional method centred on the learner. instead of using a rigid lesson plan that directs a learner down a specific path of learning outcomes or objectives, pbl allows in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning more about (erdem, 2002; harris & katz, 2001 in bas & beyhan, 2010). moreover, blummenfeld, et al. 1991; demirhan, 2002 cited in bas & beyhan, 2010, summarize that pbl is a comprehensive approach to teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of complex, authentic problems and carefully designed products and tasks. in addition to the previous part about some definitions of pbl, markham (2003:6) further summarizes benefits of pbl reported by teachers as follows: (1) pbl overcomes the dichotomy between knowledge and thinking, . 196 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 (2) pbl supports students in learning and practicing skills in problem solving, communication, and self-management. (3) pbl encourages the development of habits of mind associated with lifelong learning, civic responsibility, and personal or career success. (4) pbl integrates curriculum areas, thematic instruction, and community issues. (5) pbl assesses performance on content and skills using criteria similar to those in the work world, thus encouraging accountability, goal setting, and improved performance. (6) pbl creates positive communication and collaborative relationships among diverse groups of students (7) pbl meets the needs of learners with varying skill levels and learning styles (8) pbl engages and motivates bored or indifferent students thus, if pbl is effectively used, it will benefit and help teachers create a high performing classroom in which you and your students form a powerful learning community focused on achievement, selfmastery, and contribution to the community and allows you to focus on central ideas and salient issues in your curriculum, create engaging and challenging activities in the classroom, and support self-directed learning among your students (markham 2003: 6-7). project development and instruction projects must be carefully planned before being implemented to clarify student learning goals, final products, timeline, and instructional activities (klein et.al 2009:11). developing the project in this context that was writing a research proposal followed the stages: (1) preparation (planning) (2) practice (3) performance (assessment) the following part presents how each stage was carried during the implementation of pbl in linguistic and educational research to direct students writing a research proposal. preparing/planning the project klein, et.al 2009:11 in project-based learning: inspiring middle school students to engage in deep and active learning mention that in preparation stage of pbl there are five steps which have to be carefully followed: step one: establish content and skill goals in this step, both content goal and skill goal were established. in terms of content goal, by the end of the project students were required to produce a research proposal. meanwhile, the skill goals determined were students engage and develop proficiency in collaborative learning skills, skills with presentation tools, analysis skills, communication skills, problem solving and critical thinking skills, and task and selfmanagement skills. besides, students language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 197 were prepared with academic language skills related to content vocabularies for research. step two: develop formats for final products after the goals had been established, students must be introduced with the format of the final product which was authentic products in the forms of (1) presentations, (2) portfolios, and (3) performances/final products. presentation was done by the students after each task was completed. the presentation paper portfolios, and these would be used as materials for the completion of the final product. (appendix 2: breakdown tasks and activities) step three: plan the scope of the project developing a timeline and scope of the project included such activities as (1) organize the tasks and activities, (2) decide on assessments, (3) analyze the final product required, and (4) create a timeline for the entire project. (appendix 1: project timeline; appendix 2: breakdown tasks and activities ) step four: design instructional activities designing instructional activities consisted of two activities; they were designing instructional strategies in the forms of integrating the tasks and activities into the lesson plan, presentation, and discussion. besides, this step was used to plan the assessment which were formative and summative assessment. (appendix 1 & 2) step five: assess the project design once all the instructional activities had been designed, the teacher reflected on the design based on the questions focusing on (1) goals, (2) collaboration, (3) instruction, (4) final presentation and celebration. based on the assessment, the project design have fulfilled all requirements for developing pbl except number 2 which is collaboration. it is expected that in the future practice, the study will involve collaborative work with colleagues (appendix 3: project design checklist) practice the activities in this stage were (1) review handouts, (2) research websites, and (3) conduct additional activity to develop understanding and completion of project. handouts covered such materials as introduction to research, language teaching research, research methodology, research preparation, research implementation, and research conclusion (saleh, 2012:v). reviewing handouts was carried out through lecturing/presentation, question-answer, and discussion. in addition, students were required to find and read additional references from websites and discuss related and supporting articles with their classmates for completing their final product. besides, 198 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 breaking down tasks and activities was conducted to develop understanding and completion of project. the activitiy was done through presentation, questionsanswers and discussion. performance/final product there were some activities which must be followed in this final stage; (1) put together the pieces of the projects (interview results, portfolios, draft, references), (2) submit final product for first review, (3) make changes to the product as needed, (4) present the completed project to class, and (5) submit the final product for assessment. the scoring rubric for assessing research proposal consists of such components as format, introduction, literature review, and methods. complete scoring rubric can be seen in appendix 3. discussion and conclusion based on the final product assessment result, it can inferred that the use of pbl to direct students writing research proposal gives some benefits. during processes, breakdown tasks and activities promote . students gain the practice to prepare research such as identifying problems, conceptualizing and formulating the problems, defining variables, formulating hypothesis, constructing research design, constructing research instruments, and sampling. besides, students practiced writing academically through step-by-step activity. in addition, students had a very possible chance to finish their study as expected; 10 out of 30 students involved in this project developed their topics and research proposals resulted from this project development into their final projects. it can be summarized that pbl brings students to the awareness of advantages of linguistic and educational research class. pbl is beneficial to teach linguistic and educational research and to give practical experiences to students in writing research proposals. challenges: despite its advantages, teacher and students were faced with challenges on such aspects as (1) time; weekly task and activity sometimes took longer time than it was scheduled, (2) classroom management; teacher must balance the need to allow students to work on their own with the need to maintain tasks and activities in order, (3) control; teachers often felt the need to control the flow of tasks and activities, and (4) support of student learning; teachers sometimes gave students too little feedback. references bas, gokhan & omer beyhan. 2010. effects of multiple intelligences supported project-based learning on attitudes towards english lesson. international electronic journal of language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 199 elementary education vol. 2/3, july, 2010. retrieved march 25, 2013 from http://www.iejee.com/2_3_2010/365385.pdf edwards, gloria j. 2002. make your own project-based lesson plan: develop an educational project that includes a specific outcome while teaching academic skills. usa: department of education, star schools. retrieved march 25, 2013 from http://www. coloradoadulted.org/ss%20lessons% 20for%20adult%20learners/curriculu m%20topics/lessontemplate.pdf foss, patrick, nathaniel carney, kurtis mcdonald & matthew rooks. 2007. project-based learning activities for short-term intensive english programs. vol 23. retrieved february 10, 2013 from http://asian-efljournal.com/teaching-articles/2007/ 10/05/project-based-learning-activitiesfor-short-term-intensive-englishprograms/ klein, joel l., et.al. 2009. project-based learning: inspiring middle school students to engage in deep and active learning. new york: nyc department of education. retrieved february 10, 2013 from http://schools.nyc.gov/documents/teac handlearn/project_basedfinal.pdf markham, thorn, john larmer, jason ravitz. 2003. project based learning: a guide to standards-focused project based learning for middle and high school teachers. 2nd ed. hong kong: quinnessentials books and printing, inc. saleh, mursid. 2012. beginning research in english language teaching. semarang: widya karya semarang thomas, john w. 2000. a review of research on project-based learning. asian efl journal. retrieved february 10, 2013 from http://www. bobpearlman. org/bestpractices/pbl _research.pdf pbl guide: project-based learning: a resource for instructors and program coordinators: national academy foundation. retrieved march 25, 2013 from http://naf.org/files/pbl_guide.pdf. 200 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 appendix 1 project time line project: write research proposal project objective: by the end of the semester, students are able to write research proposals. week activities project 1 overviewing course outline, activities, tasks, responsibilities, assessment taking notes questions-answers discussions overviewing the projects; break down tasks and activities, presentations, portfolios, time line, and assessment 2 research problem, how to formulate research hypothesis taking notes questions-answers discussions overviewing the projects; break down tasks and activities, presentations, portfolios, time line, and assessment. launching 1st breakdown task and activity (week 3 task) 3 discussing different types of variables, operational definition of variables taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 3 task submitting portfolio of week 3 task launching 2nd breakdown task and activity (week 4 task) 4 discussing different types of variables, operational definition of variables taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 4 task submitting portfolio of week 4 task launching 3rd breakdown task and activity (week 5 task) 5 discussing is the four scales of easurement, how to classify research data in accordance with the scales of measurement taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 5 task submitting portfolio of week 5 task launching 4th breakdown task and activity (week 6 task) 6 discussing , different types of research instruments, how to construct research instrument taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 6 task submitting portfolio of week 6 task launching 5th breakdown task and activity (week 7 task) 7 discussing , different types of research instruments, how to construct research instrument taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 7 task submitting portfolio of week 7 task launching 6th breakdown task and activity (week 8 task) 8 mid-term test taking the midterm test 9 discussing the taking notes presentation of week 8 task language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 201 four techniques of sampling, how to take samples from the given population questions-answers discussions submitting portfolio of week 8 task launching 7th breakdown task and activity (week 9 task) 10 , the difference between experimental and nonexperimental designs, how to choose the right design taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 9 task submitting portfolio of week 9 launching 8th breakdown task and activity (week 10 task) 11 discussing , the difference between experimental and nonexperimental designs, how to choose the right design taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation of week 10 task submitting portfolio of week 10 launching 9th breakdown task and activity (week 11) 12 discussing the terms reliability and validity, types of reliability and validity, how to estimate the reliability and validity of instrument taking notes questions-answers discussions presentation week 11 task submitting portfolio of week 11 launching 10th breakdown task and activity (week 12 task) 13 discussing the terms reliability and validity, types of reliability and validity, how to estimate the reliability and validity of instrument taking notes questions-answers discussions putting together the pieces of the projects (interview results, portfolios, draft, references) monitoring questions-answers discussions 14 discussing the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics, three types of descriptive statistics and their use, how to perform a statistical analysis on a given set of data taking notes questions-answers discussions submitting the project for first review making changes to the project as needed monitoring questions-answers discussions 15 discussing, the difference between between descriptive and inferential statistics, three types of descriptive statistics and their use, how to perform a statistical analysis on a given set of data taking notes questions-answers discussions presenting the completed project to class monitoring questions-answers discussions 16 final-term test taking the finalterm test submitting the final product of the project (research proposals) for assessment 202 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 appendix 2 linguistic and educational research break down tasks and activities of the project week topics activities 3 identifying problems 1. do informal interview to english teachers and/or students or do direct observation in the classrooms to find out: learning processes and teaching methods facilities and equipment instructional materials and devices administration and supervision assessment and evaluation student personnel services, etc. 2. find and read current issues or observe phenomena dealing with: societal needs and opportunities curriculum and curriculum development educational programs learning processes and teaching methods student personnel services facilities and equipment teacher education administration and supervision assessment and evaluation and take some notes on those issues. results: 4 selecting a problem and formulating research questions/problems 1. choose the problem(s) from your list (previous assignment) fulfilling the characteristics of research problems (workability, critical mass, interest, theoretical value, practical value; tuckman, 1978:2425) 2. find and read references dealing with the problems chosen 3. formulate the research problem fulfilling the characteristics it should ask about a relationship between two or more variables it should be stated clearly and unambiguously (usually in question form) it should be testable by empirical methods (possible to collect data to answer the question(s) research problem(s)/question(s): language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 203 5 formulating hypotheses based on the research problem(s) you formulated (previous assignment), formulate the hypotheses, either a working hypothesis or null hypothesis or both. hypotheses: 6 identifying variables identify the variables of your research problem(s) 7 identifyng research data based on the variables you identified, identify your research data either quantitative (in the form of numbers) or qualitative (in the form of description/explanation/qualities/characteristics, etc) research data: 8 determining research instruments remember the previous assignment (identifying research data). based on the form of the data, think about the kinds of instruments which you are going to use to collect the data. research instruments: 9 constructing research instruments construct instruments of your research: instruments: 10 sampling technique decide the subjects of your study subjects of the study: 11 research design determine the research design of your research research design: 12-16 writing a research proposal 1. write a research proposal based on the template. 2. the research proposal is due on week 16. appendix 3 linguistic and educational research project research proposal assessment rubric ................................................. name ....... score item score (write score value to be awarded) 1. format poor (1) fair (2-3) good (4-5) title page included and title reflects research area pages are numbered doubled spacing with times new roman font of size 12 proper use of language (passive voice and present/future tense) references are cited according to apa format and 204 language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 arranged in alphabetical order at least 3 references (print or non-print) cited from various sources 2. introduction poor (1) fair (2-3) good (4-5) rationale of the study is clearly stated objective(s) of research is clearly stated and achievable hypothesis(es) is/are listed appropriately 3. literature review poor (1-6) fair (7-11) good (12-15) background information provided relates to the research area with proper in-text citation adequate evaluation and elaboration of past research in the area of study information presented in an organized manner that reflects depth and good understanding of area of study 4. methods poor (1-6) fair (7-11) good (12-15) variables (independent, dependent and controlled) instruments are listed research design chosen is appropriate to achieve objectives types of data to be collected are clearly stated research idea has a good degree of creativity and originality remarks: source: http://www.assessment.ua.edu/rubrics smallwood, bob, jon acker & holly hallman (university of alabama) language circle journal of language and literature vol. viii/2 april 2014 | 205 notes for contributors the manuscript: all copy must be typed written, double-spaced, throughout, on one side of the sheet only. italic type: only for cited linguistic forms, titles of books, and journals that occur within the text. small capitals: where essential to emphasize a word, phrase, or sentence in the text or to mark a technical term when it first occurs. punctuation: enclose quoted words, phrases, and sentences in double quotation marks. enclose quotation within quotations and glosses in single quotation marks. notes: do not use footnotes. use a raised number (without parentheses) for a note reference number. type all notes, double-spaced, at the end of the text. bibliographical reference: cite accurately and fully literature referred to in a bibliography at the end of each article. within the text, make a brief citation such as (marmaridou 1998) or (villata 2004: 31 -32). give the page number only for the passage to which reference is made, not for the whole paper. type the full bibliography, single-spaced under the heading references. arrange the entries alphabetically by surnames of authors as in the following examples. koller, w. 1995. the concept of equivalence and the object of translation studies. target, 7. pp. 191 222. leckie-tarry, h. 1995. language and context a functional linguistic theory of register. london and new york: pinter. leech, g.n. dan m.h. short. 1981. style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to english fictional prose. london and new york: longman. machali, r. 1998. redefining textual equivalence in translation with special reference to indonesian-english. jakarta: the translation center. rice, p. and p. waugh (ed.). 1996. modern literary theory (3rd ed.). london: arnold. rocco, t. s. (n.d.) critical reflection in practice: experiences of a novice teacher. online www.bsu.edu/teachers/departments/edld/conf/critical.html [accessed 03/15/00] attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab4be4d1249 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 1 your language your character mursid saleh semarang state university abstract the main function of any language is to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings. these being characteristic properties of human beings, the language a human being uses will ultimately reflect what is characteristic of him or her. good language reflects good characteristics of the user, and vice-versa. learning being another characteristic property of human beings, the language one learns shapes and is shaped by his or her personal characteristics. as character is the accumulation of one’s personal characteristics, there are good reasons to suggest that while one is learning and using a language, he take good care so that good character is reflected. in that way communication will be properly conducted and interpersonal relationships properly established. key words: language, character, thought, feeling introduction it is axiomatic that men in their association with one another need a means to communicate. although theories differ in terms of when and how language was originally created, they agree on one point that as it is used today language symbolically represents fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction (wolfram, 1991). through language people transfer information of all kinds including messages not intentionally meant to be delivered. your sex, your age, and your social class, for instance, may be revealed through your use of grammar, pronunciation, or even your choice of words. as a method of expression language uses voices as basic elements of its construction. voices constructed in different ways produce words with different meanings. words combined into phrases and phrases into sentences can be used to convey more purposeful meanings, ideas, and intentions. furthermore, the words you choose, the grammar you use, and the style you adopt when speaking to other people may become clear indicators of your attitude, belief, and personal character. this paper aims at discussing the way language has become a powerful means and measure of social behavior. language and us imagine life without language! we meet someone in the street, exchange looks, smiles, or maybe sneers, but no words, no greetings, no callings, no talks, and no chats. you may want to laugh or cry if something amuses or hurts you. but you cannot expect anyone to help you or join you in the happiness because they do not know what has made you laugh or cry. 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 they may want to know, but how? they need a means to express this wish. they may use gestures to meet the need, and they may be successful to a smaller or greater extent. but chances are great for them to fail. here is, perhaps, where men begin to exploit their special might to produce combinations of voices to serve their various purposes. these combinations of voices, which are constructed in regular forms and patterns to represent varieties of meanings, constitute what is later called language. with this men can share ideas, feelings, and information with one another. beginning with simple words like i, you, laugh, cry, yes, and no, the language has then developed into a more and more sophisticated means of expression capable of transmitting all kinds of thoughts as well as intentions. now you can tell your friend what you want, how you feel, and what you think is good or not good to do. your friend can ask you what problem you have, and what you are going to do to solve the problem, or even suggest you a better solution. all of these can be done through the use of language. in fact, language has become so indispensible that it seems impossible for life without language. so, what can language do for us, and what can we do to language? sapir and whorf (1956) hypothesized that language shapes the way you think, and the way you think shapes your language. the very widely quoted words of sapir, the teacher, which still maintain till this day are that “… human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society.” this hypothesis implies that the way a person thinks, speaks, and understands others is very much determined by the language he shares with the other members of the community. this seemingly one-sided perception about the interrelation between men and language has then been expanded by whorf, the former’s student, in his more explicit statement that “… the background linguistic system (in other words, the grammar) of each language is not a merely reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide for the individual’s mental activity, for his analysis of impressions, for his synthesis of his mental stock of trade.” while sapir seemed to be more interested in the power of language in affecting human’s thought, whorf perceived a somehow reciprocal relationship between the two properties of mankind, language and thought. nevertheless, however guided we are by our language in perceiving the world, once we have language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 3 processed and organized our perceptions of the world, these perceptions will, in turn, determine the way we express our feelings, thoughts, and responses. in whorf’s words, “… the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds …. we cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way – an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. ... we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees”. although it seems odd to think of a servant (the language) controlling the master (the man as user), that has been the case in real-life experiences. men create all kinds of tools in order for them to be subsequently dictated by the creation. language and mannerism language being an agreed codification system of thoughts and meanings, it binds every one member of a community in using it as a means of communication. there are rules to follow, and norms to adhere if one wants to be accepted and properly understood by the other members of the community. as language differs across communities so do rules and norms in using it. the general rule is, of course, that one should learn what is accepted in the community, and practice it accordingly. although there is no written document which can be referred to as regards with the agreement on what is accepted and what is not, these can be learned through direct communication. once a person has learned about what is accepted and what is not, it does not automatically follow that he would adopt the accepted and avoid the rejected. in reality, very often one refuses to do what is accepted in favor of what is generally rejected. this has something to do with mannerism, that is, the way of behaving to others characteristic of a particular person. when you talk to other people, you are supposed to use the accepted language in terms of grammar, vocabulary, idioms, as well as usages. otherwise you will be considered ill-adjusted, ill-mannered or misbehaving, if not abnormal. in other words, there is something wrong in your social behavior. indeed it is not easy to define acceptability as there is no precise instrument to measure it. if offense, for instance, is set up as criterion to distinguish acceptability from unacceptability, we often find that offensive words to some are amusing to others, and viceversa. in the world of entertainment particularly, such instances are abundant. while acting on stage as a blind person, for instance, a joker may ask his girlpartner to let him rub her body to make sure she is beautiful. such supposedly 4 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 entertaining words can become an intolerable insult to some minority group of people, namely the blind. the writer of this paper had a real-life experience of being offended when in a group chat a neighbor said, “mr. x (this writer) is frightening when he is angry”. then another said, ”i know, even when he’s not angry”. the other people felt amused, but the writer was absolutely not. a more serious problem may result if such uses of language involve moral or religious issues. the absence of measuring instruments of language acceptability, (un)fortunately, does not stop the social rules or norms governing social interactions. legal sanctions, which may be denied due to the absence of formal laws or regulations, are replaced with social sanctions in the form of reprimands, peer rejection or isolation. justifying the social sanctions is, to mention one, the assumption that it is obligatory for a member of a social group to comply with the group’s codes of conduct. it means that as a group member you are not free to speak the way you like, or else another member will be displeased. your first guide before you get the opportunity to learn the group’s codes of conduct is, of course, your “conscience”. it is your inner capacity to tell what is good from what is not (piepmeyer, 2007), and that is another justification you can rely on. but conscience, you may argue, is personal, and therefore subjective. or you may even suggest that it is pretentious to believe in such an abstract idea and take it as your life principle. anyhow, conscience has been widely referred to as a one-for-all criterion you can turn to in the absence of conceptually measurable criteria. as can be quoted from the words of the world’s great thinkers, conscience is like a spotlight which may bring into sight what is otherwise invisible. consider martin luther king jr.’s pronouncement: “there comes a time when one must take a position that is neither safe, nor politic, nor popular, but he must take it because conscience tells him it is right.” (in luker, 1993). conscience has also been perceived as an inaudible voice within one’s heart capable of warning him, amidst the thundering storm of voices, that melody has not been created. in carl jung’s words, “through pride we are ever deceiving ourselves. but deep down below the surface of the average conscience a still, small voice says to us, something is out of tune. ” (jung, 1961). so important is conscience that george washington, the former president of usa said: “labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience.” (washington, 1989). speech, language, culture, and thought from the above discussion it becomes clear that there is a systematic interrelationship among man’s thoughts, language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 5 beliefs and values shared, system and ways of expression, and personal traits. in a comprehensive discussion, goodenough (1957), as quoted by hudson (1980), stated that thought is the overall system encompassing culture, language, and speech as its subsystems. here is how goodenough perceived the interrelationship between thought, culture, language, and speech, leaving a question of what constitutes the fraction of language uncovered by culture. in answer to this, however, goodenough referred to that notion of language acquired not by learning from others, and therefore is not shared with the other members of the community. we may want to argue, of course, that goodenough’s explanation stands at odd with the long-standing definition of language as a means of communication. whichever part of a language, once it has been used in actual communication, it becomes shared, and therefore cannot be excluded from culture. in understanding goodenough, however, we need to assume that when he is talking and making propositions about thought, culture, language, and speech, he is referring not only to the generic but also to the specific meaning of those terms. it means that the thought, culture, language, and speech are not just the ones shared to become common properties of the whole members of the society, but also the ones possessed by its individual members. holmes (2001) gives a vivid example of how someone’s speech represents his thought, beliefs in culture, and language competence. “you are an intolerable bore, mr. brown. why don’t you simply shut up and let someone speak who has more interesting ideas to contribute”, said lord huntly in the well-educated and cultured accent of the over-privileged. 6 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 although this bit of speech is not meant to illustrate the way speech represents thought and culture, we cannot fail to see how it does so. first, the speech reflects mr. huntly’s thought that no one should waste time in a formal meeting by putting forward useless ideas. secondly, the use of rude words like “bore” and “shut up” shows the speaker’s cultural belief that it is the right of over-privileged people to use such words when speaking to the underprivileged without guilty feeling. in this scene, mr. brown seems to be younger, less educated, coming from a lower social class, or of lower position in the organization. thirdly, although accent cannot be detected from this written quote, it appears that mr. huntly is a welleducated and cultured man. a fourth inference can be drawn from this small example that in addition to its ability to represent thought and beliefs in culture, language can also reflect one’s “character”, that is the combination of all those thoughts, knowledge, and beliefs that have been so internalized to become a driving power for him to behave in whatever way. in this instance, mr. huntly’s character as someone who is not only easily offended but also who readily offends others is clear. language and character character is another property of man, more substantial and more potential than conscience. it is substantial in that it takes more concrete forms, and potential in that it has more direct effects on decision making. yet, while conscience always inclines to the good end, character is capable of moving along a good-to-bad continuum. indeed as if driven by the positive way of thinking, most of the renown philosophers, in defining the word “character” always fall short delineating what is good to be expected of a person, not the possible opposite. the greek philosopher aristotle, for instance, as quoted by lickona (1991), defined good character as the life of right conduct – right conduct in relation to other persons and in relation to oneself. in the same way lickona himself conceived good character as knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the good to become habits of the mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action. how about the relationship between language and character? it seems remote or altogether nonexistent. but let us recall that character underlies behavior, and that behavior is mostly and necessarily communicated. whereas most communication involves the use of language, and character involves thought as the internalized knowledge of culture, it is not difficult to see the important role of language as reflector of character. the language you use, good or bad, will reflect your “habits of the mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action”. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 7 slightly modifying goodenough’s diagram of the relations between speech, language, culture, and thought, adding the position of character into the interplay, we can draw the following new diagram: t = thought c = culture l = language s = speech character being the internalized accumulation of one’s knowledge, beliefs, and ability encompasses all the notions of thought, culture, language, and speech ready to be actualized in action. above all, language (or speech in particular) as the main instrument for expressing all those notions can be seen as explicit indicator of one’s character. like that between language and thought purported by goodenough, however, the relationship between language and character is reciprocal. your character determines the language you speak, and the language you speak to a smaller or larger extent shapes your character. a dishonest person, to take an example, will speak dishonestly, and viceversa. a person who is used to speaking a standard language will usually hate insincerity, and will make friends with people of firm personality. implication in language teaching the call for character education through schools has been sounded since early 1960’s when educational observers throughout the world were alarmed by the worldwide decline of morality in the community (vessel and huitt, 2005). the world has witnessed all kinds of violence and wickedness demonstrated not only by the average members of the society but also by people of important social statuses. abuses of power characterizing modern civilization have become a great menace to the world peace. something has to be done to save the world from destruction, and that is by restoring good character of the whole citizens. restoring good character can be done through education by developing good habits of the mind, the heart, and the action. language being the vehicle of thought, intention, and action can play a t c l s character 8 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 very strategic role in character restoration. it is the task of a language teacher, therefore, to foster good language use through good language learning by the students. by teaching their students to think good, intend good, and do good with language it is not pretending to believe language teachers can take a great share in solving the world’s biggest problem of this day. references holmes, j. 2001. an introduction to sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. harlow: pearson education ltd. hudson, r.a. 1980. sociolinguistics. cambridge: cup. jung, c.g. 1961. goodbooks. in http://www.goodbooks.com/. retrieved january 25, 2014. king, m. l. a testament of hope: the essential writings and speeches. in ralph e. luker. 1993. church history, vol. 62, no. 2 (jun., 1993), pp. 303305. new york: cambridge university press. lickona, t. 1991. educating for character. new york: bantam books. piepmeyer, a. 2007. collective consciousness. in the university of chicago: theories of media: keyword glossary. sapir, edward .1929. in david g. mandelbaum (ed.). 1983. selected writings of edward sapir in language, culture, and personality. university of california press. vessels, g., & huitt, w. 2005. moral and character development. presented at the national youth at risk conference, savannah, ga, march 810. retrieved [date], from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/brilsta r/chapters/chardev.doc wardhaugh, r. 1992. an introduction to sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. oxford: blackwell. washington, g. 1989. rules of civility and decent behavior in company and conversation. new york: applewood books. whorf, b. 1956. in john b. carroll (ed.). language, thought, and reality: selected writings of benjamin lee whorf. mit press wolfram, w.1991. dialects and american english. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. http://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/52037 http://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/52037 http://www.jstor.org/action/showpublisher?publishercode=cup http://www.jstor.org/action/showpublisher?publishercode=cup http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edward_sapir 42 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 the industrial revolution and its consequences as revealed in dickens’ great expectations fatma hetami semarang state university fatmahetami@staff.unnes.ac.id abstract a work of literature cannot be separated from its time and place, in which it is made. therefore, to get a vivid understanding of a literary work, some certain techniques are needed. one of them is by breaking down the social and cultural layers of the work. it can also be applied in dickens’ novel great expectations. by breaking down and analyzing its social and cultural layers, it can be found that the novel reflects the portrait of industrial revolution era and its consequences such as dissolution of family units, illness, poverty, mutual exploitation, human passions, expectations, and selfishness as well. keyword: industrial revolution, society, culture, zeitgeist, social and cultural layers introduction for obtaining further understanding, a work of literature must be read in broader context. it means that poetry; prose or novel could be satisfactorily appreciated and analyzed if they are put into a place where society and culture are involved. as stated by greibstein in damono (1984: 4) that every work of literature forms a result of complicated mutual effects of social and cultural factors, and the work of literature itself contains a complicated cultural object. time has a spiritual unity, a zeitgeist. that is why literary works are produced in various forms of writing styles, themes, settings, and etc, based on the social and cultural background of the prevailing era. the works of jane austen, for example, which highlights feeling and spontaneity, presents the characteristics of romanticism period. stephen (1986: 165) says “jane austen admires love, generosity and compassion. she also admires common sense. thus, she does not object to people marrying for love-provided there is enough money in the marriage to help love along the way”. it is quite different from victorian time that centralizes morality, critique and seriousness, as we can see from victorian dickens’s great expectations. those characteristics come out as the social and cultural life effects of the prevailing era experienced by each author. great expectations is regarded as dickens’ masterpiece which profoundly serious in its psychological and sociological aspects. referring to the title, the writer limits the scope into the latter aspect only, which also includes the cultural aspect in it. industrial revolution at glance during the long reign of queen victoria, england reached her highest point of development as a world power. all the foundations of the great industrial revolution that turned england from a rural to industrial nation had already been laid although many were not yet evident. great britain began quite rapidly to reap the reward of its industrial revolution: wealth and modernization. at the same time, it began to pay the price. a huge explosion in population, the move from the land to cities, and language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 43 a society that at times seems turned upside down, all served to produce appalling overcrowding, dissolution of family units, illness, poverty and confusion. phrases that are rather tired in the present age-pollution, safety at work, slum dwelling, sewage, were newly born and screaming for assistance in dickens’ day. the victorian rose to occasion. they made very many mistakes, but they tackled the new age head-on and with great gusto. they failed to abolish poverty, hardship and inequality (stephen: 173174). in line with this, easton (1996: 568) also says that “there are only two possibilities are open when population increase. either the food supply must be increased to feed the extra mouths, or the population must decrease through famine, war or other causes until the existing resources are sufficient to feed it”. besides, the surplus population leaves the rural sector of the economy and tries to make a living in the city, the problem of unemployment and underemployment is transferred to the city, unless there is a great increase in manufacture. if there is a marked improvement in agricultural methods, then it is possible that the problem of feeding the surplus population will be solved. but scientific agriculture uses fewer, not more laborers on the land. industrialization therefore remains a necessity if there is not to be widespread urban unemployment. industrial revolution also effects on creating a new market. the urban workers in british industry, though still extremely poor and ill paid, nevertheless earned a money wage higher than under the previous domestic system. indeed, it was for the sake of improved income that they agreed to work in the factories. from the beginning they were able to buy some of the textiles they now made in the factories. as their wages rose during the century, they were increasingly able to purchase some of the general products of the new industry. thus industrialization tended to create its own new markets. many of the entrepreneurs had acquired some wealth, but they knew better than anyone else how inefficiently their capital was employed. the large landowners grew wealthy from their ownership of rent, and many earned money also from the exploitation of the mineral deposits under their land, especially coal. their money was available for profitable enterprises other than improving the yield from agriculture and increasing their holdings of land. british lords, though it was socially disreputable for them to enter directly into trading and industrial operations, could lend their money in such a way that it would yield a financial profit (easton, 1996: 571-572). philosophical thought in industrial revolution era in recent historical research, including the history of art and literature, the transition from 18th to the 19th century is seen as an important threshold between the eras of modern age and modernism. philosophy which considered man as material took a great part in this era. ludwig feuerbach, posted men as a concrete creature that was merely a mechanic process of material, while soul leapt from body. he did not deny that there was an experience of men’s thinking spiritually, but it was considered only a subjective matter of daily life. in this case, material took control. feuerbach materialism was passive and ignoring human’s relationship. the limitation then caused karl marx presented his historic materialism. the problem was not only how to interpret the world, but how to change the world. men’s consciousness changed in accordance of their behavior as well as their individual ability in a certain society (delius, 2000: 86-87) 44 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 the industrial revolution and its consequences as revealed in dickens’ great expectations great expectations was written in 1861, where queen victoria reigned and there was a change that transforms people with peasant occupations and local markets into industrial society with worldwide connections. therefore, it is not quite surprising if this novel has its own time spirit that represents social and cultural life of the industrial revolution era and its consequences. there are some cultural layers could be drawn from dickens’ great expectations as follows: firstly, the characters chosen by dickens are orphans or those who do not remember their parents, and have no idea where they were born. they are pip and estella. pip and estella are children who lack of affection. they are not raised in an appropriate way. pip is a boy who cannot even visualize the picture of his father and mother since he never met them. he is raised by his married sister, mrs. joe gargery, and lives in poverty. i give pirrip as my father’s family name, on the authority of his tombstone and my sistermrs. joe gargery, who married the blacksmith. and i never saw my father or my mother, and never saw any likeness of either of them (for their days were long before the days of photographs), my first fancies regarding what they were like were unreasonably derived from their tombstone. the shape of the letters on my father’s, gave me an odd idea that he was a square, stout, dark man, with curly black hair. from the character and turn of the inscription, “also georgiana wife of the above,” i drew a childish conclusion that my mother was freckled and sickly. to five little stone lozenges, each about a foot and a half long, which were arranged in a neat row beside their grave, and were sacred to the memory of five little brothers of mine-who gave up trying to get a living exceedingly early in that universal strugglei am indebted for a belief i religiously entertained that they had all been born on their blacks with their hands in their trousers-pockets, and had never taken them out in this state of existence (dickens, 2003: 17). meanwhile, estella is adopted by miss havisham and lives in moderate circumstances, but she feels depressed since the way miss havisham treats her is weird. miss havisham adopted her not for the sake of love or mercy, but she uses her as a tool to take revenge. it is implied in the following quotation: “why should i call you mad,” returned estella, “i of all people? does anyone live, who knows what a steady memory you have, half as well as i do? who have sat on this same hearth on the little stool that is even now beside you there, learning your lessons and looking up into your face, when your face was strange and frightened me!” (dickens, 2003: 332). industrialization makes people move from village to town and work as labors for better life. the inadequate housing and financial condition forced them to live together in the same place without any privacy at all. the condition caused free circumstances, which then developed into free sex among them. the children they produced had no either father or mother, or even both. the figure of pip and estella as orphans here is used to reveal dickens’ view on society. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 45 corruption, sin and decay as the result of industrial revolution have given bad effects to children. their parents neglect them and it is a threat to a fabric of society as symbolized by the family unit. secondly, great expectations is essentially a novel about money. money has become a sin and an evil. it is recognized in the right hands it can do good, but its power to corrupt is conveyed, if anything more strongly. the concept of money as a disease and an illness is developed strongly in almost appeared characters such as miss havisham, abel magwitch, compeyson, and pip’s sister. mis havisham uses her wealth to cure the pain she suffered from for a long period. she manipulates estella to reach her goal. she does not care whether it will hurt estella’s heart. her miserable past of being betrayed and deceived by compeyson makes her willing to sacrifice her adopted daughter. it can be seen through the following quotation: never had i seen such passionate eagerness as was joined to her utterance of these words. i could feel the muscles of the thin arm round my neck swell with the vehemence that possessed her. “hear me, pip! i adopted her to be loved. i bred her and educated her, to be loved. i developed her into what she is, that she might be loved. love her!” she said the word often enough, and there could be no doubt that she meant to say it; but if the often repeated word had been hate instead of love-despair-revenge-dire death-it could not have sounded from her lips more like a curse. “i’ll tell you,” said she, in the same hurried passionate whisper, “what real love is. it is blind devotion, unquestioning selfhumiliation, utter submission, trust and belief against yourself and against the whole world, giving up your whole heart and soul to the smiter-as i did!” (dickens, 2003:264-265). she raised estella for bad a purpose. she makes estella beautiful and well-educated, but at the same time she also creates estella as a woman with no respect and desire to her opposite sex (dickens, 2003: 330). her beauty and intelligence are intentionally created to make gentlemen interested and fall in love with her. it will then become a ticket for miss havisham to break those guys’ heart. abel magwitch is a convict, but he is actually a nice man of good character. he is also uneducated. as a convict, he is not considered as a human and never respected by society. that is why he then bequeaths a large amount of money to pip (dickens, 2003: 348). he wants pip to fulfill his wish. he uses pip to make his dream comes true. compeyson, who breaks miss havisham’s heart, is also a gentleman of money oriented. he conspires with arthur, miss havisham’s half brother. he comes into miss havisham’s life; wins her heart by pretending that he is truly in love with her, and takes her money out. pip’s sister is also a character who is manipulated by money. she asks her brother to accompany miss havisham’s niece, estella, and gets the payment as a result. she is forced to do it because she needs the money to support her family life. it is clearly understood that industrial revolution means the succession of changes, which transformed england from a predominantly rural and agricultural country into a predominantly urban and manufacturing one. there were so many people leaved the rural sector of the economy and tried to make a living in city. it then made a great change in the way people behave. they used to put their orientation on power derived from heredity property such as 46 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 land. but now they put it on money. money, as a result of modern concept (materialism) had changed the standard value of behavior and thought, which then caused a new culture on society. feudalism has made people passive. they have no fighting spirit since they depend themselves on nature. different from feudalism, capitalism produces tough ands energetic people. the industrial atmosphere put them in a competitive situation. they fight each other to get the best income and to reach the most comfortable position in society. the characters discussed above show that the industrial revolution has made people culturally change. people need money to show their existence as well as their social status. when money becomes one of the characters’ expectations, the title of the novel also refers some “expectations” that are important not only for pip (becoming a gentleman and well-educated person), but also in other senses for other characters. estella expects to become a rich lady dominating humiliated admirers, but then she becomes enslaved to a brutal husband. pip’s friend, herbert, dreams of becoming a powerful industrialist, but he has no capital until pip provides it as implied in the quotations as follows: “then, herbert, estimate; estimate it in round numbers, and put it down.” “what a fellow of resource you are!” my friend would reply, with admiration. “really your business powers are very remarkable.” i thought so too. i established with myself on these occasions the reputation of a first-rate man of business-prompt, deceive, energetic, clear, cool-headed. when i had got all my responsibilities down upon my list, i compared each with the bill, and ticked it off. my self-approval when i ticked an entry was quite a luxurious sensation. when i had no more ticks to make, i folded all my bills up uniformly, docketed each on the back, and tied the whole into a symmetrical bundle. then i did the same for herbert (who modestly said he had not my administrative genius), and felt that i had brought his affairs into a focus for him (dickens, 2003: 302-303) mis havisham herself, and magwitch also, live for expectations (in estella and pip), which are frustrated. in its largest implication, great expectations is concerned with the futility if a society in which individuals live by desires powered by illusion. culture as ideas can be seen from the “expectations” performed by the characters of the novel. they create expectations to better their life in society. they reflect those positive motivation in one hand, industrialization may brings good effects for nation as england was successful of defeating france in the 19th century, and made it dominant. but on the other hand, it also brings some serious social effects to society. thirdly, great expectations starts off as a mystery story based round an inheritance. it is a fact that in victorian time huge piles of rubbish could be sold at vast profit, sometimes for the valuables they contained, but sometimes also for building and other industrial work. this provides the novel with a marvelous symbol for wealth and money in corrupt society. people have lost their faith and benevolence and the power of the charitable individual as the sole requirement if wrongs were to be righted; as the awareness grew that social pressures could and did outweigh the power of individual. wealth and its effect on the individual are presented as a central theme of the novel. it shows how wealth corrupts individuals and is a totally false base on which to judge people. the characterization in the novel is notable. miss havisham for example, language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 47 who has sought to freeze time at the moment when her fiancé jilted her, is a classic and famous portrait, a symbol of decay. compeyson is also another symbol of corruption. he runs a dirty business. he persuades people to invest their money to him and he uses stolen banknotes and writes false cheques. he is clever, but wicked and tricky (dickens, 2003: 314-315). industrialization and materialism have made people put their orientation on money. instead of using their intelligence to gain profit in a positive way, they turn to be tricky regardless moral values which exist in society. the symbol of prison in dickens’ great expectations can be analyzed as a cultural symptom that comes up as the result of industrial revolution. a tough competition has made people work harder. they are forced to extend their working hour to get the best and satisfying results, which then put them into boring daily routine. prison is a symbol of routines that shackles people from a life which actually nicer and worth living. it is also a symbol of the waste of human potential. the tendency of people to imprison themselves, locking up their inner soul behind walls of hypocrisy and deceit, springs naturally from the physical image of the prison. lastly, it deals savagely with the new industrial philosophy that sought to treat people as mere numbers and machines, puts in a heartfelt plea for fantasy and the life of the imagination, and shows the crushing burden of mental and physical imprisonment inflicted on society by the industrial revolution. it is true that this novel marks a brave and determined attempt to come to terms with, and to make a decent human statement, on some of the worst atrocities inflicted on human beings by the new industrial society. conclusion from the analysis, the conclusion can be drawn as follows: since literary work is reflection of a real life in society, it is not surprising therefore if, we find novel, drama, or poetry represents its zeitgeist (a spiritual unity). it consists of so many cultural layers, which of course helpful for us, the readers, to have a good understanding of one’s literary work. industrial revolution that culturally and sociology caused many changes in england has influenced dickens’ great expectations. the changes or the consequences of industrial revolutions can be revealed through pip, estella, pip’s sister, miss havisham, herbert, compeyson, and magwitch as the characters of the novel. the life of pip and estella who have no parents and lack of love and affection as well represent the dissolution of family units. the concept of money as disease and illness can be seen through the attitude of each character toward his/ her problem. all characters represent such deed, but compeyson shows the most characteristics in terms of possessing wealth. meanwhile, miss havisham can be categorized into a character who reveals selfishness as she uses estella to take revenge to her past. mutual exploitation as one of the industrial revolution consequences can be also identified from the way magwitch and pip create their relationship, as well as pip and herbert. such relationship is also made by pip’s sister and miss havisham. as someone who is responsible to pip, she has to afford much money; and it is impossible since she lives in poverty. that is why she then agrees on sending pip to accompany estella. finally, the cultural layer can be broken down from the title of the novel. great expectations shows the “expectations” of all characters which represent human passion and ambition through the hard life caused by capitalism in industrial life. 48 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 references damono, s.d. 1984. sosiologi sastra: sebuah pengantar ringkas. jakarta: pusat dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. delius, ch. et.al. 2000. the story of philosophy: from antiquity to the present. germany: konemann verlagsgesellschaft mbh. dickens, ch. 2003. great expectations. new dehli: rupa. co easton, s.c. 1996. the western heritage: from the earliest times to the present. second edition. usa: holt, rinehart, and winston inc. lowenthal, l. 1984. literature and mass culture: communication in society. volume 1. new jersey: transaction inc. stephen, m. 1986. english literature. new york: longman inc. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaa378ee10c4 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 25 sofia the first: what makes a text make sense djoko sutopo semarang state university abstract based on the concern that in teachings, our teachers are not sure how to exploit texts, this study aims at describing what makes a text and what makes a text make sense. a literary work entitled sofia the first has been the object of the study. the focus is on unlocking the text before analyzing its cohesiveness and its coherence. reference and topic /comment of the text is also discussed before describing the advantages of using such literary text in teaching and learning process. the findings suggest that individual sentence has been a concern of traditional language teaching. however, it its natural state, language is not isolated sentences. rather, it is the text that is the significant unit of language. as teachers of foreign language users, our top priority is to help learners understand and produce texts for different purposes in a variety of genres. issues such as what makes a text and what makes a text make sense are significant to address. key words: text, cohesive, referent, coherence, topic and comment, literary work. introduction a preliminary research in english graduate program classes suggests that in teachings, our teachers are not sure how to exploit texts. instead, they simply used them as a vehicle for teaching item of sentence grammar. they used them to develop the skills of listening and reading. they didn’t pay attention to the textspecific features of their composition. the texts are quite often unauthentic since they were written for teaching purposes. a lot of material available in published course books is sentence-based. indeed, sentences have a relatively fixed and describable grammar. but language is realized as text. it is not isolated sentences. they need to be encouraged to explore this rich resource with their learners. they need to be motivated to go beyond the sentence. to be more specific, they should have a better idea of what text is, how to categorize and describe them in terms of their genre, function organization and style. they should have learned how to exploit texts for language teaching purposes, how to unpack hidden messages of texts and how to use literary texts in the classroom. they need to encourage their students to cope with texts and make sense of them as well as produce them. a few basic text-unlocking techniques can be applied to start exploiting texts for language work. following an introduction to a text – such as one entitled “sofia the first” – learners can be asked to count 26 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 how many sentences there are; count how many words there are and how many words are repeated; identify the word classes (noun, adjective, etc.); say how many countable nouns there are; say how many uncountable nouns there are; say how many adjectives, determiners, adverbs etc, there are; underline all the verbs; identify the tense, aspect and voice of each verb phrase; find any collocations, i.e. words that they think might co-occur frequently (learners can check their intuition against a good learner’s dictionary; find any figurative or idiomatic use of language, including phrasal verbs; identify any cohesive devices; and find any pronouns and identify their referents (ie the words they refer to). unlocking text here’s an example of a text from disney junior channel. sofia the first sofia is a little girl with a commoner’s background until her mom marries the king and suddenly she is royalty. with the help of the three fairies in charge of the royalty training academy, sofia learns that looking like a princess isn’t all that hard, but behaving like one must have come from the heart. examples of part of speech can be found in the text above including nouns such as sofia, girl, commoner, background, mom, king, royalty, fairies, heart, princess; verbs such as marry, learn and come; adjectives such as little, hard; adverb such as suddenly; determiners such as the, a, that; prepositions such as with, of, from; conjunction such as until, and, but; pronouns such as she, her. the grammar words can be found including is, with, must, of isn’t, in. the content words include sofia, commoner, background, royalty, mom, king, she, help, fairies, charge, learn, training. additionally, there are a number of words repeated. they include is which is repeated three times to put emphasis on the tense and its contextual meaning and article the, a, and preposition with. the noun phrases in the text can be identified including a little girl with a commoner’s background the way of making of which is indefinite article + adjective + noun + prepositional phrase; the help of fairies in charge of the royal training academy the way of making of which is definite article + noun + prepositional phrase; and a little girl the way of making of which is indefinite article + adjective + noun. the verb phrases include must, come the way of making which is modal auxiliary + verb infinitive; and learns that looking like the way of making of which is verb + relative pronoun + gerund. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 27 the personal pronoun in the text can be found including sofia (the name of a little girl). one refers to a princess and she refers to sofia. the possessive pronoun includes her mom which refers to sofia’s mom. the use of article includes a such as in a little girl as indefinite article which refers to a particular introduced entity; and the found in the king as definite article which refers to sofia’s father; the help of the three fairies which refers to the fact that sofia grows up and is brought up by them; the royal training academy which refers to the specific information on the place where the story goes. the prepositional phrases can be identified in the text including a little girl with a commoner’s background; with the help of three fairies; in charge of the royal training academy; and from the heart. cohesion the text above is made cohesive by a combination of lexical and grammatical devices. the lexical connectors include repetition and the lexical chaining of words that share similar meaning. the grammatical connectors are pronouns (she and that) and linkers (then). examples of lexical repetition include is (three times), the, a, and preposition with (once each). these words are prominent in order to put emphasis the tense and its contextual meaning. grammatical cohesion is realized by pronouns, which refer to the reader back to their referents, as in her mom marries the king; she is royalty and behaving like one must have come from the heart. here, the pronoun she in the first sentence refers back to sofia in the same sentence. she can also refer forward as in sofia learns that looking like a princess isn’t all that hard. behaving like one must have come from the heart also demonstrates how some pronouns do not have referent s in the text itself, but outside it. thus the referent one is not retrievable from the text, either before or after, but refers to a kind of princess that is not described in the text. this is also a kind of cohesive device, since it binds the text to its larger context. the term cohesion suggests the presence in a text of explicit linking word, such as but, although, however, etc. there is only one explicit linking word in the text: the use of but in the second sentence (…, but behaving like one must have come from the heart). in the sentence beginning sofia, is a little girl with a commoner’s background until her mom marries the king and suddenly she is royalty, and is an instance of conjunction. other conjunctions are but, so, or and because. they connect clauses inside sentences. connectors that link sentences are called conjuncts. they are also commonly called linkers. the absence of conjuncts suggests that perhaps the text is so cohesive already that it does not need them. another grammatical feature of the text that serves to give it internal consistency 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 and hence acts as a kind of cohesive device is the use of tense. all the main verbs in the text are in present and are unmarked for aspect (ie there are no continuous or perfect forms). reference reference is such an important aspect of cohesion. reference is commonly achieved through the use of pronouns (he, she, we, it, this, that, these and those) and articles. we have seen how pronouns refer back to previously mentioned referents. here’s is another example, from sofia the first. sofia has the incredibly powerful magical amulet of avalor that grants her the ability to talk to and understand animals and summon her princess friends in case she needs help with something. but the amulet is coveted by the evil sorcerer cedric who wants its great magical power so he can use it to take over the kingdom as king cedric the great. the pronoun she and the possessive determiner her have back-reference to sofia. back-reference is technically called anaphoric reference. the words she and her act like little index fingers, directing us back in the text to these first mentions. for certain stylistic effects, the referring pronoun can anticipate the referent. this kind of reference is called cataphoric. apart from the in …the evil sorcerer credic…the underlined words in the text above point backward, rather than forward. pronouns can have referents outside the text, as well as inside it. the index finger can point beyond the text: we saw this with the pronoun one in previous example: behaving like one must come from the heart. reference outside the text is called exophoric reference. the referent may be in the form of visual information as the story tells how sofia is helpful, considerate and humble. like pronouns, the definite article the can also make connections back, forward and outside the text. the second text above shows how each instance of the implies a previous mention of the noun that it determines. the function of the is to signal knowledge that is given, ie knowledge that is shared between writer and reader or between speaker and listener. other ways of qualifying a noun so as to make it definite include the use of of relative clauses, as in the evil sorcerer cedric who wants its great magical power. coherence we have looked at the way a text hangs together – how it is made cohesive. a text, however, needs to do more than simply together. it also needs to make sense. the language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 29 capacity of a text to make sense is called coherence. while cohesion is a surface feature of texts, independent of the reader, coherence, on the other hand, results from the interaction between the reader and the text. the issue of coherence is approached from two perspectives: the micro level and the macro level. at the micro level, readers have certain expectations of how the meaning of a sentence is likely to be developed in the sentence or sentences that follow it. when these expectations are met, the immediate text will seem coherent. at the macro level, coherence is enhanced if (a) the reader can easily discern what the text is about, (b) the text is organized in a way that answer the reader’s likely question and (c) the text is organized in a way that is familiar to the reader. there are implicit logical connections and it is the feeling that the texts make sense. there are no explicit conjuncts signaling the relation between the two sentences. we take the relation on trust. the relations include additive, adversative, causal and temporal. additive means that the second sentence gives details about the statement in the first sentence. adversative means that in claiming to solve the problem stated in the first, makes a contrast that could have been signaled with however or but. causal means that the second sentence provides a reason for the situation or request mentioned in the first. whereas temporal means that the chronological order of events (and then…) is implied, rather than explicitly stated. when two past tense sentences are placed together, we assume that the first happened before the second. topic and comment topic and comment are also called theme and rheme. the topic is the launch pad of the message and is typically realized by a noun phrase (the grammatical subject of the sentence). the comment is what the writer or speaker considers to be ‘newsworthy’ about the topic: what you as reader or listener need to pay attention to. the following outline summarizes the logical relations between the sentences of the text. (1) sofia the first statement of topic. (2) sofia is a little girl with a commoner’s background until her mom marries the king and suddenly she is royalty. having been announced in the title and takes theme position the topic (sofia the first) is now given. the description that follows is the ‘news’ and take the rheme slot. the embedded information (a little girl with a commoner’s background until her mom 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 marries the king and suddenly she is royalty) predicts an answer to the question how sofia is becoming royalty. the rest of the text in fact answers the question. (3) with the help of the three fairies in charge of the royalty training academy, sofia learns that looking like a princess isn’t all that hard, but behaving like one must have come from the heart. the topic (sofia) echoes part of the comment in (2) (a girl with commoner’s background) – this suggests that (3) is the beginning of an answer to (2). (4) sofia has the incredibly powerful magical amulet of avalor that grants her the ability to talk to and understand animals and summon her princess friends in case she needs help with something again, the topic (sofia) is a re-focusing of a little girl with a commoner’s background until her mom marries the king and suddenly she is royalty thread – same topic, new comment, with the words incredible power carried over. the dynamic verbs (talk and understand) suggest a verbal and mental process is being described, and since processes usually have stages, one can predict more sentences with more dynamic words. (5) but the amulet is coveted by the evil sorcerer cedric who wants its great magical power so he can use it to take over the kingdom as king cedric the great. amulet is carried over from (4). dynamic verb (coveted) suggests that this is part of the way signaled in (4) and anticipates further sentences with dynamic verbs, since wants and use as well as take over, have stages. this analysis does not in any way exhaust the network of intertwining themes and arguments in this text. some writers use the word texture to describe the combined effect of such structural features of a text. literary texts the text above is a text that doesn’t directly refer to the real world, but represents it. the characteristics of literary text above include the fact that the language is used expressively, ie to express feeling and emotions; it is used playfully, ironically, imaginatively, metaphorically. the point of view of the writer may be involved; the text’s meaning is partly inter-textual; it conform to and constrained by certain generic features; and it often highly valued by the culture. from a teaching point of view, such a text has advantages over non-literary ones. first, it provides exposure to other kinds of texts and language functions; second, it offers instances of real language language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 31 use and therefore quality; third, it raises the level of challenge; fourth, it motivates learners to further reading outside the classroom; finally, it encode a lot of cultural knowledge about the society. conclusion individual sentence has been a concern of traditional language teaching. however, it its natural state, language is not isolated sentences. rather, it is the text that is the significant unit o language. as teachers of foreign language users, our top priority is to help learners understand and produce texts for different purposes and a variety of genres. issues such as what makes a text and what makes a text make sense are significant to address. references eggins, suzanne. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics, london: pinter publishers. fiske, john. 1990, introduction to communication studies, new york: routledge,. gerot, linda & peter wignell, 1994. making sense of functional grammar., nsw: gerd stabler. halliday, m.a.k., 1974, interview with m.a.k. halliday , in h. parret (ed.), discussing language (janua linguarum series maior 93), the hague: mouton, 81-120 (extracts reprinted in halliday 1978) halliday, m.a.k., 1985a, introduction to functional grammar, edward arnold: london. halliday, m.a.k., 1985b, spoken and written language, geelong, vic.: deakin university press (republished by oup 1989). thornburry, scott, 2005. beyond the sentence; introducing discourse analysis. london: macmillan publishers limited. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab0cc1e113c • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 25 cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading husni mubarok husni@unisnu.ac.id islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jepara dwi erlin effendi erlin.effendi@gmail.com islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jepara nina sofiana ninasofiana@unisnu.ac.id islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jepara received: 29 september 2016. revised: 20 october 2016. accepted: 30 october 2016 abstract this paper was aimed at describing students‟ activities during the implementation of teaching reading through circ-based interactive cd, knowing students‟ achievement in reading after taught by using the media, and their responses toward the implementation of the media. this study was conducted on nine different junior high schools in jepara. the subject of the study was seventh grade students. the research method of this study was classroom action research in which the researchers used observation, test, and questionnaire. observation was used to collect the data dealing with students‟ activities in the classroom. test was used to measure students‟ achievement before the implementation, first cycle and second cycle. questionnaire was used to get students‟ responses toward the implementation of the media. the result showed that there were some activities in teaching reading like reading group and team and basal-related activities. the improvement of students‟ score was also improved before and after the implementation. it was showed by the students‟ average score 7.6 (before), 7.8 (first cycle), and 8.0 (second cycle). students‟ perception toward reading was also changed in the aspect of reading nature, learning reading, strange with vocabulary, getting main idea, and teaching media. keywords: cooperative integrated reading and composition, reading how to cite: mubarok, h., d.e. effendi, n. sofiana. 2016. cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading texts. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. __________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction nowadays, government uses 2013 curriculum in indonesia schools. in this curriculum, english uses two approaches namely genrebased and scientific-based approaches. in scientific approach, english is emphasized in the three domains of competences, namely cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domain. therefore, students are encouraged to think scientifically by using the power of reason in the study. 2013 curriculum has set up various types of text that is used to improve the attitudes, knowledge and skills of students in communicating using english in accordance with core competence and basic competences that has been set before. some examples of the text types are narrative, procedure, descriptive, report, procedural, news item, analytical exposition, persuasive exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion and review. english has been taught in every level of education in indonesia. it has been started from elementary level until university level. mailto:husni@unisnu.ac.id mailto:effendi@gmail.com mailto:ninasofiana@unisnu.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 26 the skills taught include listening, speaking, reading and writing skill. it shows that english has become the main subject that is used by students as a means to access knowledge and communicate with others both orally and in writing. as proof of why english is taught in elementary is that english should be learnt early to be habitual process in speaking and communicating in the target language. english has taught in other countries. english is a global language (crystal, 2003:3). the language is used by most of people all over the world which plays important role that is recognized in every country. english is by far the most widely taught language in all european countries in both primary and secondary education. on the whole, more than 90% of all students in europe choose to study english in secondary education (alexiou & mattheoudakis, 2013:101). although english is not the language with the largest number of native or first language speaker, it has become a lingua franca (harmer, 2007:1). a lingua franca can be defined as a language widely adopted for communication between two speakers whose native languages are different from each other‟s and where one or both speakers are using it as a second language (harmer, 2007:1). one of english skills is reading. reading comprehension was seen as an active process that engaged the reader. reading comprehension was also seen as the construction of the meaning of a written text through an interaction between the reader and the text (zarei & keshavarz, 2011:42). reading is unique skill which asks readers to focus on the text and even on the single word to get the meaning. although in reading there is scanning and skimming skill, making inferences, and getting general information, readers should also understand the meaning and the context of the text. reading ability will be developed best in association with writing, listening, and speaking activities (brown, 2001:289). this is why integrated teaching skill could not be neglected by teachers. when students learn reading, the teachers will also insert writing material in the simple form like making a note of the information got from the text. this will be good for students to remember what they have read before. reading skill as one of the language skills always plays an important role in helping students of language in order to have better understanding of their language. reading skill is necessary for language learners to acquire new information about textbooks (khansir &farajolahzadeh, 2015:477). by reading, students could access information, get knowledge, and take writer‟s idea. in reading, activities need to create a good learning environment to build enthusiasm for the reader to feel relaxed and not tense in reading. there are three different perspectives in reading like in speaking; practice, product, and process. the first has been the interest of anthropologists and social psychologists whose concern is with reading and writing practices as linked to their uses in everyday life, not merely within schooling (carter & nunan, 2001:21). reading as a practice requires teachers to be able to compile the learning activities and strategies well to make students have the literacy experiences when reading in the target language. the second orientation focuses on the form and meaning of written texts and their constituent parts. in some reading accounts, priority is given to the text and parts of texts with varying attention paid to form alone of relationship between form and meaning (carter & nunan, 2001:21). therefore, students are asked to find connections mubarok, h., d.e. effendi, n. sofiana. 2016. cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading texts. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1 27 between words in the text with meaning by context. teachers are expected to deliver a learning strategy as bottom-up and top-down. the third perspective pays relatively greater attention to the role of the reader in the going processing of written language and the strategies that she or he draws on in constructing meaning from text (carter & nunan, 2001:21). for learners of english, two primary hurdles must be cleared in order to become efficient readers. first, they need to be able to master fundamental bottom-up strategies for processing separate letters, words, and phrases, as well as top-down, conceptually driven strategies for comprehension. second, as part of that top-down approach, second language readers must develop appropriate content and format schemata-background information and cultural experience-to carry out those interpretation effectively (brown, 2004:185). the use of top-down and bottomup is used by readers to identify the topic of the text, predict and guess what is the message of the text, and read for general understanding and find specific information. the assessment of reading ability does not end with the measurement of comprehension. strategic pathways to full understanding are often important factors to include in assessing learners, especially in the case of most classroom assessments that are formative in nature. an ability to comprehend may thus be traced to a need to enhance a test-taker‟s strategies for achieving ultimate comprehension (brown, 2004:185). in designing reading test, test maker would consider the genre of reading and micro and macro skills of reading. the examples of reading genre are academic reading, jobrelated reading, and personal reading. besides that, reading assessment can imply all reading strategies such as identifying general purpose of reading, guessing meaning, skimming, scanning, and others. learners who attend junior high school are in a stage of operational development at the age of 12-18 years. one of the characteristics of the stages of this development is that the child is able to think logically and critically. brown (2001:90) stated that adult have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more successful in certain classroom endeavors. their need for sensory input can rely a little more on their imaginations. their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children, but adult usually have acquire a self-confidence not found in children. in learning-centered perspective, knowledge about children learning is seen as central to effective teaching (cameron, 2001:17). this is in line with piaget‟s view about child as a sense maker. from a piagetian viewpoint, a child‟s thinking develops as a gradual growth of knowledge and intellectual skills toward a final stage of formal logical thinking (cameron, 2001:3). vygotsky‟s view of development differs from piaget‟ view about child learning. language provides the child with a new tool, opens up opportunities for doing thing and for organizing information through the use of word as a symbol (cameron, 2001:6). views on students should have changed, from passive to view active, which only receives knowledge and information from teachers. students are children who want to learn and do not know despair. therefore, teachers should know the characteristics of children in development period. according to brown (2001:91), there are some characteristics of adult; adults are more able to handle abstract rules and concept; adults have longer attention spans for material that may not be intrinsically interesting to them; language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 28 sensory input need always be quite as varied with adults, but one of the secrets of lively adult classes is their appeal to multiple senses; adults often bring a modicum of general selfconfidence into a classroom; and adults with their more developed abstract thinking ability, are better able to understand a contextreduced segment of language. students in junior high school had low interest in reading a text. this was caused by the strategy and media used in teaching and learning process. the english teacher usually used monotonous teaching strategy or media which was asked students to read the text presented in a book and then did some exercises. teaching activities done by the english teachers were based on the activities stated on the english book. the english teachers asked students to read the text, translated it into bahasa indonesia, answered the questions given, and discussed it together. students felt bored and had negative view in reading. they did not set first their personal goal in reading because reading activities implemented by teachers were not based on students‟ need. students were neglected to read intensively and not to find the difficult words they found in the text. to solve the problem, the researchers used teaching media namely cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) based interactive cd. this teaching media could help students to build their interest and motivation in reading activities because the activities were designed in fun activities. the text presented in the cd was facilitated with sound how to read it correctly. there was also a word bank which could be used by students if they did not know the meaning of the word from the text. the exercises provided were also in various forms like matching, truefalse, and short answer questions. bastug & demirtas (2016:601) stated that the student exhibited certain improvements at the levels of reading, reading rate and reading comprehension. these results were discussed in the literature and the findings suggest that child-centered reading strategies such as talking, dictating and writing should be the main focus of instruction for students with low reading literacy achievement to enable these students to meet the demands of the curriculum. akyol (2014:200) tried to improve the reading skills of the students having difficulty in reading through an enrichment reading program. at the end of the study, it was found that some developments occurred on the participants‟ word recognition skills and aloud reading skills. it was concluded that for the development of the reading skills of the students having reading difficulty, construction of appropriate reading environment and implementation of enrichment reading programs can be effective. khansir & farajolahzadeh (2015:478) designed to compare two methods of cooperative learning namely, group investigation (gi) and cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) in learning english at an intermediate level of reading comprehension. the results showed that although the circ method is significantly different from gi, but as mean scores of students with circ were higher in comparing with students thought with gi and thus, circ was suggested as more efficient an effective method in teaching reading and could improve more intermediate iranian foreign language learners' reading comprehension. the use of the developed reading rubric would establish a standardized program evaluation process by reducing the number of programs that do not meet the criteria for program effectiveness (pearce, 2015:90). although making reading rubric is good thing mubarok, h., d.e. effendi, n. sofiana. 2016. cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading texts. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1 29 in reading, reading could not be released from students background and need. if students are in primary school, reading test should meet the cognitive, affective and psychomotoric domain of students. circ is a kind of integrated method which can be used by students in learning reading and writing. in this method, students are viewed as independent learner in their learning and should be responsible in teaching and learning process. according to larsenfreeman (2003:159), good language learners did to facilitate and are willing and accurate guessers who has strong desire to communicate. in circ, students are assigned to four-member heterogeneous learning teams. following a lesson, students work in their teams in a variety of cooperative activities including partner reading, identification of main story elements, vocabulary and summarization activities, practice of reading comprehension strategies, and creative writing using a process of writing approach (calderon, hertz-lazarowitz, & slavin, 1998:155). cooperative learning is an instructional method where students interact with and help each other to solve problems, complete a project or task to maximize their learning to achieve mutual goals (tanaka & sanchez, 2016:2). in cooperative learning, teachers teach students collaborative or social skills so that they can work together more effectively (larsen-freeman, 2003:159). this is why in cooperative learning, there will be a sharing ideas with other students and students could lead their team discussion. the term of cooperative learning is based on vygotsky‟s social constructivism. according to vygotsky as cited by khan & ahmad (2014:56), the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. this theory is famous with zone of proximal development (zpd) which compares the actual development level to the level of potential development. in line with the theory of constructivism, the use of cooperative learning in reading instruction links to the belief that students learn better if appropriately guided through the zpd when working with peers (tanaka & sanchez, 2016:3). this paper was different with other researches above in the form of the media used. it was circ based interactive cd. by using this teaching media, the english teachers set teaching and learning process in the form of students-centered not teacherscentered or books-centered. the purpose of this paper was to elaborate students‟ activities when circ-based interactive cd was implemented, to know students‟ improvement in reading skill by using the media of circbased interactive cd, and to know students‟ responses toward the implementation of the media of circ-based interactive cd. research methodology this study used classroom action research methods to process the data that had been collected. classroom action research was used to elaborate a systematic approach in order to enhance teaching practices in classroom setting. glanz, (1998:29) stated that reflective practice is a process by which educational leaders take the time to contemplate and assess the efficiency of programs, products, and personnel in order to make judgments about the appropriateness of effectiveness of these aspects so that improvements or refinements might be achieved. action research is a model for teaching with high language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 30 transparency that enables teachers to determine student achievement on a daily basis rather than waiting for the end of a quarter (pelton, 2010:3). the model of action research used in this study was collaborative classroom action research. as suggested by pelton (2010:7), action research teachers are constantly evaluating their classroom performance by identifying both the successes and challenges of their students. in this study, there were two cycles to investigate students‟ problem in reading class and to implement new teaching media namely circ-based interactive cd. this study was conducted on nine different junior high schools in jepara municipality in the academic year of 2016/2017; 6 state junior high schools and 3 private junior high schools. participants the subjects of the study were seventh grade students of junior high school. each school was taken one class randomly to be subject of the research. the subjects had got english as a compulsory course in 2013 curriculum. the total subjects of the research were 344 students from nine different schools. instruments data collection methods used in this study were observation, test and questionnaires. observation was used to observe changes in the attitudes and activities of students in the learning process. students‟ attitudes and activities changes could be observed before and after the implementation of circ in cycle one and two. the researchers used observation checklist to monitor teaching and learning process happened. test was used to measure students‟ achievement after they were taught by using circ in english class and then compared the result before the implementation of circ. this method was used to know students‟ progress in cognitive domain. questionnaires were used to know students perception toward the implementation of circ in english class. the researchers provided the option of the questionnaires which consisted of four options; strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree. findings and discussion circ-based interactive cd was one innovation media which was developed to be used in teaching reading. it consisted of a variety of instructional practices which were adapted the principal elements of circ. circ-based interactive cd comprised a sequences of activities to do in a team when the students learnt autonomously. it was developed to facilitate the reading process of descriptive texts. the activities during the implementation of circ were described below. reading groups and teams before the learning process, the teacher determined the students into two reading groups according to their reading skill level: high and low level. then, they were assigned into teams consisting of three of four students. the team composed of students from different reading skill level; for example, one team composed of one or two students from high level and one or two students from low level. basal-related activities in this activity, the teacher introduced a reading text to the whole students by conducting first a brainstorming activity to activate their prior knowledge about the text will be about. the students were asked some questions related to their family description. this activity was in line with one of the features of circ in which it involves students mubarok, h., d.e. effendi, n. sofiana. 2016. cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading texts. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1 31 in creating predictions and in working through the process of confirming and rejecting those predictions. while they were in the middle of the discussion, the teacher then brought the students into the media which showed a description of person. in this session, after the teacher explained the purpose of this reading activity, the students listened carefully to the pronunciation of english words and the natural rhythm of the language in the cd. in the cd, it was shown the text entitled “my father”. it described the physical appearance, the job and its activity, and the interest. the students were also encouraged to read silently following the reader. by doing so, the students unconsciously practice linking between the written and oral forms of the language. next, the students were asked to find new vocabularies. with the teacher, the students then discussed the meaning of each word in a slide of word bank in the cd. finally, this activity was ended with the discussion of the text content. after all activities above were complete, the teacher asked the students to do sequence of activities with the members of their teams. the first activity was words out load. in this activity, the students were asked to read aloud the words correctly within their teams until they could read them smoothly. the words were new vocabularies discussed in teacherled reading and compiled in the words bank. this activity was carried out to facilitate the students help one another to master the new words. the second activity was partner reading. in this activity, the students took turns reading the description text aloud with their partner, alternating each sentence. while one student was reading, the others listened and corrected any errors possibly made by the reader. with this activity, the students were trained to help each other with the correct pronunciation. by reading aloud, they enjoyed this experience because they can help their friends increase their confidence and ability in reading. the concern of circ was grouping the students based on the reading ability. so, the students with the higher reading ability were grouped with the low one. by doing this activity, the students with the higher reading ability with pleasure would assist the students with the lower reading ability in reading and correcting errors. in addition, even the students who were most reluctant to learn became actively involved in learning. next step was word meaning. word meaning in the original circ was actually asking the students for writing meaningful sentences which shows the definition and a clear picture of the meaning of the word. however, in the cd this activity was replaced with matching selected words from the words bank with its definition. the students were also allowed to look at the dictionary to know the meaning of each word. the replacement was due to the grade level of the students which were still in the level of junior high school. the following step was story structure. during this step, the students were given questions related to the text. they, in team, discussed the answers for reaching question listed in the cd. in this stage, the students were encouraged to answer the questions in complete sentence so they would practice the structure of the language. they had to work together and help each other in answering the questions. they also had to make sure that everyone in the team saw the answer because the teacher would test the students‟ understanding about the text. the test was done by the teacher by doing the numbered heads together (nht) activity in which each team numbered off one to three or four language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 32 depending on the amount of the students in one team. the numbers of the students who were called by the teacher had to stand up to answer the teacher‟s questions. in this stage, the students were active and tried to answer well because each member score would affect the team score. in the end of this activity as the homework, the students were asked to summarize the main point of the text and compose another text with their own words. before closing this cycle, teacher did a role play how to retell the story so the students would be ready to do story retell in the next cycle. the subsequent step was retelling story. again, in this stage the students did an interactive activity in which they had to work together with the member of their team. the students had to read their own text to their teams. then, the other members had to evaluate their verbal performance. when the students retold their description texts with their team, the teacher circulated to all teams to give guidance on their interaction. afterwards, all students told their own description to whole class confidently. next activity was spelling activity. this activity focused on mastering spelling. in accomplishing this activity, the students were asked to fill the gap with the appropriate spelling. before completing this process, the student with the member of their team tested each other on the spelling words by applying hangman game. it was carried out to make them remember more the spelling of each word. in the end of the cycle, the students were also facilitated with independent reading activity as circ-based integrated cd was equipped with various examples of descriptive texts. they could select and read the text of their choice in their free time. the students feel enthusiastic since they have some variation of texts which can help them to enrich their vocabularies. one of problems faced by most students in reading was lack of vocabulary mastery. table 1. students’ achievement no school average score before 1st cycle 2nd cycle 1 school a 7.9 8.1 8.5 2 school b 7.6 7.8 8.0 3 school c 7.8 7.9 8.1 4 school d 7.7 7.9 8.3 5 school e 7.7 8.0 8.4 6 school f 7.6 7.9 8.2 7 school g 7.3 7.4 7.5 8 school h 7.5 7.5 7.8 9 school i 7.2 7.4 7.6 average 7.6 7.8 8.0 based on the above table, it showed that students score had increased both before and after implementation of the circ for learning english. it was known from the increasing mubarok, h., d.e. effendi, n. sofiana. 2016. cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading texts. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1 33 score in each cycle for each school although the increasing score was different from one school to another school because of the ability of different students. before the implementation of circ in teaching english, students learnt english especially in reading skill without using any media at all. they learnt english based on the book given by the teachers. the material and exercises had been provided in the book. this was why students had weaknesses in word bank. they had very limited vocabulary so that could not understand what the message of the text was. they only understood very limited vocabulary. the english teachers did not explain words meaning deeply. so that students could not get the main idea of the text well. from the table above, it was shown that the average score in pre-implementation of circ was 7.6 got by students from nine different schools. in first cycle, students increased their understanding in identifying the purpose of reading. they paid more attention to general information in the text. this was done by allowing students to participate actively in class learning by doing „reading aloud‟ activity and „partner reading‟. in this activity students would read aloud and their partner would listen what their peer read. after that the english teacher would discuss the text in the term of main idea, general information, and specific information. the average score after the implementation of circ in first cycle was 7.8. in second cycle, students‟ average score was higher than second meeting. it was showed 8.0 in their average score from the table. table 2. students’ response before the implementation no aspects sa a da stda 1 reading was difficult 10% 24% 64% 2% 2 learning reading was difficult 15% 20% 40% 25% 3 strange with new vocabulary 17% 51% 32% 0 4 understanding the main ideas 5% 40% 35% 20% 5 teaching media 15% 37% 48% 0 to know students‟ perception toward the implementation of circ, the researchers used questionnaires which were distributed to students. based on the questionnaires given to them before the implementation of circ, it was found that reading was difficult according to students. there were 34% of students responded strongly agree and agree when they were asked about reading. reading was still a frightening specter for students because they were required to understand the content of the discourse as well as general information related to the content of the passage. from the second aspect of the questionnaire, it was found that there were still 35% of students argued that learning reading was difficult thing to students. in learning reading, they were asked to focus to language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 34 the text by getting the main idea, specific information, and general information stated in the text. from the third questionnaire, it was found that students had difficulties in knowing and understanding the some words in english. they never learnt about word bank in english which introduce new vocabulary in the end of the text. they learnt new word only when they found it directly in the text. it was shown that there were still 32% percent of students chose „disagree‟ when they were asked about their opinion about difficulties with new words. based on the questionnaire number four, it was found that some of students could understand and get main idea of the text easily, but some of them still were difficult which was shown by 55% of students answered disagree and strongly disagree. from the questionnaire number 5, it was found that the english teachers rarely used teaching media or strategy in teaching reading to students. the teachers usually used english textbook and did activities based on activities stated from the book. table 3. students’ response after the implementation no aspects sa a da stda 1 reading was difficult 0% 10% 78% 12% 2 learning reading was difficult 2% 8% 72% 18% 3 strange with new vocabulary 8% 28% 50% 14% 4 understanding the main ideas 18% 52% 15% 15% 5 teaching media 30% 45% 15% 10% based on the table above, it could be elaborated that students‟ perception toward reading had changed after the implementation of circ. because of the implementation of the strategy, students learnt reading and writing in not separated activities but it could be integrated into one meeting activities. it was shown that 90% of students thought that reading was not difficult again. they could learn reading in a more fun and interesting activities provided in the circ-basedinteractive cd. they changed their perspective about learning reading from difficult-to-be-learnt to be easy. students‟ difficulties in mastering vocabulary had been reduced by implementing circ-based interactive cd. in this cd, students could learn new words and its meaning and how to spell and pronounce it correctly because they could listen what speaker said in the cd. it was proved that 65% of students disagreed when they asked that learning new vocabulary was difficult by using this media. the reducing of difficult words had influenced students‟ understanding of the text. students could understand the idea of text and get general and specific information. they did not try to translate every single word. it was proved that 70% of students answered agree and strongly agree. from questionnaire number 5, it was found that the using teaching media could make mubarok, h., d.e. effendi, n. sofiana. 2016. cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) – based interactive cd in teaching reading texts. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1 35 students more enthusiastic in learning reading. it was showed that 75% students chose agree and strongly agree. they learnt reading from media which was never used before. conclussion based on the findings above, it could be concluded that the implementation of circbased interactive cd in reading class could be done by asking students to do reading group and partner. besides that, students could also do basal related activities like reading words aloud, partner reading, discussing words meaning, structure of the reading text, retelling story and spelling. teaching reading by using the media of circ could increase students‟ achievement in reading from cycle to cycle. it was shown by the average of students‟ score which reached 8.0 in last cycle. circ-based interactive cd helped students to understand words that they did not know because in the media was provided words bank item and its meaning. students could read the text provided correctly by listening first to text which was played from the cd. they could understand the information of the reading text because the material in cd was presented in interesting activities. students perception toward the implementation of the media changed in the aspect of the difficulties of reading and learning reading, strange with new vocabulary, understanding the main ideas, and teaching media used. the changing of students perception could be compared before and after the implementation of the media. references akyol, h., cakiroglu, a., & kuruyer, h. 2014. a study on the development of reading skills of the students having difficulty in reading : enrichment reading program 1. international electronic journal of elementary education, 6(2), 199–212. alexiou, t., & mattheoudakis, m. 2013. introducing a foreign language at primary level: benefits or lost opportunities? the case of greece. research papers in language teaching and learning, 4(1), 99–120. bastug, m., & demirtas, g. 2016. child-centered reading intervention: see , talk , dictate, read , write! international electronic journal of elementary education, 8(4 june), 601–616. brown, d. 2001. teaching by principles; an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: pearson education international. brown, d. 2004. language assessment; principles and classroom practices. new york: pearson education international. calderon, m., hertz-lazarowitz, & slavin, r. 1998. effects of bilingual cooperative integrated reading and composition on students making the transition from spanish to english reading. the elementary school journal, 99(2), 153–164. cameron, l. 2001. teaching languages to young learners. cambridge: cambridge university press. carter, r., & nunan, d. 2001. teaching english to speakers of other languages. cambridge: cambridge university press. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 36 crystal, d. 2003. english as a global language. cambridge: cambridge university press. glanz, j. 1998. action research: an educational leader’s guide to school improvement. norwood: christopher-gordon publisher inc. harmer, j. 2007. the practice of english language teaching. london: pearson education international. khan, s. a., & ahmad, r. n. 2014. evaluation of the effectiveness of cooperative learning method versus traditional learning method on the reading comprehension of the students. journal of research and reflections in education, 8(1), 55–64. khansir, a. a., & farajolahzadeh, s. 2015. the effect of gi and cirt as the cooperative techniques on learners reading comprehension at intermediate level of iranianefl classrooms. modern journal of language teaching methods (mjltm), 4(5), 477–488. larsen-freeman, d. 2003. techniques and principles in language teaching. oxford: oxford university press. pearce, d. 2015. developing a rubric for the evaluation of reading programs for johnston county schools. east carolina university. pelton, r. p. 2010. action research for teacher candidates. new york: rowman & littlefield education. tanaka, m., & sanchez, e. 2016. students ‟ perceptions of reading through peer questioning in cooperative. the electronic journal for english as a second language, 19(4), 1–17. zarei, a. a., & keshavarz, j. 2011. on the effects of two models of cooperative learning on efl reading comprehension and vocabulary. modern journal of language teaching methods, 1(2), 38–54. bundel ke 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 13 the language of political campaign djoko sutopo – semarang state university abstract this study is aimed at finding out how meanings are realized in the election campaigns in the contemporary indonesia and what role language takes in exercising power? the close-up linguistic analysis of three different texts has illustrated that the texts are rich in meanings: they make not just meanings about what goes on and why, but also meanings about relationship and attitudes, and meanings about distance and proximity. by relating specific linguistic choices to the construction and reflection of situational, cultural and ideological contexts, these three different texts have been shown to in fact encode meanings about such far reaching dimensions as: ways of talking to your die-hard fans, the experience of politicians, the responsibility of a statesman and expected behavior of a “good” leader. meanings of the political campaigns in contemporary indonesia are explicitly realized in a subtle ways. the exercise of power is achieved through ideological workings of language. public space serves a rhetorical means. competing figures establish their voices by constructing counter-narratives in public space. key words: meanings, election campaign, cultural context, ideological context, public space, rhetorical means, counter narratives. introduction. election fever had gripped the already hot jakarta, as hundreds of thousands of democratic party supporters brought the capital‟s traffic to a halt. president susilo bambang yudhoyono kicked off his party‟s campaign series on his first day of leave as president at bung karno stadium in senayan, central jakarta. shouldering the blame for the traffic chaos that gripped the city due to the election rally organized by his democratic party, president susilo bambang yudhoyono began his speech with an apology. “allow me to apologize to the people of jakarta for the inconvenience on the streets because of our campaign today. i am deeply sorry,” yudhoyono said before a sea of party supporters who flocked to bung karno stadium in senayan, central jakarta. in his speech, he called on his die-hard fans to continue supporting the democratic party. “we are here to elect a party and a leader that will create improvement for the country within the next five years, a party whose programs are in favor of the people,” said yudhoyono, who repeatedly yelled out “31”, the party‟s number in the ballots. he continued by attributing his administration‟s success, especially on the issue of national security, law enforcement and the economy, to his party and its leadership. “if 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 an objective and honest evaluation is made, indonesia is improving,” said yudhoyono, greeted by party supporters yelling out his acronym “sby”. meanwhile, former president and indonesian democratic party of struggle (pdip) chairwoman megawati soekarnoputri began her party‟s campaign in jember, east java, by criticizing yudhoyono‟s direct cash assistance (blt) program. “blt is meaningless. for a mere rp 200,000 [us$16.96] people have to crowd like beggars. it would have been better if the money for blt was spent on building roads or public toilets,” she said. also taking aim at the government was the greater indonesia movement (gerindra) party chairman prabowo subianto, during his party‟s campaign in medan. he accused the government of failing to improve public welfare. “people demand change because they are fed up with all the lies,” he said. on the following day in medan, yudhoyono countered megawati‟s criticism of cash aid. “the blt is not for political interests but it has been used as a political issue on the eve of general election, yudhoyono said after emphasizing that he would continue supporting cash aid program as part of the government‟s pro-people program if he wins the elections. how meanings are realized in the election campaigns in the contemporary indonesia? what is the role of language in exercising power? three main kinds of meanings halliday (1985) has argued that language is structured to make three main kinds of meanings simultaneously. this semantic complexity, which allows experiential, interpersonal and textual meanings to be fused together in linguistic units, if possible because language is a semiotic system: a conventionalized coding system, organized as sets of choices. systemic linguistics does not only ask functional questions about how people are using language, but it also interpret the linguistic system itself from the functional-semantic perspective. but how is language structured for use? the fundamental purpose that language has evolved to serve is to enable us to make meanings: to make sense of the world and of each other. the overall purpose of language then can be described as a semantic one, and each text we participate in is a record of the meanings that have been made in a particular context. the choice of the word “meanings” rather than “meaning” in the last sentence is a significant one, for systemic analysis seeks to language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 15 demonstrate that linguistic texts are typically making not just one, but rather a number of meanings simultaneously. consider how you would answer the question “what do the texts of speeches above mean?” an immediate, and obvious, response would be that the meaning of the campaign texts is that, yudhoyono apologized to people of jakarta for the inconvenience on the streets because of their campaign that day, that he called on his die-hard fans to continue their supporting, that they are there to elect a party and a leader that will create improvement for the country within the next five years, and that if objective and honest evaluation is made, indonesia is improving. it is certainly the case that the text is making this kind of “real world” or experiential meaning. in fact, if we fail to understand the experiential meaning the text is making, then we are likely to encounter serious problems in social life. however, at the same time that it is making this strand of experiential meaning, the text is also making some other equally important meanings. the text is, for example, making interpersonal meaning. there is a strand of meaning running throughout the text which expresses the writer‟s role relationship with the reader, and the writer‟s attitude towards the subject matter. yudhoyono clearly wants to establish a friendly rapport with his supporters, to be seen more as a “fellow sufferer” extending apology for the inconvenience might be caused by the campaign. this meaning of positive supportive solidarity is clearly separable from the meaning about the reason why they are at bung karno stadium. finally, while expressing both experiential and interpersonal meaning, a text also makes what we describe as textual meaning. textual meaning refers to the way the text is organized as a piece of speech. the campaign text above has been organized as a message about a party leader (i) and the party leader and his supporters (we). it is these pronouns which dominate first position in the sentences and clauses of the text. this example demonstrates that a text can be seen to be expressing more than one meaning at a time. language and context our ability to deduce context from text is one way in which language and context are interrelated. our equally highly developed ability to predict language from context provides further evidence of the language/context relationship. systemicists divide context into a number of levels, with the most frequently discussed being 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 those of register and genre. register theory describes the impact of dimensions of the immediate context of situation of a language event on the way language is used. three key dimensions of the situations are identified as having significant and predictable impacts on language use. these three dimensions, the register variables of mode (amount of feedback and role of language), tenor (role relations of power and solidarity) and field (topic of focus of the activity), are used to explain our intuitive understanding that we will not use language in the same way to write as to speak (mode variation), to talk to our boss as to talk to our lover (tenor variation) and to talk about linguistics as to talk about jogging (field variation). the concept of genre is used to describe the impact of the context of culture on language, by exploring the staged, step-by-step structure cultures institutionalize as ways of achieving goals. while we can sometimes achieve our goals by just a short linguistic exchange, most linguistic interactions require many more moves. in fact, even a simple exchange is very frequently extended through politeness over a number of moves. most often when we use language to do things we have to do them in a number of stages. a humorous narrative, for example, tells a story involving (linguistically) a number of steps (set of scene: time, place, participants; develop the actions; relate the dramatic event; give the happy ending; express a judgment on the outcome, and wrap up). a higher level of context to which increasing attention is being given within systemic linguistics is the level of ideology. whatever genre we are involved in, and whatever the register of the situation, our use of language will also be influenced by our ideological positions: the values we hold (consciously or unconsciously), the biases and perspectives we adopt. for example, yudhoyono‟s campaign text above illustrates the ideological claims that if objective and honest evaluation is made, indonesia is improving. meanwhile, megawati‟s campaign text illustrates the ideological claims that direct cash assistance (blt) is meaningless and that for a mere rp 200,000 people have to crowd like beggars. whereas, prabowo subianto illustrates ideological claims that government fail to improve public welfare and people demand change because they are fed up with all the lies. the identification of ideology should alert us to the fact that just as no text can b “free” of context (register and genre), so no text is free of ideology. in other words, to use language at all is to use it to encode particular positions, beliefs, biases, etc. however, for reasons which are themselves ideological, most language language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 17 users have not been educated to identify ideology in text, but rather to “read” texts as natural, inevitable representation of reality. the implication of identifying ideology in text is that as readers of texts, we need to develop skills to be able to make explicit the ideological positions encoded, perhaps in order to resist or challenge them. this means we need a way of talking about how language is not just representing but actively constructing our view of the world. language has two meaning-making levels, an upper level of content known as discoursesemantics, and an intermediate level of content known as lexico-grammar. by comparing the traffic lights and language, we can see that what makes language different is that it possesses an intermediate encoding level of lexico-grammar. it is this lexico-grammatical level that is particularly important in understanding how language is able to make three types of meaning simultaneously. the three strands of meanings run through any text and get into the text largely through the clauses which make it up. thus, as halliday points out, grammatical description is essential to text analysis: it is sometimes assumed that (discourse analysis, or „text linguistics‟) can be carried on without grammar – or even that it is somehow an alternative to grammar. but this is an illusion. a discourse analysis that is not based on grammar is not an analysis at all, but simply a running commentary on a text (halliday 1985: xvii). the two significant roles played by the lexico-grammar is to allow us to mean anything we like, and to allow us to make more than one meaning at a time. the description of lexico-grammar from a functional perspective was seen to involve the minimal bracketing of constituents, and the consistent use of functional labeling. since he constituents of each clause can be demonstrated to be playing more than one functional role at a time, it is necessary to develop three sets of functional labels to describe how the clauses in a text realize interpersonal, experiential and textual meanings simultaneously. systems of lexical choice are not the only kind of systems we find in language. we also have systems of grammatical choice. this system says that whenever you produce a clause it must be a declarative (e.g. the baby is crying), an interrogative (e.g. is the baby crying?) or an imperative (e.g. cry!). how are the oppositions, or choices, in this kind of system realized? each choice is realized by a particular sequencing of a number of grammatical elements, here the elements of subject, finite and predicator. the system says that 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 the choice “declarative”, for example, is realized by the sequence of elements: subject followed by finite verb. for example, the baby (subject) is (finite verb) crying (predicator), whereas the choice “interrogative” has the elements of subject and finite in the opposite order: is the baby crying? the imperative is realized by the omission of the subject and finite elements, leaving only the predicator: cry! in grammatical system, then, each choice gets realized not as particular words, but in the order and arrangement of the grammatical roles the words are playing. that is, these choices are realized by structures. we need to note that the choice from a grammatical system is expressed through the presence and ordering of particular grammatical elements. and of course these structures will eventually get realized as words, and then finally as sounds. in the grammar of interpersonal meaning we can identify two essential functional constituents of the mood component of the clause: the subject and the finite. the definition of subject offered by halliday (1985:76) is that it realizes the thing by reference to which the proposition can be affirmed or denied. it provides the person or thing in whom is vested the success or failure of the proposition, what is “held responsible”. the second essential constituent of the mood element is the finite. halliday (1985: 75) defines the finite in terms of its function in the clause to make the proposition definite, to anchor the proposition in a way that we can argue about it. the part of the clause which is somehow less essential to the arguability of the clause than is the mood component is called residue. the residue component can contain a number of functional elements: a predicator, one or more complements, and any number of different types of adjuncts. the semantic focus now can shift from the organization of the clause to realize interpersonal meaning (its mood structure) to the organization of the clause to realize experiential meaning. the description of this experiential strand of meaning will involve one major system, that of transitivity (process type), with the choice of process implicating associated participant roles and configurations. while the mood structure of the clause can be related to the contextual dimension of tenor, transitivity choices will be related to the dimension of field, with the choice of process types and participant roles seen as realizing interactants‟ encoding of their experiential reality: the world of actions, relations, participants and circumstances that give content to their talk. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 19 most clause constituents are playing two and often three different types of meaning: a meaning about the interaction (an interpersonal meaning); a meaning about reality (an experiential meaning), and a meaning about the message (a textual meaning). the process type system is what underlies the differences i a paradigm such as: material, mental, verbal, behavioural, existential, and relational process as well as circumstances. in the grammar of textual meaning we recognize that one major system is involved (the system of theme), with a configuration of the clause into the two functional component of a theme (point of departure for the message) and a rheme (new information about the point of departure). the system network of textual meaning in the clause includes topical theme, interpersonal theme, textual theme, multiple themes, the description of the mood, transitivity and theme-rheme of a text provides a reasonably thorough account of how the text is structured to make meanings in context. from a systemic perspective, text analysis is not an interpretive but an explanatory activity: „the linguistic analysis of text is not an interpretation of that text; it is an explanation‟. halliday suggests that a more ambitious goal in text analysis is to be able to contribute an evaluation that is: the linguistic analysis may enable one to say why the text is, or is not, an effective text for its own purposes – in what respects it succeeds and in what respects it fails, or less successful (halliday 1985: xv-xvi) along this understanding of text analysis the description of the lexico-grammar analysis of the campaign texts above can be presented below: lexico-grammar analysis mood analysis key: s=subject, f=finite, fn=negative, fms= modalized, fml=modulated p=predicator, pml=modulated predicator, pms=modalised predicator f/p=fused finite and predicator c=complement, ca=attributive complement a=adjunct, ac=circumstantial, am=mood, ao=comment, ap=polarity, av=vocative, aj=conjunctive, at=continuity wh=whelement; wh/s, wh/c, wh/ac=fused wh element, mn=minor element mood element of ranking (non-embedded) clauses is shown in bold text 1. 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 1. allow (f) me (c) to apologize to (p) the people of jakarta (c) for the inconvenience on the streets (c) because of our campaign today. 2. we (s) are (f) here (ac) to elect (p) a party and a leader (c) [[that (s) will (f) create (p) improvement for the country within the next five years (c)]], (c) [[a party (s) whose programs (s) are (f) in favor of the people (c)]] . text 2. 1. blt (s) is (f) meaningless (c). 2. for mere rp 200 000,(a) people (s) have to (f) crowd (p) like beggars (c). 3. it (s) would have been (f) better (c) if the money for blt (s) was (f) spent (p) on building roads or public toilets (c). text 3. 1. people (s) demand (f) change (c) because 2. they (s) are (f) fed up (p) with all he lies (c). taking the texts above into consideration, yudhoyono, mega and prabowo have all used public space to launch their campaigns. in other words, public space serves a rhetorical means. these competing figures establish their voices by constructing counter-narratives in public space. meanwhile, the public audience no longer resides at the margins of the stage, but rather, plays a significant role as subjects whose voices are fought over. one thing to keep in mind is that the stage is not eternal. space is constructed and therefore, is emergence. the current political use of public space is being and will be challenged by other public space users too. the stage of public space is constructed and created by varied resisting forces. pragmatically, yudhoyono‟s statement sounds cool and reflected the nature of a javanese statesman rather than a politician. none of his words is direct and hurts anyone including his rivals. he recognizes well to whom he spoke to and in what cultural context his message was delivered. meanwhile mega‟s statement and prabowo‟s rhetoric sound antagonistic. their criticisms did not reflect the culture of the society where the have been grown up. direct attacks in our society are often contraproductive. the phenomenon also indicates that the exercise of power in modern society is increasingly achieved through ideology, and more particularly through ideological workings of language. we live in a linguistic epoch, as major contemporary social theorists such as pierre bourdieu, michel foucault, and jurgen habermas have recognized in the increasing importance they have given to language in their theories. conclusion the discussion of the analysis presented above illustrates how a systemic approach language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 21 can be used to gain understanding of how the political campaign texts make the meanings that they do. the close-up linguistic analysis of three different texts has illustrated theta the texts are rich in meanings: they make not just meanings about what goes on and why, but also meanings about relationship and attitudes, and meanings about distance and proximity. by relating specific linguistic choices to the construction and reflection of situational, cultural and ideological contexts, these three different texts have been shown to in fact encode meanings about such far reaching dimensions as: ways of talking to your die-hard fans, the experience of politicians, the responsibility of a statesman and expected behavior of a “good” leader. meanings of the political campaigns in contemporary indonesia are explicitly realized in a subtle ways. the exercise of power is achieved through ideological workings of language. public space serves a rhetorical means. competing figures establish their voices by constructing counter-narratives in public space. pedagogical implication a discussion of language education in the schools is perhaps an appropriate way of concluding our topic at present, because what happens in schools can be decisive in determining whether existing orders of discourse, as well as more generally existing relations of power, are to be reproduced or transformed. we frequently hear employers complain that many school leavers applying for jobs after years of compulsory education cannot write simply, clearly and without obvious errors. we must all share concern about the poor language capabilities of many children when they leave education, but it is striking that complaints about standard s are so often cast in narrowly instrumental terms, as if language capabilities were no more than skills or tools for performing tasks („simply‟, „clearly‟, „without error‟, and so forth), and as if language education were no more than the transmission of such skills. the picture of language use here is exclusively task-oriented: using language effectively, for effects such as conveying meaning. even the language training of teachers is put i terms of tools for jobs (equip). yet, language use – discourse – is not just a matter of performing tasks, it is also a matter of expressing and constituting and reproducing social identities and social relations, including relations of power. pupils need to know about how the english language works and in consequence what they should have been taught and be expected to 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 understand. the development of children‟s language capabilities should proceed through bringing together their existing abilities and experiences, their growing critical awareness of language, and their growing capability to engage in purposeful discourse. references eggins, suzan. 1994. an introduction to fairclaugh, norman. 1989. language and power. longman group uk limited 1989. systemic functional linguistics. london: cassell. the jakarta post. 03/21/2009. sby joins campaign fray in capital. jakarta. pt bina media tenggara. language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 274 exploring stress factors and resilience experienced by sumbanese efl teachers: a critical incident technique approach ayuni kabobu heda sanata dharma university hedaayuni@gmail.com concilianus laos mbato sanata dharma university cons@usd.ac.id abstract many researches indicated the efl teachers’ factors of stress and the key to stay resilient. stress vestiges the common issue in the teaching field. the attitude of resilient was the main point to assist the teachers in discovering the happiness and keeping them settle sustained at their profession as an educator. stress factors experienced by educator are enhanced in this pandemic situation. this research was endeavoured to investigate the stress factors and resilient attitudes experienced by teachers in sumba island which was one of the remote area in indonesia. the data was taken by accomplishing an in-depth interview with four teachers who were teaching in sumba island. the result revealed that there were some factors might lead the students stress in teaching in rural area, they were; students, lack of resources and facilities, technology awareness, different opinion with colleagues, and the sense of insecurity in teaching in isolated area. the strategic attitude of resilient developed by the teacher to cope with all of those stress were; optimistic attitude, taking a personal approach, self-introspection, keep in mind about job-consequences, and sharing about the problem with others. this research proposed to give further insight into the existences of teachers working in a rural area like sumba island, in specific how they ascertain their profession upon all of the stress factors they encountered. the result and conaclusion were presented in descriptive method. keywords: [stress factors, resilient attitude, sumba island, terdepan, tertinggal, and terluar (3t) areas] introduction being a teacher in a rural area can be stressful for many teachers. the stressful factors can be diversified depend on the situations. it can be because of the students, behaviour, the coworkers, the workloads, the workplaces, or even the school’s or government’s regulation. many teachers are able to survive over the pressures/stresses they experience, however it cannot be denied if there are also many teachers who gave up. it depend on the resilience behaviour that every individual has. the education in indonesia is still not equitable between those who live in big cities and rural areas. many areas are still struggling in improving the quality of education. teaching in this current situation is the most challenging for all the teachers, especially for those who teach in rural area like sumba island. sumba island is located in east nusa tenggara (ntt), indonesia. sumba island is included of one of the 3t (terdepan, tertinggal and terluar) place such as foremost, lagging and outermost. benny k. harman, one of the parliament from ntt claims that there are some factors affect the education low quality in ntt such as slow-paces infrastructure improvement, low connectivity, inadequate salaries for honorary teachers, poverty and http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 275 underdevelopment. teacher qualification is one of the important things needed in the teaching area. teacher has a big role in the process of improving the quality education and it follows with their expertise on knowledge, skills and attitudes (flora and mbato, 2020). the head of the east sumba regency education office, yusuf waluwanja (2018), said that the low quality of education in sumba regency is due to many crucial factors, such as the lack of supporting facilities, teacher qualifications that do not meet the standards (s1), and several other problems. he added that one of the factors is sumbanese children/students could not speak indonesian well. teacher professional identity identity has a close relationship with self-concept. teacher identity defines as an imaginary of how teachers describe who they are along with their values and beliefs. there are several factors which influence the shaping of identity. beijaard, meijer, and verloop (2004) highlights that professional identity is “an ongoing process of integration of the personal and professional sides of becoming and being a teacher” (p. 113). beliefs that the teacher have can lead them to decide the teaching strategy and technique used in the classroom that they consider would be helpful for the students to reach their learning goals. being a teacher is no simple as we thought. erstwhile, teacher will face diverse disputes and obscurities in learningteaching process within and outside the classroom. this kind of situation may lead teacher’s stress and tension. stress in teaching in rural area before going forward, the researcher needs to clarify the meaning of stress in this research. in general, stress experienced during a person's life at times of difficult life transitions, involving developmental and social changes; traumatic life events, including sadness and loss; and environmental stresses, including poverty and community violence (germain and gitterman, 1996). teacher stress is define as “the experience by a teacher of unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration or depression, resulting from some aspect of their work as a teacher”. (collie, shapka, & perry, 2012; kyriacou, 2004; liu & onwuegbuzie, 2012). many factors can influence the appearance of teacher stress. previous study conduct by clipa & boghean (2015), arrange some causes of teacher stress such as students misbehaviour, defective communication with colleagues or students’ parents, time squeeze, bad workplace vibes, displeasure with the salary and many others. skaalvik and skaalvik (2015) also found seven kinds of stressors, they are “disruptive student behavior, workload and time pressure, student diversity and working to adapt teaching to students’ needs, lack of autonomy, lack of shared goals and values, problems and conflicts related to teamwork, and lack of status.” school environment is conceptualized as a main indicator of emotional stress (skaalvik and skaalvik, 2016). one of the main obvious factors accomplished by the teacher is the workload (clipa & boghean, 2015). teaching is not just all about sharing knowledge and teaching material since they are engaged in executing amount of responsibilities. at the side of teaching, teachers have to expand lesson plan, prepare teaching material, assess student’s assignment, and report the outcomes. teacher also have to complete the administrative task since in indonesian educational context, curriculum changes overtime, as a teacher, they have to ready for the changers of the regulation and requirements requested by the government. school which located in rural area sometimes distinctive in facing the new regulation in every changes of the curriculum. teacher have to adapt the new normal and it does not easy for both, teachers and students. nowadays, the curriculum implement student-centered learning, teachers are not sustained as a vital supplier if the knowledge but as facilitator who take a role to guide and help the students in processing the material (harden & crosby, 2000 as cited in kumar and monika, 2016). as learning facilitator in the 21th century where everything is connected by technology, teacher is required to be flexible. they have to afford the learners with several sets of attractive learning tools. teachers drain both physical and mental http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 276 energy (rizqi, 2017) since they are not merely transmitting learning materia but also helping students in shaping their soft skills. in addition, parents also required the teacher to report their children’s performance in the classroom. in language framework, foreign language, especially english is not really common for students in sumba island. most of the students receive or know english subject in the junior high school. it does not easy for the teacher because the students do not have notion about english/foreign language. as english is a second language, the target language has an important role in teacher’s competence and the pupils learning process (nayernia & babayan 2019). richards (2017) mention that english expertise as an aspect of efl teachers’ competency and subject knowledge. in the efl context, teachers may feel stressed because they have insufficient language competence. they might face some language concern such as fluency, pronunciation, or grammar (mousavi, 2007). mousavi (2007) added that confidence is another stressor for efl teachers. to sum up, rendering to prilleltensky, nerr, & bessell, (2016), there are some factors influence teacher’s stress namely: personal factor, which involve teacher’s self-efficacy and self-capability; interpersonal factors includes teachers’ relation with co-worker, learners, students staff and students parents; and organization factor which consist of school circumstance, culture, management, pedagogy, and government’s regulation/curriculum. resilience attitudes in facing all stress factors as a result to the stressful situations and efl deficiency mentioned above, stress is a situation that cannot be separated from the teacher. the most vital things to be perceived are how teachers deal with stress and discover effective strategies to deal with it. stress is associated with coping strategies and resilience. the term of resilience was found by emma werner in 1973. werner (1993) quoted that “resilience is generally thought of as a ‘positive adaption’ after a stressful or adverse situation” meichenbaum (2007) states that resilience is a crucial thing when teacher wants to rebound from though situation. as described by masten, best, and garmezy (1990), “resilience is a form of successful adaptation even in challenging or threatening circumstances”. in short, resilience is very important for teachers, to help them deal with situations and become strong on the journey of forming a professional identity as a teacher. rachmawati & listiyandini (2014, p. 3) quoted “a person who has resilience can be influenced by high self-esteem, self-confidence, problemsolving, and satisfaction in interpersonal relationships. resilience can be influenced by selfdiscipline, self-confidence, curiosity, self-esteem, and self-concept”. by having a resilient behaviour, teacher can shape their professionalism teacher identity. when teacher should encounter the challenges, teachers have their own acceptance and belief they are always carry. it is what we called teachers identity. teacher’s identity interprets who they are and enfold their characteristics that make them stand by their own belief and assumption which different from others. berger abs le van (2018) mention that “identity is strongly tied to the concept of self”. thus, teachers’ identity is shaped by many factors such as workplace, workload, salary, school background and culture, or teaching experience. there are many researches were conducted related to stress and resilience. diasti (2021) found out there are three factors of stress namely personal, interpersonal and organization that lead teacher’s strain. she also exposed that teachers’ professionalism is seen from those who are resilient in managing with numerous learningteaching challenges and adaptive blending with unfavourable working situations. rizqi (2017) signified that the changes of curriculum had a big impact to the teacher stress. geographic location and environment also be one of the factor of teacher stress. it can be seen from the deficient teaching-learning reserve, provision and government devotion. these factors sometimes take place in a remote area of indonesia (lomi & mbato, 2020; nurwidodo, husamah, rahardjanto, mas’odi, & mufrihah, 2017; florida & mbato, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 277 2020). regardless with the unconducive conditions, teacher in rural are required to teach as they trust that children in rural are also have their right to receive equal education as others and it can help them achieve a better live. even though, the salary of teacher in rural area is suspended since some students would rather to pay the tuition late (lomi & mbato, 2020). nevertheless, since there is not any previous research that pure discuss about the stress factors and resilient attitude from teacher in rural area, this study will contribute to deliberate intensely additional aspects which might lead the teachers’ stresses and the reasons that make them resilient as seen from one of the rural areas of indonesia namely sumba island. the research questions were expressed as follow: (1) what aspects might lead to teacher’s stress in rural area? (2) how do teachers maintain resilient in a stressful workplace? methodology this research was proposed to observe teacher stress factors, teacher resilience and how they stay positive during the process. critical incident technique (cit) approach was the method used in this research. cit is a well proven qualitative research approach (hughes & lloyd, 2007). since this approach offered a practical steps in collecting and analysing the information about real-life human activities and experiences, this approach is suitable for this research because the researcher would like to investigate teacher’s stress and their resilient behaviour on how they stay positive with their job. according to daley et al. (2018), the main purpose of a critical incidents in the field of learning-teaching is to facilitate teachers in increasing their self-awareness of crucial event greatly evokes important transformations in their personality and pedagogical practice. the data collections in this study was done through an indepth interview. written response and questionnaires can be used as the tools to collect the data, but they might be less effective since the participants of this study are located far from the researcher place (hughes & lloyd, 2007). this approach needs to observe deeply about human experience and factual report rather than interpretations/opinion (hughes & lloyd, 2007). the participants for this study were 4 english foreign language (efl) teachers that teach in some secondary educational schools (vocational and senior high school), both private and public school in sumba island, east nusa tenggara. the teachers have been teaching in school for 2-5 years. the participant were chosen by using purposive sampling. purposive sampling is nonrandom technique in choosing participant who are willing to share information and experiences (etikan, musa, & alkassim (2016). they were contacted by the researchers through whatsapp to ask their permission in participating on this research. in order to keep the participants privacy, pseudonyms were given. there are five steps of cit in this research: (1) the researchers established the general aims of the research; (2) the researchers determined the research plan and specification that included where was the research located and who were the participants; (3) then, the researchers would collect the data through in-depth interview via whatsapp room chat since the participants were located far from where the researcher belong to. the interview would be done in indonesian to get clearer understanding about the questions. the interview result was transcribed by the researcher; (4) the next step is the researchers analyse the data. after gaining the data, the researcher highlighted and underlied the important information based on the data provided; (5) finally, the researchers would report and interpret the data into written form of result and findings, then the researchers drew the conclusion of the study. result and discussion in this part, the researchers elaborate the findings and discussions consider to the research questions regarding the teacher’s factors of stress and their resilient experiences. the finding and discussion also discuss with some pertinent literature. the researchers provide some utterances from the interview to support in explaining the findings of the study. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 278 factors of stress stress factors in teaching life is caused by many things. the teachers did not achieve the career satisfaction (watson et al., 2010), and the consequence is they might leave their career (carver & darling, 2017). some researches proved that profession as educator is challenging, problematic, and stressful (bettini et al., 2017). this research is elaborating the factor of stress experience by 4 teachers in rural area, especially sumba island. after having the interview, the researcher found out there are some factors that cause the feeling of stress of the teachers in sumba. students students are the most important party in teaching life. they are the centre of all the activities and teacher’s focus. the biggest factor of stress also come from the students itself. students in a rural area has a very low willingness to study, one of the respondents said that students in sumba just come to school to avoid punishment. they are not truly maintenance about what will they learn or study in school. “students’ willingness to study is still very low. most of them just come to school to fulfil their ‘obligation’ as students. they ignore to deep learn the material because they avoid in paying the fine (school regulation). it is a challenge for me as a teacher here. but when it is exaggerated, i feel stress” when student has no motivation in the classroom activity, it challenges the teachers to find the way to overcome the problem. changing students’ attitudes to see the important of education is not easy, it brings stress to the teacher when they are not achieve what they expect to derive. student motivation in learning something new is still weak. it can be triggered by their inadequate background of knowledge. it is not a new issue that sumba is one of the areas that included in 3t areas in indonesia. despite to the inadequate background of knowledge that the students have, it affects the way they receiving learning material from the teachers. students need longer time to understand the material and disrupt the lesson plan which have been planned. “when i have set the lesson plan about one material for 2 meetings, but because my students are hard to understand and to get into the material, it takes longer time for me to teach them. however when the exam result come out, their score are still not up to the standard. sometimes i am thinking, is it because of me? my method/ strategies in teaching them? i feel like i am not acceptable as a teacher” it makes the teachers feel they are failure in teaching their students. it also bring them the feeling of burnout and stress because the target material of each meeting will be postponed for the next meeting. this causes the setback of the lesson plan that have been designed. the tardiness in apprehending material in classroom is caused by students' indonesian language skills are still relatively trifling, thus it is extremely difficult to introduce new languages like english subject to them. students still cultivate the local language in their daily communication. “it is tough for me at the beginning, teaching children who even spoke indonesian wasn't that good or standard, because some still used the local language mixed with indonesian...” many factors of stress caused by students because students are the vital parties in teaching field. teacher daily routines are meeting their students. sometimes, it frustrated for the teacher when their students do not live up to their expectation. clipa and boghean (2015) determines one reason brings stress to teachers is the students’ attitude. this study contributes in adding some factors caused by student which lead stress feeling to teachers. herman, prewett, eddy, savala & reinke (2020) in their research related to teacher stress and coping agrees that teacher’s stress can be harmful to the teacher-student relationship. limited access of teaching resources and facilities sumba island is located in east nusa tenggara. sumba island is one of the 3t http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 279 (terdepan, terluar dan tertinggal) areas in indonesia. this matter caused by the limited access to get learning facilities and resources. teaching in rural area is not straightforward for whoever it is. access limitations referred are: technology awareness, economic unstable, lack of teaching resources and facilities (lomi & mbato, 2020), and limited teacher resources. in this pandemic era, teachers in rural area have to work really hard to get in touch with their students. inadequate access like technology, gadget and network prevent the activity in learning process. a few number of students have economic issues which as the result, they unable to buy gadget to subsidize their learning activity. “in this situation, i feel stress because the limited access to contact students and access to visit them at home is very difficult. they come from places far from the city and difficult to reach by vehicle. most students live in villages and do not have a network. not a few also do not have a smartphone. difficult to convey materials and assignments.” this situation requires teachers to find a way to get the students home which some of them located on remote hutment. despite of the lack of technology awareness (has no gadget or internet connection), the teacher have to deliver the material and assignment to their students home which takes too much of their time. it stresses them out. in addition, a research by raja & nagasubramani(2018) related to the impact of modern technology in education establishes that teachers should master the use of technology in classroom activity and have positive attitudes toward the growth of technology in education. different perspective with the other teacher one of the factors that generates stress to the teacher is the relationship with colleagues. as teacher are working in the circumstance which require them to meet and socialize with other people such as students, colleagues, and staff. every individual has distinct characteristic and perspective in seeing the world. sometimes, teachers have different way and opinion in teaching their students. lomi & mbato (2020) argues that teachers face difficulties in raising a relationship with colleagues because of their idealist attitudes. “sometimes, i have different view/perspective with the other teachers. for example, i (novice/young teacher) are prohibited to get too close to our students. they said that teacher should have a border with the students so they can give high respect for us. however, i have opposite opinion about this one. i think that the proximity (as their friends/sister) that i have with students will give them a freedom to tell me their story and it can help me to know them more and it will easy for me to guide/teach them. and of course they are still respect me as i am their teacher.” thing like this is common among teachers in a school. young teacher love to get closer to their students because it help them to grow a good relationship between their students. however, it can be criticized by others that they are having too close relationship which make there is no boundary between student and teacher. this issue can stretch relationships between teachers and as the result, the atmosphere in workplace is less contented. sense of security talking about teacher performance in sumba, it must be admitted there are many teachers who still do not fulfil the qualification requirements to become one of the criteria for a professional teacher. in rural area, teacher management is still extremely disquieting related to the lack of qualified teachers (adlim, gusti, & zulfadli, 2016). for this reason, there are many teachers come from outside the island to become teacher there. the indicator of low quality of human resources of in sumba reflected on the local society which is still very primitive and destructive (sene, 2016). it can be seen in the problem of unemployment, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 280 traditional agricultural and livestock pattern, the cases of theft and robbery are happening everywhere. sumba island is also known as one of the area which have high crime rate in ntt. this makes the immigrant teachers worry, feel insecure and stressful teaching there. “i feel the stress of teaching here is because of security. in the area where i teach, the crime rate is very high, cases of theft and robbery/motorcycle robbery are still common, and the victims of several cases related to motorcycle robbery are teachers.” the immigrant teacher sometimes become victims of the robbery accident, because the local people think they newcomers are the best target to be robbed. “once, we have been teaching for 3 months and that morning i took my wife to school on the way my wife's teaching colleague was robbed of her motorbike. not only be the target of crime, their arrival is sometimes rejected and not well received by the local community. the primitive attitudes of some group of people makes them hard to open to someone new in their community. public talk about teachers from outside the island makes teachers feel threatened. “and there is always public talk in the community that our presence on kodi is rejected by a few people, we are always feared and threatened.” resilient attitudes experience by the teacher in rural area teaching rural area is extremely challenging for everyone. there a lots of factors that makes teacher stress and frustrated. resilient attitudes is needed to help the way they survive upon all the frustration and stressful situation or haps. after interviewed the 5 respondents which are efl teachers that teach in rural area, the researcher found out some resilient attitudes that help the teacher subsist on their profession as teacher. optimistic generally, teachers who educate in rural areas are already knows the consequences of being a teacher there. they have to work harder than those who teach in developed cities because of the many negative factors. teaching in rural areas, teachers have to ready with the students’ primitive attitudes, the lack of teaching resources and facilities, salary issues, and etc. teachers there have a positive viewpoint of what other people are taking for granted. the teacher have optimistic attitudes towards their students. they believe that sumbanese students have a big potential to receive an equal education as the other students around the country. “what makes me motivated in becoming a teacher here is the students have high enthusiasm in learning something new. they have a potential to move forward. their awareness and skill in learning something deserve a thumbs up.” teacher motivation is crucial in shaping their professionalism as an educator (richardson and watt, 2018). optimistic attitudes is one of their motivation in maintaining their identity. the optimistic attitude held by the teachers in rural area is because of their goals to help educate the nation's children. they convinced that sumbanese children need to get an opportunity to get a good education even though they are living in remote area. taking a personal approach despite to know the students’ struggles in the learning process, teacher have to take a personal approach with their students. they have to construct a reliable connection with their students. by making a comfortable atmosphere, it helps the students to enjoy their learning activity. the personal approach is the teacher's way of addressing or showing concern for students sincerely and honestly. “my defensive attitude is to approach students, find out their difficulties and talk to them nicely.” since the biggest factors of stress is coming from students, teachers find a best way to cope http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 281 with the stress in their students itself. they listen to students' opinions, concerns, and stories, give a positive response, create a trusting relationship, showing a willingness to help students, be open to students' feelings, and controlling the situation so that students feel assured.teachers’ close relationship with the students can also influence their motivation in teaching (tehseen & hadi, 2015). teachers who are coming from outside the island are not only face challenges related to the students, but also with the society. the society unfriendliness is one of the reasons immigrant teachers do not enjoy in teaching in their places (nasir& mujiati, 2020). they are maintaining the resilient attitudes as a newcomer in one place by getting along with the people around. “i hang out with people in the hood where i teach and live. if there are activities in the church or parish, i always attempt to attend. at school, if any of our students are sick or without information, we always make visits.” by attending the society activities and visiting the students’ home, it help the comer teachers to observe the circumstance and recognize the society deeply. it helps to raise their good image in the society so that the society will not underestimate them. self-introspection in the interview with the respondents, the researcher found out that the majority of the respondents said that self-reflection is one of the effort they did to stay resilient upon all of the stress factor in teaching in sumba island. kuswandono (2014), mentions that reflection will help the teachers to be more conscious of the environs. the teachers in sumba are facing their stress and frustrated by being open to themselves. they evaluate and find out the factor which makes them stressful and attempt to fix it. “i also reflect and think again what i’ve done and try to evaluate myself. i introspect myself and reflect on what needs to be improved. i also ask for god’s blessings.” teachers need to introspect and evaluate of what they have done. doing reflection helps the teachers in looking back in order to look forward of to be ready what might occurs ahead (diasti, 2021). this attitude helps them in maintain their identity as an educator. reflection is trusted to be an influential tool to support the growth of teacher’s professionalism (rozimela & tiarina, 2018; lubis, 2017). job-consequences every profession and dedication has its own consequences. being a teacher in a rural area, teachers have considered the consequences they will face. there will be a lot of unrest in the process in becoming a teacher in remote area like sumba island. for an individual, work can be a pleasure, happiness and self-satisfaction or can be vice versa tired, bored and unmotivated (makarim, 2020). those are the negative and positive consequences in pursuing a job. “i persist because this is a consequence that must be taken by a teacher who is ready to serve and be placed anywhere” being aware of the consequences that will be faced, it can help teachers to be ready to encounter the challenges of being a teacher in remote areas. they have predicted things that will happen and are not too concerned about the problem, however find the right way to solve the problem. this attitude is needed by all human beings as selfpreparation in doing the work or responsibility. sharing with others the best way to reduce the feeling of stress and tension is sharing with others. it can help to lighten the burden thought. by sharing with others, they might give suggestion and idea from their point of view. sharing means got social support from others. sovitriana, et al. (2019) exposed that social support might give teachers opportunity to be listened, asked for advice, or suggestion. “i often talk to the head master who are also a priest in my school… we exchange ideas, i http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 282 ask for his advice and suggestion related to the problem i face with students, co-workers, and also society surroundings” "in dealing with problems, i ask for help from friends, teachers or school principals. sometimes i also share with my family about the problems i face.” from the utterances above, it is obvious that teachers choose to ask for suggestion, advice, or even help from the people around them to stay resilient with all of the stress factor they face in teaching life. support from surroundings might assist to reduce teacher’s stress because they feel like they are being appreciated and loved (sovitriana et al., 2019). conclusion grounded on the findings and discussion, the researchers terminated that the stress factors of efl teachers in rural area were because of some factors. the biggest reason was coming from students. students had low enthusiasm to study. this reason could be grounded by inadequate background knowledge that the student has. it took more time from the lesson plan to teach a material to the students. it also connected with the fact that students in sumba island was still difficult in speak indonesian fluently. it was hard for the english teacher to ask them learning new language. the second factor was limited access of teaching resources and facilities. technology in education nowadays influenced the students’ performance. lack of technology stuff and students’ awareness in using it induced the stress of the teachers. teacher had to go to the students’ home one by one to deliver the material and assignment, some houses were located on the place where could not be reached by vehicles. as the result, it required the teachers to foot-slog to get their students’ home. the third factor of stress was coming from the relation with other teachers. in workplace, there will be different opinion between others. it made the teacher stress when others ask them to follow their idealist. they had their own way in teaching their students, however it criticized by some group of teachers. the fourth yet last factor was the sense of security that the teacher had. the teacher who came from outside the island felt insecure because of the locals’ habit which the cases of theft and robbery. society also did not really accept the newcomers to their place. this matter made the teacher feel threatened. despite of the stress factors experienced by the teachers, teachers also had resilient attitudes to keep the positive and stay with their choice to become a teacher in rural area like sumba. the first attitude was optimism. the teachers believed that sumbanese students deserve a good yet equal education with others from the developed cities. the second was taking a personal approach attitudes. the teacher attempted to get close with students and the society around to mingle in their activities. the third attitude was selfintrospection. the teacher reflected of what they had have done and evaluate themselves to improve in the future. the fourth attitudes was assuming that the obstacles they encountered were the consequences of theij job. the teachers stayed think positive. the last attitude was sharing story to others to reduce the stress feelings. teachers tended to share their stress experiences to others such as principals, teachers, and also people around them to ask for advice how to cope with all the problem they face. nevertheless, this research has some limitation. firstly, since the participants of this study were only 4 teachers, the result of this study could not be generalized to represent the population of teachers in rural area in indonesia. therefore, the result of this study simply served as contribution to the previous related studies about teacher’s stress in teaching in remote area. for the future researcher who are enchanted to study the related scope can have bigger participants. it also will be valuable to take upon a research in the same scope on the relationship between teacher’s stress and resilience attitudes among the teachers in rural area in indonesia. it can help the readers to excavate their perspectives into education in 3t areas in the county. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 283 references adlim, gusti, h., & zulfadli. 2016. permasalahan dan solusi pendidikan di daerah kepulauan (studi kasus di sma negeri 1 pulau aceh, kabupaten aceh besar). jurnal pencerahan, 10(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/https://doi.org /10.13170/jp.10.2.4910 beijaard, d., meijer, p. c., & verloop, n. 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(1993). risk, resilience, and recovery: perspectives from the kauai longitudinal study. development and psychopathology, 5(4), 503-515. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ http://www.nttonlinenow.com/new-2016/2018/02/20/kadis-pendidikan-ungkap-penyebab-buruknya-mutu-pendidikan-di-sumba-timur/ http://www.nttonlinenow.com/new-2016/2018/02/20/kadis-pendidikan-ungkap-penyebab-buruknya-mutu-pendidikan-di-sumba-timur/ http://www.nttonlinenow.com/new-2016/2018/02/20/kadis-pendidikan-ungkap-penyebab-buruknya-mutu-pendidikan-di-sumba-timur/ http://www.nttonlinenow.com/new-2016/2018/02/20/kadis-pendidikan-ungkap-penyebab-buruknya-mutu-pendidikan-di-sumba-timur/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １０９ １０９ exploring indonesian efl teachers’ tension during the transition of online to offline learning monika dewanty1 monikadewanty@gmail.com paulus kuswandono2 kus@usd.ac.id1,2sanata dharma university abstract since the outbreak of covid-19, novice teachers have experienced considerable challenges and transformation to cope with such abrupt changes. this study aims to know the tension that novice teachers encountered during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. the teaching-learning activity has now been shifting from the online class to the blended class and now to offline classes under some conditions. the method employed in this research was a qualitative method using open-ended questionnaires and interviews. the participants of this research were 5 novice teachers that first became a teacher during the pandemic. the study shows that novice teachers’ tensions were influenced by personal factors, interpersonal factors, and organizational factors. to conclude, the intervention of all members of the school is important to make good teaching-learning activities. keywords: [covid-19 pandemic, novice teacher, teachers’ tension introduction the covid-19 pandemic has been hitting all parts of the world since 2019. it was first detected in wuhan, china in december 2019. meanwhile, based on the data from world health organization, covid-19 was detected first in march 2020 in indonesia. the education system in indonesia also makes new policies to suit the situation by following the needs of the students. in indonesia, the school has been doing teachinglearning activities from online classes to blended classes to offline classes under some conditions. this change affects the school community. the school members such as the administrators, the staff, the teachers, the families of the students, and the students are also experiencing the effect of it. therefore, it influences the tension that teacher experiences as a teacher is “the most important aspect in an educational organization” (gholam, 2018, p. 2). moreover, the tensions that novice teachers face are increased as they are the new members of the school. besides the tension of being new teachers, they also feel the tension due to the covid-19 outbreak. as the covid-19 pandemic is still ongoing, novice teachers have to always adapt to the situation. hence, teachers nowadays need encouragement (petrakova, kanonire, kulikoya, & orel 2021). teachers’ tensions can be divided into internal struggles and external struggles. the internal struggles include emotion, ability, efficacy, and dissatisfaction with the job. meanwhile, the external struggles are the problems that novice teachers have with the facility of the teaching and the others from the school community. it is in accordance with a study which mentions identity transformation factors, internal factors, and external factors (pravita & kuswandono, 2021). besides, the school culture, rules, beliefs, and social context are different one from another. therefore, novice teachers need some adjustment. in addition to that, novice teachers are also experiencing the effect of the covid-19 pandemic. hence, this study wants to know more about the tensions that efl novice teachers experience when they were first teaching during the covid-19 pandemic. becoming a teacher itself is a continuous process that teachers experience to shape their professional identity (kuswandono, 2013). the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１０ １１０ process itself starts from the teachers’ first experience as student-teachers (castaneda, 2011). therefore, every challenge that teachers face is the factor that constructs their professional identity. nowadays, the challenges increase as the covid19 pandemic happens. furthermore, teaching is a tough job as it can give a high level of stress on the teachers (herman, prewitt, eddy, savale, & reinke, 2020). teachers are required to meet end goals for their personal gain and also community gain. hence, it deals with many different people which resulted in tensions between the teachers themselves and others. furthermore, the tensions that teachers experience are more likely to affect novice teachers as they might be overwhelmed. novice teachers can be seen as new teachers who do not have much experience in teaching-learning activities. they are new to the school community. despite their experience in the learning program for teaching, they are actually experiencing the real ‘responsibility’ when they are already graduated and gotten a job as teachers. in addition, the covid-19 pandemic might add to the novice teacher’s tension. the changes in the system, the activity, and how they teach can add to the teachers’ tension. several studies have been conducted to understand novice teachers. there are studies about it in indonesia and also in other countries. one of the studies in indonesia is conducted by lomi & mbato (2020). it is found that novice teachers’ struggles might come from within one’s self and others or the school community. another study conducted by nordin & samsudin (2017) in malaysia found the factors in constructing novice teachers’ professional identity, which is linked closely with personal experience, professional context, and external political environment. a study conducted by (santamaría, mondragon, santxo, & ozamiz-etzexebarria (2021), focusing on teachers in spain, found that during the covid19 pandemic, the teachers showed the symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. dvir & schatzoppenheimer (2020), in their study, focus on the experience of israeli novice teachers while in the middle of the covid-19 pandemic and the construction of their professional identity process as they were dealing with the challenges. in addition, tensions that teachers experience through many chances in their teaching practice are responsible for the development of the teachers’ professional identity. at the beginning of the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia, a study conducted by lestiyanawati & widyantoro (2020) found that the teachers were using online chat, video conference, and a mix of both ways to help their students to learn. yet, the main struggle was the teachers’ lack of knowledge to use the technologies. in addition, the teachers were also experiencing a loss of motivation (purwanto, masduki, fahlevi, mufid, agistiawati, yoyok, & siryani, 2020). lizana, vega-fernades, gomez-bruton, leyton, & lera (2021) report the negative effect of covid-19 on teachers’ psychological and physical health. however, the situation from the covid-19 pandemic also brings a positive impact on education. the teachers have a chance to learn and integrate technology in a more conventional way (thaheem, abidin, mirza, & pathan, 2022). it also encourages the students to become more independent in learning (fuad, ariyani, suyanto, & shidiq, 2020). moreover, alves, lopes, & precioso (2020) mention the importance of researching the well-being of teachers to enable the government to make and reform educational policies that suit the situation. understanding the challenges faced by the teachers from those studies, this research tries to show the connection lines. there are many studies about challenges faced by the teachers while facing the covid-19 pandemic and also studies about novice teachers. yet, there is little study about novice teachers’ tension during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia. hence, this study wants to conduct research in this area, the novice teachers’ tension during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic which focuses on the well-being of the novice teachers. besides, this study employed a qualitative method with open-ended questionnaires and interviews which enable the research to portray the novice teachers’ tension during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. novice teachers’ tension tension is one of the notions that construct a teacher’s identity. teachers’ tension sees teachers’ conflict with the school elements as a positive process while processing to become a teacher http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１１ １１１ (castaneda, 2011). however, wal, oolbekkinkmarchand, schaap, & meijer (2019) argue that tension is not only happen one time. it happens continuously as the teachers are teaching. yet, novice teachers can get overwhelmed by it as they are new in the teaching-learning career. besides, the new condition, the covid-19 pandemic forces novice teachers to adapt to the situation. therefore, it is important to know and understand the tensions that novice teachers have to give all of the support that they need. pillen, beijaard, & deb brook (2013) argue about the reasons why tensions might happen; the transition period from student to teacher, and the dynamic yet complex interaction between personal and professional identities. based on the literature that pillen et al. (2013) collected, there are 13 tensions that novel teachers face; 1) feeling like a student versus being expected to act like an adult teacher. as novice teacher is considered new to the vocation or the profession, they might be shocked by the transition from student to teacher. the transition is when they are expected to be responsible as a professional teacher (student vs teacher). 2) wanting to care for students versus being expected to be tough. the novice teachers might be confused about whether to show their emotions or not to their students. they might experience the urge to care for their students but they also need to remember that they have to be tough to make their students disciplined (care vs tough). 3) feeling incompetent in terms of knowledge versus being expected to be an expert. as novice teachers are new teachers, they might feel they are incompetent in doing the teaching-learning activity. yet, they are expected to know and be experts in the areas that they are teaching about (incompetent vs expert). 4) experiencing a discrepancy between one’s own, usually implicit, lay theories and theories that are relevant to the teaching profession. the novice teachers might confuse about whether to follow what he/she thinks is right and what others feel is right. 5) experiencing conflicts between one’s own and others’ orientations regarding learning to teach. the different perspectives or opinions toward something in the teaching-learning activities can also make novice teachers confuse (conflicting orientations). 6) being exposed to contradictory institutional attitudes. the novice teachers face different attitudes between his/her school where he/she learned to teach and the school that he/she teaches. it might confuse them, as when they become teachers, they bring the attitudes that they learn while they are in school while they teach in an institution that has different attitudes (contradictory attitudes). 7) wanting to invest time in practicing teaching versus feeling pressured to invest time in other tasks that are part of the teaching profession. the tasks that are faced by novice teachers might overwhelm them. since they are new teachers, they might confuse about the management of task-load such as the teaching task and administration task, and also the need to practice their teaching (teaching vs other tasks). 8) wanting to respect students’ integrity versus feeling the need to work against this integrity. the different beliefs or opinions between the novice teachers and the students might make them confused about whether they should interact with them to change or to respect those differences (respect integrity). 9) experiencing conflicting loyalties towards students and colleagues. loyalties can be confusing for novice teachers as they are asked about confidence by the students about their colleagues. 10) wanting to treat pupils as persons as a whole versus feeling the need to treat them as learners (or vice versa). when novice teachers have not decided yet on the treatment that they want to give their students, it might be confusing for them (students as a whole vs learners). 11) experiencing difficulties in maintaining an emotional distance. as novice teachers are new to the profession, it is hard to maintain the emotional level. they have to be open yet they need to have personal privacy too. the balance of the personal and professional levels might confuse them (private life vs work). 12) experiencing difficulties regarding approaches to teaching. the novice teachers do not have much experience in teaching practices. therefore, they need time to figure out the right approaches for helping their students to learn. as it takes time, they need to adjust and readjust (peer vs teacher). 13) misconceived career perspectives about the teaching profession. if novice teachers have a misconceived career perspective, and the reality is different from what they have expected, it can be difficult for them to continue the vocation. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１２ １１２ these 13 tensions can emerge when novice teachers are in the process of teaching their students. when teachers face tensions, it can help the teachers in exercising to face challenges and developing their professional identity (lomi & mbato, 2020). however, the tensions that are not handled properly can lead to stress which assists with burnout and leaving the vocation (diasti, 2020). karsenti & collin (2013) in their study report that tensions such as a great deal of workload, classroom management, and relationship with parents, students, and colleagues can lead to the leaving of vocation by novice teachers. prilleltensky, neff, & bessel (2016) mention three reasons for teacher stress; personal, interpersonal, and organizational factors. personal reasons consist of self-efficacy and abilities (prilleltensky et al., 2016). interpersonal factors include the relations that the teachers have with the school community; the school, colleagues, parents, and students (prilleltensky et al., 2016). meanwhile, the organizational factors include the regulation from the government, the school culture, and also the management of the school (prilleltensky et al., 2016). these three factors become the reasons for the teachers’ stress which influence directly the teachers. further, it becomes novice teachers’ tensions while doing the teaching-learning activity. although the previous studies have critically discussed the teachers’ tensions, they have not covered sufficient discussion on the experiences of novice teachers during the transition periods of online to offline classes. therefore, this study aims to examine the tensions that novice teachers face by addressing the following research question “what tensions were experienced by efl novice teachers during the transition periods of online, blended, and offline class? methodology this study aimed to know the novice teacher’s tension during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. hence, this study employed a qualitative method using open-ended questionnaires and interviews to gain information about the teachers’ tension during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. the participants of this research are five novice teachers who were chosen through purposive sampling. they are english teachers who have been teaching for a maximum of two years from 2020-2022. the five novice teachers consist of three elementary school teachers and two junior high school teachers. the researcher used an open-ended questionnaire first to gain information from the participants. the open-ended questions are used to gather information about the struggle that the teachers face. pseudonyms were given to the participants to protect their confidentiality. after that, the researcher conducted interviews with five novice teachers. the interview was conducted to get more detailed information about the tensions that the teachers faced during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. the interview was conducted online through an application namely zoom. at first, the interviewer explained what the teacher’s tension is to the interviewees. after that, the interviewees were asked several semi-structured questions related to the tension that they felt during the transition from an online class to a blended class to an offline class under some conditions. when the interviewees had difficulties recalling the memories of tension that they have felt previously, the interviewer gave some examples of the teachers’ tension to them. this interview was recorded and transcribed for further discussion. the transcription was decoded into several themes following the theory of the teacher’s tension. the themes consist of personal factors, interpersonal factors, and organizational factors. furthermore, the interview was analyzed by the researcher based on the discussion in the transcription. table 1. instrument blueprint http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１３ １１３ instruments aspects tension sources interview novice teachers’ tension (kälvermark et al. 2004; katz & raths, 1992) 1. personal 2. interpersonal 3. organizational factors open-ended questionnaire problems teachers face (lestyanawati, 2020) 1. problems 2. solutions result and discussion the following discussion intends to answer the novice teachers’ tension during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. the data, collected from the open-ended questionnaire and interview, shows that the efl novice teachers experienced tensions due to personal factors, interpersonal factors, and organizational factors. personal factors this section portrays the tensions that teachers face during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic due to personal factors. according to prilleltensky et al. (2016), personal factors consist of the teachers’ feelings toward their ability and self-efficacy. most of the teachers mentioned they experienced boredom while teaching their students during the transition of the covid-19 outbreak. r1 stated “i have experienced the too much feeling. i have tried to make the learning experiences more fun. yet, the students did not come to the online class. i don’t know whether the students were just being lazy or their parents did not care about their child’s education. at that time, i consulted with their class teacher and i also tried to stay calm until they knew their mistakes”. it is also supported by the statement from r3 who stated, “i got fed up with the situation because when the beginning of the pandemic, the school did not give the training for the teachers to make the material more interesting”. r1 and r4 mentioned that when the school became offline, it became easier for them to handle the students and also it became more fun. meanwhile, the r5 mentioned that she did not feel bored when she started teaching because she mentioned that “there is always something new and funny from the students”. hence, it could be seen that the pandemic transition from online to offline helped the teachers and the students to make their learning more enjoyable. further, based on the interview, the novice teachers show that they were comfortable making mistakes. so, when they started to teach it was humane to have little confidence. yet, after they began to teach so many times, they became more comfortable and confident. when they made a mistake, instead of becoming insecure, they treated those mistakes as a process of learning. most of the novice teachers mentioned that if they found some difficulties to answer the students’ questions, they asked the students to solve them together by searching on the internet or dictionaries. in addition, the novice teachers mentioned their time spend to deal with the school administration. four out of five noted that they did not have difficulties in managing the time between teaching and doing the school administration stuff. they said that they can manage it well. meanwhile, one of the novice teachers, r5, mentioned that she had difficulties in managing the time for teaching and doing the school administration stuff. moreover, there was supervision from other teachers about the school administration. so, she had to manage her time well. yet, even though she mentioned that it was difficult for her, she still managed to do it well. the ability to manage personal and school life also adds to the novice teachers’ tension. three out of five novice teachers reported that they had http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１４ １１４ difficulties in maintaining a balance proportion of personal and school life. r1 reported, “there are lots of work that it is needed to be brought home”. further, r5 added that she also had duties at home so it was difficult for her to balance that. in addition. r3 mentioned, “the identity of teacher is the one that is difficult for me. the headmaster of my school encourages us to be a teacher who has integrity. so, we have to behave even if it is outside of the school”. meanwhile, the other two, r4 and r2, reported that they did not have difficulties in managing their personal and school life. so, most efl novice teachers experienced difficulties in managing their time between personal and school life. the efl novice teachers also mentioned their changing perspectives about teaching. the changing perspectives have been moved toward positive perspectives. r1, r2, and r5 reported their changing perspectives toward the positive one, as r2 noted “it is not as hard as what i have thought before”. r1 and r5 mentioned the reality of managing the class as their changing perspectives. prior to that, r1 mentioned that she thought the relationship between teacher and student was formal. however, she added that actually, a close relationship with her students made her students learn better. moreover, r5 added that the reality of managing the class in the school is different from what she had thought. even though there were changing perspectives toward positive perception, there was also a changing perspective to a different perception. r4 noted that she previously thought that she wanted to be a friendly teacher and yet in reality when she taught, she could not always be friendly all the time. sometimes, she also has to be strict to discipline her students. meanwhile, r3 showed that she does not have a changing idea about teaching. she still thought that being a teacher, she has to be fun, creative, and close to her students. so, personal factors, such as efl novice teachers’ abilities and self-efficacy to cope with the situation, influence their tension while becoming a teacher. interpersonal factors there are interpersonal factors which include the relationship of the teacher with the supervisor, students, parents, and colleagues (prilleltensky et al., 2016). the first one is the teachers’ relationship with their colleagues. the novice teachers were asked about their different views about teaching with their colleagues. participants r1, r2, and r3 reported that they did not have a different view from their colleagues that made them uncomfortable yet. simultaneously, r4 noted the different views on how to deal with their students. her colleagues suggested that she should teach gentler while sitting down for her students to listen to her. yet, when she tried what her colleague suggested, it was a mess, as she described “i tried her suggestion and what happened was the students were chaos till the other teachers came outside of their class to see what was going on. so, i turn back to my first method, to the strict mode, but now i give detailed explanations why the students should do or not do something”. moreover, r5 explained about when she was asked to do something, not at the right time. so, she lost focus. further, three out of five novice teachers, reported that they looked up to their senior colleagues. r2 noted that her colleagues inspired her about how to deal with the students. it is also supported by r3 explanations that her colleagues inspired her to manage her time well. it was because even though her colleagues are married and have young children, they manage to finish all of their school tasks. moreover, r5 added that she looked up to her senior who was always supportive of her. from the data above, it could be seen that novice teachers have a good relationship with their colleagues. besides looking up to their senior colleagues, they also looked up to some of their teachers in the past. r4 told about the teacher when she was an intern in a school. she described how her teacher’s way of teaching was admiring. further, r1 also mentioned her teacher in senior high school. she was inspired by her teacher who was really organized. the experiences of interacting with their previous teachers while they were students can give a substantial influence on their life or their identity construction as a teacher. in addition, the novice teachers might also feel the tension in their relationship with their students. when the efl novice teachers were asked about their confusion when they had to deal with their students as students or wanted to acknowledge that the students are human too. all http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１５ １１５ of the participants agreed that when the students made mistakes, they acknowledged their students as humans that could make mistakes too. however, it did not stop at that moment, the novice teachers also guided their students toward the right path. in addition, when novice teachers were asked about when the students had a different view from them, whether they wanted to accept it or change it. all of the participants reported that they were really appreciative of their students’ views. however, if it was wrong, they tried to change it by giving them reasons or explanations why it should be or should not be like that. besides, all of the novice teachers agreed that it was difficult for them to situate themselves when they had to be friends and when they had to act as teachers. when they had to scold their students but they actually wanted to be friendly toward their students. however, it could be completed with a different method. so, instead of scolding their students, they gave explanations or reasons, as r5 described “it is okay to be angry, but you have to manage your emotion so it can be focused on educating”. based on the explanation above, it could be seen that tensions could come from the students. however, as long as the teachers manage it well, the tension becomes a place for learning. in addition, the teachers were asked whether they felt confused because they were considered experts while they were still learning. r1, r2, r3, and r4 agreed that they feel confused when they were considered experts by other people, such as their students, their colleagues, and their school. r1 explained about when her students asked why she could forget something. meanwhile, r2 mentioned that her students and school considered her an expert. r3 added that she was even considered an expert by her colleagues. so, her colleagues considered that she was already knowledgeable about everything in the school. r4 noted that her school considered that novice teachers were smarter and brought a transformation to the school. they thought that sometimes it was burdensome for them but they also thought it was a way of learning to become an actual expert. organizational factors the organizational factors such as the school culture, management of the schools, and the government’s regulation might add to the novice teachers’ tension (prilleltensky et al., 2016). based on the interview with the efl novice teachers, it could be seen that the school policy influences the novice teachers’ tension. participants r1, r3, and r4 showed that the school policy made it difficult for them to teach. r1 explained, “there is no book that becomes the reference, so the teaching activity is based on the summary book that the teacher makes”. r3 added that her school had a policy for online learning that only lasted for two hours. she thought that at that time it was not enough. however, she kept on trying. further, r4 also noted that when the online class still lasted, the permission for attendance was too easy. so, they thought that those policies were not suitable for their students. meanwhile, participants r2 and r5 mentioned that they did not have a different view of the school yet. from the data above, it could be seen that organizational factors, especially school policies, might add to the novice teachers’ tensions. conclusion the finding of this study revealed the tensions that novice teachers face during the transition of the covid-19 pandemic. their tensions are influenced by personal factors, interpersonal factors, and organizational factors. the tensions from the personal factors vary, such as the tensions between private life vs work, wanting responsibility, and teaching vs other tasks. further, the tensions from interpersonal factors also vary, such as conflicting orientations, students as a whole vs learner, mentor vs own way, respect integrity, student vs teacher, and peer vs teacher. in addition, the organizational factor consists of contradictory attitudes. the finding shows that novice teachers’ tensions were more complex while in the online class. meanwhile, after the teaching-learning activities are conducted offline, it becomes easier for the teachers. however, this study has a few limitations. first, this study is conducted with small participants which consist of five participants. hence, the finding can not be http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１６ １１６ generalized. second, the study focuses on the tensions that novice teachers face. further research can develop a study that includes the factors that make teachers stay on the job. hence, the finding suggests that it is important for the rule maker and school members to have good teaching-learning activities and conditions for the students. as these tensions from personal, interpersonal, and organizational factors are handled in the right way, the teaching-learning activity will be beneficial for students and teachers. further, it will also be beneficial for other school members. references alves, r., lopes, t., & precioso, j. (2020). teachers’ well-being in times of covid-19 pandemic: factors that explain professional well-being. ijeri: international journal of educational research and innovation, 15, 203–217. https://doi.org/10.46661/ijeri.5120 castaneda, j. a. f. (2011). teacher identity construction: exploring the nature of becoming a primary school language teacher. university of newcastle upon tyne. diasti, k. s. (2020). constructing professional identity: investigating stress factors and resilience experienced by efl novice teachers. scholaria: jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 11(1), 1–10. dvir, n., & schatz-oppenheimer, o. (2020). novice teachers in a changing reality. european journal of teacher education, 43(4), 639–656. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.182136 0 fuad, m., ariyani, f., suyanto, e., & shidiq, a. s. (2020). exploring teachers’ tpck: are indonesian language teachers ready for online learning during the covid-19 outbreak? universal journal of educational research, 8(11b), 6091–6102. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.082245 gholam, a. (2018). a mentoring experience: from the perspective of a novice teacher. international journal of progressive education, 14(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2018.139.1 herman, k. c., prewitt, s. l., eddy, c. l., savale, a., & reinke, w. m. (2020). profiles of middle school teacher stress and coping: concurrent and prospective correlates. journal of school psychology, 78(2020), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.11.003 karsenti, t., & collin, s. (2013). why are new teachers leaving the profession? results of a canada-wide survey. 3(3), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.edu.20130303.01 kuswandono, p. (2013). the journey of becoming a teacher: indonesian pre-service teachers reflecting on their professional learning. monash university. lestiyanawati, r., & widyantoro, a. (2020). strategies and problems faced by indonesian teachers in conducting e-learning system during covid-19 outbreak. literature, linguistics, and english teaching), 2(1), 71–81. lizana, p. a., vega-fernadez, g., gomez-bruton, a., leyton, b., & lera, l. (2021). impact of the covid-19 pandemic on teacher quality of life: a longitudinal study from before and during the health crisis. international journal of environmental research and public health, 18(7), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073764 lomi, a., & mbato, c. (2020). struggles and strategies in constructing professional identity: the first-year teaching experiences of indonesian efl novice teachers. journal of english education and teaching, 4(1), 1–19. nordin, n., & samsudin, m. a. (2017). professional identity formation in globalization era: case of malaysian novice teachers. global business and management research: an international journal, 9(4s). petrakova, a. v., kanonire, t. n., kulikova, a. a., & orel, e. a. (2021). characteristics of teacher stress during distance learning imposed by the covid-19 pandemic. voprosy obrazovaniya / educational studies moscow, 2021(1), 93–114. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １１７ １１７ https://doi.org/10.17323/1814-9545-2021-193-114 pillen, m., beijaard, d., & den brok, p. (2013). tensions in beginning teachers’ professional identity development, accompanying feelings and coping strategies. european journal of teacher education, 36(3), 240–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2012.696192 pravita, a. r., & kuswandono, p. (2021). exploring english novice teachers’ identity transformation influenced by community of practice. journal of language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature, 9(1), 429– 442. prilleltensky, i., neff, m., & bessell, a. (2016). teacher stress: what it is, why it’s important, how it can be alleviated. theory into practice, 55(2), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.114898 6 purwanto, a., masduki, a., fahlevi, m., mufid, a., agistiawati, e., yoyok, c., & suryani, p. (2020). impact of work from home (wfh) on indonesian teachers performance during the covid-19 pandemic: an exploratory study. international journal of advanced science and technology, 29(5), 6235–6244. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/34 1413246 santamaría, m. d., mondragon, n. i., santxo, n. b., & ozamiz-etxebarria, n. (2021). teacher stress, anxiety and depression at the beginning of the academic year during the covid-19 pandemic. global mental health, 8(14), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2021.14 thaheem, s. k., abidin, m. j. z., mirza, q., & pathan, h. u. (2022). online teaching benefits and challenges during pandemic covid-19: a comparative study of pakistan and indonesia. asian education and development studies, 11(2), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1108/aeds-08-2020-0189 wal, v. m. m., oolbekkink-marchand, h. w., schaap, h., & meijer, p. c. (2019). impact of early career teachers’ professional identity tensions. teaching and teacher education, 80(2019), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.01.001 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature, 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２３ ２３ the effect of student motivation, example, personality, and learning strategies on the growth of character value in state sma students in salatiga city for the academic year 2021/2022 amin nurbaedi1 aminnurbaedi@gmail.com sugiyo2 sugiyo@mail.unnes.ac.id a. dardiri hasyim3 adardirihayim@gmail.com unu surakarta abstract the formation of a quality generation is started from an output of islamic education that it has both as individuals, socially, and believes in god almighty. indicators that appear in the current dynamics are rampant brawls, immoral acts, and a lack of etiquette in the association among students. the restructuring or transformation of indonesia's national education is able to take advantage of the opportunities that are open and shape the character that contains the value of human behavior. this study uses a quantitative method with a correlational design, this study aims to determine the relationship of a variable with other variables by using a multiple linear regression test. regression analysis is used to examine the relationship between two or more variables, especially to explore the pattern of relationships whose models are not yet fully known. the results of this study are: student motivation has an effect on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city; the example of pai teachers have an effect on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city; the personality of the pai teacher has an effect on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city; pai teacher learning strategies affect the growth of character values in state high school students in salatiga city; there is an effect of effectiveness on the variables of student motivation, exemplary, and gpai learning strategies on the growth of character values in students in sma negeri in salatiga city. the variable that has no effect on the growth of character values in students at sma negeri in salatiga city is the personality variable. keywords: student motivation, exemplary, personality, learning strategies, growth of character values in students introduction the existence of character education is the soul of islamic education itself, and islam has concluded that character and moral education is the soul of islamic education (sulasmi, emilda, a. akrim 2019). achieving perfect morals which is a representation of one's maturity is an essential goal of education itself (hayati 2018). but this does not mean that we are not concerned with physical education or reason or science or other practical aspects, but it means that we pay attention to aspects of moral education as well as other http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:aminnurbaedi@gmail.com mailto:sugiyo@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:adardirihayim@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２４ ２４ aspects, only the position of morality in this case is the foundation base (a. h. ritonga and bafadhal 2018). islamic education has integrated basic concepts that actually already exist, but have not been fully implemented. the concepts of integrated islamic education referred to by the author are divided into two major aspects. internal aspects (aqidah and heart education) and external aspects (morals, physical and spiritual, social, intellectual, and sex) (ridhoul wahidi, 2014). indicators that appear in the current dynamics are rampant brawls, immoral acts, lack of etiquette in socializing among students, and increasing juvenile delinquency, as well as the many cases of muggings and other crimes involving students. print and electronic, including social media. another fact that is a concern for parents and teachers is the tendency of students who are addicted to online games, social media, and uncontrolled internet, which in turn will give birth to a lazy generation, a generation that wants everything to be instant, uncontrollable emotions, which can result in the moral decadence of students. aziz hasibuan said: "the implementation of character education at this school is very important for a change" (hasibuan et al. 2018). furthermore, the changes needed do not have to change the applicable curriculum but the emergence of new attitudes and new skills from teachers, principals, and school counselors, so that from here the teacher will become a role model that is directly observed by students. must be met (condition sine qua non) for the successful implementation of character education in indonesia (sadewa 2022). it seems that the change in attitude and mastery of the required skills can only be developed through focused, sustainable, and systemic in-service education (dhikrul hakim 2014). the notion of character refers to the understanding in english, which is translated as morality. morality contains several meanings, namely: customs, manners, and behavior (haris 2017). meanwhile, according to the competencybased curriculum that: "character contains the value of human behavior which will be measured according to goodness and badness through religious norms, legal norms, manners, manners, cultural norms, and community customs" (setyowati 20012). furthermore, according to nurul zuriah that character will be able to identify positive behaviors that are expected to be realized in the actions, words, thoughts, attitudes, feelings, and personalities of students (nurul zuriah, 2015: 17). based on this understanding, the researcher concludes that education is an effort to promote the growth of character (inner strength, character), mind (intellect), and the child's body. the parts should not be separated so that we can advance the perfection of our children's lives. presidential decree number 87 of 2017 concerning strengthening character education, kdp which refers to thomas lickona's theory is an educational movement under the responsibility of the education unit to strengthen the character of students through harmonization of heart, taste, thought, and sports with the involvement and cooperation between education, family, and community units as part of the national movement for mental revolution (gnrm) (thomas lickona, 2012: 123). indicators of strengthening character education (ppk), as mentioned by thomas lickona, are: the implementation of the ppk program on habituation before learning pai subjects begin, the implementation of pai learning integrated with kdp, and the impact of the kdp program on character and improving student learning achievement in pai. suprihatin also said: "teachers as educators are central figures in the world of education, every teacher is expected to have ideal personality characteristics in accordance with psychologicalpedagogical requirements because teachers have dual roles as teachers as well as educators" (suprihatin, 2019). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２５ ２５ the teacher as a true educator is a person who can enjoy every teaching that is carried out, for education is pleasure above all existing pleasures, and he is happy to live it as a professional task of an educator, caring in paying attention to every detail of his professional duties, a teacher is a person who this is very important because they will grow to be role models for their students, both in pronunciation, deed, inside or outside school, things that must be owned by a teacher, namely having high moral values, having sincerity in every job, carrying out their obligations, and having a strong personality, from this, a teacher will be respected by the community. various forms of innovation and reform have been engineered starting from the learning system, curriculum, teacher scholarships, and up to "standard schools" in various forms (heryanto, marioga pardede 2021). however, it has not been able to bring forth the reliable character of students. the results of our education today are still thick at the cognitive level and have not touched aspects of character with honest, trustworthy, tough, and competitive morality (syahraini tambak, 2013: 39). a state and within that gives strength, which activates or moves. hence it is called 'drive' or 'motivation' and directs or channels behavior toward goals (elisabet elsi, rustiyarso 2016). learning motivation can arise because of 'intrinsic factors. in the form of desire and desire to succeed and encouragement of learning needs, hopes for ideals (muhammad iqbal harisuddin, 2019: 5). the extrinsic factors are appreciation, a conducive learning environment, and interesting learning activities. learning motivation also has an effect on learning achievement. when learning motivation is lacking, the learning achievement is also less satisfactory (depdikbud et al. 2012). the essence of learning motivation is internal and external encouragement to students who are learning to make changes in behavior, in general with several indicators or supporting elements. this has a big role in the success of achieving learning goals (achmad badaruddin, 2015: 18). indicators of student learning motivation, presented by achmad badaruddin include preparation for learning, completeness of learning, psychological readiness, physical readiness, and learning materials, following the teaching and learning process, having attention in learning, being active in learning, and choosing seats, following up on the learning process teaching, repeating lessons that have been explained by the teacher, asking for material that is not understood to friends, parents, and teachers, looking for additional lesson material. exemplary is something related to a person's words, actions, attitudes, and behaviors that can be imitated or imitated by other parties. the teacher's example is a good example and good teachers related to attitudes, behavior, speech, mental, and spiritual which should be used as examples for students (dedi irwan, 2018: 12). the indicators of teacher exemplary in educating students, conveyed by dedi irawan are as follows: pai teachers are role models in faith, pai teachers are role models in worship, pai teachers are role models, pai teachers are exemplary in their work. the personality that surrounds the behavior of the individual is collected in him, which is used to react and adapt to all stimuli, both those that come from outside himself or his environment (external) as well as from himself (internal) so that the pattern of his behavior is a functional unity that unique to that individual (sudarwan danim, 2012: 7). the teacher's personality indicator, which was conveyed by sudarwan danim, consisted of five sub-competencies, namely: pai teachers have a steady and stable personality, pai teachers have mature personalities, pai teachers have wise personalities, pai teachers have authoritative personalities, and pai teachers have noble character and can be an example. the role of competence for a teacher is very important and strategic for the effectiveness and productivity of his work in the field, in this era of openness, a teacher is required to support optimal competence (sholeh 2017). this is supported by a convincing performance so that the credibility of a professional teacher can be raised, (syahputra http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２６ ２６ 2021) from this we can understand when the government mandates 4 (four) competencies which are requirements for a teacher to be said to be a professional teacher, (jamin 2018) 4 (four) what is meant is professional, personality, pedagogic, and social for religious teachers plus one more thing, namely leadership (m. hanif satria budi 2018). an ideal teacher at this time is those who have an educator spirit and is able to understand in detail the characteristics of the task by prioritizing care, calm, and wisdom, within the scope of worship to allah swt (mucharomah 2017). so from being able with sincerity, he is able to side with students on subjects of education (malatuny 2016). therefore, character is the quality of mental or moral strength, character or character of a person who becomes a special personality as a driving force and driving force that distinguishes him from others (rakhmawati 2015). this must be imbued with teachers as educators and students in particular and in general to school residents (said 2018). a learning strategy is a form of a teachercentered approach to learning (teacher-centered approach), it is said because in this strategy the teacher plays a very dominant role (darmadi, 2018: 114). through this strategy, the teacher conveys learning material in a structured manner with the hope that the subject matter presented can be mastered by students well. the main focus of this strategy is students' academic achievement (safriadi 2017). pai teacher learning strategies include teacher competency standards. this teacher competency standard is developed as a whole from four main competencies, namely pedagogic, personality, social, and professional competencies. these four competencies are integrated into teacher performance (julia, isrok'atun & indra safari, 2013: 355). the indicators of the pai teacher learning strategy, which were explained by julia, isrok'atun & indra safari, are the teacher's ability to convey pai learning objectives, the teacher ability to deliver pai material, the teacher's ability to use pai learning methods, the teacher's ability to use media and learning resources pai, and the ability of teachers to use pai learning evaluation. teachers in the millennial era like today must be able to organize their hearts, organize attitudes, not be too material-oriented, sincere in carrying out their professional duties, and always be able to inspire, and motivate students (zakiyah kholidah, 2018). even sometimes it is not uncommon to have to be ready as a companion for students, able to create a supportive environment so that students can develop as expected (m najib et al., 2014). the position of teachers as second parents for students is very strategic in order to prepare quality future generations, in order to organize a society in order to become a more advanced and more dignified nation (mahsun 2016). today the education system in indonesia is more directed at the formation of children's character which must be adapted to the child's world, and must also be adapted to the spirit of the child's growth and development (m. ritonga 2018). through family, school, and social education, or what we know as the tri education center, children can know and develop their character (huda 2019). so, in this case, the three environments must be a good and positive environment, (mizal 2014) especially the family environment, because the family is the first world that children will meet and experience (rufaedah 2020). so parents have a very important role in the formation of children's character and religious education is the most important education that must be taught and instilled in children from an early age. religion as an essential element in the human personality can provide a positive role in the course of human life, besides its truth can still be absolutely believed (suradji 2017). religious education acts as a controller and controller of behavior or actions that are born from a desire based on emotion (nadirah 2017). if religious http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２７ ２７ ( ) ( )    − − = −= − = 22 xx.n. yxxy.n b xby .n. xby a education is used to be used as a guide in daily life and has been instilled from an early age, then his behavior will be more controlled and controlled (basir and pd 2020). a quality generation is started from an educational output that has been consistently understood since the beginning of education, (muhammad adlan nawawi 2020) subject matter is material that will be given to students according to the characteristics they have both as individuals, socially, and beliefs in the almighty god esa (sulasmi, emilda, a. akrim 2019). therefore, the basis of islamic education is the qur'an and the sunnah of the prophet. those two things are all the necessities of life for every human being has been explained in detail, and on these two pillars, the basic concept of islamic education is built according to human nature. methodology the approach used in this research is a quantitative approach or statistical data analysis. what is meant by a quantitative approach is "research that focuses on presenting data in the form of numbers or quantitatively scored (scoring) using statistics" (ahmad tanzeh and suyitno, 2016: 45). the quantitative approach emphasizes the existence of variables as the object of research and these variables must be defined in the operationalized form of each variable. reliability and validity are absolute requirements that must be met in using this research because these two elements will determine the quality of research results and the ability to replicate and generalize the use of similar research models. furthermore, quantitative research requires the existence of hypotheses and their testing which will then determine the next stages, such as determining the analytical techniques and statistical formulas to be used (ahmad tanzeh, 2016: 19-20). this research uses the ex post facto method. the research method used by the author in this study by looking at the existing considerations is the ex post facto research method. sukardi explained about ex post facto that "ex post-facto research is research in which a series of independent variables has occurred when researchers begin to observe the dependent variable" (sukardi, 2013: 174). in this study, there are two kinds of relationships between two or more variables, namely the form of the relationship and the closeness of the relationship. to determine the form of the relationship used regression analysis. "regression analysis is used to examine the relationship between two or more variables, especially to explore the pattern of relationships whose models are not yet fully known" (muhammad nisfiannoor, 2019: 103). the usefulness of regression analysis is "to predict the value of the dependent variable (y) if the independent variable (x) is two or more". the formula that can be used to find a and b is: description: = the average score of the variable x = y variable mean score a multiple linear regression model is used because the number of independent variables is more than one. this model is intended to predict the ability of the independent variable in explaining the dependent variable. y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + b4x4+ e information : y = strengthening character education x1 = student motivation x2 = exemplary x3 = teacher's personality x4 = gpai learning strategy iy ix http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２８ ２８ a = constant b1…b4 = coefficient of independent variable x1. . . .x4 e = error (fridayana yudiaatmaja, 2013: 69). result and discussion analysis of the effect of student motivation on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city regression analysis is a functional relationship that occurs between one dependent variable and the independent variable, in order to know the average predictive value of the dependent variable on the influence of the independent variable. the multiple linear regression equation models that can be arranged in table 1. are as follows: table 1. linear regression results coefficientsa model unstandardize d coefficients standar dized coefficie nts t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2.793 1.020 2.737 .007 motivation (x1) 1.048 .012 .983 4.300 .000 a. dependent variable: character value growth (y) table 1. above can be formulated multiple linear regression model in this study are as follows: y = 2.793 + 1.048 x1 + e the constant: 2.793 means that if there are no motivation variables (x1), then the character value growth variable (y) is 2.793. coefficient 1: student motivation coefficient (x1) is 1.048, indicating that if there is an increase of one point on the student motivation variable (x1), then the character value growth variable (y) will increase by 1.048. from the results of data analysis that has been carried out with the spss application, it is known that motivation has a tcount of 4,300. it can be seen that the tcount of the motivation coefficient is 4.300, while (ttable) is 1.968. the motivation variable has a p-value of 0.000 <0.05, which means it is significant, while tcount > ttable (4.300 > 1.968). so ho is rejected and ha is accepted, so it can be concluded that the coefficient of student motivation has a significant influence on the growth of the character values of sma negeri salatiga city students, when viewed from the tcount > ttable (4.300 > 1.968) it can be concluded partially that the student motivation variable has a positive effect. on the growth of the character values of state senior high school students in salatiga city. factors that influence it include: giving motivation to students carried out by teachers is practiced well, giving encouragement given by teachers so that they can participate in learning activities well, and teachers have full attention to students who have delays in participating in learning. analysis of the influence of islamic education teacher's exemplary on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city the multiple linear regression equation models that can be arranged in table 2. are as follows: http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２９ ２９ table 2. multiple linear regression results coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standar dized coefficie nts t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 8.762 1.719 5.097 .000 exemplar y (x2) 1.712 .035 .948 4.531 .000 a. dependent variable: character value growth (y) table 2. above can be formulated multiple linear regression model in this study are as follows: y = 8,762 + 1,712x2 + e the constant: 8.762 means that if there are no exemplary variables (x2), then the character value growth variable (y) is 8.762. coefficient 2: exemplary coefficient (x2) is 1.712, indicating that if there is an increase of one point on the exemplary variable (x2), then the character value growth variable for state senior high school students in salatiga city (y) will increase by 1.712. from the results of data analysis that has been carried out with the spss application, it is known that exemplary has a tcount of 4,531. it can be seen that the tcount of the exemplary coefficient is 4.531, while (ttable) is 1.968. the motivation variable has a p-value of 0.000 <0.05, which means it is significant, while tcount > ttable (4.531 > 1.968). then ho is rejected and ha is accepted, so it can be concluded that the exemplary coefficient has a significant effect on the growth of the character values of the students of sma negeri salatiga, when viewed from the value of tcount > ttable (4.531 > 1.968) it can be partially concluded that the exemplary variable has a positive effect on growth. the character values of state senior high school students in salatiga city. factors that influence it include: the teacher provides good direction to students in pai learning, students' ethics toward the teacher are strictly adhered to, and the teacher always sets a good example by adapting it to everyday life. analysis of the influence of the personality of islamic education teachers on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city multiple linear regression equation models can be arranged in table 3. as follows: table 3. multiple linear regression results coefficientsa model unstandardize d coefficients standar dized coeffici ents t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 16.620 2.090 7.953 .000 personality (x3) 1.580 .043 .913 3.999 .000 a. dependent variable: character value growth (y) table 3. above can be formulated as multiple linear regression model in this study as follows: y = 16,620 + 1,580x3 + e the constant: 16.620 means that if there are no personality variables (x3), then the character value growth variable (y) is 16.620. coefficient 3: personality coefficient (x3) is 1,580, indicating that if there is an increase of one point on the personality variable (x3), then the character value growth variable for state senior high school students in salatiga city (y) will increase by 1,580. from the results of data analysis that has been carried out with the spss application, it is known that personality has a tcount of 3.999. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ３０ ３０ it can be seen that the tcount of the personality coefficient is 3.999, while (ttable) is 1.968. the personality variable has a p-value of 0.000 <0.05, which means it is significant, while tcount > ttable (3.999 > 1.968). so ho is rejected and ha is accepted, so it can be concluded that the personality coefficient has a significant influence on the growth of the character values of state senior high school students in salatiga city, when viewed from the value of tcount > ttable (3.999 > 1.968) it can be concluded partially that personality variables have a positive effect on growth. the character values of state senior high school students in salatiga city. the influencing factors include: the teacher sets a good example in pai learning that is adapted to everyday life, the teacher speaks well in pai learning, and the teacher acts as a good leader in pai learning. analysis of the effect of pai teacher learning strategies on character value growth in state senior high school students in salatiga city the multiple linear regression equation models that can be arranged in table 4. are as follows: table 4. multiple linear regression results coefficientsa model unstandardize d coefficients standar dized coeffici ents t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2.850 .542 5.255 .000 gpai learning strategy (x4) 1.063 .006 .995 6.977 .000 a. dependent variable: character value growth (y) table 4. above can be formulated multiple linear regression model in this study as follows: y = 2.850 + 1.063x4 + e the constant: 2.850 means that if there are no gpai learning strategy variables (x4), then the character value growth variable (y) is 2.850. coefficient 4: the coefficient of gpai learning strategy (x4) is 1.063, indicating that if there is an increase of one point to the gpai learning strategy variable (x4), then the variable of character value growth of state senior high school students in salatiga city (y) will increase by 1,063. from the results of data analysis that has been carried out with the spss application, it is known that the gpai learning strategy has a tcount of 6.997. it can be seen that the tcount of the personality coefficient is 6.997, while (ttable) is 1.968. the personality variable has a p-value of 0.000 <0.05, which means it is significant, while tcount > ttable (6.997 > 1.968). so ho is rejected and ha is accepted, so it can be concluded that the coefficient of the gpai learning strategy has a significant effect on the growth of the character values of the students of sma negeri salatiga, when viewed from the value of tcount > ttable (6,997 > 1,968) it can be partially concluded that the variable gpai learning strategy has a positive effect on the growth of the character values of state senior high school students in salatiga city. the influencing factors include: teachers are proficient in pai learning systems using information technology, teachers are able to create media using information technology, and teachers are also able to display animations in pai learning that are adapted to pai learning materials. the effectiveness level of student motivation, exemplary, personality, and learning strategies of pai teachers on the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city looking at the standard estimate value output, in figure 1. the parth diagram can be seen as follows: http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ３１ ３１ figure 1. parth diagram multiple linear regression y = 0.147*x1 + 0.302*x2 0.116*x3 + 0.687*x4, errorvar.= 0.966 , r² = 0.996 standerr (0.0237) (0.0290) (0.0343) (0.0274) (0.117) z-values 29.004 4.003 8.797 5.383 11.683 p-values 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 the results of parth diagram 1. above can be seen that with a significance level of 5% (default lisrel), then there are 3 variables that significantly affect the dependent variable, namely variables x1 (student motivation), x2 (exemplary), and x4 (gpai learning strategy) on variable y (character value growth in students). for the variable x3 (personality), the results of the bivariate regression did not find any significant effect on y (the growth of character values in students). discussion the personality variable (x3) has no effect on the growth of character values in students (y) of sma negeri in salatiga because: internet factor. the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 no longer recognizes time and space, thus enabling students to learn independently for self-development by using learning resources in the form of using the internet (international networking) which is a large library because in it there are billions of information or data in the form of text, graphics, audio, animation, and others in the form of electronic and practical media, such things will also affect the growth of student character values. students will very quickly be able to get information about many things that are needed, besides internet facilities, which have changed the market paradigm, very rapid advances in communication technology will facilitate communication between one place and another, and social interaction can be established with the use of the internet, for example by using the internet. social networking media such as whatsapp, facebook, twitter, instagram, and other messengers allow people to interact easily, social promotion is no stranger to the benefits of the internet in the social field, without having to use cable networks. literacy factor. literacy is a demand for dynamic individuals in order to equip themselves in their existence as individuals and as part of a community, the current literacy program is strongly encouraged by the government which is expected to show significant results on student self-development, more specifically to support the growth of student character. through the library as information literacy about many things. libraries as reference centers, learning resources, and training sources to deal with various problems in order to find alternative solutions, besides that users, are expected to have skills and abilities in utilizing libraries that suit their needs including; the ability to recognize information needs; ability to utilize relevant information sources; the ability to search for correct information with tabayun steps with other information from the source; and the ability to regulate, implement and communicate so that the information that develops in the community is correct information and is far from slander and other hate speech, this is where the maturity that is highly expected in the current era of information and communication disclosure. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ３２ ３２ organizational factors. maturity of student character will be more honed when students are active in organizations, rohis becomes an important part in efforts to form moderate students' personalities as well as forming student profiles of rahmatalil'alamin, by organizing will have personal goals that go together with organizational goals in general, positive effect what then emerges is increased productivity and will benefit. programs and organizational goals that are professionally structured in stages and involve many individuals and related parties will enable the individuals involved in them to be able to develop better which in turn will have an influence on the environment, other wider achievements, the implementation of work programs with the schedule of activities and handled by the committee will obtain good final results and are always accompanied by evaluation and formulation of recommendations for improvement of the next activity. facts that occurred during the industrial revolution 4.0 as it is today, which are marked by communication and information systems that no longer recognize space and time, will allow students to gain knowledge in every competence competencies that are expected to no longer require teachers and classrooms or no longer require a detailed and systematic curriculum arrangement, but very much depends on the interests and talents of students and a commitment to self-development. the covid-19 pandemic that has hit the world has resulted in lost learning or losing the direction of learning, almost every time students never forget their cellphones wherever they go, so there are two big possibilities for them, namely they are addicted to online games and see shows that are not supposed to be seen, from here automatically their character and personality will be easily influenced to negative things, and there can also be active, creative students looking for the lessons needed from the internet and their cellphones which in turn will get a lot of knowledge without having to go with the teacher and the room. class. lost learning which has swept the world for approximately 2 (two) years is like our country, if this condition is not taken immediately, it will be very dangerous for indonesia in the future because it will be filled by generations who are unskilled, undisciplined, and tend to be less responsible. what they have in mind is to get something that is instantaneous and does not want to struggle, from here it will appear whether learning through the internet that is not based on a detailed and systematic curriculum can give birth to students with character. science is not the only instrument for someone to be skilled, innovative, and dynamic, but there are other instruments that are no less important, namely the morals and blessings of knowledge. blessing can arise because of the sincerity and sincerity of a teacher in passing on his knowledge to each of his students, and there is pride in a student in receiving knowledge, there is enthusiasm from students to practicing it. such a scientific hierarchy will be able to give birth to a humble and humble attitude of a student which will then bring up the ideal characteristics of a student. the existence of the curriculum as a rail or grand design of education needs to be regulated flexibly and not rigidly but leads to an educational output and outcome so that in achieving learning objectives one can better recognize how the concept of students' understanding of the content of the material to be taught is no longer focused on knowledge competence, but what is more important is psychomotor or skills supported by social and spiritual attitudes that are ready to accept diversity, then the final orientation of education in indonesia leads to the pancasila student profile. conclusion based on the results of the analysis and discussion described in the previous chapter, it can be concluded that: student motivation affects the growth of character values in state high school students in http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ３３ ３３ salatiga city, so ho is rejected and ha is accepted. the more motivated students will have a very positive and significant effect on the growth of character values in sma negeri students in salatiga city. the example of pai teachers affects the growth of character values in state senior high school students in salatiga city, so ho is rejected and ha is accepted. the more teachers have exemplary will have a positive and significant effect on the growth of character values in state high school students throughout the city of salatiga. the personality of the pai teacher affects the growth of character values in state high school students in salatiga city so that ho is accepted and ha is rejected. the more the teacher has an exemplary personality, the more positive and significant positive and significant impact on the growth of character values in state senior high school students throughout the city of salatiga will be. pai teacher learning strategies affect the growth of character values in state high school students in salatiga city, so ho is rejected and ha is accepted. the more teachers can have the gpai learning strategy will have a positive and significant effect on the growth of character values in state high school students throughout the city of salatiga. the level of effectiveness of student motivation, exemplary, and gpai learning strategies on the growth of character values in students in sma negeri in salatiga city. overall, the 4 (four) independent variables (dependent) need to be studied because there is a variable that does not affect the growth of character values in students in sma negeri in salatiga, namely the personality 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129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 79 the realization of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x mohamad achsan achsankoedoes@gmail.com graduate program universitas negeri semarang indonesia ahmad sofwan sofwan1589@yahoo.com graduate program universitas negeri semarang indonesia received: 7 january 2016. revised: 30 january 2016. accepted: 30 september 2016 abstract this study aims at explaining the tenor of the interactants in the conversation texts found grade x english textbooks as well as the appropriacy of their realization in the given contexts. this study also explains the similarities and differences between conversation texts found in both english textbooks in realizing tenor. this study was a qualitative research employing a descriptive comparative method. the comparative method compares conversation texts found in two english textbooks entitled “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x” to find their similarities and differences in realizing tenor. the result of lexicogrammatical analysis of conversation texts found in two english textbooks showed the texts of two textbooks were dominated by declarative. this meant that the mood in the models of the conversation texts tended giving information rather than demanding information or demanding goods and services. they were between teacher and student, student and student, and friend and friend. furthermore, there were various statuses found in these texts. they were unequal and equal. at last, the social distances showed low contact and low affective involvement and high contact and high affective involvement. key words: context of situation, tenor, appropriacy how to cite: achsan, m. & a. sofwan. 2016. the realization of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. ______________________________________________________________________________ introduction there have been textbooks for high school students abundantly available in the market. the english textbooks provide texts as models for students to engage in oral or written communication in various contexts of situation. therefore, we should find out whether the provided texts are appropriate contextually for it‟s own sake and reflects the real life situation in which communication competence is rehearsed for purposeful social activities. in real life, the students will be engaged with dynamic use of language to create the text according to the particular terms of situational dimension. to understand the context of situation in a text, particularly spoken, students are exposed to conversation texts that mostly focus on the mailto:achsankoedoes@gmail.com mailto:sofwan1589@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 80 use of functional expressions. in textbooks, those functional expressions are listed and graded from more formal to less formal situations. in fact, those expressions would mean nothing without context. consequently, the study on tenor as one of the elements of the context of situation becomes important. by analyzing tenor, the meanings constructed to build the relationships between the interactants in the conversation text can be interpreted. in my study, i am interested in exploring the close interpretation of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x”. i want to explore the role relationship between interactants in conversation texts. that is why i want to analyze interpersonal relation (tenor) of conversation texts found in english textbook, which concern the social role relationship played by interactants. text and context the existence of text and context is always continuum. the meaning of text can be defined as an actual use of language, as distinct from a sentence which is an abstract unit of linguistic analysis (widdowson, 2007: 4). this means that a text should be meaningful since a text is produced for a communicative purpose. people produce texts to get a message across, to express ideas and beliefs, to explain something, to get other people to do certain things or to think in a certain way, and so on. language users can understand a text by making meanings with each other in the available context. context as named by halliday and hasan (1985: 5), is text that is „with‟. context is the situation in which texts unfold and in which they are to be interpreted. hence, context must exist prior to texts. the actual use of language will make sense when it unfolds within a context. focusing the attention on the language use in context makes it essential to describe the dimension of context that have an impact on language use. actually, a text always occurs in two contexts, one within the other. butt et al. (1996: 11) presents two different levels of abstraction: the outer and the inner of contexts. figure 2.1 text in context the outer context is the context of culture and the inner context is the context of situation. context of culture is sometimes described as the sum of all the meanings it is context of culture context of situation text mohamad achsan & ahmad sofwan. 2016. the realization of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 81 possible to mean in that particular culture, while within the context of culture, speakers and writers use language in many more specific contexts or situations. each of these is an inner context, which is called as the context of situation (butt et al. 1996: 11). a text occurs in these two contexts. the combination of the two results in the differences and similarities between a piece of language and another. in other words, context of culture and context of situation are the contexts that generate the meanings of a text regarding the appropriacy of the language use. appropriacy is suitableness of language used for the particular context (murcia and olsen, 2000: 235). the appropriacy deals with the choice of words or linguistic choice. texts of textbooks are expected to be made up by appropriate choice of words considering its contexts. context of situation context of situation is defined as term to cover the things going on in the world outside the text which make the text what it is (butt et al, 1996: 12). context of situation can be specified into three variables: field, tenor, and mode. field of discourse refers to what is going on, including activity focus (nature of social activity) and object focus (subject matters). sometimes field can be glossed as the “topic” of the situation. field predicts experiential meanings in the semantic level. experiential meaning is realized by transitivity at the lexicogrammatical level. tenor of discourse refers to the “players” or the actors or rather the interacting roles, which are involved in the creation of the text. it concerns with the social relationships between those taking parts. butt et al. (1996: 130) specify tenor in terms of agentive or social roles, status and social distance. agentive or social roles are roles of the speakers and the addressee. status may be equal or hierarchic. it is realized by the mood chosen by the speakers. social distance measures how the participants know each other, whether they speak familiarly or distantly. social distance may be maximal or minimal for those on a familiar and frequent basis. by considering formality, politeness, poynton (in eggins, 1994: 64) breaks down tenor into three continua: power, affective involvement, and contact. power is a matter of equal and unequal power of the roles of the interactants in communication. for instance, roles of equal power are those of friends; example of roles of unequal (non-reciprocal) power would be those of boss/employee. contact deals with the frequency of communication between the interactants. it is whether they have frequent or infrequent contact. for example, contact between spouses tends to be frequent, but the contact between distant acquaintances maybe infrequent. affective involvement describes the emotional relationship between the interactants in a particular situation. the affective involvement is either high or low. for example, friends of lovers are affectively involved, whereas work associates are typically not. those two categories are identical in their principles. status and power refer to the positions of the interactants, contact and social distance deal with the frequency of the interaction. while butt specifies the roles of the speakers in terms of agentive of societal roles, eggins specifies affective involvement as another element of tenor that concerns on the speakers‟ intimacy. therefore, the application of these ideas will make it a more complete and detailed study of tenor. mode of discourse refers to how language language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 82 is being used whether the channel of communication or the “part” is spoken or written and whether the language being used is a mode of action or reflection. it predicts textual meanings. martin (in eggins, 1994: 53-54) pointed out mode involves two stimultaneous continua, which describe two different types of distance. those are spatial/interpersonal distance and experiential distance. tenor of discourse tenor as the realization of interpersonal meaning refers to the negotiation of social relationship among participants. tenor is one aspect of register variables expressed through the interpersonal function (martin, 1992: 523). the way of the speaker doing something to other participants will cause two semantic system of clause: proposition and proposal. proposal clause refers to the thing that one exchange is about goods and services. proposition clause refers to the information. moreover, the system contributes two basic contrasts that are giving and demanding something. it can be seen through the table below. table 1. speech roles and commodities in interaction comodity exchange speech role information good and services giving statement offer demanding question command source: gerrot and wignell (1994: 150) gerrot and wignell (1994: 11) also describe that tenor is the social relationships between those taking part. they cover tenor into three dimensions:1). status or power, means agent roles, peer or hierarchic relation, 2). affect, means degree of like, dislike or neutrality, 3). contact, means frequency, duration and intimacy of social context. furthermore, eggins (1994: 63) states that tenor is the social role relationships played by interactants, for example roles such as between student and lecturer, between customer and salesperson, and between friend and friend. tenor can be broken down into three continua: 1). power, means a matter of equal and unequal power of the roles of the interactants in communication, 2). contact, deals with the frequency of communication between the interactants. 3). affective involvement, is either high or low. butt et al. (1996: 130) defines that tenor is the relationship between the speaker and hearer (or, of course, writer and reader). he specifies tenor in terms of agentive or social roles, status and social distance. agentive or social roles are roles of the speakers and the addressee. status may be equal or hierarchic. it is realized by the mood chosen by the speakers. social distance measures how the participants know each other, whether they speak familiarly or distantly. social distance maybe maximal or minimal for those on familiar and frequent bases. from some definitions of tenor above, it can be concluded that tenor is the social role relationship between the interactants. it has mohamad achsan & ahmad sofwan. 2016. the realization of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 83 three dimensions in terms of status or power refers to the positions of the interactants, contact and social distance deal with the frequency of the interaction. methodology this study is qualitative employing a descriptive method. it is called qualitative since it is a type of research, which does not include any numeration. meanwhile, it is called descriptive since it describes phenomena in which a research conclusion can be drawn. arikunto (2006: 111) states that descriptive research does not need any hypothesis in its research stage. the descriptive research is commonly used to describe certain phenomena, based on the data collected to get conclusion. the study also employs comparative method. according to miles and huberman (1992: 237), comparative method is implemented by making comparison between two sets of things, persons and roles of activities. the comparative method compares conversation texts found in two english textbooks entitled “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x” to find their similarities and differences in realizing tenor. the data of this research are conversation texts found in two english textbooks. these english textbooks have one to two model conversations. these conversation texts are written in various topics. four texts of each english textbook are selected from the whole texts that have same topics based on the basic competence of curriculum 2013. these conversation texts of each textbook are as follows. table 1. textbooks covering the data no. topics the texts a b 1 expressing personal identification in interpersonal dialogue 1 1 2 expressing various compliments in interpersonal conversation 1 1 3 expressing various compliments that show attention and the responses 1 1 4 congratulating in various contexts 1 1 4 4 total 8 results and discussions the study deals with the result and discussion of tenor of the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x”. lexicogrammatical analysis in term of mood system (table 4.2 and table 4.3) the conversation texts of both english textbooks were dominated by declarative. the conversation texts of english textbook “pathway to english” were mostly declaratives. then, followed by interrogative, language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 84 imperative, and exclamative mood. it was proven through the text a1 until the text a4 which were dominated by declarative. on the contrary, imperative and exclamative were less found in the texts of this english textbook. they just appeared in particular texts. this meant that the mood in the models of the conversation texts tended giving information rather than demanding information or demanding good or services. the conversation texts of english textbook “bahasa inggris kelas x” were also mostly declarative. then, it was followed by interrogative, imperative, and exclamative mood. it was proven through the text b1 until the text b4 which was dominated by declarative. on the contrary, imperative and exclamative were less found in the texts of this english textbook. they just appeared in particular texts. imperative just appeared in text b1 and b3, and exclamative appeared in text b2. this meant that the mood in the models of the conversation texts tended giving information rather than demanding information or demanding good or services. from the description above, it can be seen that declarative clauses were dominant found in the conversation texts of both english textbooks. it indicated that almost all conversation texts focused on giving information rather than demanding information. then, followed by interrogative; it meant that conversation texts focused on demanding information. furthermore, followed by imperative and exclamative that just appeared in particular texts. viewed from the modality, the conversation texts of english textbook “pathway to english” employed dominant modulation of capability. it can be seen through text a2, text a3, and text a4. then, followed by modulation of inclination as shown by text a3 and text a4. moreover, modulation of obligation only shown by text a3. then, modalization of probability is also shown in text a2. on the contrary, modulation and modalization were not found in text a1. meanwhile, the conversation texts of english textbook “bahasa inggris kelas x” employed dominant modulation of capability as shown in text b2, text b3, the text b4. then, it was followed by modulation of obligation as shown in text b2 and also modulation of inclination and modalization of probability as shown in text b3. on the contrary, modulation and modalization were not found in text b1. tenor of conversation texts of both english textbooks tenor realization of conversation texts found in two textbooks can be described as follows. agentive or societal roles based on the data description above, it can be seen that both of english textbooks have various kinds of societal roles. the societal roles were between teacher and student, between student and student, and between friend and friend. status based on the data description above, it was found that the conversation texts both of english textbooks have equal and unequal status or powers. the text which have unequal power was text a2, while others were equal powers. social distance based on the data description, it can be seen that both of english textbooks have various kinds of social distances. the social distances found in both english textbooks were high/frequent contact and high affective mohamad achsan & ahmad sofwan. 2016. the realization of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 85 involvement. there was only a text which has low contact and low affective involvement (text a2). the similarities and differences between conversation texts found in english textbook “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x” in realizing tenor there were some similarities and differences between conversation texts found in two english textbooks entitled “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x” in realizing tenor. table 4.4 was presented based on the realization of tenor in each conversation text of english textbook “pathway to english “was symbolized as textbook a which was divided into text a1 until a4 and english textbook “bahasa inggris kelas x” was symbolized as textbook b which was divided into text b1 until b4. the similarities and differences between them can be explained in detail below. table 2.the similarities and differences between conversation texts found in english textbook “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x” in realizing tenor tenor first topic second topic third topic fourth topic a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 a4 b4 agentive/s ocietal roles friend and friend friend and friend teacher and student friend and friend friend and friend friend and friend friend and friend friend and friend status equal equal unequal equal equal equal equal equal social distance high contact, high aff. inv. high contact, high aff. inv. low contact, low aff. inv. high contact, high aff. inv. high contact, high aff. inv. high contact, high aff. inv. high contact, high aff. inv. high contact, high aff. inv. as depicted by the table 4.4 above, it can be summarized that the similarities were found in almost all conversation texts between conversation texts in english textbook “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x”. the similarities were found between text a1 and b1, a3 and b3, and a4 and b4. those texts have similarities in terms societal roles, status, and social distance. meanwhile, the differences were only found between text a2 and b2. those two texts have differences in terms of societal roles, status, and social distance. based on the findings of the similarities and differences texts between conversation texts in english textbook “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x” in realizing tenor, it could be seen that although there were similarities in texts, they tended to be different in realizing tenor. the tenor realization of conversation texts found in two english textbooks and language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 86 the texts’ inapppropriacy the table 2 showed eight texts which have been analyzed have various dimensions of tenor. tenor analysis of conversation texts of each english textbook yielded various kinds of societal roles, statuses, and social distances. the analysis showed the appropriacy of the conversation texts of two english textbooks in realizing tenor. from the result of tenor analysis in both textbooks showed that the relationship between the speakers which have equal and unequal status were considered appropriate. conclusions the result of tenor analysis of conversation texts found in both english textbooks showed that there were societal roles of conversation texts found in this textbook. they were between teacher and student, student and student, and friend and friend. furthermore, there were various statuses found in these texts. they were unequal and equal. at last, the social distances showed low contact and low affective involvement and high contact and high affective involvement. the result of lexicogrammatical analysis of conversation texts found in two english textbooks showed the texts of two textbooks were dominated by declarative. this meant that the mood in the models of the conversation texts tended giving information rather than demanding information or demanding goods and services. meanwhile, the result of modality analysis showed the conversation texts of the textbook were dominated by modulation of capability. the similarities were found in almost all conversation texts between conversation texts in english textbook “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x”. the similarities were found between text a1 and b1, a3 and b3, and a4 and b4. those texts have similarities in terms societal roles, status, and social distance. meanwhile, the differences were only found between text a2 and b2. those two texts have differences in terms of societal roles, status, and social distance. it could be seen that although there were similarities in texts, they tended to be different in realizing tenor. references arikunto, suharsimi. 2006. prosedur penelitian, suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: rineka cipta. badan standar nasional indonesia, 2006. standar isi: standar kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar sma/ma. jakarta: depdiknas. butt, david, et al. 1996. using functional grammar: an explorer’s guide. sydney: macquarie university. celce-murcia, m and e. olshtain. 1996. discourse and context in language teaching:a guide for language teachers. new york: cambridge university press. djuharie, otong setiawan. 2013. bahasa inggris untuk sma-ma/smk kelas x (wajib). bandung: yrama widya. eggins, suzanne. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics.london: pinter publishers ltd. eggins, s and slade diana. 1997. analyzing casual conversation. london: cassel. gerot, linda and wignell peter. 1994. making sense of functional grammar. first edition. queensland: antipodean educational enterprises. larsen and freeman, 2001. techniques and principles in language teaching. new york: mohamad achsan & ahmad sofwan. 2016. the realization of tenor in the conversation texts found in grade x english textbooks “pathway to english” and “bahasa inggris kelas x. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 87 university press.. martin, j.r., 1992. english text: system and structure. amsterdam: benjamins. richards, jack c., & rogers, t. s. 2001. approaches and methods in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. sudarwati, th. m. and eudia grace. 2013. pathway to english for senior high school grade x. jakarta: erlangga. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 88 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including 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ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeaad1ce310ec • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 133 translating metaphores from english into indonesian: problems and solutions rudi hartono semarang state university abstract translating metaphors is unique and specific. it needs an extraordinary skill and knowledge because it is different from translating ordinary texts. translators of metaphors should pay attention to not only the meaning but also the context and culture of both source text and target text. translating a metaphor is not just transferring the meaning but replacing the metaphor itself into the target language culturally and contextually accepted. it is suggested that translator can use semantic translation method when he or she translates metaphors, reproduces the same metaphors, replaces metaphors with metaphors or translate metaphors by similes. keywords: translation, metaphor, tenor, vehicle, semantic translation method introduction toury in james (2000:1) says: “translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions.” referring to this definition, translating metaphors is also an activity that involves not only two languages but also two cultures or we call that as bilingual and bicultural transformation. here translators translate the source language into the target language and also replace the source culture into the target one. translating a metaphor is different from translating an ordinary expression. a metaphoric expression is a statement that consists of metaphor. the metaphor itself is a literary form that is difficult to translate because it has complex contextual meanings. a metaphoric expression has two domains: target domain and source domain. the target domain is the concept that is described, whereas the source domain is the concept of analogy. according to richards in saeed (1997:302-303), the former is tenor and the later is vehicle, for example, in the sentence ‗computer is a human being‘, the word ‗computer‘ is tenor, whereas ‗a human being‘ is vehicle. the sentence above is not an ordinary statement but is a metaphoric expression. how can a computer be analogized as a human being? a translator needs to understand and appreciate the statement deeply because the metaphoric expression is very tied to speaker‘s empirical domain, so the translator should be able to translate it according with the domain that is understood by translation text readers or listeners. grabe in kruger (1991) maintains that there are two basic types of metaphorical construction. in the first type the focus is usually a verb or an adjective which functions to specify the content of a noun or nouns in the syntactic frame metaphorically. the noun in this frame may therefore be described as an "argument (a)" (subject or object), modified or qualified by a focus. however, the focus of a metaphorical construction does not have to be restricted to a single word, since an argument is often qualified 134 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 by a "focus expression (fe)" (a focal word, focal phrase or even a focal sentence). in the second type of construction two arguments interact and can be explicitly recognized as a tenor and a vehicle. however, according to grabe, an explicit relation between tenor and vehicle is rarely given in one syntactic unit in poems and even when the tenor and vehicle are linked horizontally, they are textually specified. example: [= she is (like) a pot (that is boiling over because it is too full)] a fe [= fiela is a pot] tenor vehicle the metaphoric expression, for example, ‗life is a journey‘ has various meanings (lakoff dan turner in saeed (1997:306). the meanings of that metaphoric expression can be as follows: (1) the person leading a life is a traveller; (2) his purposes are destinations; (3) the means for achieving purposes are routes; (4) difficulties in life are impediments to travel; (5) counsellors are guides; (6) progress is the distance travelled; (7) things you gauge your progress by are landmarks; (8) material resources and talents are provisions. those various meaning can be translated into indonesian language as follows: (1) hidup itu kembara; (2) hidup itu kelana; (3) hidup adalah sebuah pengembaraan yang panjang; (4) pengalaman adalah guru yang paling baik; (5) hidup adalah safari tiada henti. holman and harmon (1992:287) state that metaphor is an analogy that compares one object to the other directly, for example, ‗she is my heart‘. the pronoun ‗she‘ is directly compared to ‗heart‘. it is an analogy that directly compares a lady to a heart. how can we treat the same a lady as a heart? that is a metaphor. in translating a metaphor, for instance, a translator should have an extraordinary skill in order to produce an accurate meaning in the target language and it is good for a the translator not just to translate the metaphor but to find a similar metaphor in the target language accurately based on its socio-culture and context. the metaphoric expression ‗she is my heart‘ can be translated into dia belahan jantung hatiku. see other examples of metaphoric expressions. ‗she is a book worm‘ translated into dia seorang kutu buku; ‗that man is a regular ass‘ translated into orang itu bodoh sekali, etc. holman and harmon (1995:44) state that metaphor is different form simile. simile is a figurative language that expresses indirectly the comparison of two objects. the simile usually uses the linking words like, as, such as, as if, and seem, whereas the metaphor uses the auxiliary be, for examples, ‗he is like a frog‘ is a simile, whereas ‗he is a frog‘ is a metaphor. types of metaphors newmark (1988:106-113) defines and exemplifies six types of metaphors, as follows: (1) dead metaphors dead metaphors are metaphors where one is hardly conscious of the image, [they] frequently relate to universal terms of space and time, the main parts of the body, general ecological features and the main human activities: for english, words such as: ‗space‟, „field‟, „line‟, „top‟, „bottom‟, „foot‟,„mouth‟, „arm‟, „circle‟, „drop‟, „fall‟, „rise‟, etc. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 135 (2) cliché metaphors cliché metaphors are metaphors that have perhaps temporarily outlived their usefulness, that are used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the facts of the matter. take the passage: ‗the county school will in effect become not a backwater, but a break through in educational development which will set trends for the future. in this its traditions will help and it may well become a jewel in the crown of the county‘s education.‘ this is an extract from a specious editorial….‘ (3) stock metaphors stock metaphors are established metaphors. in an informal context, a stock metaphor is an efficient and concise method of covering a physical and/or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically — it has a certain emotional warmth — and which is not deadened by overuse. it keeps the world and society going, for instance, they „oil the wheels‟. (4) recent metaphors a recent metaphor is a metaphorical neologism, often ‗anonymously‘ coined, which has spread rapidly in the source language (sl). it may be a metaphor designating one of a number of ‗prototypical‘ qualities that constantly ‗renew‘ themselves in language, for examples, fashionable („in‟, „with it‟), good (‗groovy‘); without money („skint‟). (5) adapted metaphors adapted metaphors are metaphors which involve an adaptation of an existing (stock) metaphor, for example, „the ball is a little in their court‟ (ronald reagan), adapted from the stock metaphorical idiom „the ball is in their court‟. (6) original metaphors original metaphors are metaphors which are non-lexicalized and non-adapted, for example, „the past is another country‟. examples of problems on translating metaphors the followings are examples of problems on translating metaphors found in the novel entitled”to kill a mockingbird” that is translated from english into indonesian. problem 1: st: thing is, foot-washers think women are sin by definition. tt: masalahnya, kaum pembasuh kaki menganggap perempuan sama dengan dosa. if we analyze the metaphorical expression above, „women are sin‟ is translated into „perempuan sama dengan dosa‟. based on the translation method that metaphor is translated literally and even word-for-word, so that the meaning in bahasa indonesia is rigid and sounds unnatural. in this case the translator may translate it into „wanita adalah dosa‟ not „perempuan sama dengan dosa‟ but „wanita adalah dosa‟. it will be the same as the way of translating „all the world‟s a stage‟ into „dunia adalah panggung sandiwara‟. the word „perempuan‟ is replaced with „wanita‟ in order to make it more aesthetic, and grammatically the plural form ‗women‘ is transposed into the singular one „perempuan‟ or „wanita‟ that represents a part for a whole. the linking verb ‗are‘ is translated into ‗adalah‘ not ‗sama dengan‘ or sometimes it is omitted or replaced with ‗itu‘ (‗wanita itu dosa‘). problem 2: st: she said, ―atticus, you are a devil from the hell.‖ tt: katanya, ―atticus, ‘kau iblis dari neraka‟. ‖ 136 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 if we analyze the problem above, we see that the metaphor ‟you are a devil from the hell‟ translated into ‟kau iblis dari neraka‟ is rendered literally or even word-for-word. but actually the case is the metaphor should be translated naturally and culturally accepted. in indonesia context and culture, the metaphor ‟you are a devil from the hell‟ can be similar to ‟jahanam kau‘. this will be contextually familiar with and more naturally understood by indonesians. problem 3: st: ―cecil jacobs is a big wet he-en!‖ tt: ―cecil jacobs induk ayam baa-saah!‖ the translation of english metaphor „cecil jacobs is a big wet he-en!‟ to indonesian metaphor ‗cecil jacobs induk ayam baa-saah!‘ is still literal. the translator translates using literal translation method not semantic translation method, whereas he or she should replace english metaphor with indonesia metaphor, not just translate literally. the metaphor itself describes someone‘s anger. he or she is very angry, so that the metaphorical expression is „he is a big wet hen‟ (=‟dia itu induk ayam yang geram‟). this expression describes how someone goes berserk like a hen that is brooding on disturbed by picking up her eggs. this can be described in a metaphor ‗mad as a wet hen‘ or in indonesian context this can be similar to „banteng ngamuk‟. problem 4: st: i was a ham. tt: aku jadi daging asap. this metaphor is also translated literally. the translator does not replace the source metaphor with the target one. the word ‗ham‘ is translated into „daging asap‟, denotatively it may mean meat cut from the thigh of a hog (usually smoked). however, connotatively it means an unskilled actor who overact; all-star; hot; to act with exaggerated voice and gestures; to overact; someone who wants to be the center of attention. they are always performing, always 'on'. in the theatre, someone who 'hams it up' overdoes everything and makes everything bigger than life, broader than life, and general goes overboard on his presentation, to the detriment of others on the stage. so the metaphor ‗i was a ham‘ can be appropriately translated into „aku jadi bintang panggung‟ or ‗aku jadi pusat perhatian‟. problem 5: st: he is trash. tt: dia itu sampah. this metaphor seems translated into the similar metaphor, but it is not exactly yet. contextually the meaning of ‘trash‘ is not ‘sampah‘ but ‘worthless people‘ (=orang yang tidak berharga), so that the appropriate equivalent metaphor is ‟dia itu orang yang tak berharga‟ or familiarly stated as ‟dia itu sampah masyarakat‟. solutions of translating metaphors to overcome the problems on translating metaphors, a translator should find out solutions in order to translate metaphors appropriately based on the target culture and society. he or she can use appropriate methods, techniques or procedures. the followings are alterantive solutions that can be adopted by translators in doing their translation process. there are some alternative solutions of translating metaphors proposed by theorists of translation. newmark (1988:46) and machali (2009:52), for example, state that a semantic translation is a better method used for translating metaphors than using literal translation and faithful translation. by using semantic translation method, a translator can produce more natural product of translation. both literal and faithful translation methods lead to rigid translation language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 137 results. semantic translation method adapts more flexibly to target text (tt) and it considers aesthetic aspects of source text (st) and compromizes the meaning as far as it is natural both languages linguistically and socio-culturally. look at the following example: st: he is a book-worm. tt: dia adalah seorang yang suka sekali membaca. phrase ‟book-worm‟ is translated flexibly into ‟dia adalah seorang yang suka sekali membaca‘; however, it is still unappropriately translated. the translation itself should be ‟dia seorang kutu buku‟. semantically it is meaningful because this is natural and functional in indonesian context and culture. on the other hand, barańczak in dobrzyfńska (1992:599-600) states that a translator can choose among three possibilities: he or she can use in his or her text an exact equivalent of the original metaphor (this procedure can be represented as m→m); he or she can look for another metaphorical phrase which would express a similar sense (the procedure that can be represented as m1→m2); finally, he or she can replace an untranslatable metaphor of the original with its approximate literal paraphrase (the m→p procedure). the principle of faithfulness in translation requires a specific adaptation in every individual case. a translation may represent the sense exactly while blurring at the same time the cultural specificity of imagery that is the metaphorical vehicle, or it may deliberately bring into prominence the semantic exoticism of the original by transferring a metaphor in its surface form. the choice of translational tactics should depend on the type of text translated and the function it is supposed to fulfill for its new audience in its new communicative context. such decisions are conditioned by various factors, and made under the pressure of various poetics. in any case, it is not always possible to adhere to the principle of faithfulness, m→ m, without risking that a metaphorical utterance will become incomprehensible or will lead to an interpretation which is incompatible with the one intended in the original. summarizing what newmark (1988) proposed, dobrzyfńska (1995:599) suggests possible approaches to metaphor in translation. newmark (1988) apprehends metaphor in a large way, taking into consideration dead, cliché, stock, recent and original metaphors as well as some other kinds of figurative language metonymy and simile. the classification of possible procedures for translating stock metaphors particularly (the most detailed one) includes seven cases: (1) reproducing the same metaphorical image in another language; (2) replacing the original metaphorical image with some other standard image in another language; (3) translating metaphor by simile; (4) translating metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense (i.e. a literal paraphrase, a 'gloss'); (5) converting metaphor to sense only, (6) using deletion (if the metaphor is redundant or otiose); (7) translating metaphor by the same metaphor with the sense added (with 'gloss'). conclusion it is not easy to translate metaphors. translating metaphors is different from translating other ordinary expressions or utterances. metaphors originally represent hidden messages that need a deep analysis of meaning. all metaphors have connotative meanings, so translators could not 138 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 translate them denotatively. in other words, translating metaphors is replacing the source metaphors with the target ones. translated metaphors should be accepted in the target culture and society. therefore, there are some alternative ways for translators to do, for examples, using semantic translation method, reproducing the same metaphors in the target language, replacing the original metaphors with the standard ones in the target language or translating metaphors by similes. references dickins, j. 2005. two models for metaphor translation. translation journal target,17. pp. 227–273 dobrzyfńska, t. 1995. translating metaphor: problems of meaning. journal of pragmatics, 24. pp. 595-604 holman, c.h. and harmon, w. 1992. a handbook to literature. new york: macmillan publishing company. james, k. 2006. cultural implication for translation‖. online http://accurapid.com/ journal/22delight.htm [accessed 02/25/2006] kruger, a. 1991. translating metaphors that function as characterization technique in narrative fiction. journal of literary studies. online http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~cont ent=t777285707 [accessed 08/21/2008] machali, r. 2009. pedoman bagi penerjemah. bandung: penerbit kaifa. newmark, p. 1988. a textbook of translation. united kingdom: prentice hall international (uk) ltd. saeed, j.i. 1997. semantics. oxford: blackwell publisher ltd. http://accurapid.com/%20journal/22delight.htm http://accurapid.com/%20journal/22delight.htm http://accurapid.com/%20journal/22delight.htm http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t777285707 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t777285707 attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab5ca6d1257 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare language circle: journal lof language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 1 exploring an academic writing class in an indonesian university context aunurrahman yarrha@gmail.com ikip-pgri pontianak indonesia fuad abdul hamied indonesia university of education indonesia emi emilia indonesia university of education indonesia received: 5 september 2016. revised: 30 september 2016. accepted: 29 october 2016 abstract academic writing class in any indonesian university context plays an important role for the students to cope with written academic assignments. this paper explores the perceptions of university students regarding their academic writing class. the participants were students of a private university in pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia. they were selected based on their achievements in the class and their genders. the data collection made use of interviews which were conducted immediately after the completion of the class. individual interviews were conducted with six participants with three of them were male and the other three were female who were mainly regarded as medium achievers. the interview sessions were audio taped. the data then transcribed and analysed thematically. the discussion of the findings showed that the students gained benefits from the class through the applications of genrebased approach teaching stages, explicit teaching, and group work, which enabled the lecturer to develop the students' academic writing, critical thinking, and characters. still, several limitations were also identified. suggestions were offered by the participants for the betterment of the academic writing class. keywords: academic writing class, genre-based approach, students' perceptions, language teaching, critical thinking how to cite: aunurrahman, f.a. hamid, e. emilia. 2016. exploring an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. introduction writing is not a product that can be produced naturally. it is achieved through thinking, drafting, and revising procedures that require specialised skills (brown, 2000). in relation to indonesian university context, there are specialised skills that the university students have to learn to enable them to think and write academically. to mention a few, the skills are finding ideas and using academic linguistic features. unfortunately, these two skills are not easy to learn. indonesian university students are regarded as weak where they have difficulties to write academically due to those limitations (hardono, 2016; harjanto, 2014; nugraha, 2015). accordingly, an ideal academic writing class is expected. to do so, this paper explores an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. the class applied genre-based approach developed under systemic functional linguistics as a good deal of previous research have shown that the teaching approach is effective to develop english as foreign language mailto:yarrha@gmail.com language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 2 university students' academic writing and critical thinking skills (emilia, 2005; emilia & hamied, 2015; payaprom, 2012). this paper will begin from a delineation of the academic writing competencies that should be covered by an ideal academic writing class. an ideal academic writing class should address every aspect of academic writing including good critical thinking and good characters that guide them in the academic writing activities. to begin with, the students should have a good mastery of the academic writing genre with its linguistic features. argumentative writing is a common genre that can show the students' critical thinking capacity that is learned in the university (coffin & donohue, 2012; nesi & gardner, 2006). it has two main genres that have different purposes. the genres are exposition and discussion that have analytical and hortatory functions (coffin, 2004; hyland, 1990). several linguistic features or academic languages of the genres are generalised participants, timeless present tense, and passive voice (derewianka, 1990, pp. 76–78). besides the genre and its linguistic features, the university students should also have intellectual standards that guide them in applying critical thinking in their writing. the intellectual standards are clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness, and fairness (elder & paul, 2013). when the genres of academic writing realise the quality of the students' writing at the text level, these intellectual standards mainly realise the quality of the students' critical thinking at the sentence level. the academic writing genre, linguistic features, and intellectual standards are probably sufficient to be learned by the university students at the beginning level. however, academic writing is a complex skill. there are more to teach to the students to ensure they really ready to cope with many complex academic assignments waiting for them. fallacies in reasoning and ethics of academic writing are two more features that should be learned by the students. fallacies in reasoning is a failure in doing a reasoning such as generalising a particular issue as a common one with a little evidence or attacking a credibility of a person instead of the argument the person has (kurfiss, 1997). then, the ethics of academic writing will guide the students to respect and care every reference to contribute to their writing (jones, 2011). this can be a form of character building in the university setting. at this point, an ideal academic writing class should cover not only the academic writing genre and its linguistic features but also should cover the aspects of good critical thinking and good characters that guide the students in the academic writing activities. the following section will discuss the methodology of this study. methodology this descriptive study aims to explore an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. the class applied the systemic functional genre-based approach teaching stages. the teaching stages are building knowledge of field, modelling, joint construction, and independent construction stages (emilia, 2012), which were conducted in two teaching cycles for nineteen meetings in one semester with each meeting spent ninety minutes. two introductory sessions to critical thinking—learning the intellectual standards and fallacies in reasoning and characters—learning to work together and the ethics of academic writing were conducted before the class. besides the teaching stages, the researcher who acted as the lecturer aunurrahman, fuad abdul hamid, emi emilia. 2016. exploring an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 3 incorporated explicit teaching and group work as important principles of the teaching approach (emilia, 2005; hyland, 2007). the study was conducted in an academic writing class. the participants were english education department students of a private university in pontianak. they were thirty-six students who attended the class. out of thirtysix students, there are only six students who were selected to participate in this study. the selection of the students was based on their achievements in the class and their genders (norum, 2008). in the data collection, the researcher made use of interviews, which were conducted after the completion of the class. the interviews were conducted in individual (barlow, 2010; fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2011). individual interviews were conducted with six participants with three of them were male and the other three were female who were mainly regarded as medium achievers. the interview sessions were recorded by using a digital sound recorder and then the records were transcribed verbatim as interview transcripts to be analysed qualitatively (creswell, 2012). thematic analysis was used to analyse the interview transcripts (fereday & muircochrane, 2008; miles & huberman, 1994). the analysis is more typical of the use of the inductive approach to coding (guest, macqueen, & namey, 2011) where themes emerge from textual data (lancia, 2012). the goal of the thematic analysis by using the inductive approach is ―to allow research findings to emerge from the frequent, dominant, or significant themes inherent in raw data, without the restraints imposed by structured methodologies‖ (thomas, 2006, p. 238). the procedures of the thematic analysis began from (1) storing and transcribing the data; (2) coding process by exploring the data; (3) using the codes to develop a more general picture of the data; (4) representing the findings through narratives and visuals; and (5) making an interpretation of the meaning of the results by reflecting personally on the impact of the findings and on the literature (adapted from creswell, 2012, p. 237). the data analysis was applied throughout and after the fieldwork with its iterative and flexible process (fereday & muir-cochrane, 2008). completed the data analysis, the following section will discuss the findings of this study. findings and discussion this section delineates the students' responses regarding their experiences after attending an academic writing class for a semester in an indonesian university context. the discussion of the findings, later on, shows that the students gained benefits from the class through the applications of the systemic functional linguistics genre-based approach teaching stages, explicit teaching, and group work, which enabled the researcher as the lecturer to develop the students' academic writing, critical thinking, and characters. still, several limitations were also identified. the findings support earlier research that the genre-based approach can develop the students' academic writing and critical thinking (emilia, 2005; emilia & hamied, 2015). the teaching approach also can develop the characters of the students at the tertiary level (see hardini, 2013 for an earlier research conducted to the secondary level students). yet, this paper comes with a limitation where this paper only delineates partial findings of the students' responses from the interview sessions only. meanwhile, the students' academic writing products that can strengthen the value of this paper are language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 4 elaborated elsewhere. another limitation of this paper is that the study was conducted to a specific university in pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia which has its own characteristics. that means different contexts may result in different findings. the students' responses in the individual interviews focus on two domains. they are: (1) the students' perceptions of the class based on three aspects (academic writing, critical thinking, and characters); and (2) the students' suggestions for the betterment of the class. nineteen items of interview questions realised the focus of the interview. the interviews were conducted immediately after the class with six selected students. they were desi, heri, aan, sari, elias, and ani (their names are in pseudonym). the students' perceptions of the class the students' perceptions of the class, in general, are good. elias pointed out that the class was beneficial for him, especially for writing his thesis later on. elias also mentioned that the class helped him in the transition of informal writing like narrative to scientific writing that uses different linguistic features. this indicates that the students realised the importance of academic writing for their studies. then, the interview moved to more specific questions. in relation to academic writing, the students commented that academic writing was important to them as they required it to complete their studies. the same thing goes to critical thinking. the students' knowledge of critical thinking was developed as they managed to provide a better definition of critical thinking. for instance, ani's comment is as follows: menurut saya berpikir kritis ee setelah saya mengikuti pengajaran ini berpikir kritis adalah ee bagaimana cara kita emmm mengeluarkan argument kita dan mengelaborasikannya dengan pendapat para ilmuan atau para expert yang telah ada. in my opinion, critical thinking, after i followed this teaching program, is how we point out our arguments and elaborate them by adding experts' opinions. ani explained that, after the class, there was a development as they have familiar with the process and competencies of academic writing and critical thinking. as the students’ knowledge of academic writing, critical thinking, and characters developed, they realised the importance of these aspects. certainly, this was made possible by the genre-based approach teaching principles where the students not only learned a language and about a language but also the students learned through a language, in this case, critical thinking and characters (see halliday, 1993). still, the students also commented that academic writing and critical thinking were not easy to learn. for instance, elias comment is as follows: yang pertama, cukup sulit karena saya harus bertransisi mengubah cara berpola ... pola pikir saya pertama, terus kemudian mencocokkan life experience saya dengan e.. pendapat ilmiah yang akan saya tulis dalam karya ilmiah tersebut, kemudian e saya dapat voca vocabulary baru yang awalnya yang saya tau itu di dalam karya ilmiah itu ternyata tidak tidak boleh menggunakan contraction, seperti can’t jadi cannot. it was difficult for me for the first time as i have to change my thinking pattern, then match my life experience with the aunurrahman, fuad abdul hamid, emi emilia. 2016. exploring an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 5 scientific reason and the rules in academic writing where i cannot use contractions such as can't to cannot. the comment indicates that the student was aware of the process and competencies of academic writing and they have to learn it to be successful students especially if they want to complete their studies. then, the participant also commented out that he experienced difficulties to implement the knowledge into practice especially when the students were new to academic writing and critical thinking. as a result, the explicit teaching was applied by the researcher as the lecturer to help the students to practice their knowledge until they were ready to perform by themselves (see emilia, 2012; swartz & mcguinness, 2014). one important aspect that plays important role in academic writing and critical thinking is characters. the students regarded characters as important for them. for instance, sarah's comment is as follows: iya karakter ini sangat penting dalam penulisan ilmiah karena dengan itu kita bisa eee banyak belajar seperti kita bertanggung jawab seperti dengan kejujuran dan keadilan yes, characters are important in academic writing as it can help us to learn responsible, honest, and fair. the students learned characters such as responsibilities, honesty, and fairness, which are very important in guiding them in academic writing and critical thinking practices. then, based on their interview transcripts, the students have learned characters from the texts they have read and teaching and learning activities during the teaching program. for instances, ani's and toto's comments respectively are as follows: ee dalam pengajaran dalam program pengajaran ini karakter yang saya dapatkan adalah selalu untuk peduli sesama em jujur em em dan ehm menolong sesama tanpa pamrih. (ani) in teaching program i learned characters such as care each other, honesty, and help each other. (ani) karakter yang saya pelajari, itu tentang dari masalahnya online-learning itu dapat kita saya saya mengambil dari yang e negatifnya sss karena menurut saya, dari negatif online-learning itu banyak banyak sekali yang bisa diambil. (aan) characters that i learned from the online learning issue were the negative. the characters here are not only the good one but also negative things that they regarded as bad characters. for instance, aan's comment is as follows. karakter yang saya pelajari banyak dari yang negative dan positif tentu ada juga yang ee biasa seperti eee hanya membaca dan tanpa memberikan feedback atau masukan-masukan yang yang berguna. characters that i learned some were negative and some were positive. the negative was reading without giving feedback or giving useless feedback. knowing bad characters does not mean that the students practise bad characters. instead, it helped the students to understand themselves and their friends. their capabilities in deciding good and bad things were monitored and guided by the lecturer to make sure they will practice the good language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 6 characters instead of the bad characters. besides, character building proponents surely do not allow a lecturer to model a bad character (lickona et al., 2007). the students pointed out that the class developed their skills of academic writing and critical thinking as the class provided them with the procedures of academic writing and critical thinking followed by the dispositions or characters in academic writing and critical thinking. furthermore, the students claimed that their masteries of the academic writing genre and its linguistic features including the grammar were improved. for instances, sarah's and heri's comments respectively are as follows. eee untuk itu saya sebelumnya belajar sama bapak itu emm bagaimana menulis yang baik spell ya spelling yang baik itu yang banyak kata-kata seperti eee menghubungkan seperti modality seperti nomalisation. (sarah) learning with the lecturer was about how to write a good writing by using proper spelling, modality, and nominalisation. (sarah) sebelumnya bapak selalu memberikan revisi kepada kami, dimana e di dalam tulisan karya ilmiah kami tersebut, dimana ada kesalahan bapak selalu memberikan revisi, sehingga kami jadi lebih paham tentang apa yang bapak sampaikan dan di dalam hal tersebut, kami bisa e.. membuat karya ilmiah kami lebih baik lagi dari segi bahasa dan sebagainya. (heri) the lecturer always revises our work where in our academic writing the lecturer pointed out a revision so we can understand what the lecturer's demand and that is to write a good academic writing from its language use etc. (heri) these comments show that the students' masteries were developed after the class. still, the students also admitted that they have limitations in academic writing, critical thinking, and character practices. for instances, delima's and ani's comments respectively are as follows. ee saya sulit untuk menggabungkan antara e menyatukan e dari sumber dengan pendapat saya. dari sumber misalnya dari ee dari expert-expert gitu kan, abis itu saya mau gabungkan dengan pendapat saya sendiri itu sulit bagi saya. (desi) it is difficult to combine a reference with my own opinion. a reference is like an expert's statement then i have to combine it with my own opinion. (desi) em kesulitannya adalah ketika kita ingin ee menulis terkadang kita melakukan kesalahan seperti plagiarism yaitu kita mengambil ee mengambil pendapat para expert dan mengatakan bahwa itu adalah pendapat kita dan itu adalah sifat tidak jujur dan menjadikan karakter yang baik itu susah diimplementasikan dalam berpikir kritis dan menulis ilmiah ini. (ani) the difficulty is when we want to write but we sometimes do mistakes like plagiarism; when we take an expert's statement and claim that as our own; that is being dishonest and makes good characters difficult to be implemented in critical thinking and academic writing. (ani) several limitations faced by the students aunurrahman, fuad abdul hamid, emi emilia. 2016. exploring an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 7 were about writing a citation to support their arguments and plagiarism. the students' limitations in academic writing, critical thinking, and character practices were something that could not be faced by the students on their own. the researcher as the lecturer employed explicit teaching and group work to develop their academic writing, critical thinking, and characters. this certainly also including providing sufficient guidance to the students to deal with issues in academic writing, critical thinking, and characters. the descriptions of the explicit teaching and group work were provided by aan and heri as follows: dosen banyak memberikan feedback untuk karya suatu untuk e karya ilmiah yang saya kirim dan setelah direvisi ulang, kembali dikirim diberikan feedback dan diberikan masukan bagaimana cara untuk berpikir kritis yang lebih baik. (aan) the lecturer provided feedbacks to my academic writing and after the revisions, i have to submit it again to be given another feedback in relation to academic writing and critical thinking. (aan) bapak e selalu membuat kami sebelumnya berkelompok, jadi beliau selalu membuat kami itu bekerjasama, saling membentuk ee karakter yang baik di dalam mengerjakan hal tersebut. (heri) the lecturer asked us to work in group to build good characters. (heri) the descriptions show that the main activity of the explicit teaching was giving feedback to the students' writing. the feedbacks were related to academic writing with its ethics and critical thinking. then, the students were instructed to work in group to help them to build good characters (see lickona, 1999a). besides explicit teaching and group work, other strategies were also applied as pointed by aan. baik, karena di samping mengajar, dosen juga memberikan masukan-masukan yang dapat dimengerti, e mudah dimengerti. good, besides teaching, the lecturer provided understandable feedback. aan's comment shows that the researcher acted as the lecturer provided understandable feedback. at this point, the students' comments mainly show that the class was beneficial to them. the application of the genre-based approach teaching stages, explicit teaching, and group work allowed the researcher to develop the students' academic writing, critical thinking, and characters. even though, several limitations were also identified. the next section will delineate the suggestions of the students for the betterment of the class. the students' suggestions for the betterment of the class there is one important point of the students' suggestions. the point is about the teaching strategies. in the earlier section, the researcher mentioned several strategies applied in the teaching program. they were explicit teaching−provide explicit guidance; and group work−provide a better learning with peers in a large class (see shamim, negash, chuku, & demewoz, 2007). these strategies were necessary to help them to achieve the purpose of the class. still, several aspects should be paid attention by the researcher. this is commented by ani and heri respectively. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 8 ee saran untuk program pengajaran ini adalah mungkin untuk tidak lebih monoton dan mencari variasi ee cara belajar yang lebih tidak menegangkan atau ya tidak membosankan seperti itu, ee yah mungkin itu saja. (ani) suggestions for the teaching program are making the teaching not monotonous and having more variations in teaching to make the teaching not stressful or boring. (ani) mungkin ke depannya, revisi harus dilakukan sebaik mungkin dan mahasiswa lebih diajarkan lagi bagaimana cara membuat revisi yang baik, selama ini kami masih kurang mengerti bagaimana membuat revisi yang baik, bagaimana membuat e karya ilmiah dengan baik. jadi diharapkan kedepannya bapak bisa lebih bagus dalam apa menyampaikannya lebih jelas dan lebih memberikan pemahaman pada setiap mahasiswa yang belajar disana. (heri) in the future, the revision should be done properly and the students should be provided with more inputs in learning how to do a good revision as we were not really understand how to do one. it is expected that the lecturer can be better in presenting the materials and giving understanding to the students. (heri) in the earlier section, the students claimed that the teaching program developed their knowledge, skills, and characters in academic writing and critical thinking. however, during the class, the students who dealt with the same activity over and over again without variations created a stressful and boring class atmosphere. the researcher as the lecturer should be able to provide interesting teaching and learning activities that can engage the students in learning academic writing even though the reality is academic writing practice can be a stressful activity for anyone (see mukminin, ali, & ashari, 2015). another point is the lecturer should be able to equip the students with everything they need to do a good revision. then, in the earlier section, the students admitted that they have difficulties in academic writing such as writing a citation and plagiarism act. the reasons can be many. this is commented by elias. aa menurut saya sarannya adalah e bagi dosen bagi dosen bagi dosen untuk dosennya kak, untuk pengajarnya. kalo menurut saya, metode yang digunakan sudah baik, yang yang menjadi masalah ini adalah e kepa mahasiswa itu paham atau tidak akan apa yang akan e apa yang akan kita pelajari di dalam penga e proses pla pembelajaran itu sendiri seperti, menurut saya, menurut.. menurut saya, masih ada teman-teman yang bingung mengguna e akan akan apa sih.. apa sih yang akan mereka lakukan didalam mata kuliah ini. yang pertama itu, e mereka masih menggunakan google translate untuk untuk e membuat terjemahan dari bahasa indonesia ke bahasa inggris supaya le mempermudah mereka. nah kalo menurut saran saya, e dosen lebih harus menekankan untuk tidak menggunakan google translate kemudian lebih menggunakan grammar berdasarkan kemampuan mereka dan juga e menekankan e setiap aspek yang linguistik itu tadi, seperti karakter kemudian critical thinking, itu saja. my suggestion is, for the lecturer in the teaching has already used proper methods. the problem was the students whether they understood or not regarding the topic aunurrahman, fuad abdul hamid, emi emilia. 2016. exploring an academic writing class in an indonesian university context. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 9 under discussion. in the learning process, in my opinion, some friends were still confused about what to do in the academic writing class. first, they still like to use google translate to translate from the indonesian language to the english language to ease them. in my opinion, the lecturer should emphasise not to use google translate, instead, they should use proper grammar that they know and emphasise the linguistic features required, character, and critical thinking. the reason of the issue was some students used google translate to accommodate them in translating from the indonesian language to the english language. elias suggests that the lecturer should tell the students not to use google translate. this sounds reasonable and shows that the students were still thinking in the indonesian language instead of thinking in the english language that created a gap when they translated their ideas using google translate into the english language as the software apparently cannot see the context of the ideas or writing (see sheppard, 2011). the main point of the suggestions is the lecturer. the lecturer should be able to provide good teaching strategies. the strategies are not just about addressing their needs in academic writing, critical thinking, and characters but also how to deal with the learning process throughout the class. addressing this issue, hopefully, could create a good learning atmosphere in the classroom. conclusion the individual interview responses reveal that the class was beneficial for the interviewees. it helped them to develop their knowledge, skills, and characters in academic writing and critical thinking. in relation to character building, the interviewees claimed to grasp characters such as responsibilities, honesty, and fairness that guided them in the academic writing practice. however, the academic writing practice was not easy for them. the interviewees claimed still have difficulties such as to apply the ethics of academic writing to support their arguments. to sum up, the individual interview data managed to show that an ideal academic writing class should incorporate the systemic functional genre-based approach teaching approach along with the explicit teaching and group work to handle a large class. it is also important to arouse the students' interests in the academic writing class. a further study could explore the postgraduate students' academic writing class to see how the teaching approach can develop the students’ academic writing, critical thinking, and characters. references barlow, c. a. 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(2006). a general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. american journal of evaluation, 27(2), 237–246. http://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748. http://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748 language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 12 language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １６６ man jadda wajada: religious aspects in negeri 5 menara by ahmad fuadi: a semiotic analysis prayudias margawati universitas negeri semarang prayudias@mail.unnes.ac.id abstract this study aimed at describing the religious aspects in negeri 5 menara, a novel by ahmad fuadi. to analyze the novel, the structural method was implemented to operationally describe the intrinsic elements of the novel. to reveal the meanings of the novel as a semiotic phenomenon, heuristic and hermeneutic methods were also implemented. the religious aspect found in the novel was a shared mission that brought the characters to pondok pesantren madani (pondok pesantren means islamic boarding house, which is also briefly referred to as pondok or pesantren) as santris (santri means a student of islamic boarding house) and united them in an environment full of religious values. a proverb from hadith saying man jadda wajada (whoever strives shall succeed) was clearly manifested by all characters, including the teachers and the santris. the moral messages depicted by the author through the narratives of intellectuality and spirituality clearly indicated religious values of this novel. keywords: negeri 5 menara, religious aspect, semiotics introduction literary works can simply be described as an author’s creation that often provides enlightenment for readers. it can also be considered as an author's reflection on surrounding phenomena, and thus there is no doubt that literary works can provide readers with enjoyment or the feeling of sympathy. for instance, novel readers are unconsciously appealed to enjoy, feel, appreciate, and discover the life problems written by the author. that is the reason of why most literary works can influence readers’ perspectives. such influence may be manifested as culture, habits, and religious aspects. religious aspects conveyed by an author through literary works are usually not tendentious, but it tends to invite readers through author personal experiences without being patronizing. semiotics as part of linguistics can explain how it works that way without readers being aware of it. semiotics is a study of signs (hoed in nurgiyanto, 2007:40). in the semiotic perspective, language is a sign system that represents meaning. in literary works, language as a sign system refers to the second meaning, particularly referred to as second-order semiotic system (culler in nurgiyantoro, 2007:39). in literary studies, analyzing signs can help readers better understand meanings of stories because appreciating literary works is giving meanings to the literary works itself. according to pradopo (1987:121), literary works like novels, short stories, poetry, or drama are sign systems with meanings manifested through the medium of language. literary works at the sign level are seen as a medium of communication between an author and readers. such communication is conveyed indirectly to readers. it means that literary works can be seen as a semiotic phenomenon (teeuw, 1984:43). another theory states that semiotics is a discipline that views all forms of communication as long as it is carried out using signs based on sign http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:prayudias@mail.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １６７ systems or codes (segers in sangidu, 2004:173). because semiotics is seen as the study of systems, rules, and conventions that allow signs to have meaning, in this sense there are two principles that need to be considered; “signifier” and “signified” (chamamah-soeratno, 1991:18). a sign consists of a signifier and a signified. the signifier is the material form of the sign, while the signified is the concept represented by the sign itself. referring to charles sanders pierce, zoest states that there are three ways of how a sign shows its denotatum: (1) through similarity, (2) through convention, and (3) through its contiguous relationship. a sign that portrays a similarity is called an icon. an icon is a basic and simplest form of sign. it shows something in the easiest way to understand, for instance through a clear plan of directions using arrows. an icon within a text can be simple sentences indicating a sequence of an event. a sign that refers to its denotatum through a convention or particular agreed-upon rules is called a symbol. a symbol is an advanced sign system because it requires a learning process to understand it. the morse sign system is a clear example because people need to learn it first to understand a series of morse letters. language is also a symbolic conventional sign system. for instance, a formal letter always begins with the word “respectfully” in a general correspondence. other than the two signs briefly described above, there is a sign system that refers to its denotatum through its contiguous relationship. such system is called an index, and it can attract our attention, hurt our feelings, and manipulate us, such as the arrow direction of the “bus stop” located near the bus stop. the exclamation “hey!” is also an index. according to subur wardoyo, there are 3 steps to do in a semiotic study: (1) creating a basic narrative scheme of a literary work being studied, (2) finding the main signifier contained in the literary work, and (3) conducting a syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis of the literary work. furthermore, the role of language must not be ignored in the semiotic approach. a meaning is produced from concepts in the mind of a meaning giver (reader) through language. representation is a relationship between conceptual signs that allows readers to point to the real world of an object or reality or to the imaginary world of a fictitious object, people, or event. the center of attention in semiotic study of novels is to explore what is hidden behind the practice of sign (piliang: 2003:256). based on the background above, a novel entitled negeri 5 menara by ahmad fuadi is assumed to have a semiotic phenomenon worth being analyzed as signs that may refer to things inside or outside the novel. meanwhile, the language used in novels or other literary works is a signifier that marks the signified as described above. on the other hand, readers will always be associated with every attempt to capture the meanings of a literary work. therefore, such meanings are not only determined by readers but are also determined and directed by the literary work itself (chamamah soeratno, 1991:18). the purpose of this study is to identify the religious aspects that emerge through the description of the linguistic meanings from the semiotic perspective. novel as a literary work according to teeuw who stands on felix vodicka’s opinion, literary work is an artifact or inanimate objects that will only have meaning if they are interpreted by the reader. those readers have a full freedom to fill in the blank spaces in a text. in every literary work, there is a blank space that can be filled by the reader according to their abilities and tastes. that process of giving a meaning is called concetrization (2003:157). according to pradopo, in that attempt to give a meaning, a semiotics and structural analysis is required considering that literary work is sign structure (system) that is meaningful. in the process of giving meaning, the historical process should not be ruled out because the creation of a literary work by the author is http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １６８ closely related to the society and cultural conditions that surround the author. the reader (including critics and literary experts) is the most critical element for the concretization process (2003:106). as one of the literary works that has a complex structure, novel usually created from several elements that can be discussed, including (a) setting, (b) character, c) story, (d) story technique, (e) language, and (f) theme (rahmanto, 2004:70). each of these elements is an experience that contains structure, which also means that there are elements that are mutually coherent and form a set of intrinsic rules that determine the nature of the elements themselves. thus, structural theories is a discipline that sees literary works as a structure consisting of several elements. those elements are interrelated with each other and form a whole and complete meaning. those intrinsic elements will be used as the foundation in the analysis of negeri 5 menara by ahmad fuadi. the signs that appear in sentences are analyzed using the understanding of signifiers and signified. a literary work is a systematic structure. in the definition of this structure, there are three basic definitions, namely the idea of roundness, the idea of transformation, and the idea of self-sufficiency (hawkes, dalam sangidu, 2004:172). as a structure, it means that there are elements that are mutually coherent and form a set of intrinsic rules that determine the nature of the elements themselves. in other words, those elements do not stand alone in determining a meaning. transformation means that the structure is not static but dynamic. a structure is not only being arranged but also arranging. the idea of self-sufficiency means that a structure does not require anything from the outside of itself to maintain the transformation. thus, structural theory is a discipline that views literary works as a structure consisting of several elements. those elements are interrelated with each other and form a whole and complete meaning. structural approach structural analysis is a way to find a full meaning from a literary work that is being studied through defining and describing the elements of literary works that form the relationship and integrity of it. structural analysis can be done by identifying, examining, and describing the function and relationship between intrinsic elements which includes theme, plot, character and characterization, setting, viewpoint, etc (nurgiyantoro, 2010:37). pradopo argues that one basic concept that characterizes structural theory is the assumption that in a literary work there is a structure that can be understood as a unified whole and interrelated. structural analysis is the beginning stage in the research of literary works. the stages of structural analysis is the gate to elements that build them. apparently, structural analysis aims to dismantle the interrelationship of all analyzes and aspects to produce a comprehensive meaning. therefore, it can be concluded that structural approach is an attempt to understand literary works based on the internal elements that create literary works which produce a comprehensive meaning including plot, characterization, setting and theme. the following analysis that can be conducted by the researcher is to describe how each building element has an overall meaning that is one and completes each other. the meaning of literary works will be reduced if one of the building elements does not appear. to analyze a work of fiction, the analytical method of reading fiction and good book references is used to support the research objectives. plot, characters and setting including themes, literary tools (title, point of view, irony, tone, and style and symbolism). methodology the structural method is used to analyze the negeri 5 menara novel by ahmad fuadi which is carried out by describing the intrinsic elements of http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １６９ the novel structurally. after that, those elements are linked to one another to become a unified whole structure. heuristic and hermeneutic reading is conducted to reveal the meaning of the novel negeri 5 menara as a semiotic phenomenon. the heuristic reading method is interpreting literary texts referentially through linguistic signs. heuristic reading can also be conducted structurally to find signifier or meanings. with repeated reading, it is hoped that the events in the novel can be recorded properly, making it easier for writers to find the meaning of literary works in the highest literary system, namely the overall meaning of literary texts as a sign system. results & discussions structural analysis of the novel negeri 5 menara the intrinsic elements are the elements that directly participate and build the story in a novel. the congruence of the intrinsic elements helps to build a tangible literary work, including the events, story, plot, character, theme, setting, point of view, language styles, and others. the theme of novel negeri 5 menara refers to education seen from the setting where the story takes place namely pondok pesantren. the main activities of the characters are their journey of studying in that pondok pesantren. “marhaban. welcome to our students, the seekers of knowledge. selamat datang. bienvenue. i’m rais ma'had, the head of pesantren and the teachers here. i’m delighted to welcome all of the new students to study here… (2013:49) the snippet of the story above described how the teachers welcomed new students who came to the pesantren for the first time. the future santri are analogized to those who are in search of knowledge by studying in pondok pesantren. pondok pesantren is surely built to provide students with a place to study a wide range of religious knowledge. the excerpt of the novel above also portrayed how the santri passes his day by learning numerous languages. the things they encountered daily are knowledge from various countries, mentioned bbc broadcasts from the uk, voa from the americas and news from the middle east. one of the main characters of negeri 5 menara is said. said is described as a santri who has the character of being responsible, socially caring, loving the homeland, and loving peace. take a look at the quotation below, …don’t be sad, angry, disappointed, and afraid by the virtue of external factors. only you who hold the power over yourself, and never leave that power to others. somebody may point you a gun, but you have a choice in your innermost self, and that has nothing to do with external influence… (2013:107) in accordance with the quotation above, said shows a responsible and courageous character to his friends. said encourages his friends to not be easily fooled by fear and believe in their own self capabilities. the other main character is raja. he is such a bookworm, democrat, and an english orator. another santri character in this novel is alif, who holds a high level of curiosity, religious, smart, and hard work. farther main character is atang with his honest, disciplined, creative, and religious characteristics. dulmajid is a disciplined, independent, and socially caring santri. the last santri character is baso who is communicative, religious, and kindly treats his friends with a great deal of respect. the novel negeri 5 menara exposes the stories related to the daily life of santri in pondok madani. the life system in this novel contains the rules of pondok where alif and his friends deepen their knowledge of religion. the timeline shows their daily activities from early morning until late at night, on and on. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７０ …our daily activities start at 4 and it’s a bit difficult to wake up this early to perform fajr prayer together. santri alternates the role as imam and always recites al-quran after fajr prayer. from 6 to 7 in the morning is our free time that we can use to do the things we are interested in such as, sport, art, language, and so on. at 7 to 12 is when the learning activities take place. from that moment on, we do the dzuhur prayer and have lunch within 1 to 2 afternoon. hereafter, we have the additional classes at 3 pm and move to the next activities including exercising, taking a bath, washing, and doing the most amusing thing in life which is relaxing under the tower near the mosque with some close friends. when the night comes, our next activities are performing maghrib prayer together in the mosque, dinner, and then night study. finally, 10 pm at night is our time to go to bed. the passage above shows the regular and scheduled activities of the santri, day and night. as if it never stops, the daily activities at pondok pesantren are real. pondok pesantren offers an education that can give students a space to train their self-discipline in carrying out the rules at the pesantren. the day and night setting becomes the time structure in the novel negeri 5 menara. after being formally considered as the students of pondok madani, alif was impressed by the first sentence he heard when he entered the classroom. a very sacred sentence that is capable of making all of the students inside the classroom reiterate that sentence aloud. man jadda wajada, this long foreign word was like a magic spell that worked perfectly. in a short time, we were like being stung by thousands of wasps, thirty children screaming back, shouting from the top of their lungs. "man jadda wajada! (2013:40) the first lesson that the students received from pondok madani is the hadits man jadda wajada, which has extraordinary meaning and tremendous power. just like a mantra, it gives positive energy of well being to anyone who hears it. man jadda wajada. the slogan marks the main theme of religious education and the world in the pesantren that is relevant to today's conditions. man jadda wajada became the motto of alif and his friends throughout the time they were studying at the pondok madani. “man jadda wajada!” over and over again, until my throat is hot and my voice is hoarse. this frenzy situation has high decibels. my ears were hot and ringing while our faces were flushed red with energy. the window pane was so thin it rattled next to me… (2013:40) the passage above shows how a scrap of arabic words can raise the students' enthusiasm. every day the teachers of pondok encourage their students with this hadits. alif and his friends seemed to be burning with enthusiasm, they became more enthusiastic about studying religion at pondok madani even though they have to pass many tests. discussion the semiotic analysis model is applied by subur wardoyo in this study. in contrary with the pioneer of semiotic called pierce, subur wardoyo asserted that conducting a study using a semiotic approach required 3 main methods, such as (1) determine the basic narrative scheme contained in the literary work being studied, (2) determine which the form of sign (icon, symbol, index) is the main signifier in the literary work being studied, (3) make a syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis of the literary work. the basic narrative scheme is a series of significant events in a literary work's story that is compiled by focusing on minimal narrative units and plot rules. determining a basic narrative scheme is the same as tracing the signs in a literary work's narrative. after obtaining a basic narrative scheme, the next step that must be done in a study using a semiotic approach is to determine a sign http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７１ that becomes the main signifier. the main signifier is a sign that can represent all the signs found in the novel negeri 5 menara. furthermore, arrange the signs into codes in two ways: in a syntagmatic and paradigmatic structure. the syntagmatic and paradigmatic structures are presented in a laxative axis, with the syntagmatic structure as the horizontal axis and the paradigmatic structure as the vertical axis. the laxative axis can be arranged by specifying the binary opposition. a paradigm is a series of signs from a certain category. syntagma is a collection of signs that interact and are arranged to form a meaningful unity. the semiotic study in the novel negeri 5 menara by ahmad fuadi consists of three factors connecting signs with objects: icons, indexes and symbols. (1) icon is a connection sign with its marker that has a similar relationship; (2) index, i.e. the sign and its marker have a causal relationship; (3) while the symbol is a conventional sign and signifier relationship. these three elements are associated with pluralism as a system of cultural signs in the novel negeri 5 menara and the dialectical relationship between public schools and pesantren in the novel. the signs of the religiosity of the characters in negeri 5 menara are the beginning of applying the science of semiotics. arising from the similarity of life goals, alif, raja, said, baso, dulmajid and other friends took them to a place to study theology and form morals to pursue their dreams for the future. the relationship between one and other elements strengthens semiotic analysis. these elements include the relationship between pesantren and the conflict around them, showing how the religious aspect is prioritized in the life dimensions of the santri character from the novel negeri 5 menara. every circumstance experienced by the santri including alif, raja, and his friends is the reality of life which combined by ahmad fuadi with his wild imagination he gained from observations, appreciation and his involvement in socio-cultural reality. the novel negeri 5 menara contains a reflection that the signs occurring in human existence are semiotic which can be interpreted in several ways. it is intended that the readers of literary work gain the experience and moral messages that have been conveyed by the author from real life situations through reportage and the results of imagination. the messages carried by the author of negeri 5 menara are mostly about moral teachings. the stories contain both intellectuality and spirituality which clearly show the religious aspect of this novel. religious aspects novel negeri 5 menara man jadda wajada has three syllables. man means who, jadda means strive, and wajada means achieve/succeed. that way, man jadda wajada means whoever strives shall succeed. man jadda wajada is usually used for individual encouragement to do something further. this arabic proverb also align with what is promised by allah swt who will grant every desire of his servant. there are 4 dimensions that make this proverb a philosophy of life such as, belief, hard work, totality, and istiqomah. the first dimension means that we must fully believe in the good things in life through the prayers we sent to the god almighty. the second dimension has a message of hard work. it takes two to tango, which is the right balance between efforts and god’s grace. the third dimension guides us to be total in order to achieve goals. the fourth dimension is not losing faith in process/istiqomah, disciplined, dedicated, as well as carrying out the positive affirmations. in accordance with the novel negeri 5 menara, the emergence sign of these 4 dimensions as the interpretations of man jadda wajada are shown by the santri including, alif, raja, said, atang, baso, dulmajid, as well as the teacher of pondok madani. kiyai rais uses this arabic proverb saying man jadda wajada to arouse the student’s excitement every day. “man jadda wajada!!!” the thin young man shouted loudly. his forefinger was pointed high in the air, his voice booming, his eyes flashing stabbed us one by one. serious face, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １７２ his eyebrows almost caught one another and his graham muscles protruded, as if exerting all his inner strength to conquer our souls… (2013:40) conclusion based on the semiotic analysis results from the novel negeri 5 menara by anwar fuadi, it can be concluded that after reading and valuing the novel, the semiotic study in the novel negeri 5 menara consists of three factors that connect signs with objects, namely icons, indexes and symbols. (1) icon is a sign relationship with its marker that has a similar relationship; (2) index, i.e. the sign and its marker have a causal relationship; (3) while the symbol is a conventional sign and signifier relationship. these three elements are associated with pluralism as a system of cultural signs in the novel negeri 5 menara and the dialectical relationship between public schools and pesantren in the novel. the signs of the religiosity of the characters in negeri 5 menara are the beginning of applying the science of semiotics. arising from the similarity of life goals, alif, raja, said, baso, dulmajid and other friends took them to a place to study theology and form morals to pursue their dreams for the future. the relationship between one and other elements strengthens semiotic analysis. these elements include the relationship between pesantren and the conflict around them, showing how the religious aspect is prioritized in the life dimensions of the santri character from the novel negeri 5 menara. every circumstance experienced by the santri including alif, raja, and his friends is the reality of life which combined by ahmad fuadi with his wild imagination he gained from observations, appreciation and his involvement in socio-cultural reality. the novel negeri 5 menara contains a reflection that the signs occurring in human existence are semiotic which can be interpreted in several ways. it is intended that the readers of literary work gain the experience and moral messages that have been conveyed by the author from real life situations through reportage and the results of imagination. the messages carried by the author of negeri 5 menara are mostly about moral teachings. the stories contain both intellectuality and spirituality which clearly show the religious aspect of this novel. references fuadi, a. (2013). negeri 5 menara. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama mangunwijaya, y.b. (1982). sastra dan religiositas. jakarta: sinar harapan. nuriyantoro, b. (2007). teori pengkajian fiksi. cet. keenam. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. pradopo, r.d. (2003). beberapa teori sastra, metode kritik, dan penerapannya. yogyakarta: pustaka belajar. rahmanto, b. (2004). metode pengajaran sastra.cetakan kesepuluh. yogyakarta: kanisius. sangidu, (2004). penelitian sastra: pendekatan, teori, metode, teknik, dan kiat. yogyakarta: unit penerbitan sastra asia barat fakultas ilmu budaya ugm. teeuw, a. 1984. sastra dan ilmu sastra. cetakan ke-1. jakarta: pustaka jaya wellek, r., and warren, a. (1977). theory of literature. harcourt brace jovanovic publishers. zoest, a. van. (1991). fiksi dan non fiksi dalam kajian semiotik. diterjemahkan oleh manoekmi sardjoe. intermasa http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５０ １５０ indonesian english teacher’s identity: bridging the gap between teachers’ personal and professional identity patrick adtya pratama sinom1 jiksau04@gmail.com paulus kuswandono2 kus@usd.ac.id 1,2sanata dharma university, yogyakarta abstract teachers’ personal and professional identities play a crucial role in the learning process. this research aimed to reveal the gap between teachers’ personal and professional identity from the perspective of indonesian teachers. there were five participants in the research. the participants were selected based on geographical differences. the participants were approached by using virtual media communications. a phenomenological approach with the semi-structured interview was applied to deeply discover and identify teachers’ experiences on personal and professional identity development. then, thematic analysis was used to put the data into themes. the study revealed that teachers’ personal identity was perceived as individuals’ goals, values, beliefs, actions or behaviour, and interactions in the social-cultural area. whereas, the professional identity was related to professional competence, teaching ideology, and transferring cultural content and role model. in addition, a teacher’s personal and professional identity are overlapped in terms of identity formation and identity in social interaction. besides, they are confined by a classroom setting and social context. this research is expected to have a great contribution to teacher identity development, especially for teachers’ personal and professional identity development. keywords: english teacher identity, personal identity, professional identity. introduction in an educational context, the role of identity is very important for a teacher to understand ‘self’. additionally, it helps teachers to recognize and conceptualize the nature and the culture of their working environment (kelchtermans & vandenberghe, 1994). by understanding an identity personally and professionally, teachers are expected to express their professionalism in their daily live performances. therefore, there is inescapable interconnectedness between teachers’ personal and professional identities (day et al., 2006). in a social context, identity takes a vital consideration in human existence; moreover, it is crucial for humans’ psychosocial functioning to their interactional contributions. identity is not merely talking about social construction. moreover, it is also taking up a biographically grounded, emotion, and expression of daily life interaction. therefore, identity is a dynamic http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:jiksau04@gmail.com mailto:cons@usd.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５１ １５１ process of construction between many viewpoints of life (medhy aginta hidayat & farid, 2021). the explanation of personal identity has been widely discussed a long time ago by many researchers (erikson, 1977; waterman, 1999). although the definition of professional identity was not explicitly mentioned by previous works of literature, some researchers, such as gardner (1995), gaziel (1995), goodson & cole (1984), mawhinney & xu (1997) denote the term professional identity indirectly. based on the literature from gardner (1995); gaziel (1995); goodson and cole (1984); mawhinney and xu (1997), professional identity is a complex, dynamic, and not fixed image of identity. therefore, teacher professional identity is an ongoing process of contextual interpretations of professional reality based on cultural standards. in this research, the researchers performed a definition of personal identity as individual goals, values, and beliefs in its cultural areas (see, waterman, 1999; for more discussion). additionally, the researchers also utilized the definition of personal identity from wardekker and miedema (2001) who stated that personal identity is the creation of a life story, social interaction, and the commitment and consistency of decisions made that are created through elements that are existed in the culture. to state the relevance of this research, a teacher’s personal identity (personal dimension) and teacher’s professional identity (interpersonal dimension) are supposed to be in the same direction which is a linear process of identity development (cross et al., 2003; suh, 2002; van hoof & raaijmakers, 2002). in fact, the process of well-balancing the teacher’s personal and professional identity is not easy. in other words, the challenges might be encountered by teachers as they may experience the world is more complicated, it may not be as expected or different from what they have thought. therefore, understanding teacher identity such as practices, dimensions, and roles is assumed to be able to handle contradictions between professional and personal identity construction. in an indonesian teacher’s identity context, the previous study by yuwono and harbon (2010) found that indonesian teachers’ professional identity is on the face of contradicting their personal identity, especially for teachers in rural areas. they further stated that due to some particular conditions, teachers tended to act unprofessionally. furthermore, they stated that teachers’ personal and professional identities need to be reconceptualized. in the same sense, the study from lomi & mbato (2020) also revealed that indonesian teachers are struggling in equilibrating personal and professional identity, especially to posit personal identity in a professional context or professional identity. with respect to the previous studies, noonan (2018) stated that every individual has a unique way of interpreting their identity related to their past understandings and future prospective. thus, the development of teacher identity must be done as supposed to be-naturally evaluate the learning effectiveness. in addition, as teachers’ personal identity evolves during their teaching professionalism, an interactive and nimble approach are important to consider for the continuous growth of teacher identity. for example, teachers develop their own teaching approach, working collaboratively with colleagues, and relating the teaching to the use of modern technology or digital learning. the most recent research from richards (2021) exposed that the process of becoming a teacher must include the development of teacher identity which is formed by teachers’ professional development, such as social behaviour, earlier knowledge, chatting with others, reading, and institutional formation. moreover, by those inputs of understanding, teachers are developing their own knowledge of their special teaching-the understanding of a good teacher or ideal teaching. furthermore, this sense of understanding is a loop process of identity development between teacher professional identity development (social interaction, institutional instruction, skills development, etc.) and teacher personal identity (relationship, awareness, attitudes, and motivation). in short, a teacher’s developmental http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５２ １５２ process is a transformative re-imagining process of self (danielewicz, 2001). this study, therefore, aimed to find out the possibility of the barriers and overlapping aspects between teachers’ personal and professional identity in the indonesian context. the researchers formulated the research questions into two: 1. how do pre-service and in-service teachers perceive their personal and professional identity? 2. what are the barriers and overlapping aspects between teachers' personal and professional identities? literature review conceptualizing teacher identity identity is perceived to represent the beliefs, values, and goals of an individual (erikson, 1977). therefore, identity is a personal facet that may differentiate one individual from others. identity correspondingly affects human behaviour in their daily life activities. according to cote and levine (2002), identity incorporates the perceptions of people around, to see the individual itself. so, identity is closely acting as it is received from its surrounding. goffman (1959), swann and bosson (2008), and ting-toomey (2015) also stated that individuals tend to act as they want people to perceive or recognize them. consequently, identity leads to the action of impressing others. in other words, the role of others-environment, cultures, and nature of areas, may shape the process of an individual’s identity itself. therefore, identity is the process of the construction of self that includes individuals’ daily life and dynamic processes to create, construct, and manage their developmental progression (beauchamp & thomas, 2009; rodgers & scott, 2008) the concept of identity is a complex instrument of character which comes from the personal dimension and interpersonal dimension. thus, identity is not only about social construction but also the concept of ‘self’. in addition, identity is perceived as a dynamic process of constructional character from many elements or aspects (brekhus et al., 2010; hidayat, 2016). (day et al., 2006) also shared the same idea that identity is a collective changing representation of individual biography and social and cultural influences towards a particular circumstance. additionally, the unavoidable connectedness of personal and interpersonal leads to the further explanation of those aspects which will be combined in teachers’ identity. teacher identity: personal and professional in defining the concept of teacher identity, it has been clearly stated before that individual identity consists of personal and interpersonal dimensions. in simple terms, teacher identity is widely understood as a complex relationship between individual experience and social connection-cultural, social, institutional, and environmental situations. furthermore, in this explanation, the concept of identity is further explained in terms of educational context. according to sachs (2005), teacher identity is a negotiation process of a teacher’s experiences and the ability to make sense of the experiences. akkerman and meijer (2011) further defined teacher identity as self-positioning in various participation in a working place. therefore, it includes the process of defining “i” or the individual itself. in addition, as identity is a dynamic process, teacher identity also shares the same concept, that it is dynamic and involves many elements (schultz & ravitch, 2013). thus, teacher identity may be considered as one’s personal identity but in a specific role of being a particular occupation-the nature of teaching. to be more specific, teacher identity may be constructed through interaction in an intercultural context, for example, the culture of educational instruction and everyday experience from other teachers and students (burke & stets, 2009; lave & wenger, 1991). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５３ １５３ teacher personal identity: personal dimension personal identity refers to the ability of individuals to maintain their stability and uniqueness of themselves. moreover, personal identity is an individual characteristic to be performed or executed in social interaction (gee, 2001). according to schwartz et al. (2008), personal identity is a personal dimension that embodies goals, values, and beliefs (see also, erikson, 1977). thus, the teacher's personal identity is coherent with the ‘self’. also, it can be stated that the teacher's personal identity is a question of ‘who am i?’ (jensen, 2003). further discussion, someone, who is well-understood of his/her personal identity or teacher identity construction, can perceive the possibility of future actions related to cultural belief or interpersonal dimension. for instance, whether the teacher's personal identity is in the same direction or not as other dimensions, such as educational school beliefs, cultures and norms, and practices. teacher professional identity: interpersonal dimension social interaction is closely connected to the individual concept of identity. therefore, the position of language and social experiences is vital to intellectualizing the individual identity itself. consequently, individuals only can develop their identity in a zone of social setting communication. thus, social condition helps individuals to understand the role of others as well as to investigate and explore human actions-practices, behaviours, beliefs, faiths, etc (mccormick & pressley, 1997). no doubt that personal identity plays a significant role in teacher professionalism. moreover, in an educational context, especially in teaching, teacher identity is not only about personal aspects but also the capability to understand the technical and emotional aspects of teaching, such as classroom management, subject knowledge, and students’ particular characters (sumsion, 2002). the possible distinction between teachers’ personal identity and professional identity in teaching is that personal identity requires teachers to use their personal experiences in performing an action of teaching-professional roles. also, there is a possibility of teaching requires teachers’ particular demands in practice. old studies, such as knowles (1992) and nias (1989) argued that professional identity refers to the self-imaging of being a teacher. it implies that teachers are constructing their identity based on what they perceive as the role of teachers. supported by volkmann & anderson (1998), professional identity emphasises teachers’ role. beijaard et al. (2004) then proposed the characteristics of professional identity into four: 1. professional identity is a dynamic and ongoing process of analysing and understanding experiences. 2. the process-dynamic and ongoing requires personal and interpersonal dimensions. thus, professional identity is related to the amalgamation of a community of practice. 3. it requires the willingness to develop more; professional development and personal goals. 4. there is an interconnectedness between professional identity and sub-identities, such as race, class, gender, and background experience. in which, the development might not always be stable or smooth. furthermore, this concept of images (teachers’ roles) affects the way of teaching performanceteacher professional development, teacher attitude, and perceptions towards educational changes. in addition, the role of reflection and past experiences are also considered important in teacher professional identity development (cooper & olson, 1996). methodology research design this research aimed to reveal the possible barrier and overlapping aspects between the personal and professional identity of teachers in the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５４ １５４ indonesian context. thus, the researchers employed the phenomenological approach to investigate teachers’ perceptions of teacher identity; precisely, teachers’ personal and professional identity. a phenomenological approach is an approach to subjectively revealing the hidden meaning of the participants’ experiences (creswell, 2012). it needs to be emphasised in this research that the phenomena or area of discussion is a subjective perspective of the participants’ experience of their identity development. therefore, the conformity of employing the phenomenological approach is that the participants have the freedom to share their experiences, feeling, and opinions/perceptions related to the teacher's identity. the researchers provide the research method as follows: figure 2.1 research method setting and participant in this research, the researchers employed purposeful sampling to choose the participants. according to creswell (2012), purposeful sampling is when the researchers choose or select participants according to the researcher’s consideration or meeting the criteria that have been set. therefore, the participants were assumed to have rich information related to the topic of the research (patton, 1990). additionally, the researchers considered some criteria in choosing the participants. first, the participants are categorised as pre-service or in-service teachers of formal education. second, the in-service teachers are considered novice teachers or with teaching experience of fewer than five years. third, the preservice teachers are in a process of formation to becoming teacher-undergraduate and graduate students are considered pre-service teachers. fourth, the pre-service teachers must have at least one year of knowledge and practical implication of education with a consideration of having been introduced to a teaching matter. furthermore, the researchers approached preservice and in-service teachers to be the participants. the participants of this research were five teachers. the participants are considered to meet all the criteria. participant demographics measure item frequency gender male 3 female 2 age 15-20 1 20-25 3 25-30 1 origin west nusa tenggara 1 middle java 2 west borneo 1 d.i. yogyakarta 1 educational background high school 3 bachelor degree 2 teacher status pre-service 3 in-service 1 setting the criteria of the participants approaching the participant conducting interview (revealing teacher’s phenomena and their perceptions) analyse the data http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５５ １５５ pre-service and in-service (at the same time) 1 experience in teaching no experience 1 <1 year 1 1-2 years 1 4-5 years 2 instrument the instrument of the semi-structured interview was adapted from wilt (2013) and xiong & xiong (2017). however, the background study was not exactly the same. wilt's (2013) research focused on teachers' identity of students with autism spectrum disorder and xiong & xiong (2017) was focusing on primary school teachers’ perceptions of teacher identity. as the background of their study was slightly different from the current research, the researchers modified some questions. for example, “what made you become a teacher, specifically a special education teacher?” became “what made you become a teacher?”. after some discussion and linking to the current research background, the researchers finally ended up with a final instrument. there were ten questions in the interview. the foci of the instrument were teachers’ backgrounds, perceptions, reflective experiences, and projections of future teachers. data collection to collect the data, the researchers employed semi-structured interviews. additionally, employing semi-structured interviews was considered to get the participant to be able to reflect and reconstruct their experiences towards personal and professional identity. also, a semistructured interview was used because it was able to explore participants’ opinions, perceptions, and clarifications of relevant issues (barriball & while, 1994). to be more precise, the researchers employed semi-structured interviews regarding the complexity and sensitivity of the possible data collected; in addition, the researchers need to clarify the data related to the topic discussion. on the other hand, the semi-structured interview also allowed the researchers to lead the interview session to keep on track. data analysis thematic analysis was employed in this research. the researchers used thematic analysis to interpret the data thematically. the thematic analysis was considered to be matched to the aim of the research which was to bridge the gap. therefore, the themes can possibly answer the gaps in the teachers’ personal and professional identity. the thematic analysis was used to identify the themes of the data collected and also to use the themes to interpret the data or issue of the discussion. also, a good thematic analysis is provided with interpretations and the sense of it (braun & clarke, 2006). result and discussion this research focuses on teacher identity; to be more specific, this research revealed indonesian teachers’ perspectives on personal identity and professional identity. the findings and discussions were segmented into two big topicsas it is carried out by the research questions. the topics are (1) indonesian teachers’ perspectives on their personal and professional identity and (2) the barriers and overlapping aspects of indonesian teachers’ perspectives on personal and professional identity. indonesian pre-service and in-service teachers perceive their personal and professional identity the analysis found that there was multiple awareness of teacher identity that were perceived http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５６ １５６ by indonesian teachers. the themes are represented in table 1. table 1. indonesian teachers’ perceptions of teacher identity categories themes notions personal identity individuals’ goals, values, and beliefs be myself-goal and belief, personal’s background the actions or behaviour we as we are, social interaction, behaviour, act, behave. interaction in the socialcultural area social interaction and personal identity have no template-very flexible. professional identity professional competence job position/function, skill, capability, knowledge, pedagogical teaching, professional teacher’s ideology institution’s core value and belief, the teacher has a template, adaptation, work, training process, transferring cultural content and role model give and transfer knowledge, role model, closely related to personal identity (behaviour). in the teacher's personal identity, the thematic analysis revealed that the complexity of personal identity was conically perceived as an individual’s goals, values, and beliefs (theme 1), the actions or behaviour (theme 2), and closely related to interaction in the sociocultural area the formulation of ‘self’ formed by objects of social environments (theme 3). while in professional identity, the thematic analysis discovered three themes; namely, professional competence (theme 4), teaching ideology (theme 5) and transferring cultural content and role model (theme 6). the further explanation is divided based on two big categories-personal identity and professional identity. indonesian teachers’ perception of personal identity the thematic analysis revealed that indonesian teachers perceive personal identity as an individual striving for his/her goals that have been set before. in other words, personal identity is a personal development which is in a line with goals, values, and beliefs. so, in identity development, an individual’s perception of his/her personal identity is as achieving his/her goals, values, and belief (theme 1). “to me, personal identity is when i put aside my identity as a teacher as i become myself, my goals, my own belief” (data 5). in doing so, indonesian teachers perceive that personal identity then is a matter of becoming a person which is driven by their intrinsic features towards their actions. they see that achieving goals, values, and beliefs can put them into a specific behaviour or attitude of an individual which differentiates one from another person (theme 2). http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５７ “i personally perceive that personal identity as the way how i act, behave, and interact with others (in a social context)” (data 1) with respect to the statement above, no doubt that social environment puts individuals to their particular or personal characteristics. indonesian teachers perceive that teacher’s personal identity is an individual matter. however, even though it is a personal or intrinsic matter, personal identity is essentially corresponding to interpersonal dimensions, such as social setting, a community of practice, tradition, and culture. in fact, they believe that the interpersonal dimension (social interaction) takes a tremendous contribution to forming their personal identity (theme 3). “we as we are in our social interaction, in terms of behaviour” (data 2). the thematic analysis further revealed that indonesian teachers perceived social interaction from two points of view; namely, the background of knowledge and the domain of action. first, it is seen as the ‘background of knowledge’ which refers to the past knowledge of an individual in forming their personal identity. it is closely related to perceiving past experiences in social interaction as sources of the evaluation process which is commonly known as reflection. second, ‘social interaction’ is a domain of action. in this case, social interaction is perceived as an area for individuals to perform their actions, behaviour, or attitude in connection with others. in addition, the thematic analysis also brought up interesting findings on personal identity in term of social interaction which is stated as follow: “personal identity is a free template for an individual to use, however, this needs to be emphasized that personal identity is closely related to his/her background, such as where she/he was raised, how she/he was raised, etc.” (data 3). the pre-service teachers perceived that personal identity is an open character built by an individual. therefore, the role of social interaction as a background of knowledge takes a vital impact on their personal identity development. in a line with the perceptions of teacher personal identity above, bandura (2006) asserted that by understanding his/her own goals, values, and beliefs, a teacher is capable to view him/herself; as a consequence, the teacher can evaluate as well to perform well in a social context or a teaching process by considering the commitments-evaluation of goals, values, and beliefs. in the same vein, the research from richards (2021) revealed that teachers perceived that they are responsible for their own goals, values, and beliefs. moreover, he found that it takes teachers to a decision making of their present and future actions or behaviour. concerning social interaction (theme 3), richards (2021) shares the same thought in the finding that social interaction forms the teacher’s identity, especially in intent, power, and self-image. in that sense, the connection between social interaction and the teacher’s personal identity is related to the dimension of reflection and action in a social context. indonesian teachers’ perceptions of professional identity indonesian teachers have various perceptions of teacher professional identity. the perceptions are narrowed into three themes namely (1) professional competence, (2) teaching ideology, and (3) transferring cultural content and role model. indonesian teachers perceive that teacher’s professional identity is a matter of an individual’s professional work in terms of being skilful or wellqualified in a profession. furthermore, it is stated that teacher professional identity is how a teacher sees teaching as a job function which refers to the competence of teachers in their teaching ability, such as pedagogical teaching and subject knowledge. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５８ “teacher identity is related to a job position. therefore, a professional teacher is expected to have good skills, capabilities, and knowledge. furthermore, to state that you yourself as a professional teacher is how you can be ‘capable to teach others, especially in terms of your pedagogical teaching” (data 1). consequently, the teacher's professional identity is perceived as the teacher’s professional teaching technique. indeed, that teachers’ competency in teaching-pedagogical and subject knowledge is affected by their training process. in this case, institution or professional training has greatly impacted their teacher's professional identity development. moreover, every institution has its own belief or ideology in training the student teacher in terms of their professionalism in teaching. “professional identity is really related to when i work and being trained in an institution which is also related to particular institution’s core value and belief” (data 5). with respect to the previous discussion, an interesting finding from the analysis expressed that the teacher’s professional identity is perceived as a specific template that the teacher needs to adjust. “teacher on the other hand has a well-known or remarkably mark perceived by people around of how teachers act, behave, and the role or position of teacher itself in a surround. i would say it is a ‘template’, so professional teacher identity is when a teacher can posit him/herself into that template without damaging the template itself” (data 3). it is stated that even though student teachers are taught with specific ideology or belief in different contexts from their institutions (see data 5), ‘teacher’ itself has a remarkable mark which has been perceived by the surrounding people. in other words, a teacher’s professional identity (as perceived by a particular institution) needs to adjust to the real teaching environment (teacher as perceived by particular culture). additionally, as the task of the teacher is commonly known as transferring cultural content (knowledge) or teaching theory (sanjaya, 2007), indonesian teachers also perceive that teacher professional identity is closely related to the ability in conveying subject or content knowledge to students. this finding is in a line with the research from tao and gao (2018) which revealed that teacher professional development is directed to the teacher’s ability on the content or subject knowledge. “teacher’s professional identity is related to the one who gives or transfers knowledge and at the same time also be a role model. therefore, professional identity is closely related to our personal identity-we have to behave well for our students” (data 2). furthermore, a teacher's professional identity is also perceived as a professional role model. in this sense, teachers are also expected to show a good model for their students in terms of behaviour, attitude, etc. therefore, a teacher as a role model is interrelated to a good personal identity-behaviour and attitude. in agreement with indonesian teachers’ perceptions of a professional teacher’s identity, noonan (2018) stated the same idea that a teacher who is identified as a pedagogical expert is an exemplary teacher. in this case, a teacher's professional identity is strongly connected to a good teacher’s pedagogical knowledge or a pedagogical expert. afterwards, considering the role of an institutional training program in a teacher’s professional identity, day and lee (2011) held the same concept that institutional cultures including norms, beliefs, and attitudes are intentionally or unintentionally attached to an individual’s identity. slightly different to the finding of day & lee (2011), this research asserted that institutional belief or ideology needs to come along to the terms of ‘teachers being perceived by particular demographic area or culture’; therefore, it needs to be emphasized that the role of teachers might be different from one place to another http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １５９ related to a particular psychological area or characteristics. subsequently, concerning the teacher’s professional role model, the finding shares the same idea as beauchamp & thomas (2009) who stated that a teacher’s professional identity shapes the teacher’s personal identity. in this case, the teacher's professional identity impacts to the role of the teacher as a well-being person as well as a good role model for studentshow the teacher behaves and acts in professional and personal dimensions. with respect to the previous statements, day (2011) stated that professional life and job commitment are affecting individual’s professional work. therefore, teacher’s commitment needs to be well maintained especially in a professional work or professional dimension/norm (see. bandura, 2006; for more discussion). the barriers and overlapping aspects between teachers' personal and professional identities. the analysis found that indonesian teachers’ perspectives on personal identity and professional identity overlapped from one particular aspect to another. however, it was also found that some aspects were limiting other aspects. the findings and discussion are further explained as follows: the overlapping aspects between teacher’s personal and professional identity indonesian teachers mostly perceive that teachers’ personal and professional identities are strongly related. the thematic analysis discovered the two themes of the interconnections between teachers’ personal and professional identities. the themes are (1) the teacher’s personal identity such as behaviour, action, and attitude in social interaction forms professional identity and (2) the teacher’s professional identity cannot be separated from personal identity in social interaction. there is a slight difference between theme 1 and theme 2, especially in terms of personal and professional development. a. identity formation: personal identity such as behaviour, action, and attitude in social interaction forms professional identity figure 2.1 personal identity formulates professional identity personal identity is considered an important value in forming a professional identity. figure 2.1 represents indonesian teachers' perception that an individual’s experience or value of social interaction is a predominant factor for teachers to connect to professional work. moreover, it is perceived that teachers’ social background projects them to their future professional identity. it is stated as follows: “if the person has a good characteristic (being raised well by parent and environment), his/her ideology would fit a template of a teacher” (data 3) similarly, another statement is: “if you are a teacher (as function-teacher identity) also you are as professional identity (capability to do something better than others) in doing so, related how to interact within a social surrounding” (data 1) in a simple pattern, the thematic analysis exposes that teachers’ personal identity is in a line with their professional identity. regarding the statement before, it is stated that a teacher’s professional identity has a positive correlation with a good personal identity. the finding of the thematic analysis shares the same idea of mawhinney and xu (1997), moate and ruohotielyhty (2014) and kayi-aydar (2017) who revealed personal identity personal identity personal identity professional identity http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １６０ teacher’s professional identity is highly related to the relationship to the school system. they further explained that a teacher’s professional identity refers to the ability of a teacher to adjust him/herself to a professional environment such as mentors, experienced teachers, and staff. they also mentioned that professional identity is greatly affected from teacher professional linguacultural such as professional sharing and actions. also, a teacher who is being a part of a professional community of practice would help the teacher independently improved (feryok, 2012; noonan, 2018). b. identity in social interaction: professional identity cannot be separated from personal identity figure 2.1 personal identity formulates professional identity indonesian teachers perceived that teachers’ professional identity cannot be removed from personal identity. figure 2.2 explains the position of personal identity as a personal domain in a social domain. as a consequence, in a teacher’s personal domain, professional identity also contributes to the actions, behaviours, and attitudes of the teacher in a social setting. it is stated as follows: “outside of the school, we are still teaching. meaning to say, in terms of teaching, even though we are in personal identity (interacting with social), our professional identity also sticks with our personal actions” (data 2) it is perceived that teacher’s professional identity is not limited by the teaching demographic territory such as classroom, school, or institutions. moreover, a teacher's professional identity is connected to the teacher’s actions in any condition. in the same sense, another participant also stated that: “being a teacher is attached with me even when i meet with students outside the school” (data 4) this finding shares the same ideas as the studies from sachs (2005) and tao and gao (2018) which revealed teacher’s professional identity strongly contribute to a teacher’s decisionmakingthe behaviour, action, and attitude, therefore it is greatly connected to the teacher’s position in society. in addition, volkmann and anderson (1998) also stated the same notion that a teacher’s professional identity is intertwined with the social role and self-image. the barriers between teacher’s personal and professional identity the thematic analysis revealed the two novel themes of the barriers between teachers’ personal and professional identity. the themes are (1) a classroom setting: personal and professional identity performance and (2) a social context: personal and professional identity performance. a. a classroom setting: personal and professional identity performance the analysis discovered that teachers should be able to perform their personal and professional identity in an appropriate situation. it is stated by one of the indonesian teachers as follows: “we need to put a border in teaching. i would say 30-40 % of my personal in teaching. otherwise, personal identity professional identity professional identity professional identity http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １６１ there will be no barrier between teachers and students. and the 60% is for managing the classroom (professional identity)” (data 4) it is perceived that teachers need to balance their identity used (performed) in a classroom, for the classroom to be running well, cognitively and affectively. personal identity therefore closely connected to the students’ affective domains such as feelings, emotions, and attitudes. whereas, professional identity is related to students’ cognitive domain such as knowledge and intellectual matters. in the case that teachers are unable to well-balance the personal and professional identity, the classroom setting would not be appropriate for students-too much personal identity performed will cause no boundaries and no focus, while too much professional identity performed will cause the opposite effects. b. a social context: personal and professional identity performance another interesting finding is that indonesian teachers’ professional identity in some cases may not be in a line with their personal identity (see. the overlapping aspects as a comparison). it is stated by the teacher that: “sometimes i don’t want my students to see my personal identity. in my opinion, teachers should be perfect as a role model, however, i am not that perfect” (data 5) similarly, another teacher also stated that: “in becoming a professional teacher, sometimes we are limited by our pure/basic personal characteristics which might not be appropriate to a professional culture” (data 3) in a particular circumstance, indonesian teachers perceive that in professional work they are limited by their personal identity; personal identity is understood as a teacher’s actions, behaviours, and attitudes which are extracted from their unique or particular psychological characteristics. in this way, teachers are perceived as good role models for their students, in doing so teachers are expected to show their professionalism to students or in social interaction. therefore, teachers must be aware to perform their identities, especially their personal identities (see. the overlapping aspects as a comparison). conclusion this research has discussed that teachers' personal and professional identities are bridged with the perceptions of personal identity that is related to individuals’ goals, values, and beliefs, the actions or behaviour, and interaction in the socio-cultural area; whereas, the professional identity is related to the professional competence, teaching ideology, and transferring cultural content and role model. in addition, teachers’ personal and professional identity are overlapped in terms of identity formation and identity in social interaction. besides, they are confined by a classroom setting and social context. suggestions are addressed to teachers and future researchers. for teachers, this study may be useful in understanding teacher identity especially personal and 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(2010). english teacher professionalism and professional development: some common issues in indonesia. asian efl journal, 12(3), 145–163. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 81 animation film in writing teaching instruction on narrative text: working or not working? salasiah ammade universitas muhammadiyah parepare salasiah@umpar.ac.id ika yanti ziska universitas muhammadiyah parepare ikayantiziska@gmail.com abstract the teaching writing is still in need of interesting teaching media to support its pedagogy as teaching writing is associated with difficult subject to be taught. prior researches have been conducted on teaching writing area and the result suggested conducting more study on teaching writing effectively. this study attempts to fulfill the gap and takes teaching media as the focus of the research. this article investigated the employment of animated films as a teaching medium in the teaching of narrative writing tests, as well as if they are still effective in supporting the learning process. the sample of the research was taken from the students of a junior high school in parepare, indonesia which was chosen purposively. online google forms was employed as research tools for the study, and the questionnaire and test writing were used to collect data. quantitative analysis was used in analyzing the data gathered. regarding the research result, the data revealed that there is difference result between before and after the research. students respond positively to an animation video utilized in the study as an alternate media in teaching narrative text of writing. they enjoyed the learning process of writing narrative text via animation film as the media as well as improved their positive energy in writing. it can be suggested for the next researcher to study more in another issue of animation film for teaching. keywords: animation film, teaching writing, narrative text, teaching media introduction a numbers of teaching media have been explored in assisted teaching learning process including media assistance in teaching writing of english. it is general knowledge in language teaching that writing, along with listening, speaking, and reading, is recommended to be taught as much as possible. tarigan (2008), conveyed the importance of writing as a language skill used to communicate with others directly or indirectly. additionally, writing is part of a productive and expressive activity as well as it is a way to take out ideas in the mind to be put in written form (hyland, 2002). the act or process of writing consists of finding and structuring ideas, putting them on paper, and then revising and editing them. in written form, students are free to share whatever they wish. writing, according to hyland (2002), can help kids get their thoughts out of their heads and into different formats so that others can read and consider them. this means that everyone can write down their thoughts and connect with others. consider the importance of learning to write in english, it can expand and improve the growth of student vocabulary; improve the fluency of writing and composing student sentences. writing activities can improve students' ability to organize, encourage prospective writers or students who are used to develop personal writing styles and are accustomed to finding organizations that fit their own ideas. terry and hughes (2010) argued that writing is important because it allows us to convey ideas from our heads. it is not easy to transform a mental thought into written language, and we must be https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 82 astute in selecting and combining vocabulary to make something significant. additionally, students must also be mindful of grammar, and this is why they think writing is a difficult topic because they must take into consideration so many different elements (grammar, vocabulary, concept and idea). apart from that, another point that makes writing the most difficult subject is the variety of texts in english, such as narrative, descriptive, recount, mock, and so on. each text has its own unique characteristics, such as general structure, social function, and grammatical characteristics. these factors make it difficult for children to discern between texts, and they may mix different types of texts. it will be a problem for the teacher to figure out how the kids can differentiate between different types of texts. teachers struggle to get pupils to develop ideas and turn them into sentences in english writing classes. therefore, the important thing to be prepared by the teacher before teaching is how to teach writing english in fun way, not boring and can make students excited and interested in learning to write narrative text. in this study, researchers suggest teachers to teach and improve students' writing abilities using one of the media such as film animation because by using film animation will display more interesting images along with sounds that make students better understand the topic of the text. considering the writers’ observation in one of junior schools in parepare, south sulawesi province, indonesia. it can be seen the average student is less able to write well due to several factors such as learning media, learning models and the way teachers teach at school. this is evidenced by seeing the low ability to write when students were given the task to write with the topic “an unforgettable moment in his life”. other problem appears deal with the lack presentation of teaching media in class. regarding the problem above, the research is going focus on offering solutions to help overcome these problems by providing more interesting learning media for students, especially in writing stories in the form of narrative texts, namely by using film animation media. teaching students to write with film animation is predictable to be effective and can make students more interested in writing. previous studies on film in teaching writing have been done by some researchers like wahyuni, 2017; agnes, 2017; siswanjaya, 2017; dyah, 2013; tatum, 2011; abdia, 2016. the researchers discovered that students who were given an animation film to help them learn to write narrative text were better able to produce narrative text and dealt with the structure of the text properly. the implementation of animation films in these studies showed positive responses from students as they can write narrative texts easier. according to the teacher, employing animation films makes it harder for students to grasp the purpose of actual english spoken by native speakers. as a result, the researchers came to the conclusion that using animation films to teach students how to write narrative texts is a good idea. by watching animation films as a medium in teaching narrative writing, students’ motivation and enthusiasm get high in teaching write narrative texts. the preceding studies have a lot in common with this one since it uses animation films as a learning medium to help students improve their narrative writing skills. nevertheless, there are some differences in my research with the research among them. the first difference is on research subject. subjects on above research were in senior high school while my research subject will be at junior high school. besides the subject and location, the second difference is the material or film to be shown, although both use animation films but the film will be shown to students or different subjects. methodology the study used a one-group pre-test post-test design with a pre-experimental approach. the participants in this study were the ninth-year students at smp negeri 6 parepare in the academic year 2020/2021, who were divided into three classes, each with 21 individuals. there are 63 students in the overall population. due to the large population, the sampling approach employed in this study was cluster random sampling. the sample consisted of 21 students from class ix.3. the writing exam and an https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 83 online questioner via google form were employed as research instruments in this study. this was used in both the pre-test and post-test. the pre-test was used to assess students' writing abilities prior to therapy, and the post-test was used to assess students' progress in producing narrative prose. the researcher treats the students in the treatment by using animated videos to teach narrative text.. due to pandemic covid 19 situation, online learning was the way to teach by using social media (whatsaap groups). the researcher conducted research during four meetings. result and discussion there are several findings that will be described in this discussion. first, animation films as a medium in the learning process can assist students’ in making narrative text. second finding was the animation films can be an alternative media used by teachers during the learning process so the learning process may be more varied. to determine the positive change in students’ writing skills of narrative text using animation film, the researcher applied all procedures as stated in the method. 1. the students’ writing ability the students’ writing ability in the study was reported within two phases, before the research and post research. the writing ability was tested out using writing test and the result of it will be described further. on the pretest result of ninth grade students of uptd smpn 6 parepare was clearly tabulated at below table. table 1: the frequency and percentage of the students’ score in pre-test table 1: the frequency and percentage of pretest no classification score interval pre-test f % 1 very good 88 – 100 2 good 73 – 87 2 9.52 3 fair 58 – 72 16 76.19 4 poor 43 – 57 3 14.28 5 very poor < 42 total 21 100 the table indicates students’ writing was varied. in good classification, two students (9,52%) got interval score 73 – 87 of twentyone students, there were sixteen (76, 19%) of them in fair classification, and then three students (14, 28%) were in poor classification. it can be concluded here that students’ writing ability before giving learning with animation film assistance was still quite low. the result of post-test of ninth grade students of uptd smpn 6 parepare after being given treatment can be presented at the following table. table 2: the frequency and percentage of the students’ score in post-test table 2: the frequency and percentage of posttest no classification score interval post-test f % 1 very good 88 – 100 3 14.28 2 good 73 – 87 15 71.42 3 fair 58 – 72 3 14.28 4 poor 43 – 57 5 very poor < 42 total 21 100 the classification of the score of post-test above indicates that after teaching writing through animation films, most of the students got a good score. there were three students (14,28%) in very good classifications, fifteen students (71,42%) students were categorized as good and then three students (14,28%) were in fair level. the result of the data shown above implies the implementation of animation films can assist students in writing narrative text. in showing the mean score and standard deviation of pre-test and post-test, the table below will be covered the data. table 3: the mean score, standard deviation and giant score of the students table 3: the mean score, standard deviation and giant score of the students https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 84 no type of test mean score standard deviation giant score 1 pre–test 64.85 6.59 14.19 2 post–test 79.04 6.48 as presented in the table, the mean score obtained by the students in pre-test was 64,85 and the standard deviation was 6,59, whereas the mean score of the students in post-test was 79,04 and standard deviations was 6,48. it revealed in the table that pre-test and post-test obtained by the students was different. it can be assumed it here that animation film assisted students a lot in writing narrative text. referring the t-test value, the table below showed that t-test value (14.62) is greater that the ttable value (1,725). based on the analysis, it can be concluded that there were significant differences between the mean score of the students’ pre-test and post-test, which means that teaching writing ability by using animation films can improve the students writing ability. 2. the significant value of animation film in learning process in researching the significant value of the assistance of animation film in teaching writing of narrative text, the researcher distributed questionnaire consisting of several questions to find out how significant the use of animation films in supporting students’ writing skills of narrative text. the percentage of students’ questionnaire score intervals to find out how significant the use of animation films was to help improve students’ writing skills can be seen in table 5. table 4: the result of t-test and t-table value no variable t-test value t-table value 1 x₁ x₂ 14.62 1.725 the table above displays that most of the ninth grade students at uptd smp negeri 6 parepare agreed that film animation can be an alternative media in assisting students' in writing narrative text. it is clearly seen at the table, out of 21 students, 6 (28.57%) of them answered really agree, and 15 (71.42%) students answered agree. the final result of the analysis shows that the average value obtained was 77.61 which were categorized as the highest value. the analysis showed that alternative hypothesis (h1) was accepted, meanwhile, the null hypothesis (h0) was rejected. it means that animation film work well in supporting students’ writing of narrative text. discussion in this section, the researcher explains in detail about the finding of the research. as mentioned earlier, the research was started after the researcher found some facts when making mini research as prior data investigation in one of junior high school in parepare. the short research was focused on the teaching of english particularly on the aspect of english writing. it is revealed in the mini research that students as well as teacher still struggling in teaching learning of english writing skill. they still face some challenges in learning english such as lack of vocabularies in expression ideas in written form, lack of ideas in differentiating types of writing text, low varieties of teaching media, model and strategies. these common problems in writing teaching is also sounded by prior researchers like ashraf and bilal 2016; toba, et. al, 2019; mohammad and hazarika, 2016; inayah and nanda, 2016. no classification score frequency percentage (%) 1 really agree 80 – 100 6 28.57 2 agree 65 – 80 15 71.42 3 enough 55 – 65 4 less agree 40 – 55 5 not agree 0 – 40 total 21 100% mean score 77.61 (highest) https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 85 there are several facts why researchers conducted this study with the aim of improving students' writing skills. the first is based on a written test the researcher performs during observation. researchers found that most students agreed reported that writing as a skill that is quite difficult in english. the second is the researcher found the fact that students were bored with the learning media used by the teacher in teaching. this data was collected through students’ statements in the form of questionnaires distributed to students and it was found that around 60% of students expressed dissatisfaction with the learning media used in the classroom. the learning media applied by the teacher in the learning process is still conventional, such as the teacher only uses books as a medium in the learning process. therefore, interactive learning media should accompany teacher in situating interesting learning zone, and it should be made by based on the students’ need as supported by the research of ramadhani, gafari and marice (2019). the english teachers should try to use interesting learning media to motivate students to be more active in the learning process as well as create fun activities, especially in the teaching of writing narrative text. furthermore, by considering the data taken from the prior research, this study offered one opt in assisting students in learning english writing particularly in writing narrative text namely animated film. the findings showed that there is a better value the students gain in learning english writing after treated using animation film. in collecting the data, pre-test and post-test was the instrument applied before giving the treatment. pre-test on the respondent's class was used to determine the students' writing skills. the pre-test was given to all students using 80 minutes (2 hours of lessons) for the respondent class. after conducting the pre-test, the researcher treated the respondent class four time, and gave post-test afterward. furthermore, the students also filled in the questionnaire via google form to know the works of animation films in assisting students improving their writing skills on narrative text. before giving treatment, the students' writing ability was categorized on quite low level, as evidenced by the percentage of the total pre-test score and the mean score of the students from the pre-test obtained by the students was 64.85 and a standard deviation is 6.59. then after being given treatment four times to the students in the respondent class, the students' speaking ability was categorized as good, as evidenced by the percentage of the total post-test score and the average post-test score obtained by the students. the students were 79.04 and the standard deviation was 6.48. this means that the mean value and standard deviation of pre-test and post-test obtained by students in the respondent class are different, where the t-test value (14.62) is greater than the t-table value (1.725) for a significant level of 0.05. degrees of freedom df (n-1) 20. it means that the learning achievement of students who are taught to use film animation is better than students who have never been taught to use film animation as a consideration in this study, there are several tables that show the results of the data in the respondent class. first, table 1 shows the percentage of students' writing scores on the pre-test of the respondent's class. this shows that the frequency of student achievement and the percentage during pre-test is still poor and most of them get poor classification scores. secondly, table 2 shows the percentage of students' writing scores on the posttest of the respondent class. this shows that the frequency of student achievement and the percentage is good because most students get good grades. thirdly, table 3 shows the standard deviation and standard deviation of student achievement in the pre-test and post-test. the table shows that the mean score of the students 'pre-test was 64.85 and the mean score of the students' final test was 79.04, while the standard deviation in the pre-test was 6.59 and in the post-test was 6.48 with the gain 14.19. this shows that the standard deviation variant has decreased before and after treatment. this happens because the researcher provides the maximum process for students in the learning process using animation films. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 86 fourthly, table 4 shows the results of the t-test. the t-test value (14.62) was higher than the t-table value (1.725). that is, the null hypothesis (ho) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted. this shows that there is a significant difference between students who are taught using film animation better than students who have never been taught using film animation. based on the results of the students 'written text above, the researcher argues that the use of animation films in the learning process can work well in assisting students’ writing skill on narrative text, especially class ix in uptd smp negeri 6 parepare. in addition to support students’ writing’s ability; there are other advantages in using animation films as a medium in the learning process according to brown (2014), such as cutting some defects intellectual in learning, helps overcome some physical obstacles to students, presents various events continuously, provides special visual experiences in order to gain deeper understanding, and allows students to make real actions or imagine an event or process. another advantage obtained is the power of creation as stated by harmer (2014) who says that one of the advantages of using animation films in the learning process is the power of creation, which means that students who make their own films as a medium in the learning process will have the potential to create something memorable and fun. assignments using animation films will make students creative and can make students more excited to learn. a different study by gagne (2012) who detailed animated videos can increase students' motivation to write, by understanding the concept and then improving their learning outcomes. in addition, the use of animated video as a medium of information relevant to the processing model is divided into eight stages, namely the stages of motivation, recognition, acquisition, retention, calling, transfer, and response, until strengthening. based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that animation films provide an advantage if they are used as a medium during the learning process. another advantage obtained is the power of creation as stated by harmer (2014) who says that one of the advantages of using animation films in the learning process is the power of creation, which means that students who make their own films as a medium in the learning process will have the potential to create something memorable and fun. assignments using animation films will make students creative and can make students more excited to learn. a different study by gagne (2012) who detailed animated videos can increase students' motivation to write, by understanding the concept and then improving their learning outcomes. in addition, the use of animated video as a medium of information relevant to the processing model is divided into eight stages, namely the stages of motivation, recognition, acquisition, retention, calling, transfer, and response, until strengthening. based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that animation films provide an advantage if they are used as a medium during the learning process. in addition, there were some researchers have already conducted research to improve students’ writing ability by using animation films, for example, a study by siswanjaya, 2017; dyah, 2013; zennet, 2016; tatum, 2011; abdia, 2016. here, the researcher has different sample and location of the study as well as different teaching text focus though the media used is similar; animation film. in collecting the data, writing test and questionnaire were used. it revealed in the data that before using animation films in the learning process, students felt uninterested in participating in the learning process because limited media applied by the teacher which affect students’ motivation in learning. after using animation films as an alternative media in teaching writing narrative text, there is positive support emerged in students and their way of writing is better than before. the students enjoyed learning using animation film as it makes them more enthusiastic in the learning process and it features moving videos and have sound effects. conclusion https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 87 based on the findings and discussion presented in the previous chapter, it was found that teaching writing through utilization of animation films can improve the writing of the ninth grade students of uptd smp negeri 6 parepare. it was supported by the data in pre-experimental class and in the posttest. from the data found, it showed that there was different students’ mean score between before and after giving treatment. the students’ score after giving treatment was higher than before giving treatment. besides that, in applying t-test of the students’ post-test for both of the classes, it was found that the t-test was greater than t-table value. apart from the data above, the use of animation films in the learning process was a new way for uptd smpn 6 parepare to make students more enthusiastic about the learning process. for the ninth grade students of english especially in teaching writing, the teacher only used handbooks and power point to teach, so that it made them bored. therefore, the researcher tried to use animation films to find out how effective the media was in improving students’ writing skills and it was proven that the use of animation films could help students improve their writing skills because students thought that by using animation films the learning process was more fun because animation films were not only displaying video still provides sound effect so that the learning process was more varied. the study forward some suggestions such the teacher should make a technique or strategies in teaching writing that can make students easy understand. then, the next researchers may do more research on animation films from other issues. references abdia, k. r. (2016). the implementation of aimated short movie in teaching writing narrative text to the tenth graders of man sidoarjo (doctoral dissertation, universitas muhammadiyah sidoarjo) asrifan, a. (2015). the use of pictures story in improving students’ ability to write narrative composition", international journal of language and linguistics. dyah. s. n. (2012). improving ability to write narrative text using animation movies of the eleventh grade students at man 2 yogyakarta in the academic year of 2012/2013. faghihi, u., brautigam, a., jorgenson, k., martin, d., brown, a., measures, e., & maldonadobouchard, s. (2014). how gamification applies for educational purpose specially with college algebra. procedia computer science, 41, 182-187. fareed, m., ashraf, a., & bilal, m. (2016). esl learners’ writing skills: problems, factors and suggestions. journal of education and social sciences, 4(2), 81-92. gagne, j. c. 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(2019). the current issues of indonesian efl students' writing skills: ability, problem, and reason in writing comparison and contrast essay. dinamika ilmu, 19(1), 57-73. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://doi.org/10.17977/um030v5i12017p033 https://doi.org/10.2307/327632 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 91 teachers’ professional development through an observation in immersion classes based on the documents and teaching and learning processes dwi anggani linggar bharati semarang state university dwi_anggani@yahoo.com abstract immersion program, the learning and teaching process conducted in english, has become a new trend in indonesia nowadays in which almost every school is trying to conduct it. however, not many of the schools can do that program for it requires professional teachers, not only being able to teach in english well but also able to prepare the documents, making lesson plan, syllabus and media, needed for the program. professional teachers are badly required for the immersion classes for they play an important role in succeeding the program. therefore, it is worth investigating to see whether the real condition of the teachers is as it is expected or not and finally, conclusions and suggestions can be put forward for the betterment of the program. based on the observation done by the writer, it was found out that mispronunciation, misspelled, grammar mistakes, wrong diction, and some other linguistic feature problems often happened in the classroom activities. besides, other problems were also found in the development of teaching documents, syllabus, lesson plan, and media. the development of those documents was not in line with the school based curriculum, ignoring the level of difficulty as stated in the bloom taxonomy revised by anderson. the objectives, the indicators, the evaluation formulations were still on surface and incomplete. in this paper the writer tries to show the complete result of her observation dealing with the real condition of the teachers‟ competence in their teaching and learning process in english as well as their competence in developing the documents and finally give some suggestions for increasing their competence, especially in preparing their teaching documents. key words: immersion class teacher, professionalism, teaching documents, teaching and learning process introduction in this part the writer will present the reasons for choosing the topic, statement of the problems, the objective of the observation, the significance of doing the observation, the method of doing the observation. reasons for choosing the topic so far, there have been many programs carried out by the government in order to improve the quality of the indonesian students‟ education. one of them is in improving the students‟ ability to communicate in the spoken and written english by conducting immersion classes which are popularly called rsbi (rintisan sekolah berstandar internasional) and sbi (sekolah berstandar internasional). all subjects in this class are delivered in english except indonesian and javanese subjects. all components and documents of teaching-learning activities should be prepared well including teachers, students and the ict skill. it was first launched by central java government in 2005 which the pilot project was smu 2 semarang. 92 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 it was in line with the act no. 20, 2003 chapter 50, verse 3, government regulation no, 19, 2005, chapter 61, verse 1, and strategic plan of national education department 2005-2009 chapter 5, page 58. those regulations suggest that the regional government and regional department of education and culture establish at least one or more sbi or rsbi schools in each region in indonesia, with the target of 112 international standard school units, from elementary to high schools spreading out in several districts and cities in indonesia. recently, there are many kinds of schools in indonesia; they are rsbi, sbi, national standard school, international school and some others. the formula of sbi program is national standard school plus international standard; it means that sbi should conduct international standard after internalizing national standard. international school is a foreign education institution which is legalized to conduct their educational system including the teaching and learning process in indonesia. rsbi and sbi belong to the indonesian government but international school belongs to foreign country which is conducted in indonesia. there are three main objectives which should be achieved by rsbi and sbi, those are (1) fulfilling eight standards stated in the government regulation 2005; (2) increasing the quality to become international standard by adapting and adopting international system; and (3) increasing the international competitive level with the hope that the students are able to continue their study in the international schools, get international certificates, be the winners in international championship competition, and get jobs in international institutions or companies. for the rsbi is still in the process to become sbi, not all requirements or rules can be applied directly to this kind of school. in this paper the writer wants to discuss whether this program carried out in semarang central java runs well or not. statement of the problems actually many problems emerge while conducting the immersion classes but in this paper the writer will limit the scope of the problems as follows: (1) are the teachers of rsbi and sbi classes able to develop the teaching-learning documents, such as syllabus, lesson plan, material, media and ict application? (2) are the teachers rsbi and sbi able to conduct, communicate and manage the classes in the fluent spoken and written english? objectives of the observation the objectives of this observation are to prove whether the rsbi and sbi teachers are able to : (1) develop the teaching-learning documents, such as syllabus, lesson plan, material, media and ict application (2) conduct, communicate and manage the classes in the fluent spoken and written english. significance of the observation this observation may give some benefits as follows: (1) the school, the head master, and the teachers themselves will know the teachers‟ competence in preparing the teaching and learning documents and teaching learning process and trying to find the solution (2) the government will learn to know the application of rsbi and sbi program in the real classrooms. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 93 method of observation this research belongs to descriptive one and the population of this research is the rsbi and sbi schools which the samples are the rsbi and sbi schools in semarang, central java, they are smu 1, smu 2, smu 3, smp 2; the collected data are the written documents of teachinglearning, such as syllabus, lesson plan, material, the media and ict application. the application of linguistic features in fluent spoken english in the classroom, will also be investigated through direct investigation or recorded classroom activities. the observation uses the instruments; those are the check list of ideal documents based on the guide line of ktsp from the bsnp. the data will be analyzed and finally the qualitative description solution or correction be recommended. review of literature in this part of the paper, the writer will present the explanation of curriculum, syllabus, lesson plan, material, media, ict application and the linguistic features used by teachers in the process of teaching and learning activities are discussed. professional teacher many educationist discuss the area of education and all things related to the success of the education itself. it is stated that the success of education is affected by many aspects, one of them is teacher. brown (2001) expresses the criteria of a good teacher in four aspects, they are: (1) technical knowledge, (2) pedagogical knowledge, (3) interpersonal skill, and (4) personal qualities. while parris and block (2007), state that there are eight domains of secondary literacy teaching expertise, such as: (1) approaches to teaching (pedagogy), (2) addressing diverse needs, (3) personal characteristics, (4) knowledge based, (5) approaches to teaching (activities), (6) professional development, (7) appropriate relationship with students and classroom management. in line with the above opinion, gurney (2007) states that to differ teachers is also from their awareness of the effect of what they have done and their readiness to share this awareness with their students. related to the previous statement, harmer (2007) states that there are seven requirement points to be good teachers, those are (1) having personality in some way different and more teacher-like from normal self, (2) being both adaptable and able to perform different roles at different lesson stages, (3) creating good teacher-student rapport as a result of listening to students, (4) respecting students and being totally even-handed in treatment of individuals and groups, (5) having good preparation, reliable record keeping, having good skills of managing classes, (6) making tasks to different groups and circumstances, providing variety in lessons and offering students clear learning outcomes, (7) having knowledge of language system, available materials, resources, classroom equipment, and the latest developments in the field, doing teaching as both as a science and an art. the supporting idea about professional teacher is from sudibyo, the minister of national education (2007). he states that good teachers are those who are able to enrich and enhance the students with four aspects: heart, intelligence, emotion and physique. curriculum of rsbi and sbi what is meant by curriculum? the term curriculum comes from “run a race/course” and refers to a sequence of steps or stages in teaching and learning specific content (martin and kelly, 1998:98). if we think of curriculum as a sequence of learning experiences, we 94 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 immediately run into the difficulty that no one, teacher or others can consistently control the experiences of students individually. all that can be done is to provide students with opportunities to learn specific content. thus, a good definition of curriculum is a sequence of learning opportunities provided to students in their study of specific content and also to achieve certain level of competence especially in competence based curriculum (cbc) which is nowadays applied in indonesia since 2004. cbc is a set of plan and regulation concerning the competency and the results of the study that should be achieved by the students, the assessment of teaching and learning activities and the empowerment of the educational resources in the development of school curriculum. competency is a combination of knowledge, skill, abilities to be achieved, and basic values those are reflected in the habit of thinking and doing. as a sequence of learning opportunities to achieve certain competencies, curriculum has several aspects. it exists as plans and intentions, the sequence of learning opportunities that one wishes the students to experience. it exists as patterns of classroom activities that are meant to implement those plans and provide the desired of learning opportunities. it exists in textbooks as pages intended to support or present those classroom learning opportunities. it leaves marks on how much time is devoted to specific contents and competencies by teachers or textbook writer. it impacts what students obtain as a result of opportunities to learn. curriculum has these many aspects and indications. rsbi and sbi which have immersion classes use english language teaching across curriculum, it means that all the documents such as syllabus, lesson plans should be written in english and all subjects should be taught in english. in those schools the english teachers act as english consultants. the intake of the students of these schools is higher than those from normal school; the vision and mission are also different so the quality of the teachers should be in accordance with the high intake of students and high rank of students‟ achievement. syllabus learners cannot learn everything about a subject at once nor can they learn effectively from a random collection of unrelated items. therefore, the teacher needs to develop a systematic plan for course content which will lead to the desired learning outcomes. in designing a course of study the teacher will be involved in three main areas of decision-making: analyzing learner needs and monitoring learner progress, selecting what needs to be learnt and sequencing the element of the course to make learning as effective as possible (feez and joyce, 1998). in doing so, the teachers need to undertake a syllabus and implement through methodology. a syllabus is an explicit and coherent plan for a course of study. the syllabus is a guide or map for the teacher and the learners which may need to be alerted once the course commences. a syllabus is constructed by selecting and sequencing content, based on explicit objectives. it is a public document, usually prepared by teachers and negotiated with learners. it specifies what is to be taught in any particular course of study. lesson plan teachers may ask themselves why they should bother writing plan for every lesson. some writers write down elaborated daily plans, others do the planning inside their heads. pre-service training teachers say that they write daily lesson plans only because of the supervisor, cooperating teacher, or school administrator language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 95 requires them to do so. many teachers enter the classroom without some kinds of plan. lesson plans are systematic record of a teacher‟s thought about what will be covered during a lesson. richard and renandya (1998:103) suggest that lesson plan help the teacher think about the lesson in advance to resolve the problems and difficulties, to provide a map for the teacher to follow, and to provide a record of what has been taught. there are also internal and external reasons for planning lesson (cutcheon, 1980). teachers plan for internal reason in order to feel more confident, to learn the subject matter better, to enable lessons to run more smoothly, and to anticipate problems before they happen. teachers plan for external reasons in order to satisfy the expectations of the principal or supervisor and to guide a substitute teacher in case the class needs one. according to shrum and glisan (1994) generic components of a lesson plan are as follows. lesson phase role of teacher role of students i perspective (opening) asks what students have learned in previous lesson, preview new lesson tell what they‟ve learned previously respond to preview ii stimulation prepares students for new activity present attention grabber relate activity to their lives respond to attention grabber iii instruction/participation presents activity checks for understanding encourages involvement do activity show understanding interact with others iv closure asks what students have learned preview future lessons tell what they have learned give input on future lessons v follow up presents other activities to reinforce same concepts presents opportunities for interaction do new activities interact with others school-based curriculum (ktsp) school-based curriculum is an operational curriculum to conduct education in indonesia, it is based on the curriculum published by the government called ktsp (kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan) it is built and done by each subject as the operational guideline in conducting education. ktsp is developed under the following principles: (1) focusing on the potency, development, needs and wants of the students as well as the environment, (2) varied and integrated, (3) perceptive to the development of science, technology, and art, (4) relevant to the life needs, (5) comprehensive and sustainable, (6) life long learning, (7) balanced between the national needs and regional needs. it is assumed that students are in central position which means that all learning activities should be centralized to the students‟ competencies development. therefore, in order to support their competence, 96 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 potency, development, and needs, curriculum set up must be in accordance with the environment needs. besides, it must also develop the varieties of students‟ characteristics, the condition of the region, level and kinds of the education, to be more tolerable to others. in short, it not only develops the science, technology and art but also be relevant to the life needs, sustainable, and balanced. ktsp is actually rooted from cbc in which it also develops competencies. only that if in cbc teachers had to follow everything stated in the curriculum while in ktsp teachers have the authority to develop their own curriculum by developing the potencies of the region. it entails the expectation that teachers would be able to develop their creativity. besides, by developing the potencies of the region, students will be able to learn things easier for they have been familiar with them in their own environment. however, since the teachers have been accustomed to following the ready used curriculum, they feel incompetent to set up ktsp as their own curriculum. ktsp requires teachers to work hard, to be creative in developing the competencies of the students, especially in implementing them into syllabus. the steps in constructing the syllabus are as follows: (1) observing that the competence standard should be in line with the basic competence; they should be in a good hierarchy, and then just copy paste, (2) constructing the potential main material, 3) arranging the learning activities, (4) deciding the indicators, (5) evaluating the plan, (6) deciding the time allotment, (7) mentioning the source. the format of the syllabus is as follows. syllabus school : ………………………………………………………. subject : ………………………………………………………. class/semester : …………… / ………………………………………. competence standard : ………………………………………..................... basic competence main material learning activities indicator evaluation time allotment source after developing the syllabus, the teacher should continue with constructing the lesson plan. lesson plan is one of the significant documents in preparing the teaching-learning process. it is the detail description of the lesson. a lesson plan should consist of: (1) the identity of the school, (2) identity of the lesson, (3) grade/semester, (4) time allotment, (5) competence standard, (6) basic competence, (7) objectives, (8) material, (9) method, (10) learning activities, (11) source, (12) homework, (13) indicators, (14) a set of evaluation, and (15) rubrics of evaluation; the format is as follows: language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 97 lesson plan school : ................................... subject : ................................... class/semester : ..................................... time allotment : ................................... topic : ................................... skill : ................................... i. competence standard :................................................................................................................................................ : ............................................................................................................................................... ii. basic competence : ................................................................................................................................................ : ............................................................................................................................................... iii. objectives d. material : ...................................................................................................... e. method of teaching : ...................................................................................................... f. learning activities : ...................................................................................................... meeting 1 : ...................................................................................................... : ...................................................................................................... meeting 2 : ..................................................................................................... : ..................................................................................................... etc. g. source : ................................................................................... ………….. : ..................................................................................................... h. evaluation indicator technique types of instrument example of instrument instrument : ................................................................................................................. .............. rubrics of evaluation : .............................................................................................................................. : .............................................................................................................................. approval from the principal method of collecting the data in order to analyze the documents and teaching learning process of immersion classes in chemistry class of smu 1, biology class of smu 2, economic class of smu 3, geography class of smp 2 in semarang and smu 2, the writer conducted a qualitative descriptive observation on the teachers‟ preparation of the syllabus, 98 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 lesson plan, the material, media and the teaching learning processes and interview. they were analyzed whether they match with the ideal syllabus, lesson plan, material and media they have to make based on the requirements stated for rsbi or sbi. the data were taken through (1) the video recording of the teaching learning process, (2) syllabus, (3) lesson plan, (4) materials, (5) soft copy of power point (media). the observation was done by sitting in the classroom following the activities in 2x45 minutes. for supporting the data, audio visual recording was employed. the data were analyzed and compared with the requirements to find whether or not there was coherency among the documents and the activities as well. the results of the observation based on the observation on the teachinglearning documents and teaching-learning process, it can be reported in different components as follows: (1) curriculum observation, (2) syllabus observation, (3) lesson plan observation, (4) teachers‟ competency observation, (5) teaching-learning process. table 2 the results of the observation curriculum syllabus lesson plan teacher‟s competence teaching-learning process smu 1 chemistry not appropriate not appropriate not appropriate almost 75% use english various strategies smu 2 biology not appropriate not appropriate not appropriate 50% use english monotonous teaching learning process smu 3 economic not appropriate not appropriate not appropriate almost 100% use english various strategies smp 2 geography not appropriate not appropriate not appropriate 75% use english bkof, modeling, jcot, icot, various strategies curriculum observation some of the competences standards and basic competences are too specific; so it is very difficult for the teacher to break them down into some indicators; for example the verb in basic competence is to identify. the verb identify does not match with the hierarchy of taxonomy proposed by bloom revised by krathwoll (2001). the right operational verb should have larger scope for example to make. syllabus observation the syllabus needs some correction in the case of competence standard, basic competence, indicators, the use of bloom revised by anderson in indicators and evaluation, the format of syllabus still uses the old one. there is no concordance between the operational verb in competence standard and indicators; for example: the competence standard states to describe an interaction as the result of social process; the indicator: to explain the essence and the significant of socialization process. the operational verb in indicator should be at the language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 99 same level as the competence standard that is to describe. the other example is between the competence standard and the test. the competence standard: to describe various earth surface, earth surface forming process, and the impact for living being. test: create an earthquake lane map in indonesia on a2 size paper. the operational verb in the test does not match with the operational verb in the competence standard; the test should have at least the same operational verb, that is to describe. lesson plan observation from the observation, it was found out that some lesson plans construction was not in line with the syllabus. ktsp requires teachers to work hard, to be creative in developing the competencies of the students, especially in implementing them into lesson plan. the incompetence of doing so is due to varied reasons. among others are teachers of immersion classes in high school, in particular have different educational background teachers’ competence observation one of the characteristics of rsbi and sbi is the use of english as a medium of teaching. from the observation, it can be reported that the teacher in biology class of smu 2 semarang did not employ english as a medium of instruction during the class hours (only 50%). the rest of the time, the teachers used indonesian; however they still made some mistakes related to vocabulary/diction, grammar, pronunciation, intonation, punctuation, spelling. the teachers often switched codes from english to indonesian or vise versa; sometimes the teacher pronounced biology (english) sometimes biologi (indonesian). it was quite confusing for students to switch their thinking process. the other example of choosing the wrong diction is the teacher‟s statement skin of earth rather than the surface of earth. teacher‟s question: „you have a problem?‟ which should be „do you have problem?‟ etc. the use of comma and dot in english is quite different from indonesian especially in expressing numbers, for example, 1.5 better than 1,5. the use of tenses was sometimes confusing; the sentence should use past tense but the teacher used present tense. they sometimes make mistakes in using falling intonation and rising intonation. in writing words sometimes they make misspelling. the teacher thinks that if he speaks english all the time, the students may not catch the lesson. it proved that he taught slower in immersion class and sometimes he had to repeat the lesson in indonesian to make sure that the students understood it. the textbook was difficult to find. the books provided by the government are not good for there are mistakes related to the terminology. harmer (2009) states that when a teacher is teaching in the classroom it means that he is performing the functions of language, such as giving instruction, giving directions, persuading, describing objects, apologizing, inviting, giving agreement/disagreement, refusing etc. in this case, the teacher training materials can be focused on presenting facts and figures, describing objects, closing the class session etc; so, hopefully all teachers can fulfill the requirements of being professional teachers. teaching-learning process the teachers usually sit in front of the class most of the time. this seems to be monotonous, that the teachers‟ supervision and control of the class/students did not run well and effectively; the teacher still dominated the activities in the 100 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 class, as a result, the percentage of teacher talk is quite high. sometimes what is stated in the syllabus and the lesson plan were not all the same as in reality; the teacher did such improvisation with intention to enlighten part of the material, but unfortunately the teacher went too far with other topics which had no close relationship with the main topic. in the process of teaching and learning, the teacher rarely checked the students‟ understanding and competence; it seemed that he enjoyed very much in explaining things. the teachers usually read the materials from laptop projected by lcd, sometimes too fast and monotonously. the distribution of questions cannot cover all students, lack of demonstration, role play, and team work. this seems to run well and smoothly, not many problems arise, because the students‟ awareness to study is good. but anyway, the class needs being varied to create conducive atmosphere. this is also to avoid the teachercentered activities, and replaced by studentcentered activities. in general, the evaluation was done well; there were mid-test, final test, and formative test. besides, there are some exercises or test for either classical or individual students, take home assignment for small/big groups or individual which did not match with the requirements, for example the concordance between the competencies stated in basic competence and the level of difficulties of the test. conclusion conducting immersion class is not an easy project for schools. it really needs good preparation. wibowo in suryalibrata (2009) states that in preparing immersion classes is not enough to be done just in a year but at least in 3 years, one year for socialization, and the rest of the time is for preparing and training the teachers. in general, the teachers‟ performances, knowledge and skills in those immersion classes in rsbi and sbi in semarang are fair. however, it is better to make some improvements related to the teaching documents, teaching method, classroom language and management, motivating the students, doing assessment, assignments, and varying the classroom activities. the language competency is also something that can not be forgotten or denied and therefore, there should be an intensive english course and training so that they will be able to communicate in english well and the teaching and learning processes will be running well. the variety of classroom activities is also important to create conducive classes, to make the classes have fun, to learn by doing, to have good collaboration among students, and to create cooperative and competitive classes. references brown, h.d. 2001. teaching by principlesan alternative approach to language pedagogy, san fransisco state university: addison wesley longman inc. cutcheon mc. g. 1980. how do elementary school teachers plan? the nature of planning and influences on it. elementary school journal, 81 (1), 4-23. feez, susan and helen joyce. 1998. text based syllabus design. sydney. ames gurney, philip. 2007. five factors for effective teaching. new zealand journal of teachers’ work, vol. 4, issue 2, 89-98. harmer, jeremy .2007. how to teach english, an introduction to the practice of english language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 101 language teaching. england, pearson education ltd. …………immersion class on line at http//www. answers.com/topic/immersion [accessed on thursday, july 2nd, 2009]. krathwoll, anderson. 2001. taxonomy: a revision of bloom taxonomy martin, o. michael and kelly l. dana. 1998. how does curriculum affect learning? online available at http://times.bc.edu. [accessed 11/29/2008] parris, sheri r. and block, cathy collins (2007). the expertise of adollecent literacy teachers, journal of adolescent& adult literacy. http://wwwreading.org/publications/journals/j aal/v 50/i7/abstract/jaal-50-7-parris.html. peraturan pemerintah no 19, 2005 tentang standar nasional pndidikan richards, jack c. and renandya, willy a 1998. methodology in language teaching. new south west. cambridge university press. shrum j.l and glisan e. 1994. teacher’s handbook: contextualized language instructions. boston, m.a. heinle& heinle. sudibyo, bambang 2007. taman pintar bisa jadi contoh daerah lain. suara merdeka, semarang, suara merdeka press.selasa 12 juni hal. o. suryalibrata, rian. tergagap di kelas istimewa. on line at http://www.sampoernafoundation. org/content/view/235/48/lang.id. [accessed on monday, june 29th, 2009. undang-undang no 20, 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional http://times.bc.edu/ language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 159 travail sur le faits-divers: activité de la compréhension écrite tri eko agustiningrum semarang state university abstract in the teaching of reading comprehension, there are many different strategies that can be used to simplify the process of teaching. the determination to selec teaching strategies is not arbitrary, but should be considered from various aspects. there are a number of strategies that can be applied to improve the students’ comprehension. the strategies are designed to help teachers bring knowledge about learners, guide learners to read the text, help them develop active and focused reading activities, and strengthen the them in conceptualizing ideas taken from the reading text. one type of readings that can be used is authentic or original text not to be made for the benefit of foreign language teaching. the goal was to determine the ability of language learners to analyze the text. key words: reading comprehension, authentic material, teaching strategies introduction le monde de l’éducation n’a pas échappé à la vague de stratégie d’apprentissage. alors qu’il était question autrefois de préceptes et de méthodes, de devoirs et d’application. on préfère aujourd’hui recourir aux expressions de stratégies d’enseignement et stratégies d’apprentissage. cyr et germain (1998: 5) disent que les stratégies d’apprentissage peuvent se manifester par des simples techniques. elles peuvent être un processus pour atteindre le but. elles peuvent être considérées comme des activités de l’enseignement. elles peuvent être conscientes, inconscientes ou potentiellement conscientes. elles peuvent être observables directement ou relever de processus mentaux que l’on ne peut sonder qu’à l’aide de l’introspection. l’utilisation de stratégie d’apprentissage peut être variée en nombre et en fréquence selon les individus. l’une des stratégies que l’enseignant pourrait utiliser, c’est un document authentique. le document authentique est un document qui n’a été produit pour l’objectif pédagogique. c’est un discours oral ou écrit qui est présenté à l’apprenant sous forme originale. l’objectif de cet article est d’exploiter le faitsdivers en tant que media d’enseignement de la production écrite. cet article répond aux besoins de l’enseignant du français qui lui faut mettre des bagages linguistiques et socio-culturels dans le texte. en plus, selon le cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues (cecr), l’enseignement du français inclut à la fois le contact direct entre la langue apprise et la civilisation. dans le faits-diver, les apprenants peuvent trouver l’utilisation de la langue française et connaissent des événements quotidiens en france. la lecture est l’activité de déchiffrement et de compréhension d’une information écrite. cette information est en général une représentation du langage sous forme des symboles identifiables par la vue, ou par le toucher (braille). d’autres types de lecture ne s’appuient pas sur le langage par exemple celle de partitions de musique ou de pictogrammes. d’autres acceptions du nom « lecture » ou du verbe « lire » s’« entendent » dans un sens plus http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/compr%c3%a9hension http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/information http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/information http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/repr%c3%a9sentation http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/langage http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/symbole http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/vue http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/toucher http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/braille http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/partition_de_musique http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/pictogramme http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/verbe 160 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 large : lire les signes des temps. robert (2002: 98) définit qu’en linguistique, lire, c’est « s ‘approprier le sens d’un message ». pour cela, le lecteur doit justifier à la fois d’un « savoir » (représenté par l’ensemble de ses connaissances linguistiques et extralinguistiques) et d’un « savoir-faire » (constitué de stratégies permettant la réalisation des trois opérations fondementales de l’acte de lire : anticiper, identifier, vérifier). concernant l’apprentissage de la lecture en fle (français langue etrangère), nous présupposons que l’apprenant a été alphabétisé dans sa langue maternelle ou dans une autre langue. l’objectif de l’enseignement est alors de doter les apprenants de stratégies personnelles qui lui permettent d’accéder à une lecture autonome. en lecture, l'enseignant doit s'assurer que toutes ces stratégies sont intégrées dans un contexte signifiant de lecture. pour apprendre à lire, l'enfant doit avoir à sa disposition des textes intéressants dont le contenu est à sa portée autant du point de vue linguistique que cognitif. l'enseignant doit proposer un éventail de textes afin que l'enfant, grâce à des lectures variées, puisse accéder à la compréhension en lecture pour satisfaire ses besoins d'information, d’imaginaire et d’esthétique. lecture la lecture est l’activité de déchiffrement et de compréhension d’une information écrite. cette information est en général une représentation du langage sous forme des symboles identifiables par la vue, ou par le toucher (braille). d’autres types de lecture ne s’appuient pas sur le langue par exemple celle de partitions de musique ou de pictogrammes. d’autres acceptions du nom « lecture » ou du verbe « lire » s’« entendent » dans un sens plus large : lire les marqueurs temporels. robert (2002: 98) définit qu’en linguistique, lire, c’est « s ‘approprier le sens d’un message ». pour cela, le lecteur doit justifier à la fois un « savoir » (représenté par l’ensemble de ses connaissances linguistiques et extralinguistiques) et d’un « savoir-faire » (constitué de stratégies permettant la réalisation des trois opérations fondamentales de l’acte de lire : anticiper, identifier, vérifier). concernant l’apprentissage de la lecture en fle (français langue etrangère), nous présupposons que l’apprenant a été alphabétisé dans sa langue maternelle ou dans une autre langue. l’objectif de l’enseignement est alors de doter les apprenants de stratégies personnelles qui lui permettent d’accéder à une lecture autonome. en lecture, l'enseignant doit s'assurer que toutes ces stratégies sont intégrées dans un contexte signifiant de lecture. pour apprendre à lire, l'enfant doit avoir à sa disposition des textes intéressants dont le contenu est à sa portée autant du point de vue linguistique que cognitif. l'enseignant doit proposer un éventail de textes afin que l'apprenant, grâce à des lectures variées, puisse accéder à la compréhension en lecture pour satisfaire ses besoins d'information, d’imaginaire et d’esthétique. comprehension ecrite cuq dan gruca (2002:149) disent que "le concept de compétence est difficile à cerner et est susceptible de plusieurs interprétation. pourtant la compétence de communication est un concept méthodologique qui se situe aujourd’hui au centre de la didactique des langues. c’est un savoir de type procédural, dont il est désormais traditionnel de considérer qu’il se http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/compr%c3%a9hension http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/information http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/information http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/repr%c3%a9sentation http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/langage http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/symbole http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/vue http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/toucher http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/braille http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/partition_de_musique http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/pictogramme http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/verbe language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 161 réalise par deux canaux différents, écrit et oral et de deux maniéres différents, compréhension et expression". ils (ibid.) divise les compétences langagières en quatre compétences : compréhension écrite, compréhension orale, production écrite et production orale. selon robert (2002: 32), en didactique des langues, la compréhension est « l’opération mentales de décodage d’un message oral par un auditeur (compréhension orale) ou d’un message écrit par un lecteur (compréhension écrite). lors de l’activité de compréhension écrite, la lecture est un processus interactif au cours duquel le lecteur établit des liens entre l'information communiquée par le texte et ses connaissances antérieures pour saisir l'information et interpréter le sens d'un texte. la compréhension en lecture résulte de la capacité de reconnaître et d'établir des liens entre le texte et ses connaissances et expériences antérieures. cette capacité implique des processus cognitifs complexes dont on distingue en trois niveaux: 1. la compréhension littérale, qui permet de relever ou d'identifier les informations explicites; 2. la compréhension interprétative, qui s'intéresse aux relations implicites entre les diverses composantes du discours ou du texte; 3. la compréhension critique qui fait appel particulièrement au jugement personnel à partir de critères préétablis ou de critères intériorisés. en tant que la compréhension écrite, l’enseignant du fle pourrait choisir des documents: authentique ou fabriqués. documents authentiques que nous pouvons utiliser sont un manuel scolaire, des livres de lecture, des ouvrages de référence, un texte au tableau, des notes d’origines diverses, des textes sur écran d’ordinateur, vidéotexte, des cahiers d’exercices, et des articles de journaux. faits-divers dans le dictionnaire le petit robert, il se dit que le faits-divers est une rubrique sous laquelle on groupe les incidents du jour, par exemple, accidents, crimes, suicides. il est défini que le faits-divers est l'infinie variété des informations n'entrant pas dans une catégorie déterminée. il s'agit d'un événement non-prévu que le lecteur lit avec intérêt du fait de sa proximité affective, géographique et temporelle : un accident, un drame frappent chacun d'entre nous parce qu'on y a été un jour ou l'autre confronté, soit directement, soit à travers un proche. dans le faits-divers, nous trouvons des événements plus ou moins importants mais faisant sensation et rapporté dans les journaux. les faits divers sont, en journalisme, un type d'évènements qui ne sont classables dans aucune des rubriques qui composent habituellement un média d'actualité (international, national, politique, économie, etc.), et sont par conséquent regroupés au sein d'une même rubrique, malgré l'absence de lien qui les unisse . il s'agit généralement d'évènements tragiques, tels que les crimes, les accidents et les catastrophes (http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ fait_divers). en classe du fle, l’utilisation des faitsdivers a pour objectif d’initier à la lecture de la presse et de savoir à la fois la compréhension écrite chez les apprenants. travail sur le faits-divers comment traiter un faits-divers? http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/evenement-1/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/peu/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/important/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/mais-1/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/faisant/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/sensation/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/et/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/rapporte/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/dans/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/le/ http://www.linternaute.com/dictionnaire/fr/definition/journal/ http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/journalisme http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/m%c3%a9dia http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/actualit%c3%a9 http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/politique http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%c3%89conomie http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/crime http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/accident http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/catastrophe http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 162 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 l’enseignant doit choisir le faits-divers convenant au niveau des apprenants. les caractéristiques du faits-divers que nous pouvons utiliser sont entre autres: 1. texte simple le style est clair : des phrases courtes : sujet-verbe-complément l'utilisation de l'imparfait et du passé composé est préférée à celle de tout autre temps (notamment le passé simple). 2. cinq étapes pour exploiter un faits-divers: a. qui ou quoi? nous demandons l'identité complète des personnes en cause, à savoir, dans l'ordre : prénom, nom, âge, profession, adresse, éventuellement : liens de parenté entre les protagonistes et fonction dans la vie sociale ou associative. nous pouvons demander aux apprenants s’ils savent de qui on parle dans l’événement. b. quand? nous demandons quand s’est passé l’événement. on observe le jour et l'heure c. ou? nous situons le plus précisément possible les lieux de l'évènement et évaluons si les apprenant savent où s’est passé l’événement. exemple, pour un accident : nous ne disons pas "sur le c.d.5", mais "sur la route de x à y, au lieu dit z. d. comment? nous exposons les circonstances de l'événenent. exemple : "la voiture roulait à contresens sur la voie express", ou bien : "le voleur s'est introduit dans la maison après avoir forcé la porte du garage". nous donnons si possible des témoignages. c'est dans la réponse à cette question que se trouve l'intérêt du fait divers : aspect insolite ou dramatique. e. pourquoi? nous donnons les éléments susceptibles de mieux faire comprendre les raisons de l'événement: chaussée mouillée, brouillard, imprudence manifeste, court-circuit ou sécheresse (dans le cas d'un incendie) etc. 3. nous achevons en ajoutant des précisions sur les conséquences du fait divers : a. nature et gravité des blessures b. étendue des dégâts et leur montant le cas échéant -les perturbations sur la circulation, les coupures de téléphone ou de courant etc. c. nous signalons les actes de solidarité, en citant si possible ceux qui y ont pris part (sauvetage, élan de solidarité après un incendie.) 4. illustration de l'événement nous utilisons une photo du journal qui informe l’événement. 5. révélateur d'un fait de société. quand l'événement le permet, nous le prolongeons en en faisant, dans les jours qui suivent, une exploitation rédactionnelle exemples: un carrefour nouvellement aménagé connaît son quatrième accident mortel : que pourrions-nous améliorer ? qu'en pensent l'équipement et l'usager ? au lendemain d'une catastrophe ferroviaire, une enquête sur la sécurité dans les trains. voici un exemple de la fiche pédagogique qui travaille sur un faits-divers en classe de la compréhension écrite: http://www.presse-ecole.com/page.cfm?r=5&page=photos http://www.presse-ecole.com/page.cfm?r=5&page=photos http://www.presse-ecole.com/page.cfm?r=5&page=photos language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 163 fiche pedagogique objectif: 1. comprendre les faits-divers, la relation entre titre et contenu 2. exprimer son opinion 3. imaginer des faits-divers durée prévue: 2 heures niveau du public ou pré-requis éventuels: intermédiaire déroulements et consignes: 1. observer le récit d’un fait-divers : relation entre titre et contenu dans « sauvetage d’un bébé lancé du troisième étage d’un immeuble », répondre aux questions 2. changer le titre du faits-divers 3. écrire un fait divers en répondant aux 4 questions. 4. demander les opinions des apprenants sur l’événement dans le fait-divers. 5. rédiger un faits-divers que les apprenants trouve dans la vie quotidienne. evaluation: question fermées support : un faits-divers « sauvetage d’un bébé lancé du troisième étage d’un immeuble » sauvetage d’un bébé lancé du troisième étage d’un immeuble jeudi 15 décembre 2005 (reuters 20:28) new york une new-yorkaise a jeté du troisième étage d’un immeuble en feu son bébé d’un mois qui a été attrapé au vol et sauvé par un joueur amateur de baseball, rapportent des médias. des chaînes locales de télévision ont diffusé la vidéo d’une caméra de surveillance montrant ce sauvetage miraculeux, mercredi, dans le quartier du bronx, à new york. on y voit un bébé, enveloppé dans une linge blanc, tomber de près de neuf mètres de haut dans les bras de felix vazquez, 39 ans, un employé des services du logement, qui se trouvait dans la foule attroupée au bas de l’immeuble. la mère de l’enfant, tracinda foxe, a été secourue peu après par les pompiers, rapporte le daily news. le bébé et sa mère ne souffrent pas de blessures sérieuses et sont sortis de l’hôpital. répondre aux questions: 1. quand l’événement s’est-il passé ? 2. où l’événement s’est passé ? 3. de qui parle-t-on dans le fait divers ? 4. de quoi parle-t-on dans le fait divers ? references cuq, jean-pierre et isabelle gruca. 2002. cours de didactique du français langue etrangère et seconde. paris : librairie larousse. cyr, pau et claude germain. 1998. les stratégies d’apprentissage. paris : cle international. 164 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 robert, jean-pierre. 2002. dictionnaire pratique de didactique du fle. paris : ophrys. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/journal. accédé le 10 novembre 2008. http://silva8a.googlepages.com/14insolites.doc. accédé le 5 novembre 2008. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/fait_divers. accédé le 5 novembre 2008. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/journal http://silva8a.googlepages.com/14insolites.doc http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/fait_divers 76 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 みんなの日本語 i 第１課から第15課までの会話における言語行動の使用分析 (the use of speech act in conversation of minna no nihongo i) lispridona diner semarang state university lisjoost@yahoo.com abstract in conceying something we need so many expressions called manners. there are four kinds of manners: (1) assertive manners, (2) cognitive manners, (3) expressive manners, and (4) directive manners. the objective of this study is to describe the manners in minna no nihongo i’ book. the technique used in this study is done by collecting data related to activities of manner s. based upon the data, it could be concluded that in conveying something in conversation one has to use imperative expression, permissive expression and pragmatic expression. key word: manner 序論 現在、外国語はコミュニケーションするために重要な役割を持っている。 聞き手に外国語で何かを伝えたい時、話し手は文の意味や意図をうまく伝えるべ きである。そのために、言語行動は必要なものになっている。言語行動するため に以下のようなことを考慮しなければならない。 a) どんな言葉で伝えるか。 b) 誰に伝えるか。 c) どんな場面で伝えるか。 d) どんな文型で伝えるか。 （aslinda＆leni、2007：34）によれば伝えることの意図は色々な意味が出る可能 性があるため色々な文型を考慮する必要がある。インドネシア語では他の人にあ ついから、窓を開けるように頼むとき、色々な言語行動で伝えることができる。 例： １．先生は学生に「buka jendela itu!」（あの窓を開けて）と言う。 しかし、 ２．先生は同僚に「tolong, jendela itu dibuka!」（あの窓を開けていただけませんか）と言う。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 77 または、 ３．「mungkin udaranya akan lebih segar jika jendela itu dibuka」（この部屋はすずしくなるから、窓を開けていただけませんか） と言う。 また、学生は先に帰る時、 ４．他の学生に「duluan ya!」（先に）と言う。 しかし、話す時は先生に ５．「maaf, mendahului」（お先に失礼します）と言う。 上記のような言語行動の例文は一つの意図をもっているが色々な言語行動で伝える ことができる。 日本語においても言語行動がある。そのために日本語でうまくをコミュニケーシ ョンできるように日本語の学習者は言語行動についての知識や規則を理解しなけれ ばならない。上記のようなことから、本研究で筆者は言語行動の種類とみんなの日 本語iおける会話の言語行動使用についての問題を設定する。みんなの日本語iを選 ぶ理由はこの本における会話には色々な場面が書いてあるため色々な言語行動も出 ると思うからである。 基礎的な理論 １．語用論の定義 語用論の定義ついては専門家により様々な意見がある。yule(1996:3)によれば語用論 の範囲は次のようである。１）話し手の意図を研究する分野、２）場面による意図 を研究する分野、３）伝える言語行動の意味を研究する分野で、話し手によってコ ミュニケーションする意味を研究する、４）人の立場による表現の使用を研究する 分野。 thomas(1995:2)は語用論について二つの視点を分けている。それは社会視点と認 知視点である。社会視点においては話し手と語用の関係は研究の対象になり、認知 視点においては語用と語用の解釈は研究の対象になっている。また、thomas(1995:22 )は、意味は話し手と聞き手と言語行動前後の関係（自然、社会、言語）の間の交 渉を巻き込む動的過程で、発話から可能性可能の意味で、インテラクションには意 味(meaning interaction)を研究する観点にとして語用論を定義する。 78 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 leech(1983:6(gunarwan、2004:4)は意味論と関係をもっている言語には研究分野として 語用論を考える。この関系は意味論化と言われる。 ２．語用論のトピックとしての言語行動 言語コミュニケーションには、人間は意義や考えや直接な感情などのような情報 を伝える。あのコミュニケーションの伝え方は言語行動だと言われる。言語行動は 概念として、1965年にaustinによってはじめて紹介された。austinはharvard大学で教 授だった。この理論はsearle（1969）によって speech acts and essay in the philosophy of language のテーマを発行したあと、言語学には発展してきた。言語行動は英語では speech act と言われる。言語行動とはコミュニケーションには機能の単位として話しである。 （richards, 1986:286） 言語行動は使用の視点から言語を研究する言語学分野としての語用分析である。 leech(1983:5-6) によって話は何のため行われたという話の目的を学ぶ語用論だと説明された。話の 目的は言語行動で何か誰かの目的を質問し、「どう」、「いつ」、「どこ」、「だ れがだれに」話すかの意味を関する。言語行動は語用論に中央としているentitasで 、他の話題分析のための基本である。例えば、先入管、perikutan, implikatur, 共同作業の主義、礼儀の主義である。 ３．言語行動 言語行動の理論の起こすのはsearle(1975:59)が五つの部分に言語行動を割る。 (1) asertif言語行動、事実を表現するための言語行動である。 (2) direktif言語行動、何かを頼んで、命令を表現するための言語行動である。 (3) komisif言語行動、何かを確認するための言語行動である。 (4) ekspresif言語行動、評価を表現するための言語行動である。 (5) deklarasi言語行動、新しいことを表現するための言語行動である。 研究法 本研究のアプローチはデスクリティフ・クアリタティフアプローチを用いて、み んなの日本語iの会話においてのは言語行動を説明し、分析する。データを収集す るために参考文献をもらいている。また、本研究の順序は次のようである。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 79 (1) 参考になる本を読む。 (2) みんなの日本語iにおいての言語行動を探す。 (3) 収集したデータを分析する。 (4) 分析に基づいて結論を取る。 データ分析 会話第１課・はじめまして 佐藤 ：おはようございます。 山田 ：おはようございます。 佐藤さんこちらは、マイク・ミラーさんです。① ミラー ：はじめまして。マイク・ミラーです。② アメリカから来ました。② どうぞよろしく。③ 佐藤 ：佐藤けい子です。どうぞよろしく。③ asertif 言語行動： ① 山田さんはミラーさんに佐藤さんを紹介します。「紹介する」は相手に何かを言 う話し手が表す表現である。丁寧語「－ます・－です」を使います。話し手は相 手に友達の名前を伝える。 ② 事実を表す表現である。話し手は相手に話し手の名前と国を言った。 direktif言語行動： ③ 自己紹介するには文の後に相手に依頼の表現である。頼む表現は「どうぞよろし く。」である。 会話第２課・本の気持ちです 山田一郎 ：はい。どなたですか。 サントス ：４０８のサントスです。 ．．．．．．．．．．． サントス ：こんにちは。サントスです。① これからお世話になります。① どうぞよろしくお願いします。② 80 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 山田 ：こちらこそよろしく。② サントス ：あの、これ、本の気持ちです。① 山田 ：あ、どうも．．．．。何ですか。 サントス ：コーヒーです。どうぞ。 山田 ：どうもありがとうございます。 asertif言語行動： ① 事実を表す表現である。話し手は相手に話し手の名前を伝える。 direktif言語行動： ② 何かを頼むのを表す表現である。話し手は相手に「どうぞよろしくお願いします 。こちらこそよろしく。」と言って頼んだ。 会話第３課・これをください マリア ：すみません。ワイン売り場はどこですか。 定員a ：地下１階でございます。① マリア ：どうも ．．．．．．．．．．． マリア ：すみません。そのワインを見せてください。② 定員b ：はい、どうぞ。 マリア ：これはフランスのワインですか。 定員b ：いいえ、イタリアのです。① マリア ：いくらですか。 定員b ：2.500円です。① マリア ：じゃ、これをください。② asertif言語行動: ① 事実を表現する。話し手は相手にワイン売り場とワインの作られる国とワインの 値段を伝える。 direktif 言語行動： ② 命令を表現する。話し手は相手にワインを見せられるために頼んだ。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 81 会話第４日・そちらは何時から何時までですか 番号案内 ：はい、104の石田です。 カリナ ：やまもと美術館の電話番号をお願いします。② 番号案内 ：やまもとの美術館ですね。かしこまりました。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．． テープ ：お問い合わせの番号は0797の38の5432です。① ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 美術館の人：はい、やまもと美術館です。 カリナ ：すみません。そちらは何時から何時までですか。 美術館の人：9時から4時までです。① カリナ ：休みは何曜日ですか。 美術館の人：月曜日ですか。① カリナ ：どうもありがとうございました。 asertif言語行動: ① 事実を表現する。話し手は相手に番号と時間と日を伝える。 direktif言語行動: ② お願いします表現は相手に依頼を表す表現。話し手は相手に電話番号を頼んだ。 会話第５日・甲子園へ行きますか サントス ：すみません。甲子園までいくらですか。 女の人 ：350円です。① サントス ：350円ですね。ありがとうございました。 女の人 ：どういたしまして。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． サントス ：すみません。甲子園は何番線ですか。 駅員 ：５番線です。① サントス ：どうも。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 82 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 サントス ：あの、この電車は甲子園へ行きますか。 男の人 ：いいえ、次の「普通」ですよ。① サントス ：そうですか。どうも。 asertif 言語行動: ① 情報をあげる表現である。話し手は相手に電車費と電車の番線について情報をあ げた。 会話第６課・いっしょに行きませんか 佐藤 ：ミラーさん。 ミラー ：何ですか。 佐藤 ：あした友達とお花見をします。① ミラーさんもいっしょに行きませんか。② ミラー ：いいですね。どこへ行きますか。 佐藤 ：大阪城公園です。① ミラー ：何時ですか。 佐藤 ：10時です。① 大阪上公園で会いましょう。② ミラー ：わかりました。 佐藤 ：じゃ、またあした。 asertif言語行動: ① 事実を表現する。話し手は相手にだれとお花見することとお花見する所と時間を 伝える。 komisif言語行動: ② 「－ませんか」と「－ましょう」の文型は相手に何かをするために誘うのを表現 する。話し手は相手にお花見に誘った。 会話第７課・ごめんください ホセ・サントス ：ごめんください。④ 山田一郎 ：いらっしゃい。どうぞおあがりください。② ホセ・サントス ：失礼します。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 83 ．．．．．．．．．．．．． 山田友子 ：コーヒーはいかがですか。③ マリア・サントス：ありがとうございます。④ ．．．．．．．．．．．．． 山田友子 ：どうぞ。② マリア・サントス：いただきます。このスプーン、すてきですね。 山田友子 ：ええ。会社の人にもらいました。① ヨーロッパ旅行の会社です。① asertif言語行動: ① 情報をあげる表現である。話し手は相手にだれがもらう人と物を買う国を情報し た。 direktif言語行動: ② 「－てください」は命令を表現する。話し手は相手に家に入ることを命令する。 「どうぞ」も命令を表現する。話し手は相手にコーヒーを飲んでみることを命令 する。 komisif言語行動: ③ 「いかが」という言葉は相手を誘う表す表現である。話し手は相手にコーヒーを 飲むことに誘った。 ekspresif言語行動: ④ 「ありがとうございます」は感謝を表す表現である。話し手は相手にコーヒーを 飲んだあとで、ありがとうございますと言う。 「ごめんください」は許可を表す表現である。話し手は相手に誤るとき、ごめん くださいを伝える。 会話第８課・そろそろ失礼します 山田一郎 ：マリアさんはもう日本の生活日本の生活に 慣れましたか。 マリア・サントス：ええ。毎日とても楽しいです。 山田一郎 ：そうですか。サントスさん、お仕事はどうですか。 84 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 ホセ・サントス ：そうですね。忙しいですが、おもしろいです。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．． 山田友子 ：コーヒー、もう一杯いかがですか。② マリア・サントス：いいえ、けっこです。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．． ホセ・サントス ：あ、もう８時ですね。そろそろ失礼します。① 山田一郎 ：そうですか。 マリア・サントス：きょうはどうもありがとうございます。③ 山田友子 ：いいえ、またいらっしゃってください。① direktif言語行動: ① 「そろそろ失礼します」は話し手が相手に何かを頼むのを表す表現である。 「－ください」は命令を表現する。話し手は相手に何かを命令した。 komisif言語行動: ② 「－いかが」は何か確認する表現である。話し手は相手にコーヒーをもう代りか 確認した。 ekspresif言語行動: ③ 感謝を表す表現である。話し手は相手に色々物をもらったとき「どうもありがと うございます」と言う。 会話第９課・残念です ミラー ：もしもし、ミラーです。 木村 ：ああ、ミラーさん、こんにちは。お元気ですか。 ミラー ：ええ、元気です。あのう、木村さん、小沢政治のコンサー ト、いっしょにいかがですか。② 木村 ：いいですね。いつですか。 ミラー ：来週の金曜日の晩です。① 木村 ：金曜日ですか。金曜日の晩はちょっと……。 ミラー ：だめですか 木村 ：ええ、友達と約束がありますから、……。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 85 ミラー ：そうですか。残念ですね。③ 木村 ：ええ、また今度お願いします。 asertif言語行動: ① 事実を表現する。話し手は相手に時間のことを言った。 komisif言語行動: ② 誘いを表す表現である。話し手は相手にコンサートに行くことを誘った。 ekspresif言語行動: ③ 「残念」は非難を表現する。話し手は相手に非難のとき、「残念」と言う。 会話第１０課・チリソースはありませんか ミラー ：すみません。② ユニューヤ・ストアはどこですか。 女の人 ：ユニューヤ・ストアですか。 あそこに白いビルがありますね。③ あのビルの中です。① ミラー ：そうですか。どうもすみません。② 女の人 ：いいえ。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． ミラー ：あのう、チリソースはありませんか。 定員 ：はい。右の奥にスパイス・コーナーがあります。① チリソースは下から２段目です。① ミラー ：わかりました。どうも。 asertif言語行動: ① 情報をあげることを表す表現である。話し手は相手にユニューヤ・ストアの位置 を伝える。 direktif言語行動: ② 許可を表す表現である。話し手は相手に許可するとき、「すみません。」と伝え る。 感謝するときに話し手は相手に、「どうもすみません。」と言った。 komisif言語行動: 86 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 ③ 「－ね」は話し手は相手に何かを確認する。 ekspresif言語行動: ④ 感謝を表す表現である。話し手は相手に情報をもらったとき、「どうも。」と伝 える。 会話第１１課・これ、おねがいします 管理人 ：いい天気ですね。お出かけですか。 ワン ：ええ、ちょっと郵便局まで。 管理人 ：そうですか。行っていらっしゃい。 ワン ：行ってまいります。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 管理人 ：これ、速達でお願いします。② 郵便局員 ：はい、オーストラリアですね。370円です。① ワン ：それから、この荷物もお願いします。② 郵便局員 ：船便ですか、航空便ですか。 ワン ：船便はいくらですか。 郵便局員 ：500円です。① ワン ：どのぐらいかかりますか。 郵便局員 ：1ヶ月ぐらいです。① ワン ：じゃ、船便でお願いします。② asertif言語行動: ① 情報をあげることを表す表現である。話し手相手に手紙費用と期間について情報 する。 direktif言語行動: ② 「お願いします」は依頼を表す表現である。話し手相手に依頼のとき、「お願い します」と伝える。 会話第１２課・お祭りはどうでしたか。 ミラー ：ただいま。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 87 管理人 ：お帰りなさい。 ミラー ：これ、京都のお土産です。① 管理人 ：どうもすみません。② 祗園祭りはどうでしたか。 ミラー ：とてもおもしろかったです。外国人多かったですよ。① 管理人 ：祗園祭りは京都の祭りで一番有名ですからね。 ミラー ：そうですか。 管理人 ：写真を撮りましたか。 ミラー ：ええ、100枚ぐらい撮りました。① 管理人 ：すごいですね。 ミラー ：ええ、でも、ちょっと疲れました。 asertif言語行動: ① 情報をあげることを表す表現である。話し手相手にお土産について言った。 direktif言語行動: ② 許可を表す表現である。話し手は相手に許可するとき、「どうもすみません。」 と伝える。 会話第１３課・別々にお願いします 山田 ：もう12時ですよ。 昼ごはんを食べに行きませんか。③ ミラー ：ええ。 山田 ：どこへ行きますか。 ミラー ：そうですね。きょうは日本料理が食べたいですね。 山田 ：じゃ、「つるや」へ行きましょう。③ ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 店の人 ：ご注文は？ ミラー ：私はてんぷら定食。 山田 ：私は牛どん 店の人 ：天ぷら定食と牛どんですね。少々お待ちください。② 88 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 店の人 ：1.680円でございます。 ミラー ：すみません。別々ににお願いします。② 店の人 ：はい、天ぷら定食は980円、牛どんは700円です。① asertif言語行動: ① 情報をあげることを表す表現である。話し手は相手に食べ物の値段の情報をあげ た。 direktif言語行動: ② 「－てください」は命令を表す表現である。話し手は相手に何かをするために命 令した。 「お願いします」は依頼を表す表現である。話し手は相手に何かを依頼を言うと き「お願いします」を使う。 komisif言語行動: ③ 「－ませんか」と「－ましょう」は何かするために誘うことを表す表現である。 話し手は相手に昼ごはんを食べに行くことに誘った。 会話第１４課・梅田まで行ってください。 カリナ ：梅田までお願いします。① 運転手 ：はい。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． カリナ ：すみません。あの信号を右へ曲がってください。① 運転手 ：みぎですね。 カリナ ：ええ。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 運転手 ：まっすぐですか。 カリナ ：ええ。まっすぐ行ってください。① ．．．．．．．．．．．．．． カリナ ：あの花屋の前で止めてください。① 運転手 ：はい。1800円です。 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 89 カリナ ：これでお願いします。① 運転手 ：3200円のお釣りです。ありがとうございます。 direktif言語行動: ① 「－てください」は命令を表現する。話し手は相手に何かをするために命令した 。 ② 「お願いします」は依頼を表現する。話し手相手に依頼を言うとき、「お願いし ます」と伝える。 会話第１５課・ご家族は？ ミラー ：きょうの映画はよかったですね。② 木村 ：ええ。特にあのお父さんはよかったですね。② ミラー ：ええ。私は家族を思い出しました。 木村 ：そうですか。ミラーさんのご家族は？ ミラー ：両親と姉が一人います。① 木村 ：どちらにいらしゃいますか。 ミラー ：両親はニューヨークの近くに住んでいます。① 姉はロンドンです。木村さんのご家族は？ 木村 ：3人です。父は銀行員です。① 母は高校で英語を教えています。① asertif言語行動: ① 情報をあげることを表す表現である。話し手は相手に両親と姉の住んでいる所に ついて情報をあげた。 direktif言語行動: ② 「－ね」は話し手が相手に確認を表現する。 結論 研究結果は：日本人の性質は自分に集中しないで相手の心情を分かるようになっている 。そのことだから： (1) 相手に援助や忠告を頼んだり、命令する時使って、敬意表現として相手 90 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 がその頼みたいことを許可を当てにする。 (2) 何かことを話したいだから相手に関心を引いて、相手が上演するつもり である。 (3) 相手に解毒をするつもりの時、婉曲「が」を使って謙遜表現として使わ れている。 (4) 心情を表す時、例えば非難とかあやまる時、使われて、誠実を表せている。 参考文献 austin, j.l. 1962. how to do things with word (edisi kedua). oxford: oxfod university press. gunarwan, a. 2004. dari pragmatik ke pengajaran bahasa (makalah seminar bahasa dan sastra indonesia dan daerah). ikip singaraja. 小川. 1998. みんなの日本語i本論. 東京：スリーエーネットワーク 勲, 庵. dkk. 2000. 初級を教えるための日本語文法ブック. 東京：株式会社 thomas. j. 1995. meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. london/new york: longman. yule, g. 1996. pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 23 re-appraising the role of philosophical bases for teaching english reflected in the current curriculum in indonesia widhiyanto (widhiaistuti@gmail.com) semarang state university abstract this article discusses the philosophical bases of the current curriculum—school-based curriculum, which is considered as the simplified version of the previous—competency based curriculum. the aim of this discussion is primary to re-visit the theories that teacher may have overlooked. it also deals with possible application of the theories in the real teaching and learning of english. hopefully, this may contribute to the understanding of the current curriculum better. keywords: curriculum, communicative competence, systemic functional linguistics, zpd, literacy education introduction most students in my class do not seem to know the philosophical bases for the current english curriculum in indonesia. even, they do not know that the goal of the teaching and learning of a language (english) is developing learners‟ communicative competence (hymes in celcemurcia 1995, 2007). moreover, they may not have read the theories. this is reasonable since in the document of the current school-based curriculum, there is no mention of the theories. what i can tell them is just to ask them to revisit and restudy the previous curriculum—2004 competency-based curriculum. hopefully, they can read the philosophical bases to understand the theories underlying the teaching and learning of english in the context of this country. this paper deals with brief discussions of the theories underpinning 2004 english curriculum (pusat kurikulum, 2004), which, i think, is the complete version of 2006 school-based curriculum. the premises on the curriculum were well-developed, considering them from the point of view of language acquisition theories on how they examine the nature of language, language learning and language learners. these three basic parameters of second language acquisition are the proper tools used for analyzing the presentation of the materials, activities, media and other supporting details of the curriculum. historically, in 2004 in indonesia, the government offered a totally new curriculum (competence-based curriculum) that was intended to solve educational problems faced by the country—especially in dealing with the teaching and learning of english within the context of english as a foreign language. completely different from the preceding ones, this curriculum had a very clear goal to achieve, materials and steps to follow, and well-developed supporting theories that made it ready to implement. all the things in this new curriculum were based on the current trends on the area of second language acquisition. agustien (2004) states, that there are at least four theoretical foundations for this new development, i.e. pedagogically motivated model of communicative http://www.unnes.ac.id/ language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 24 competence (celce-murcia et.al. 1995); model of language seen from social semiotic perspective (halliday, 1985/1994); socially-oriented perspective on learning process(vygotsky in agustien, 2004); language education in literacy education (kern, 2000). these four bases underpinning the curriculum make it strong and ready for users to apply it and run their assignments confidently. these foundations blend together to develop the competency-based curriculum elemental in coping with the problems faced in developing literacy level in indonesian context. logically, following this trend teachers (and student-teachers) should be familiar with the above considerations since those help teachers prepare and do the teaching and learning of english. meaning that by comprehending them all, teachers are able to facilitate language learners for achieving of communicative competence (celce-murcia et.al., 1995) with the application of language as resource for making meaning (halliday, 1985, 1994) and of language as a tool to facilitate learners to get out from their zpd (vygotsky in agustien, 2004) by considering the literacy education (kern, 2000). by regarding these four considerations, teachers will hopefully be able to perfectly facilitate the learning of english in indonesia. the next important point is how teachers should be able to a help for scaffolding language learners. it deals with how they present materials, activities/tasks, pictures, and others, to scaffold the learning of english. also, it deals with how they reflect and apply the theory of language, how they consider the learners, and how they prepare the learning that facilitates the development of communicative competence. based on the considerations above, to guide readers in understanding the concepts, i focus the discussion based on the following question: “how does current curriculum assume language learning/acquisition with regards to the nature of language, language learning and learner?” discussion in this part, i would like to review the theories mentioned above one by one and analyze how these theories are applied in the curriculum. also, i would add some discussion of the topic in dealing with the application of them in the real teaching and learning process of english. the discussion embraces the four basic premises mentioned above. communicative competence it is stated in the 2004 english curriculum that the ultimate goal of the teaching and learning of a language (english) is to develop the learners‟ communicative competence. originally, the term competence (linguistic competence) was firstly introduced by chomsky (1965) to differentiate it as what people know about language from how people use it (performance). however, celcemurcia (2007) disagrees with him and states: “hymes argued that in addition to linguistic competence (the rules for describing sound systems and for combining sounds into morphemes and morphemes into sentences), one also needed notions of sociolinguistic competence (the rules for using language appropriately in context) to account for language acquisition and language use.” since then, the term communicative competence has changed into something different but more comprehensible; not only it deals with what people know about language solely, but also how to use the knowledge to communicate appropriately in context. referring to the concept, celce-murcia et al. (1995) propose a model of communicative competence, which offers well-developed and language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 25 very explicitly specific details covering what language learners need to accomplish for them to develop the competence. this model suggests that communicative competence basically represents discourse competence—the ability to participate in developing discourse (text). discourse competence can be achieved through the other four supporting competencies including linguistic competence, actional competence, socio-cultural competence, and strategic competence. moreover, they also specify the lists of “micro” competencies for each competency; so that this model in fact helps the users distinguish what they must develop to achieve communicative competence. the theory of communicative competence covers the 2004 english curriculum, by shaping it with well-developed explanations of what the goal is and how to achieve it. with clear and detailed explanation, it is easy for users to interpret the curriculum in their own context. teachers are well-guided for their teaching and learning in their classes. ministry of education officers, from the central office up to the subdistrict also know what to do. moreover, textbook writers have a perfect manual to develop textbooks. consequently, the facilities for learners to learn english are all there, so that the learning will be successful. systemic functional linguistics in systemic functional linguistics perspective, language is a system for making meanings: a semantic system, with other system for encoding the meaning it produces (halliday 1994: xvii). language is a tool, besides others, for construing an experience to be a meaning so that it can be communicated and negotiated among members of a society. matthiessen (1995: 1) confirms that “language is resource for making and expressing meanings, both what we would think as linguistic meanings and higher-level meanings relating to various aspects of the social system (culture)”. this model of language illustrates the realization and exchange of meanings by the interactants involved. once a person experiences a happening/phenomenon, he has to interpret his experience to be a meaning by using the lexicon and grammar of a language that then are realized through writing or speech system, so that he is able to communicate the phenomenon to others. in doing so he faces various choices to use. both the sender and the receiver have to be in one-cultural boundaries, since language cannot be separated from the culture. matthiessen (1995: 3) conforms that “the overall organization of the linguistics resources in an interaction could be interpreted simultaneously according to two symbolic principles, (i) orders of abstraction and (ii) functional diversification”. by orders of abstractions, semantics is realized (expressed, coded, symbolized) by lexicogrammar, and then lexicogrammar is realized by phonology/graphology. in other words, a communicative intent of a language user, which is situated by context of culture and of situation, should be interpreted/realized with certain choices of grammar and lexicon, which then are realized by phonological or graphological representations. each stratum deals with functional diversification, meaning that, it involves “(1) enactment of roles and relations, (2) construal of experience, and (3) presentation of the meanings created through enactment and construal as information organized into text in context” (matthiessen 1995: 3). this theory of language is the basis for the text (genre)-based language learning. this is represented in the design of the syllabus—textbased syllabus. as the bases for designing the language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 26 syllabus, feez and joyce (1998: 5) summarize the main concepts of the model of language, as the following:  language is a resource for making meaning  the resource of language consists of a set of interrelated systems  language users draw on this resource each time they use language  language users create texts to make meaning  texts are shaped by the social context in which they are used  the social context is shaped by people using the language these all considerations are used in the development of the 2004 english syllabus/curriculum in indonesia that, consequently, the users of it have to follow them all. especially for teachers, they have to use them as their guidance in developing materials of the teaching and learning of language. socio-oriented perspectives on the learning process learning happens in the zone between the level of independent performance and the level of potential performance (freez and joyce, 1998: 26) -zone of proximal development (zpd). it deals with approaching self-regulation from object regulation by other regulation or the mediation of more capable other. according to vygotsky (in hammond and gibbons in hammond, 2001) “zpd… is the distance between the actual development level (of the learner) as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” this mediation is the scaffolding (bruner in freez and joyce. 1998). in sum, the process of learning requires the society that influences the process. this society can mean the whole societal members or just the more capable other. feez and joyce (1998) also indicate that “approaching language learning from the perspective of texts requires an accompanying methodology which can enable the students the knowledge and skills to deal with spoken and written texts in social contexts” (1998: 24). both argue that “the most effective methodology for implementing a text-based syllabus is the genre approach.” this approach is developed based on three assumptions about language learning. in their words the assumption are that: (1) learning language is a social activity language learning is a social activity and is the outcome of collaboration between the teacher and the student and between the student and the other students in the group. halliday (1992:19) describes language learning as “learning how to mean and to expand one‟s meaning potential”. (2) learning occurs more effectively if teachers are explicit about what is expected of students …. many educators are proposing more principled approaches to teaching and learning based on a “visible pedagogy” (bernstein 1990:73) which clearly identifies what is to be learned and what is to be assessed. the role of the teacher in these more explicit approaches is to use methodologies which collaborate with the student in the learning process….. the genre approach is concerned with providing students with explicit knowledge about language. it values teacher-learner interaction as well as interaction between students. (3) the process of learning is a series of scaffolded development developmental steps which address different aspects of language. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 27 the methodology applied within the genre approach is based on the work of the russian psychologist vygotsky (1934/1978) and the american educational psychologist bruner (1986). vygotsky proposed that … each learner has two levels of development: a level of independent performance and a „level of potential performance‟ which is made possible through social interaction and joint construction with „more capable other‟. the gap between these two levels vygotsky called “the zone of proximal development‟ (feeze and joyce, 1998: 25-26). it is clear that, to achieve independent performance of learners, scaffolding is needed either from teachers, other learners, or other sources of learning including a textbook. vygotsky (in feez and joyce, 1998) suggests that the presence of more capable others in a child‟s learning environments enables a child to be involved in cultural events at social level that eventually develop the child‟s individual cultural identity. moreover, vygotsky then provide us with a model of learning “which emphasizes the role of talk and places social discourse at the centre” (corden, 2000). consequently, after the learners‟ potential development is acknowledged, this potential can only develop to its maximum capacity when the learners undergo learning processes involving more knowledgeable others that scaffold them by creating social interaction, negotiation, and shared learning. in classroom context, corden (2000) suggests that “classroom learning can best be seen as an interaction between teacher‟s meanings and those of the pupils, so what they take away is partly shared and partly unique to each of them”. teacher should organize the classroom activities very carefully in order to provide learners with learning experiences that trigger their development as an individual and social being. putting theory into practices, teachers should be aware the three underlying assumptions regarding what language learning is and how learning languages can best take place in the learning cycles and stages recommended by the 2004 english curriculum in which joint construction and scaffolding talk play important roles. they should consider the importance of teachers‟ talk in helping learners achieve their potential performance. teachers should provide themselves and others for scaffolding language learning. literacy education dealing with literacy means to train people to be completely literate not only with writing symbols but also with social and cultural norms the modern society produce and apply. freebody and luke (in hammond et.al. 1992) argue that an adequate description of the minimal elements involved in being literate must include: (1) learning to be a text user meaning that learners should learn to use the text. they have to learn how to put themselves in the society where the text is used by participating in the social activities which the text plays a central role; (2) being a text analyst. in this part, it deals with how to train learners to realize that a text is developed by a writer or writers that compose the text in a certain context for a certain purpose by applying choice of lexicon and grammar suitable with the context. thus, learners should be wise and critical in using the treating of the text and be able to read between the line of the message brought by the text to reveal the ideological value. so being literate in this sense requires being able to use and treat the text appropriately, and being able to analyze the text critically. consequently, learners should appreciate the language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 28 text and adopt or adapt it suitably with their context. they need to be able to analyze all components in the text that may be brought along in the text to get a closer understanding about the text. putting this in the context of this discussion, in carrying out activities at the two cycles and all stages, teachers need to use various teaching techniques to make the teaching and learning activities meaningful to the learners to develop their literacy level. teachers do not need to stick on a certain technique(s), but the techniques have to be relevant to this approach used. the most important thing to remember in preparing their lessons is that every activity they design has to be aimed at providing learning experiences to use language and, thus, to achieve communicative competence. according to new london group (kern, 2000: 16-17), there are seven literacy principles that can be used by in planning language classes—„that literacy involve interpretation, collaboration, convention, cultural knowledge, problem solving, reflection and self reflection, and language use. interpretation means that both interactants (writers and readers) interpret each other, which starts by writers‟ interpretation of the world and then readers interpret this interpretation. collaboration implies that in understanding text both sides have to collaborate to get to the point of agreement about meaning. convention indicates that the text they communicate is situated by certain context (convention) known to both sides. cultural knowledge suggests that reading and writing function in certain cultural context that each proposes certain expectations known by the society. problem solving points out that performing reading and/or writing involve the actions of solving problem in dealing with the texts. reflection and self-reflection show that both readers and writers assume language and its relation to the world and to themselves. and the last one, language use concerns about the role of literacy for being not only about language but also language use. kern then suggests that “these principles, although they are framed in terms of reading and writing, are not unique to literacy, but can be applied broadly to human communication in general” (2000:17). the implication is that when teachers plan an activity, they need to keep in mind that the activity needs to engage learners in activities that involve as many of these principles as possible. it is done to improve learners‟ literacy level. teaching-learning cycle in implementing the curriculum, it is recommended to apply a model of the teachinglearning cycle (hammond et al. 1992: 17) that offers two cycles and four stages as in the following diagram. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 29 the basic consideration of this model is that before we ask students to speak, we have to train them to do so by giving some models (listening). it happens also for written language— before we ask them to write, we have to train them and have them read the model texts. in doing both language types, teachers need to go around the cycle twice: first spoken and then written. for the first cycle, they start building knowledge of the field (bkof) where teachers and students build cultural context, share experiences, discuss vocabulary, grammatical patterns and so on, of the text-type and the topic under discussion. the next step is modeling of text (mot). here teachers give students model texts (listening) of short functional texts, conversations, and monologues situated by the social purpose of the text. here students and teachers and students and students interact to listen and respond to various texts with similar communicative purposes. the third step is joint construction of text (jct) in which it is the students turn to actively develop spoken texts with their peers and with the help from the teachers. still the texts have to be in the same topic as in the previous steps, consisting short functional texts, conversations, and monologues. they have to demonstrate their ability and confidence to speak. the last stage in the first cycle is independent construction of text (ict) which is similar to the third stage. students have to develop their text independently that is they are asked to speak spontaneously or to carry out monologues having finished with the first cycle, students then start to study the written cycle with similar stages. it is aimed at developing the ability to use written language for communicating ideas in the same text and the same topic as in the previous cycle. both teachers and students go through all the four stages in which the discussion is now dealing with written texts. thus, for bkof it is important to stress the differences between this language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 30 kind of text and the spoken one. in mot, students learn to read the model texts. for jcot and icot, they develop spoken version of the texts. pedagogical implication assuming that the concepts, especially the first concept of communicative competence, above are comprehensive, following celce-murcia (2007) there are five principles teachers should consider in implementing them into the teaching and learning of language. they are: the importance of culture the importance of discourse and context the need to balance language as system and language as formula the need to focus on dynamic aspects of interaction the need to focus on strategies from time to time teachers have to focus of the discussion on how they have to be able to develop learners‟ communicative competence in dealing with exchanging meaning through genres/texts. texts should be considered as vehicles to reach the goal of language learning by considering the principles above. i do believe that the second consideration, systemic functional linguistics, is the right grammar to deal with the business. it is considered as the precise linguistics for the curriculum as it offers a wide discussion for making and expressing meanings (mathiessen, 1995). as a consequence, teachers should color the linguistic discussion in their teaching by referring to the theory. they have to use them as their guidance in developing materials of the teaching and learning of language. the third theory deals with psychological consideration. teachers should play role as more capable other (mco) for making language learners reach the potential performance. teachers should be aware of the three underlying assumptions regarding what language learning is and how learning languages can best take place in the learning cycles and stages recommended by the 2004 english curriculum in which joint construction and scaffolding talk play important roles. the first consideration in putting literacy education principles is that teachers should at least be able to make language learners as text users and text analysts. the teaching and learning process should make students familiar with using and analyzing genres. in so doing, they should engage students with the processes of developing and analyzing texts. conclusion as a summary, putting the theories underlying the current curriculum into practice, teachers should be able to facilitate language learners for achieving of communicative competence (celcemurcia et.al., 1995) within the context of language as resource for making meaning (halliday, 1985, 1994) and of language as a tool to facilitate learners to get out from their zpd (vygotsky) by considering the literacy education (kern, 2000). by regarding these four considerations, teachers will hopefully be able to perfectly facilitate the learning of english in indonesia. consequently, teachers or studentteachers should be familiar with all the above considerations for the success of their teaching and learning processes. references agustien, hir. 2004. genre-based approach and the 2004 english curriculum. a plenary paper presented at upi national seminar, 27 february 2006. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 31 celce-murcia, m., z. dornyei, s. thurrell. 1995. communicative competence: a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. in issues in applied linguistics, 6/2, pp 5-35. celce-murcia. m. 2007. rethinking the role of communicative competence in language teaching. in eva alcon soler and maria pilar safont jorda (eds). intercultural language use and language learning. dordrecht: springer chomsky, n. 1965. aspects of the theory of syntax. cambridge, mass: mit press corden, r. 2000. literacy and learning through talk: strategies for the primary classroom. buckingham: oxford university press. feez, s. and h. joyce. 1998. text-based syllabus design. sydney: nceltr, macquarie university. halliday, m.a.k. 1985/1994. an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. hammond, j, a. burns, h. joyce, d. brosnan, l. gerot. 1992. english for special purposes: a handbook for teachers of adult literacy. sydney: nceltr, macquarie university. hammond, j and p. gibbons. 2001. what is scaffolding? in j. hammond (ed) 2001. scaffolding: teaching and learning in language and literacy education. new south wales: peta kern, r. 2000. literacy and language teaching. cambridge: cup. matthiessen c.m.i.m. 1995. lexicogrammatical cartography: english systems tokyo: international language sciences series pusat kurikulum. 2004. the 2004 english curriculum. jakarta: depdiknas. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 59 the role of students and teachers in english classes using the 2013 curriculum wahyu yulia nugraheni lya_bluemail@yahoo.co.id senior high school 2 ungaran indonesia abudurrahman faridi graduate program universitas negeri semarang indonesia received: 30 december 2015. revised: 30 june 2016. accepted: 20 october 2016 abstract this research is about curriculum of 2013. in this thesis, the writer was interested in analyzing the roles of students and teachers in english classes in senior high school 2 ungaran. the aims of the research were to find out the roles of teachers and students in senior high school 2 ungaran, and it was also aimed to identify the constraints in applying the roles of teachers and students in the english classes using in senior high school 2 ungaran. this research design used a descriptive qualitative method. the research results show that the teachers had implemented their roles as facilitator, classroom manager and informant. however, they could not perform their roles as the ideal informant since they had to frequently get involved directly to explain more, particularly in structural and grammatical rules, and the time limitation also prevented them to provide feedback since they frequently could not finish the tasks. the constraints faced by the teachers to apply their roles in the english classes were the complication of the documents, the students with different range of skills, different quality of students’ roles, the time limitation, and dominant teacher’s talking time (ttt). keywords: the 2013 curriculum, teacher’s roles, student’s roles how to cite: nugraheni, w. y. & a. faridi. 2016. the role of students and teachers in english classes using the 2013 curriculum. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. ________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction english teaching in indonesia has been based on the curriculum designed by the central government throughout provision of curriculum policies. indonesian curricula have changed for several times during the past fifty years as responding to worldwide elt methodologies; (a) 1945’s grammar translation-based curriculum, (b) 1958’s audio-lingual based-curriculum, (c) 1975’s revised audio lingual-based curriculum, (d) 1984’s structure-based communicative curriculum, (e) 1994’s meaning-based communicative curriculum, (f) 2004’s competency-based curriculum. regarding those problems, the indonesian government has decided to rethink, reformulate, and redesign the curriculum into the 2013 curriculum. the difference between the 2013 curriculum and the ktsp curriculum is in the competence aspect of knowledge. curriculum 2013 puts attitude on the higher priority than skill competencies and knowledge. it is a fact that curriculum is very often understood as something very complicated and not always necessary for language teaching. in many cases it is just replaced by language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ the content of the textbook available for the course. first, curriculum may be considered to be an attempt at planning the teachinglearning process. it is quite obvious that the results of a planned process are usually more effective compared to the results of an unplanned process. planning permits the teacher to foresee the process, which is going to be developed in the classroom, to create a system, where all the elements are interrelated. secondly, curriculum design is inevitably connected with the writer´s view of the nature of language and language learning, which generally serves as the basic criterion for materials selection or production and the development of the whole process. and finally, designing a curriculum promotes not only effective classroom learning but also teacher development as well, something which undoubtedly should be considered as one of the most important elements leading to the improvement of education. some constraints and resources always appear behind the implementation of new curriculum. first, the government should train the teachers, especially in the form of inservice training or currently through ppg/education for teaching profession about the whole package of new curriculum, its contents, and its effective implementation in real classroom. second, the government should also issue policy to deal with large class size issues, for instance by providing more budgeting to build more classes. if not, large classes would be unresolved issues which affect class performance. third, students’ empowerment should also be encouraged by teachers to know the essence of new curriculum. bringing students into the right conception about the language being learnt is essential for achieving language learning target as students and teachers would have the same perception about their target of language teaching and learning. roles of teachers prodromou (1991) suggested several roles for the teacher. as a manager, the language teacher gives instructions for students to work in groups. as a model, the teacher asks students to repeat after him / her. as a monitor, the teacher goes round the class listening to pairs practicing a dialogue. as a counselor, the teacher advises students how to best approach a task. as an informant he/she explains the grammatical issues or gives rules. as a facilitator, the teacher provides chances for students to work on their own. as a social worker he/she discuses the students’ personal problems which are affecting their work. and finally, as a friend he/she chats with the students over coffee, or arranges visits or trips. the role of the teacher according to the communicative approach as suggested by, celce-murcia (1983); brumfit, (1979); littlewood (1983); madsen (1983).according to them the teacher is seen as facilitator of the learners’ learning. the teacher had many roles to fulfill. he/she is a manager who manages the classroom activities. the teacher’s major responsibility is to establish situations that are likely to promote communication. the teacher acts as an advisor by answering students’ questions and monitoring their performance. at some other times, the teacher can be a communicator by being engaged with communicative activities along with students. the students are communicators; they actively negotiate meaning and try to make themselves understood even when their knowledge of the target language is not complete. the teacher’s role according to the communicative approach is less dominate than in teacher centered method where wahyu yulia nugraheni & abudurrahman faridi. 2016. the role of students and teachers in english classes using the 2013 curriculum. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ students take more responsibility and manage their own learning. roles of students english language learners (ell) are students are those whose primary language(s) or language(s) of the home, is other than english and who may therefore require additional services in order to develop their individual potential. there are no typical ell students. they come from many linguistic and cultural backgrounds and have had a wide variety of life experiences — attributes that can significantly enrich the life of the school and help enhance learning for all students. english classroom in the classroom context, there are four aspects, in addition to the physical condition of the classroom, that contribute to the formation of classroom culture: learners/students, teachers, subject matter and methodology. the first two come into classrooms with certain, attached social identities – the teacher and the student/learner. in order to indicate the way that the relationship between the classroom and its wider context is bound up, let us consider the following figure that summarizes the theoretical framework of the present study (passassung, 2003). methodology the most common sources of data collection in qualitative research are interviews, observations, and review of documents (creswell, 2009b; locke, silverman, & spirduso, 2010; marshall & rossman, 1999). the methodology is planned and pilot-tested before the study. creswell (2003) places the data-collecting procedures into four categories: observations, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials. he provides a concise table of the four methods, the options within each type, the advantages of each type, and the limitations of each. in line with the above, in this qualitative research with descriptive analysis, the data were collected by document recording, observation and interview. the researcher studied thoroughly the documents used by the english teachers in teaching english, such as: teaching syllabus and lesson plans. the observation was carried out to collect the data needed in term of the implementation of the 2013 curriculum in real classroom settings. the interview was conducted to collect the data in terms of roles of teachers and students in implementing the 2013 curriculum in senior high school 2 ungaran. results and discusion the importance of the 2013 curriculum, it is a change in teaching style. it pushes teachers to move away from the traditional teacher-centered classroom and towards a student-centered classroom. in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum, it uses learner-centered approach although it also accommodates the other approaches in the processes of planning, implementation, and evaluation as stated in the attachment to the regulation of minister of education and culture (permendikbud) no. 65 of 2013. the 2013 curriculum in senior high school 2 ungaran began to apply in the middle of 2014, but so many students and teachers did not perform their roles properly and still applied the teacher-centered learning. therefore, i wanted to explore the information on the roles of the teachers and the students in the classrooms and the constraints faced by the students and the teachers. http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/blogs/whither-indonesian-education-instructions/ language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ this research was conducted to explain some roles of teachers, such as facilitator, motivator, class manager, and informant. all of those roles are in line with the regulation of the minister of education and culture (permendikbud ri) no. 65 of 2013 on the process standard of basic and secondary education as the legal basis in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum. teacher as a facilitator in the regulation of the minister of education and culture (permendikbud ri) no. 65 of 2013 on the process standard of basic and secondary education, particularly in chapter iii on learning plan, it is stated that learning plan includes the making of learning implementation plan and the preparations of learning media and sources, learning assessment tool, and learning scenario. thus, senior high school 2 ungaran has seriously prepared all supporting documents to implement the teaching and learning process using the 2013 curriculum. however, the completion of the documents is not the only indicator for the success of the curriculum implementation. the socialization and additional trainings are required to make the teachers have better understanding and skill in dealing with the documents. the details about these problems are presented in the other part of this chapter. the observation was conducted to the tenth, and eleventh grade. the sample for the tenth grade was the tenth grade majoring in language (x bahasa) was taught by mrs. wiwin sri winarsih, s.s. for the x grade and social sciences (xii s 4) was handled by mrs. eny sofiana, s.s. then the sample was the eleventh grade majoring in mathematics and science 4 (xi mia 4). mr. kusmianto, s.pd. was in charge as the english teacher for the class. in the writer’s observation, the teaching and learning activities in those classes were in accordance with the learning implementation plan (rpp) which has been adjusted with the 2013 curriculum. all the stages were performed completely, and they did not find any significant difficulties in implementing them. there were some modifications made when their students seemed to have difficulties in comprehending the lessons. in general, the english teachers had applied the rpp without any significant problems, and the teaching and learning activities in english classes using the 2013 curriculum run well. teacher as a classroom manager what the teachers had done was in line with sadker and sadker (1997). they said that good managers also carefully arrange their classrooms to minimize disturbances and make sure that instruction can proceed efficiently; they set up their rooms according to the following principles: 1. teachers should be able to see all students at all times. 2. teaching materials and supplies are readily available. 3. high – traffic areas should be free of congestion. 4. students should be able to see instructional presentations. 5. procedures and routines should be actively taught in the same way that academic content is taught. the writer only asked the students in x bahasa about how the teacher manages the class. student gave an opinion from the other point of view. he said: ―the teacher could make the class work independently, but we sometimes found that wahyu yulia nugraheni & abudurrahman faridi. 2016. the role of students and teachers in english classes using the 2013 curriculum. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ the tasks could not be fully completed. consequently, we had to take it home as homework‖. the interview results show that the teachers found difficulty to introduce the new way of learning to their students because it was about changing their habit. some students found it interesting, but some others required more time to adjust the new method. in addition, problems were still found when they dealt with group work since the students had different english proficiency. teacher as a motivator the interviews were conducted to the teachers of the sample classes and some students of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade of senior high school 2 ungaran. the teacher interview is in the table 4.1.3. a. the sample was conducted in x bahasa, ms wiwin shared her experience in motivating her students. she said: ―it has been our daily routine to always encourage students on how important english is for their future. but it was a surprise to find out that they were highly motivated and enthusiastic in dealing with the tasks i gave them‖ the interviews conducted to the three students of the three sample classes show relatively the same responses. in general, they all said that the teachers could manage their classes well. however, student a gave an opinion from the other point of view. he said: ―we feel motivated in doing our tasks. we also found it benefit in our life. but the motivation we got from the other tasks was different because we had different interests.‖ the interview results above show that motivation can be obtained through activities and tasks. the students were motivated by the tasks and activities provided by the teachers. it made the teachers’ duty was a bit easier since they did not have to do and to talk much to motivate their students. in addition, a clear introduction and description played an important role in motivating the students, so the students found the benefit of the activities for their daily lives. the roles of students the roles of students stated in the regulation of the minister of education and culture (permendikbud ri) no. 65 of 2013 on the process standard of basic and secondary education are as follows: 1. attitude is obtained through affection process by accepting, executing, appreciating, interpreting, and applying the materials given by teachers 2. knowledge is obtained through understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating 3. skill is obtained through the activities of observing, questioning, trying, logical thinking, presenting, and creating the data showing how good the students play their role in the teaching and learning process in senior high school 2 ungaran was the students’ achievement report. the reports show that the students participated well in the teaching and learning activities by showing their good attitude, knowledge, and skill. the detail on the students’ involvement in daily class activities is described in the sub chapters bellow. the constraints from the research results and discussion mentioned above, the writer collected some language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) __________________________________________________________________________________________________ constraints in applying the roles of students as follows: 1. the materials with general explanation and instruction made the students unsure about what they had to do. students’ activeness is required in implementing the 2013 curriculum in english classes. however, some students did not always understand the instructions since they were not very specific and details. the students required more specific instructions and explanations before starting to do the tasks. 2. the students with higher english proficiency felt disturbed when they sometimes had to help their teachers. the teachers sometimes asked the students with higher proficiency to assist them with the students of lower proficiency. it made them annoyed since they did not get what they wanted in learning process. in some cases, they did not even do what they were asked to. the worst effect was that it would drop their motivation in learning and they lost their willingness to participate actively in the class. 3. the big class (more than 30 students) made it difficult to find out the students’ roles individually. the teachers held a negative view on teaching english in large classes. they said that it is out of control, hard to organize class, activities or impossible to communicate. therefore, the problems associated with teaching in large classes were: 1) discomfort caused by the physical constraints; 2) control problems (discipline aspects); 3) lack of individual attentions; 4) difficulty on evaluation; 5) problems of charging learning effectiveness. 4. the time was limited so that not all students could show their roles in applying and practicing the target language. teaching and learning activities in english classes required more time to practice and apply the target language. however, the time was limited so that not all students could practice the language in some situations. it affected the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. 5. the assessment could not identify which students’ roles were more or less dominant. conclusion the teachers’ roles investigated in this research include the teacher’s roles as facilitator, classroom manager, motivator, and informant. the roles were examined using three approaches, i.e.: data recording, observation, and interview. the three research methods were applied to find out whether the teachers of senior high school 2 ungaran implemented their roles regarding the application of the 2013 curriculum in english classes. the roles of students stated in the regulation of the minister of education and culture (permendikbud ri) no. 65 of 2013 on the process standard of basic and secondary education are as communicator, active learner, task monitor and performer. the constraints faced by the teachers to apply their roles in the english classes at senior high school 2 ungaran were the complication of the documents, the students with different range of skills, different quality of students’ roles, the time limitation, and dominant teacher’s talking time (ttt). on the other hand, the constraints in terms of the students’ roles were the general materials wahyu yulia nugraheni & abudurrahman faridi. 2016. the role of students and teachers in english classes using the 2013 curriculum. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ with general explanation and instruction, the reluctance of students with higher english proficiency, the big class (more than 40 students), time limitation, and the assessment. references dardjowidjojo, s, 2000. english teaching in indonesia. english australia journal 18 (1), 22-30. de corte, e., f. depaepe, dan l. verschaffel, 1999. investigating social and individual aspects in teachers’ approach to mathematical problem solving. proceedings of the 30th conference of the emmer, e.t., & stough, l.m., 2001. classroom management: a critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. educational psychologist, 36, 103-112 littlewodd, willia, 1983. communicative language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. milan, mc. & schumacher, 2001. reseacrch and education. england: longman. patton, quinn, michael, 1990. qualitative research & evaluation methods. attention required! | cloudflare please enable cookies. sorry, you have been blocked you are unable to access unnes.ac.id why have i been blocked? this website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks. the action you just performed triggered the security solution. there are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase, a sql command or malformed data. what can i do to resolve this? you can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. please include what you were doing when this page came up and the cloudflare ray id found at the bottom of this page. cloudflare ray id: 7fbfeab1cc191137 • your ip: click to reveal 129.74.145.123 • performance & security by cloudflare the potential development strategy of pesantren literature to support a religious tourism towards a creative industry abdurrachman faridi semarang state university abstract pesantren’s literature is a cultural treasure which exists in indonesia. pesantren’s enchantment can be viewed from many sides; i.e. environment, education, teaching, human, even customs and arts. these conditions provide a variety of potential to be optimized. the aim of this study is to expose the potential and model of pesantren’s literature to support religious tourism as a creative industry. the result of this study is to optimize the potential development strategy of pesantren’s literature and to support religious tourism as a creative industry. pesantren’s literature is used as one of religious tourism attractions that brings the economic life towards a creative industry, and to create other economic activities beneficial for the grassroots’ level. keywords: pesantren’s literature, religious tourism, creative industry introduction pesantren (islamic boarding house)’s literature is an existing cultural treasure in indonesia. pesantren’s enchantment can be viewed from many sides, either environmental, education, teaching, human, or even customs and arts. in pesantren, students are educated and taught various fields of religion, such as arabic syntax and morphology (nahwu-sharaf), islamic law (fiqih), the system of islamic jurisprudence (ushul fiqih), the messages of prophet muhammad (hadist), qur'anic exegesis (tafsir al qur’an), islamic theology (tauhid), sufism / mysticism (tasawwuf), various texts on the history of islam (tarikh), rhetoric (balaghah) (see dhofier 1982:60, ziemek 1986:163), including knowledge of adab (literature or arudz, poetry). the books used as references are often referred as yellow books or kitab kuning (wahid 1984), because the classical books were generally written in arabic by eastern scholars on yellow papers as their masterpieces. in addition, the yellow books also contain history of the prophets, waliyullah (holy person), pious men, and poetry. besides, there are pesantrens teaching mysticism, wirid (passage of koran), salawatan (short prayers for prophet muhammad) and syi'iran (poetry) in javanese language to santri (students). therefore, everything relates to this literature is called pesantren’s literature. on the other hand, most pesantren also presents a wealth of historical religious event, which is often visited by people who wants to ngalap barokah (look for blessing) all the time. people flock to the sites of artifacts, manuscripts of philology or the results of other works left by pesantren’s ancessors. unfortunately, it seems there is no institution responsible for managing this phenomenon as a marketable religious tourism industry. it is a creative industry that can develop the life of the society’s economy. research method this research uses r&d approach (research and development). the general purpose of the research is to produce a model of potential language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 72 management and development strategy of pesantren’s literature to support the religious tourism as a creative industry. thus, this research seeks to produce a map of the potential and the model of development strategy of pesantren’s literature to support the religious tourism as a creative industry through the development and validation. the study was conducted at several pesantrens in central java region, especially the northern coastal area (pantura). the research subjects were kyai (the leader of pesantren), santri (students), community leaders, local tourism agencies and stakeholders with the focus on the development of pesantren’s literature to support religious tourism as a creative industry. thus, the locations and subjects of the study were purposively defined through considering the stages and special purposes of research. in the preliminary study, it was uncovered and described the needs analysis about the portrait and the meaning of pesantren’s literature that support towards religious tourism industry in order to realize the creative industries. in the development stage, it was designed and implemented a development model (hypothesis) and strategy to support the pesantren’s literature to support the religious tourism as a creative industry. then, in a limited scale, the model, accompanied by the impact group was designed and implemented to support the religious tourism as a creative industry. in the validation phase, the model and the impact were designed and implemented in the broader scope. the data collection in this study were grouped into three sections namely; preliminary study, development study and validation test. in the preliminary study, besides reviewing the literature, it was also used questionnaire techniques, observation, documentation, and fgd (focus group discussion). in general, the three techniques (questionnaires, observation and documentation) were used simultaneously to complete each other. discussion pesantren was mentioned as a subculture providing a variety of expressions and creative works as a part of archipelago’s culture. for the time being, the regional literature arose in parts. it was because of pesantren’s participation in forming the islamic characters of this archipelago. islamic literature was considered to be an expression of beauty and purposed for worship, and it was usually developed through pesantren’s education. then, this literature was known as pesantren’s literature. anhari basuki (1989:29) defines that pesantren’s literature is all literary works (written and oral), which was born and developed among pesantren, especially in the period after the birth of pesantren, and then developed in java island. the characteristics of pesantren literature are; (1) born in pesantren, (2) the literary work rooted in the qur'an, hadith, and sacred stories in islam, (3) the introduction was after the 1800s, (4) using a mixture (arabic and javanese), and the writing feature used arabic letters and equipped with punctuation (pegon) (basuki 1988:31). besides those, an existing arabic translation in javanese can also be used as the feature. among those literary works having the characteristics are syi'ir, mysticism, wirid, qasidah, manakib and so on (thohir 1999:271). ultimately, pesantren’s literature can be classified based on the original terms of creation and the language use. those are universal and local literature. universal literature is a type of islamic literature which is not only known by the pesantren or islamic communities in indonesia, but also recognized by the moslem inhabitants of various regions and countries. the examples of this literature are (a) the form of prose which contains some stories / biographies of holy figures, such as the story of the companions of prophet muhammad, and manakib sheikh abdul kadir al jilani; (b) the form of poem (qasida), such as poems of maulid nabi (the birth of prophet muhammad) as set out in the book adz dziba, an nasar, and syaroful anam. whereas, the local one was born and introduced in certain pesantren or particular muslim communities, such as syi'ir, shalawatan, mysticism, and tembang (songs) which uses the local language (java) or mixed with arabic. the example of local literature are syi'ir laka ya robb by haji zakaria, erang-erang panjang by kyai sirat payaman magelang, and badrul bahi by sayyid abdurrahman ibnu ahmad (basuki: 1988). kajen as the central portrait of pesantran’s literature in java island kajen is an example of a unique and interesting portrait of the village. kajen is a village located in pati regency in central java, a village with no rice field area. however, kajen has a progressive education sector. there are 42 pesantrens, more than five (5) madrasah (islamic schools) and one islamic university. because of that, kajen is known as a “kampong santri (islamic students village)". it is very impressive for the record of a village. besides "kampong santri" and pilgrimage of muslims from various regions, a man as waliyullah once lived in this village, named k.h ahmad mutamakkin (mbah mutamakkin). he was the precursor of kajen village existence. currently, there are 42 islamic boarding schools (pesantren) and thousands of students studying in kajen. trading and selling services come into this promising business area. therefore, there are lots of small restaurants or food stalls and grocery stores around pesantren in kajen. because of having lots of customers, these food stalls and grocery stores develop rapidly. it is more than enough to support the daily needs of people around pesantren. the existence of pesantren as a center of islamic studies and dakwah (religious proselytizing) makes kajen well-known or called “kampung santri”. the uniqueness of village life can be seen every day, especially in the morning and afternoon. the students are busy walking along the roads of village to centers of education places. in the solemn evening, people read the holy qur’an well. on thursday night (friday’s eve), people and students come to read yasin (one of chapter in the qur’an) and tahlil. they pray to allah and say prayers at the grave yard of syech ahmad mutamakkin, a pioneer who was considered as a waliyullah by the village community. this ritual has not only religious and divine value, but also economic one. besides as the center of worship and religious activities for students and local communities, the existence of the grave yard also brings luck in the course of economic activities around it. it can be proved by the existence of permanent buildings that provide a variety of needs and souvenirs, foods and beverages, bookstores, and telecommunication facilities. this development brings blessings to the people around kajen. they can get their daily needs by selling products to the pilgrims that come every day especially on thursday evenings. the site of sheikh mutamakkin: a phenomenon of pesantren’s literature sheikh ahmad mutamakkin was a local figure who became forerunner and ancestor for kajen people and surroundings. he motivated and inspired the people to establish pesantren which was later known as the typical of kajen. the society in pati regency believed that sheikh language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 74 mutamakkin was a waliyulloh who had more capability in the field of spiritual (knowledge of islam ) and the supernatural (karomah). he was born in cebolek (a village which was located 10 km away from the town of tuban, east java), hence his name came to be called mbah bolek. al-mutamakkin was a name of title acquired after his education in the middle east, which means people who had courage or believed about his purity. historically, sheikh mutamakkin was a figure who had a controversial idea. at that time, there was a warm issue about different thought of islam (exoteric and esoteric thoughts). an exoteric islam was a thought which clang to the syariat islam, while esoteric islam was a thought which had a tendency to substantial values of islam through sufism. sheikh mutamakkin represented the second group in this case. sufism defined that the highest position was when a man could unite (became one) with his creator (allah swt). these thought had a place in most people's hearts at that time because they were carried by the culture and the old teachings (hindu-buddhist) that the doctrine identically accepted mystical things. serat (historic papers) of cebolek with haji akhmad mutamakin as the main character became special in the javanese literary works because it had successfully fused between teachings of islam and mystical in java. this compilation was written in serat dewa ruci. the manuscripts of serat cebolek was found in the authentic script part of the national library in jakarta and oriental manuscripts section at the library of leiden university, netherlands. this work was a work of kyai yasadipura i. he was a famous javanese poet in the early of surakarta who lived during the reign pakubuwono iii (17491788) until pakubuwono iv (1788-1820). kyai yasadipura was a court poet who wrote poetry and history. he was also a spiritual teacher of the king at that time. he was a great poet who was well respected when he was still alive. serat cabolek was written in the form of new javanese poem with macapat type. it was presented by using javanese variety ngoko (wild speech level) except on certain parts of dialogue that required the characters to use a variety of javanese krama (polite speech level). overall serat cebolek was one of javanese literary works that could perpetuate the religious life of javanese people as a java community development in the beginning of the islamic religion in java. sheikh mutamakin taught ilmu tekad (determination spirit) which was contrasted with syara’ (islamic law) of the javanese in mataram kingdom at that time. according to serat cebolek, syariat or syara’ was a "container" to achieve perfection in life. while the core teachings of the true life itself manifested by the poet through the story of dewa ruci that previously had been known as dewa ruci song, a tale which told original javanese religiosity. in the treasure of javanese literature, serat cebolek was an important book that contained illustrations of religious syncretism in java. poerbatjaraka in javanese literature assumed that serat cebolek that came from surakarta era had helped to popularize serat dewa ruci to the javanese society. another researcher, pj zoetmulder, in his study of mysticism stated that serat cebolek was very relevant to be discussed as a part of javanese mysticism. besides him, rinkes took also serat cebolek as one of his references in writing about sunan panggung (a nickname of waliyulloh). pigeaud in the javanese literature classified serat cebolek as a didactic narrative story and then placed it in a group with serat darmo gatholoco and darmo gandul. both of them discussed more about javanese mystical literature. he also stated that serat cebolek related with the story of nitik (panitik) which underlied the supernatural concept of sultan agung mataram, mangkubumi, and other javanese kings. haji ahmad mutamakkin lived in cabolek village, tubaneast java, in the age of sunan amangkurat iv (1719-1726) and pb ii (17261749). he brought and taught about ilmu hakekat (the essence of life) which was prohibited by most scholars in java at that time. it was because the doctrine of ilmu hakekat was considered as contrary to the concept of syara'. the ulama (a man who has wide knowledge about islam) agreed to ask the king to punish haji ahmad mutamakin because his teaching had been disturbing religious life of islam in java, and it was very dangerous for ordinary people. finally, ulama sent ketib anom kudus to the king. however, there was no decision from the king. the king amangkurat iv hurriedly died due to the illness. shiekh mutamakin’s problem was delegated to paku buwana ii as the next king. the decision was overthrown after arguing opinion between shiekh mutamakin and ketib anom kudus. by admitting his guilt and promising not to spread the doctrine of ilmu hakekat, then haji ahmad mutamakin was excused by the king. in his paper, syeikh mutamakkin used the teaching of serat dewa ruci to explain the concept of hakekat stage. knowledge of the divine in serat dewa ruci was a javanese people reflection of their sense of divine by using various sources and experiences of their religiosity. the "red" islam even had its own place in javanese society. it was caused by the common perception about the conduct of worship and hakekat ilahiyah (the godlike nature) of its adherents. the adherents were javanese people who had learned about dynamism and animism, hindu-buddhist, until islam which was brought by the pious men. presently in java, this belief still exists in the form of ways of belief in god the almighty. the potential of religious tourism industry development in pesantren pesantren is an educational and social institution which is very interesting to be examined, especially its role and ability in the process of knowledge transformation. pesantren is also able to keep the history of its education development. in reality, pesantren can prove its existence, although there are bad impacts of global capitalism with all its complexities. in addition, pesantren can counter the culture and as an alternative value in the current of social movements which grow continuously with the value and unique culture and indigenousity. pesantren has high bargaining competitiveness in the battle of values and culture. pesantren has special theory and concept to face the modernism. it is mukhafadzatu ala al-khodimi alsalih wal-akhdzu bil-jadidi al-aslah. it means that we have to retain all the old values which are still relevant and good, and replace with something new, useful and brings benefits. through this concept and theory, pesantren undergoes the process of change naturally and wisely. this concept is taken and implemented by pesantren using spiral method, spinning and proceeding slowly but surely towards better changes. besides, considering all aspects in surrounding, duniawiyah (worldly) and ukhrowiyah (eschatological matters) is also important part in changing process. pesantren as a basis recruitment for moslems still has a special appeal because it is still consistent with the tasks and functions. those are guiding people continuously in case of amar ma’ruf nahi munkar and saving humanity from the omission of existence and purpose of life that will avoid the error of the world and language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 76 hereafter tortures. more than that, pesantren continues to make corrections, opens itself to review the classic texts, and reads the signs of recent times which is increasingly frenzied that tends to drown critical awareness of society. if it is viewed from the national angle, pesantren is one of indonesian assets which has local and indigenous characteristics. through these characteristics, pesantren has considerable potential to participate in the process of indonesia resurrection from the weakness. economically, pesantren is an independent institution that is able to finance itself without a long development process. moreover, in the certain case and stage, pesantren is able to participate actively in community development through various programs and concentration. in the political and social fields, everybody knows that pesantren took part in the founding of indonesia both physically and in thoughts. thus, actually pesantren has concentration of sustainability science by observing and understanding the past to the present and future life with a religious zeal. the zeal is islam as religion rahmatan lil al-alamin obliged the whole, universal and inclusive. the maturity of a civilization as well as knowledge can be seen through awareness of the ancient heritage. the deeper sense will influence to all the more in the toughness and maturity. the potential of kajen as a "kampung santri" with various activities and dynamics of science education can be developed as a promising religious tourism area. if there are lots of participants to realize this stage, kajen will become an icon and barometer of pesantren education which has a bright future and tremendous potential as religious tourism industry area. the development of religion tourism industry in pesantren kajen kajen has a great potential to be a profitable religious tourism area. it is supported by the existence of many pesantrens with various students. in addition, there is the grave yard of mbah mutamakkin as the center of religious tourism development in kajen. by this condition, kajen people can take advantages of the area by establishing central businesses of economy. around the grave of mbah mutamakkin, many souvenir sellers support the development of this religious tourism. the myths of mbah mutamakkin has a special attraction for pilgrims to ngalap barokah. besides the grave of waliyullah, kajen also has several legacies of mbah mutamakkin. one of them is the mosque in the middle of kajen village. the mosque is patterned like the great mosque of demak. this mosque has been renovated several times, but still looks original; the two pillars located at the front (then called saka nganten) and two doors in the north and south. inside the mosque, there are pulpit, inscribed boards and dairoh (rounded copper plate) which have high content of philosophy and sufism. the wood pulpit is sheikh mutamakkin’s own work. this pulpit is decorated with high artistic value of ornament motives. there are many interpretations of the symbols carved in the pulpit. one of them is a crescent moon and a heron. these symbols mean a spirit and prayer for his descendants in order to be able to reach the noble ideals. there is also a growing flower carved from bud to blossom. although there are many interpretations, the people believe that anyone and in any circumstances offspring, the god will give khusnul khotimah (happy ending), as contained in the board "sing penditku ngusap embunku " (my offspring would wipe my forehead). in kajen’s mosque, it is found the head of the dragon of aji saka (legendary figure of islamic history in java and considered as creator of saka calendar year). in this mosque, there are also inscribed boards (boards of three walks). both boards are filled with beautiful arabic writing in the calligraphy form and have a full order value of sufism. besides the mosque of kajen, there is a well as mutamakkin’s legacy in bulumanis village. this well is believed that the fresh water will not run out and will taste un-salty even it is located only 1 km from the sea. chart 1. religious tourism development model of mutamakkin’s site as a creative industry center. the model of religious tourism development for creative industries in the context of pilgrimage tourism development, there are three important things to do, i.e. the excavation of local history, the historical values, and the meaning of history. the object of pilgrimage tourism is a historical place which should meet those three elements. the three elements will attract tourists as a form of learning history. by learning the history, most of tourists will appreciate the objects they visit. the excavation of local history and values or the meaning of history is to support the tourism sector. automatically, it requires a historical creator producer distributor religious tourism supports. 1. cultural shows ketoprak,hadroh, and wayang 2. souvenir kajen 3. learning package site of mutamakkin mutamakkin in oral literacy mutamakkin in creative perception outside kajen, are shown in: 1. kethoprak 2. kentrung 3. wayang 4. etc. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 78 research. in this case, the historian can take part and contribute with his professionalism to do the work. the excavation can be done by applying standard methods of historical research with its history. this method consists of four stages: heuristic (collecting sources), criticism (assessment of resources), interpretation (connecting the historical facts) and historiography (the writing of history). variety of sources both oral history (history and oral traditions), written (contemporary sources and books), visual (photos and drawings), and objects (artifacts) can be used for those purposes (garraghan, 1957: 104-123). interviews about history and oral traditions occupy an important position in this research activity, because of local history is often confronted with the limitations of written sources. similarly, this research method can be applied to excavate the history and values of local history in the objects of pilgrimage tourism in kajen. kajen has a potential to be developed as a village of tourist pilgrimage. therefore, the history and values of local history of kajen needs to be excavated because it can support the tourism sector. the result of historical research can be used for writing a guidebook. below is an illustration of religious tourism development model of mutamakkin’s grave as a creative industry center. the researcher concludes that the pesantren’s literature is a cultural treasure in indonesia. pesantren has exotic angles that can be viewed from many sides; environmental, education, teaching, human, or customs and arts. optimizing potential and development of pesantren’s literature strategy could be done through the following way. mutamakkin’s literary works support the religious tourism industry as a creative industry. pesantren’s literature can be used as one of the religious tourism attraction that can develop the economy of the people through the creative industries, and other economic activities beneficial to the grassroots level. kajen as a kampung santri has an oral literary culture about mutamakkin’s sites that are potential to be developed because the site of mutamakkin is not only as a place of pilgrimage/ religious tourism, but also as a creative industry. one of the creative industries that can be developed is the publication of books (publishing industry) about the site of mutamakkin, tour guide, or pesantren’s history in kajen. the development of religious tourism in kajen also needs assistance from the umkm (small and medium enterprise), cinematography, and local governments. the people economy can be raised up by the development of pesantren’s literature in supporting the religious tourism as a creative industry. bibliography. abdullah, m. 1991/1992. ”blantenan: kesenian tradisional islam di desa kutoharjo kaliwungui kendal” lembaran sastra no. 15. semarang: fakultas sastra undip. basuki, a. 1988. sastra pesantren. semarang: fakultas sastra undip bazawie, z.m. 2002. perlawanan kultural agama rakyat. yogyakarta: samha dhofier, z.. 1982. tradisi pesantren. jakarta: lp3es. fathur rokhman. 2001. sikap bahasa santri. semarang: kelompok studi mekar dan ford fondation sanusi a.h. 1999. kisah perjuangan syekh kh. ahmad mutamakkin. kajen: hsam simatupang, t.m. 2007. ”industri kreatif jawa barat”. bahan masukan kepada dinas perindustrian dan perdagangan provinsi jawa barat thohir, m. 1999. wacana masyarakat dan budaya pesisiran. semarang: bendera. undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 9 tahun 1990 tentang kepariwisataan. wahid, abdurrahman. 1984. islam dan seni: persepsi sebuah agama akan kehidupan idamannya dalam horison. no. 6 juni. zumar, d. 2008. “mengembangkan industri kreatif” in http://ekonomi-kreatif.blogspot. com/2008/11/mengembangkan-industrikreatif.html (accessed 11 january 2009) language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 121 a freudian psychological issue of women characters in daphne du maurier’s novel rebecca prayudias margawati semarang state university abstract a literary work can be appreciated through some ways. a psychological literary approach is made within the work. a creative process model is discussed in this subject since a work of literature often be considered as writer‟s creation which is sometimes related to psychological symptoms such as obsession, contemplation, sublime and some neurosis. a determination of sigmund freud theory mostly occurs in psychological approach applied to literature. by identifying human unconsciousness, it can be found through du maurier‟s novel, rebecca, that id, ego and super ego as personality theory appeared to be psychological aspects in fictional women characters. it reflects how those characters react to conflicts through the story. keyword: psychology, unconsciousness, personality theory, women characters introduction psychology is the science of behavior and mental process including the experiences of human and animals. an ancient greek philosopher, aristotle called the experience as growing, sensing, remembering, desiring, knowing, thinking and reacting (wright, 1984). today a theory which is mostly applied within psychological approach is a determination of sigmund freud where he assumed that all unconscious mental symptoms are covered by consciousness. kiell (1974) states that fiction as a part of literature can be pointed as a fruitful field for exploration in the study of human personality. he also adds that freud admired artists, especially writers, for their intuitive access to the unconsciousness. in psychology they usually know many things about heaven and earth that the academic wisdom does not ever dream of. it is also said that poets and philosophers took the first steps of the unconscious long before freud‟s time. moreover, coleman (1964:13) quotes from what freud said that the recurrent themes of great novels and drama are often the expression of fundamental human conflict that is reflected unconsciously in the author‟s mind. oedipus theme of sophocles is perhaps the most appropriate example. according to kiell (1974:15), novel is a work of art. it does not merely invent, it perceives. as a novelist elisabeth bowen once said that novel intensifies human experience; it gives power, extra importance, greater truth and greater inner reality to what may be ordinary everyday things. great writers know how to give a unified picture of a whole personality through minute observation of meaningful expression, a characteristic mannerism or an unconscious habit. at last it can be said that there is an intimate relationship between psychology and literature. psychology helps to clarify some literary problems and literature presents insight to psychology. psychoanalytic criticism one of effective literary research methods is psychological analysis. psychoanalysis is a system of psychology proposed originally by a physician, sigmund freud. the key concept of psychoanalysis is the ideas which are unconscious processes, operations in mind that cannot be represented. repression is the action 122 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 that produces the unconscious by rendering experiences, thoughts, desires, and memories irretrievable. therefore, psychoanalysis is the process whereby clues to repression are recognized and represented in a way, which can be understood by the conscious mind. psychoanalysis consists of three kinds of related activities, they are: (1) a method for research into human mind, particularly thoughts, feelings, emotions, fantasies and dreams, (2) a systematic accumulation of a body of knowledge about the mind, and (3) a method for the treatment of psychological or emotional disorders. as a physician, freud usually told his patients through the interpretations of what was going on inside their unconscious minds, thus making the unconscious become conscious. in his theory of psychoanalysis, freud conceptualized how the unconscious mind operates into a particular structure of human mind. he then advanced the understanding of mind by proposing the idea of motivations of such unconscious mind. these motivations are divided into three parts, where the human mind comes to consist this way. freud believed that people consciousness is only a small number of their thought, feeling and desires. others are just beneath their awareness. the unconscious as freud saw contains motives which freud referred to as instinct as well as personality part of faction memories of early experience and repressed conflict. freud developed a more formal structural model for psychoanalysis, the id, ego and super ego. the id represents the biological substratum of humans, the source of all drive energy. it operates based on the pleasure principle and shows no regard for reality and can seek satisfaction through imagination. the ego stands between the id and superego to balance human primitive needs and moral beliefs. the ego usually comprises all the ordinary thoughts and functions needed to direct a person in his or her daily behavior. it emerges in the developing child according to freud to handle transaction with the environment. one of the ego‟s main tasks is to locate object in the real world that are appropriate for the id‟s need. an ego deals with both demands of the id and reality. it also controls realistic and logical thinking. the superego stands in opposition to the desires of the id. it is part of unconscious mind itself. superego develops a learned sense of right or wrong, good and bad automatically after some periods of time. according to freud, superego tries to force the ego to pursue moral goal instead of simply realistic one and force the id to inhibit its animal impulses. the id constitutes part of one‟s unconscious mind. it is organized around instinctual urges of sexuality, aggression and the desire for instant gratification or release. freud‟s psychoanalytic literary criticism as wardoyo suggested can be developed by psychoanalyzing the characters of certain literary work as if they were real people with a past, repressed desires, and unfulfilled wishes. based on all theories above, the writer finds correlation between the theories and the topic of the study; how female characters in rebecca a novel by daphne du maurier reveal psychological aspects. an analysis through female characters in rebecca “last night i dreamt i went to manderley again” rebecca begins with the description of manderley, a beautiful old mansion, with its menacing woods, rising turrets and long winding drive. the principle characters mentioned in the novel are rebecca, manderley‟s late mistress, language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 123 max de winter, manderley‟s new mistress, de winter‟s second wife and mrs. denver, the maid. max de winter‟s naïve, shy young second wife whom he meets at the hotel cote d‟azur in monte carlo starts the story. she was companion to a snobbish old lady mrs. van hopper whose main occupation is playing bridge and concerning herself with the lives of the distinguished visitors at the hotel. it is through one of mrs. van hopper‟s calculated meetings that her companion met max de winter who was pointed out by her as “the man who owns manderley…” and a widower who could not get over from the reminiscence of his wife‟s death. their relationship began from the next day when max invited her to join his table for lunch and subsequently on a drive. they fell in love and married in haste arriving at manderley eight months after rebecca‟s death. the second wife of de winter is everything that rebecca was not and so conversely. her days at manderley were filled with apprehension and anxiety. rebecca‟s shadow loomed large over her, her presence filled the house kept alive by mrs. danvers who, she found to her horror, preserved rebecca‟s room just as it was the night before her drowning accident. analysis will be focused on female characters of rebecca in their psychological aspects; they are rebecca, the second mrs. de winter and mrs. danvers. as the reader can easily find out that rebecca is the late mrs. de winter who was loved by all the people in manderley except maxim. she was very beautiful and kind; clever people would say that. … she was a lovely person. so full of life. everyone loved her.‟ „she was so good at everything too,‟ i said. „clever, beautiful and fond of sport.‟ rebecca was certainly beautiful … her skin was very white and she had such a lovely dress.‟ (46) „was rebecca very beautiful? … „yes, he said slowly. „yes, i suppose she was the most beautiful woman i ever saw in my life.‟ (48) nobody knew how the character of rebecca was indeed, maxim did. no one realized that despite her beauty and wonderful reputation, she was in fact a creature of utter evil and that maxim never loved her, that rebecca only loved herself …‟ i hated her. we never loved each other. rebecca never loved anyone except herself .. (90), that rebecca was careless with so many terrible things about herself and that she made love with some men. the story of rebecca, manderley‟s late mistress ended when maxim finally killed her after she told maxim about her “pregnancy”. it was her id that urged her to tell maxim about her “pregnancy” and not her illness, so she could convince maxim that the baby was their boy and this would be her buried pleasure that she brought until her death. her dreadful illness symbolizes the castration of herself behind her triumph over maxim, while rebecca itself did not suffer from that castration anxiety, since she never lost what she never had, a maxim de winter. … „if i had a child max,” she said,” everyone would think it was yours. you would like a son, wouldn‟t you? a boy to grow up at manderley. and you would never know who his father was” … (92) the next principle character is the manderley‟s new mistress, de winter second wife. this young girl is symbolically nameless who came to manderley and found herself competing with the shadows of her husband‟s 124 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 dead wife. this shy girl has recently become mrs. de winter, but rebecca was still mrs. de winter‟ first and in the novel we can see the second mrs. de winter attempted to escape and cast aside those shadows. the struggle of mrs. de winter present wife to fight against the oppressive presence of the first wife reminds us of the central freud‟s theory through an oedipus/electra complex dimension. referring to the psychological complex that a young boy is quarreling with his father and wants to be closer to his mother, through the story we know that in marrying maxim, de winter second wife left the mother figure of mrs. van hopper, but then she still found herself be forced to “kill” the presence of rebecca in their life. her id to posses maxim whom she really loved, urged her to prefer to go and live with him at manderley. maxim wanted to show me manderley. suddenly i believed everything. i would be maxim‟s wife. we would walk in the gardens of manderley together. we would walk through that hidden valley to the sea. mrs. de winter – i would be mrs. de winter. (18) … i did not say anything. i was young and shy, i knew that. but i was going to be mrs. de winter. i was going to live at manderley. and i was going to make maxim happy. (19) all above were the dreams of the character as the parts of their unconscious personalities, since the dream itself is pure id. during her early marriage with maxim, she thought that she could never make him happy like rebecca did and concluded that her marriage was a failure. the superego as a moral censor and ego seemed to be lost by the id, for she could not balance the drives of her id toward the reality, the fact is rebecca has died and maxim never loved her, but the second mrs. de winter got frustration by the “ghost” of rebecca. … my marriage was a failure. it had failed after only three months. i was too young for maxim, i knew too little about the world. the fact that i loved him made no difference. it was not the sort of love he needed. maxim was not in love with me. he had never loved me. he did not belong to me, he belonged to rebecca. rebecca was the real mrs. de winter. …‟i knew you were thinking about rebecca all the time. how could i ask you to love me when i knew you loved rebecca?” (90) the third principle character is mrs. danvers who finally burned the beautiful old mansion, manderley. mrs. danvers appeared in that big mansion as a loyal, faithful servant to rebecca. at first meeting with the second mrs. de winter, the sinister mrs. danvers often scared and intimidated her about her existence in manderley. …‟why did you ever come to manderley?‟ she said.‟ nobody wanted you. we were alright until you came.‟ (79) …‟why do you hate me?‟ i asked. „what have i done to you?‟ „you tried to take mrs. de winter‟s place,‟ she said. (80) mrs. danvers tried to persuade the new mistress to leave the manderley, dressing her in rebecca‟s clothes and convincing her to do suicide on the day of the ball, for the reason that de winter did not love her. … she pushed me towards the open window. i could see the stones of the terrace below. beyond the terrace was a white wall of fog. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 125 … don‟t be afraid,‟ said mrs. danvers. „i won‟t push you. you can jump. you‟re not happy. mr. de winter doesn‟t love you. why don‟t you jump now?‟ (82) the suicide as mrs. danvers ordered to mrs. de winter portrays a symbolic castration. it was the id of mrs. danvers to ruin mrs. de winter‟s marriage, to eliminate her and to ask her to leave the house because mrs. danvers love, loyalty and allegiance dedicated only to the beautiful rebecca. so that‟s why it is difficult for her to accept the second mrs. de winter and to let her take rebecca‟s place in manderley. all the feelings of mrs. danvers has toward rebecca insist her id to displace both maxim and mrs. de winter, though that manderley deserves only for rebecca, dead but not forgotten. her superego and ego could not any longer control her action over mrs. de winter. she could not realize a reality of manderley after the death of rebecca for her id leads mrs. danvers to envy mrs. de winter. her superego could not determine whether she did right or wrong toward mrs. de winter. the whole conflict then subsides when maxim and his wife must pay for their loves and all that matters by suffering the destruction of their beautiful home as burned by mrs. danvers. conclusion rebecca by daphne tells about the relation of a boundary among three ladies mentioned on the story, they are rebecca, the second mrs. de winter and mrs. danvers. as the reader found out through the character of rebecca that she was charming and beautiful but unfair to her husband, maxim, while the second mrs. de winter tended to be modest and naive, even she was a sexual inexperience, therefore de winter totally oppressed her. mrs. danvers whose presentiment of evil tightened her heart played role as a person who determined the existence of both manderley and the second mrs. de winter which she never expected to come. the whole story reflects how mrs. danvers required much efforts to displace the new mistress as urges of her ego and her id, that nobody was permitted to replace rebecca‟s position in manderley because the memories of rebecca would be forever kept alive by this woman, and that neither maxim nor his wife may have not lived happily by the death of rebecca. that is the reason why finally mrs. danvers decided to burn the manderley for the sake of her lady, rebecca. based on the concept of personality theory represented by id, ego and superego as proposed by freud, women characters in the rebecca reflect a portrait of life which is full of emotion, disappointment, determination, hatred, and revenge. a human unconscious leads those characters toward psychological conflict which occur throughout the story. in short, when a character could not activate an ego or superego to control the id, to encourage individual into a real life, an energy that should be endured, then he/she would be obliged to go by force of circumstance and would not be able to survive within the environment. references du maurier, daphne.1991. rebecca. jakarta: dian rakyat. endraswara, suwardi. 2004. metodologi penelitian sastra. yogyakarta: pustaka widyatama. freud, sigmund. 1987. memperkenalkan psikoanalisa. translated from ueber psychoanalyze, funf vorlesungen by dr. k. bertens: pt gramedia. 126 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 kiell, norman. 1974. the adolescent through learning. a psychological approach. new york: iternational university press,inc. nelson, benjamin (ed), 2003. freud. manusia paling berpengaruh abad ke-20. surabaya: ikon teralitera. kutha ratna, nyoman. 2009. teori, metode, dan teknik penelitian sastra. dari strukturalisme hingga posttrukturalisme. perspektif wacana naratif. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. wardoyo, s. 2004. handout of telaah sastra inggris mutakhir. a road map into literary research method. magister ilmu susastra. undip. semarang. wellek, r and austin w. 1977. theory of literature. harmund worth, middle sex: penguin books. wright, elizabeth. 1984. psychoanalytic criticism: theory in practice. new york: methuen& co. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 13 english produced by indonesian young efl learners yusnita sylvia ningrum semarang state university abstract this study is aimed at describing what types of english indonesian children can produce after they learn it from school and what linguistic features are used in their english (language). the corpus of the data is a stretch of approximately sixty-minute dialogue between 5 primary school children and their teacher. functional approach proposed by halliday is applied in conducting this study, therefore the term “english” in the title of this paper later on will be exclusively understood as „speech function‟. meanwhile, the phrase “young efl (english as a foreign language) learners” in the following paper is used in several similar meanings, like children, young learners, primary school learners. using speech function network developed by eggins and slade (1997), then, it is found out that indonesian young efl-learners are able to produce speech functions (english) such those of produced by adult in quite complex linguistic features. key words: speech function, realization, english as a foreign language, primary school learners introduction english is one of many foreign languages found in indonesia. fortunately, considering the role of english in the world, english is treated as the first and major foreign language in indonesia. english is put in the national curriculum, it is taught systematically, and it is also used more widely in the indonesians‟ aspects of life compared to other foreign languages. nowadays, still there is an interesting tendency that english is learned by young learners in indonesia. despite skepticism surrounding it, more and more children go or are sent by their parent to institution providing english teaching and learning. one of the problems in studying the language of a very young child is that of knowing what language is and what is not. in this case, indonesian young learners who learn english for the first time can be associated in the condition. when they learn english, there is a question of what kind of english they produce or is the english they produce standard english or indonesian english or just a stretch of sound in a strange intonation. another problem dealing with english learning in indonesia is that it shares the same central characteristics of foreign language learning which lies in the amount and type of exposure to the language: there will be very little experience of the language outside the classroom, and encounters with the language will be through several hours of teaching in a school week. apart from the fact that english is being a foreign language in indonesia, children who learn the language at school are considered to have more than just linguistic competence. there are some unique characteristics of english produced by young learners learning english at school. 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 children learning english at school are believed to have acquired better language compare to those learning english without any guidance. nunan (1993:106) argues that many aspects of children‟s grammatical as well as discoursal ability continue to develop after they enter school. though, brown and yule investigated the speaking and listening skills of secondary school pupils in britain, as quoted by nunan (1993), found that while pupils were able to use language for social purposes, they were much less skilled at using language for transactional purposes (language used to get things done in the real world). in addition, the pupils were not particularly skilled at taking what brown and yule refer to as „long turns‟ – that is, monologues in which the speaker is required to put together a coherent sequence of utterances. the discussion that follows shows what kind of english indonesian primary school learners of efl produce after they are being treated at school, and what linguistic features they used in their english. the object of the study is 5 young learners learning english at a bilingual school in semarang. later on, the students will be addressed as student 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. as the name suggested, at school, the teacher delivered the class in two languages, english and indonesian. english is the main language used in the classroom. indonesian is only used to deliver bahasa indonesia course and as supporting language in courses like mathematics, religion, pancasila. in addition, it is obligatory for the teacher and students to speak english all the time (at the time coming to school until leaving school), though some children sometimes shifted to indonesian. functionalist approach to language systemic functional linguistics (sfl/sf) theory views language as a social semiotic, a resource people use to accomplish their purposes by expressing meanings in context. language is a system for making meanings: a semantic system, with other system for encoding the meaning it produces (halliday, 1994: xvii). it is a systematic resource for expressing meaning in context. the language used in an interaction is a resource for the interactants to engage with one another to exchange meanings. this involves (1) enactment of roles and relations – interpersonal meaning, (2) construal of experience – ideational meaning, (3) presentation of the meaning created through enactment and construal as information organized into text in context – textual meaning. when children use language to interact, they are creating relationship. within the relationship, they negotiate meaning through their speech. children, then, learn and use language at the same time. at the very initial period, they learn their mother tongue to be able to interact with those who are very close around them (example: at home) – in which this process is often referred to as „language acquisition‟. as time goes on and children develop, they will have broader social environment. this will also be followed by development of their language. as children grow, their linguistic performance develops; they can use language not only to show the function, but they may also comprehend the structure of the language they learn as well. from the point of view of sfl, language acquisition is learning how to express meanings acquiring the functions one can perform with human language (chapelle, 2004). in functional approach to language, the centre of discussion is what language can do, or rather what the speaker, child or adult, can do with it; and functional approach also tries to explain the nature of language, its internal organization and language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 15 patterning, in terms of the functions that it has evolved to serve. in a functional context, any vocal sound (and any gesture, if the definition is made to include gesture) which is interpretable by reference to a recognized function of language is language – provided always that the relationship of sound to meaning is regular and consistent. the production of a sound is a means of language learning, but is not itself an instance of language. the production of a sound for the purpose of attracting attention is language. at the early stage of children development, sound production to attract others‟ attention is a common occurrence. yet, „attracting attention‟ is a means that fits in with the functional potential of language at this stage of development. therefore, it may be assumed that very young children have produced their language to fulfill the function of language itself. speech function halliday (1985) mentions that whenever someone uses language to interact, one of the things they are doing is establishing a relationship: between the person speaking now and the person who will probably speak next. the negotiation which characterizes spoken texts is achieved through the sequencing of moves, each of which performs a speech function or a speech act. the basic types of speech role are giving and demanding, while the commodities being exchanged are goods or service and information. it is a proposition when the commodity being exchanged is information, and when the commodity being exchanged is goods or service, linguists name it proposal. these two variables of exchange commodity and exchange of role define the four basic moves of speech functions: offer, command, statement, and question. eggins (1994:150) says that every starting move in dialogue must be one or other of these speech functions and each speech function involves both a speech role and a commodity choice. the dialogue does not involve simply one move from one speaker but also to recognize that after one speaker has initiated an exchange, other speaker likely to respond. the responding can be broadly differentiated into two types: a supporting type of responding move, versus a confronting type. the system network used to analyze the speech functions in this paper is the system network proposed by eggins and slade (1997). an overview of the entire network, showing the major subcategories of speech function classes are given below: figure 1. overview of the speech function network taken from eggins and slade (1997:102) move sustain continue react respond rejoinder open 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 as halliday proposes, each subclasses of speech function by eggins and slade above are divided into two kinds, as supporting response and confronting response. so, sustaining speech function has continuing speech function as the supporting response and reacting move as the confronting move; reacting move which is divided into response and rejoinder, each of them also has the supporting and confronting responses. factors influencing language acquisition in vygotskyan theory, children are seen as active learners in a world full of other people. the children‟s language development and learning take place in a social context, i.e. in a world full of other people, who interact with the children from birth onwards. those people play an important role in helping children to learn, bringing objects and ideas to their attention, talking while playing and about playing, reading stories, asking questions. adults mediate the world for children and make it accessible to them. with the help of adults, children can do and understand much more than they can on their own. moreover, in relation to language acquisition, children, and teacher, lindfors (1980) argues that (1) the growth of language is a continuous process for children, (2) the growth of language is deeply rooted in the child‟s cognitive growth, (3) the growth of language involves the child as the active party in the learning process, (4) the growth of language is aided by an environment which is geared toward the child‟s ways of learning, (5) the growth of language is aided by an environment which is responsive to the child, (6) the growth of language is aided by an environment which focuses on meaning rather than on form, (7) the growth of language is aided by an environment which provides rich diversity of verbal and nonverbal experience. english produced by primary school learners of efl after the data – in the form of children‟s conversation – were transcribed and analyzed synoptically, it is then found out that the speech functions children perform are opening, continuing, react: responding, and react: rejoinder speech functions. student 1 produced 9 opening speech functions, 26 continuing speech functions, 16 responding and 12 rejoinder speech functions. student 2 produced 12 opening speech functions, 14 continuing speech functions, and 17 responding speech functions. student 3 made 19 opening speech functions, 9 continuing speech functions, 17 responding speech functions, and 11 rejoinder speech functions. student 4 made 7 opening speech functions, 6 continuing speech functions, 12 responding speech functions, and 9 rejoinder speech functions. student 5 performed the least number of speech functions consisting of 9 opening, 4 continuing, 5 responding, and 5 rejoinders. english produced by primary school learners of efl: opening speech function opening: attending speech function is characterized by salutations, greetings and calls, all of which function to prepare the ground for interaction by securing the attention of the intended interactant. all the children in the study produced the attending speech function. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 17 o: attending 16 student 5 (i) miss? r: responding: 17 teacher (i) yes? engange the above excerpt gives an example of attending speech function produced by the student; it was produced by student 5. he called the teacher by saying miss to get the teacher‟s attention. this utterance is therefore included into attending speech function. almost all of the attending speech functions produced by the students in the study were directed to the teacher by calling the teacher‟s name miss or miss melani. opening: offering speech function is speech function used to give goods and services. in the data studied, only one student made an offering speech function, and the teacher produced only 2 offerings. it seems that giving goods and services did not happen frequently in the interaction. goods and services are not the important things in the interaction. as it is said previously that the interaction happened in a classroom setting, in which goods and services are not the things commonly discussed; rather it is information that is the main thing being discussed. the offering speech function produced by student 4 can be seen in the following fragment. however, the realization of offering speech function is somehow incongruent. o: i: offer 151 student 4 i need to close the door. r: responding 152 teacher thank you. reply: accept in the above excerpt, when student 4 said i need to close the door, he actually did not just give statement. but, it could be viewed as an offering, since he intended to give service to others in the class to close the door. furthermore, it was supported by the fact that the classroom was air-conditioned in which the door should be closed. and at the time the door was open. so, student 4‟s utterance can be categorized as an offer. contrary to offering, opening: command speech function is the one which is used to demand goods and services. the speaker of this speech function needs others to get goods and services for her. command also shows someone‟s status and power. someone produces more command in his utterances is considered as instructive and hence posses higher status and power than the addressee. in the data studied, the teacher as the manager of the class produced the significant number of commands. she made 27 commands; whereas the students only produced 3 commands. 3 students made 3 commands; two students did not make it. all commands produced by the teacher were addressed to the students, 18 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 while the students‟ commands were pointed to their friend. it reveals, once again, that the teacher has higher status and power than students. she can give command to the students, but the students can not. student‟s commands were pointed to students‟ friends whose status and power were considered equal. the example of the command made by the student is given below: o: i: command 250 student 3 (i) ken-ken, say. r: responding 251 student 4 (i) nursery rhyme developing: elaborate statement and offer are similar speech functions. both are opening speech functions whose functions are to give, but statement and offer give something different. offer gives goods and services, statement gives information. the information provided by the speaker producing statement speech function can be classified into attitudinal or evaluative information and factual information. therefore, statement speech function can be further categorized into giving attitudinal or evaluative information and giving factual information. in data studied, almost all the participants produced statement speech function. however, giving factual information happened more frequently than giving opinion or attitudinal information. it can be understood since it is not in the capacity of the children to give opinion on others. children at their age can not judge subjectively yet. they give information based on what they know from the environments. there were two students who did not produce statement giving attitudinal information. on the other hand, all students or children produced statement giving factual information; even the number of the later statement was bigger than the former. the total number of the statement produced by the students was extremely greater than those produced by the teacher. it reveals that the children gave more information than the teacher. the children conveyed their thought repeatedly. this information can also be treated as the way teacher let the students get the floor. by giving less information, the teacher let children talk each other, give information each other. teacher‟s turn would come when the students were lack of information. o: i: statement 177/a student 4 (i) miss melani, i can make a big fact mountain. c: prolong: 177/b (ii) but, he brake it. extend r: rejoinder 178 teacher (i) he broke it. repair language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 19 r: responding: 179/a student 4 (i) yeah, he broke my mountain. developing: elaborate student 4‟s utterance in turn 177/a is one of the examples of statement of fact produced by the students. he told the teacher the truth that he could make a big mountain from sand. similar and several other statements of fact were produced by the children in the data. besides giving factual information, the students also made opinion or attitudinal statements, either to their teacher or to their friend. opening: question speech function is similar to command speech function, in the way that both of them are an act of demanding. they are different; however, in the case that questioning is an act of demanding information, whereas commanding is an act of demanding goods and services. since information can be classified into factual information and opinion information, question speech function can also be further classified into question: fact and question: opinion. in english, furthermore, question can be divided into open question and closed question. open question is a question which requires an explanative answer. it is characterized with whquestion words at the beginning of the question. closed question, on the other hand, does not need an explanative answer. it is enough to give the answer „yes‟ or „no‟. a closed question is characterized with polar interrogative construction. hence, question speech function can be classified in detail as: question: open: fact, question: open: opinion, question: closed: fact, question: closed: opinion. in the studied data, almost all participants produced all kinds of question speech functions. there was only one student who did not produce open question asking for factual information, only 2 students produced open question asking for opinion, and there 2 students who did not produce closed question asking for factual information, and 3 students did not make closed question asking for opinion. o: i: question: 38 student 2 (i) where is my glue? open: fact r: responding: 39/a student 3 (i) i don‟t know reply: disavow in the above excerpt, student 2 asked about the existence of his glue. he made a question using wh-question word where, indicating that he produced an open question. what he was asking to is about the factual information. 20 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 english produced by primary school learners of efl: continuing speech function continuing speech function is speech function which is produced by speaker who has just finished his move. in a conversation, when one speaker finishes his move or talk, another speaker may get into the floor or the current speaker keeps on talking producing different move. the later is called continuing speech function. the continuing move then captures the options open to a speaker who retains the turn at the end of the move and who produces a move which is meant to be heard as related to an immediately prior move produced by the same speaker. in the data under study, almost all the children produced all the continuing speech function. the total number of continuing speech functions produced by all children is bigger than the teacher‟s. the teacher only produced 51 continuing speech functions, while the children altogether made 59 continuing speech. it proves that the children may maximalize the turn they had to convey their ideas. continuing: monitoring involves deploying moves in which the speaker focuses on the state of the interactive situation, for example by checking that the audience is following, or by inviting another speaker to take turn in which case the invited response is set up as a supporting response. only 1 student or child under study produced continuing: monitoring speech function. c: prolong: 26/b student 1 (ii) miss, (it‟s) a big hole. elaborate c: monitor 26/c (iii) see c: prolong: 26/d (iv) a big hole here. enhance in the excerpt above, student 1 in turn number 26/c invited the teacher to look at the hole he pointed at. the word see uttered with rising intonation indicates that he did not want to lose his teacher‟s attention while he was talking. the moves before and after the word see indicate that he took the same turn while his utterances had different function. continuing: prolonging speech functions are those where a continuing speaker adds to their contribution by providing further information. eggins and slade (1997:197) mention that a language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 21 speech function and its prolonging continuation is perceived as one of expansion, meaning a prolonging move builds on or fills out the move it is logically connected with. therefore a prolonging sequel may be one of elaboration, extension, or enhancement. almost all the children produced three kinds of prolonging speech function. there were, however, 2 children who did not made enhancement. o: i: statement: 1/a student 5 (i) miss, yesterday we already used fact it. c: prolong: 1/b (ii) but, it’s broke. extension in 1/b, student 5 added extra information on what happen to it (recorder) he had said in 1/a. instead of saying miss, yesterday we already used this broken recorder, he started his move by giving factual information like those is 1/a, then he added contrasting information on his previous one. the relationship of student 5‟s first and second moves is shown by the conjunction but. this kind of prolonging speech function is classified into extension. eggins and slade (1997:199) say that appending move is mid-way between a continuing: prolonging speech function and a reacting: developing move. appending move occurs when a speaker makes one move, loses the turn, but then as soon as he regain the turn he produces a move which represents a logical expansion of their immediately prior move. in the data studied, almost all the children produced this kind of speech function. it happened because there were many gaps and overlaps in the interaction. there were several participants talking at the same time, then one of them decided to hold his turn for a moment. when he got the turn back, he continued his speech. r: rejoinder: 43 student 3 (i) miss, what i have to do with this? rebounding o: i: statement 44 student 2 (i) == miss, i lost … fact o: i: command 45 teacher (i) == cut all and make them in order, ok? c: appending: 46 student 2 (i) i already lost … elaboration 22 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 in the excerpt above, student 2 made an appending: elaboration speech function. his speech in turn number 44 overlaps with the teacher‟s turn number 45. he talked at the same time with the teacher who replied student 3‟s question. when the teacher terminated her turn, student 2 immediately continued his turn, even though it was an incomplete clause. the speech in 46 is an appending speech function for its nature. further, the appending speech here functioned to restate what had been said before, so it is elaboration even though there is no explicit conjunction used. english produced by primary school learners of efl: reacting: responding speech function eggins and slade (1997) distinguish the difference between responding and rejoinder in reacting move. responding is considered as reaction which moves the exchange towards completion, while rejoinder is reaction which in some way prolongs the exchange. responding: developing speech function indicates a very high level of acceptance of the previous speaker‟s proposition. when someone accepts previous speaker‟s proposition, he might expand the proposition in the ways of elaborating, extending, or enhancing the proposition. from the study, it is recognized that student 5 is the only child who did not produce responding: developing speech functions in the interaction. it suggests that he never showed his agreement to other participants in the interaction verbally. in addition, from the study it is also revealed that student 3 is the only child that developed previous speaker‟s proposition using enhancement. it indicates that she is a very cooperative participant of the interaction. she provides interpersonal support for the initiator and at the same time offering further ideational content for negotiation. she is the only child in the interaction who develop previous speaker‟s proposition using elaboration, extension, and enhancement. an example of responding: developing speech function is given below. c: prolong: 172/c teacher (v) let‟s see enhance (vi) that you can finish it in 15 minutes. ok? r: responding: 173 student 4 (i) but, but i can make a mountain on developing: the sand for 5 minutes. extend student 4 in his turn number 173 gave a contrasting detail to the teacher‟s proposition. it seems that his speech does not have any relation to the teacher‟s. however, if we analyze further by saying but, but i can make a mountain on the sand for 5 minutes actually he accepts the teacher‟s proposition to finish the project in 15 minutes. he assumed that if he only needed 5 minutes to make an artificial mountain on the sand, so he would not need 15 minutes to finish language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 23 the project. he accepted the teacher‟s proposition by adding further contrasting details. the use of conjunction but shows that his utterance is highly connected to the previous one. responding: engaging speech function is one which is exchange-compliant reaction to attending moves. it includes responses to attention-getting attending moves. from the data analysis, there was not any engaging speech function produced by the children. responding: registering speech function is reaction which provides supportive encouragement for the other speaker to take another turn. it does not introduce any new material for negotiation, and it carries the strong expectation that the immediately prior speaker will be the next speaker (eggins and slade, 1997:204). from the analysis, it was only student 3 who made responding: registering speech function. in addition, the register she made is a non verbal reaction to student 4‟s speech. o: i: command 250 student 3 (i) ken-ken, say. r: responding 251 student 4 (i) nursery rhyme. reply: comply r: responding: 252 student 3 <laugh> register in turn 251, student 4 said nursery rhyme as a compliment on student 3‟s command in the previous turn. he said the word with emphatic stress and increased volume. it made student 3 laugh because it was funny on her ear. she perceived it as something funny, comical, but she liked that. she did not say anything else besides laughing, hoping that student 4 would ask her why she was laughing or ask her to stop laughing at her. responding: reply is the most negotiatory of the responding reactions, although it negotiates the proposition given by a prior speaker. replying speech function can be further classified into supporting and confronting. all initiations can be matched with supporting replies which cover comply, accept, agree, acknowledge, answer, and affirm. supporting replies indicate a willingness to accept the propositions or proposals of the other speakers. from the characteristics, it is not surprising, therefore, to find many kinds of this speech functions in the data produced by the children. among his friends, student 2 produced the highest number of replying (13), followed by student 3 (8), student 1 and student 4 (7), and the least is student 5 (3). r: rejoinder: 14/a teacher (i) why don‟t you have 2 …2 pages? challenge: 24 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 rebounding c: monitor 14/b (ii) two or one …. two, ok? r: responding: 15 student 1 (i) because i lost one. reply: answer the above excerpt gives one of the examples of replying speech function. student 1‟s speech in turn number 15 is considered as a replying speech function in which it gives answer to the teacher‟s question on the prior turn. giving an answer is one of replying speech functions. responding: confronting responses range from either disengaging or by offering a confronting reply. a range of confronting replies can be paired with the typical initiations. from the analysis, besides producing supportive response, the children also give confronting response even though the number of the later is smaller that the former. student 1 produced 4 confronting speech functions; student 2, student 3, and student 5, each made 2 confronting speech functions; student 4 only made 1 confronting speech function. o: i: question 38 student 2 (i) where is my glue? open: fact r: responding: 39/a student 3 (i) i don’t know. reply: disavow in the excerpt above student 2 asked student 3 whether she knew about his glue or not. since she did not know where student 2‟s glue was, student 3 gave a respond by saying i don’t know. it is a confronting responding speech function which is called disavow. english produced by primary school learners of efl: reacting: rejoinder speech function reacting: rejoinder speech functions are those which tend to set underway sequences of talk that interrupt, postpone, abort or suspend the initial speech function sequence (eggins and slade, 1997:207). from the data analysis, it can be seen that the children produced this kind of speech function even though only a few of them. there are three categories of rejoinder speech function that the children produced: tracking, responding, and challenging. rejoinder: tracking moves are moves which check, confirm, clarify or probe the content of the prior moves. from the analysis, student 1 produced 2 checking speech functions, 2 confirming, 1 clarifying but no probing speech function. student 2 only made one checking speech function; student 3 made 1 checking and 4 probing speech functions; student 4 produced 1 checking, 1 confirming, and 2 probing speech language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 25 functions. student 5 is the only child that did not produce any tracking speech function. r: responding: 65 student 2 (i) (i‟m) six. reply: answer r: rejoinder: 66 student 1 (i) you’re five, six already? confirming student 1‟s speech in turn number 66 is produced to verify information he heard. he tried to confirm that what he heard is the right one, that student 2 had already come to cut number six. it is a confirming speech function. rejoinder: tracking moves call more or less directly for further talk from the prior speaker. the responses may be supporting, as when a tracking request is resolved or a challenge acquiesced. tracking moves may also be responded to with repair moves. (eggins and slade, 1997) from the analysis, there are only 3 children producing response to tracking moves. the responses produced are resolve and repair. o: i: statement 93 student 5 (i) i get confused with it – with this opinion scissors and paper. r: rejoinder: 94 teacher (i) you ….. what? track: check r: rejoinder 95/a student 5 confused and messed. track: resolve student 5‟s speech in turn number 95/a provide clarification to the teacher questioning the previous turn. he acquiesced with the information he had produced in turn 93. it is a resolving speech function. rejoinder: challenging speech function is one which confronts prior talk by attacking it on one of several fronts: e.g. by actively rejecting negotiation or by querying the veracity of what has been said or the sayer‟s right to say it (eggins and slade, 1997:211). from the analysis, children produced challenging speech functions by detaching (1), rebounding (11), countering (5), refuting (4). no children produced re-challenging speech function. 26 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 r: responding: 109 teacher (i) the recorder – it works. reply: answer r: rejoinder: 110 student 1 (i) is it on or off? challenging: rebounding in turn 110, student 1 directly questioned the veracity of the prior information given by the teacher. he asked whether the recorder was on or off. this kind of challenging speech function is called rebounding. linguistic features in children’s spoken interaction another interesting point revealed from the analysis is concerning the linguistic features in children‟s spoken interaction. the analysis provides information that children could produce as complex linguistic features as adult‟s in their speech. in 60 minutes student-teacher interaction, the teacher took turn for 126 times (41.72%), while the rest of the turn was divided almost equally to the students – student 1 took turn for 39 times (12.91%); student 2: 38 (12.58%); student 3: 49 (16.62%); student 4: 30 (9.93%); and student 5 (6.62%). besides that, 196 moves were produced by the teacher in the interaction, while 220 moves were produced by the students distributed in such a way that student 1 produced 66 moves; student 2: 46 moves; student 3: 52 moves; student 4:39 moves; and student 5 with 66 moves. the students also produced almost the same number of clauses as the teachers‟, that is 240 clauses, distributed into 71 clauses produced by student 1, 48 by student 2, 62 by student 3, and 33 and 26 by student 4 and 5 successively. surprisingly enough is about the production of incomplete clauses. students produced small number of incomplete clauses in their speech. student 4 and 5, each of them made a single incomplete clause, student 3 made 2 incomplete clauses, and student 2 had 4 incomplete clauses in the conversation. student 1 produced more incomplete clauses than his friends. from the data analysis, the children also produced several minor clauses. student 1 produced 8 (8.51%) minor clauses, student 2 produced 12 (12.76%) minor clauses, student 3 made 15 (15.96%) minor clauses, student 4 made 11 (11.7%) minor clauses, and student 5 made 5 (5.32%) minor clauses in the interaction. the students under study produced quite a lot of number of declaratives, either full or elliptical declarative. student 1 produced 46 full declarative and 11 elliptical declarative, bigger in number than his other friends, student 2 produced 25 full declarative and 8 elliptical declarative, student 3 made 31 full declarative and 6 elliptical declarative, student 5 made 15 full and 7 elliptical declarative, while student 4 only produced 14 full declarative without any elliptical declarative. meanwhile, from the analysis, it was found that only the teacher who produced tagged declarative – type of clause which falls midway between the declarative and the polar interrogative – and it was only one in number. there are two kinds of polar interrogatives found in the study – full polar interrogative and language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 27 elliptical polar interrogative. both the students and the teacher produced the polar interrogatives. however, the number of polar interrogatives produced by the teacher is bigger than the ones produced by the students. moreover, only student 4 produced full and elliptical polar interrogatives. other students only made full polar interrogative. the same as polar interrogative, there are two kinds of wh-interrogatives found in the study, full wh-interrogative and elliptical interrogative. both the teacher and the students produced whinterrogatives. however, the number of whinterrogatives produced by the teacher is bigger than the ones produced by the students. student 1 and student 4 produced both full and elliptical wh-interrogatives, while other students only made the full wh-interrogative. from the analysis, it is found out that the children did not produce many imperatives. it is understood in two ways. first, children are not in capacity of commanding (imperatives function to command). they are equal with their friend and in sub position of the teacher. second, the interaction is more on information sharing. command is an act of demanding goods and services, so this kind of function rarely happened in the interaction, consequently imperatives hardly found to be produced by the children. the analysis also reveals that student 1 and student 3 produced the highest modalities (15 and 12), followed by student 2 (10), student 4 (7), and student 5 (4). modalities are shown by the use of modalization and modulation. modalization tempers the message with reference to degrees of frequency or probability, while the modulation is the qualification of the message with references to degrees of obligation, inclination, and probability. conclusion based on the analysis, it can be concluded that children learning english as a foreign language can acquire similar speech functions as adult in their spoken interaction. with the support from adult (teacher) and the proper environment, children whose native language is indonesian and started to learn english when they were at school ages are able to interact with others, convey message and share ideas using english. they can also realize the speech functions into an organized and logical system of mood. references cameron, l. 2001. teaching languages to young children. uk: cambridge university press. chapelle, c. a. some notes on systemic functional linguistics. in www.public.iastate. edu/`carolc/ling511/sfl.html (retrieved october 2005). eggins, s. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publisher. foster, s. h. 1999. the communicative competence of young children. harlow, essex: pearson education limited. goh, ch. c.m. and r.e. silve. 2004. language acquisition and development. singapore: pearson education south asia pte. ltd. halliday, m.a.k. and r. hasan. 1985. language, context, and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. melbourne: deakin university press. halliday, m.a.k.1994. an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 lindfors, w.j. 1980. children’s language and learning. englewood cliffs, n.j.: prentice hall, inc. nunan, d. 1993. introducing discourse analysis. london: the pinguin group. paul, d. 2003. teaching english to children in asia. hongkong: longman asia elt. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 1 analysing the grammar of casual conversation: enacting role relations intan permata hapsari semarang state university abstract this article offers an overview of the conversation analysis (ca) method and its theoretical and practical applications for qualitative social scientific research. the article also discusses the method's analytical contributions and methodological applications based on the grammar of casual conversation offered by eggins and slade (1997). for illustration, analyses of data fragments are presented, using english language from telephone conversation recorded from one of radio programs. the recorded conversation was taken from the english program at rct fm radio on sunday. the analyses try to describe and explain how language enables us to initiate and sustain casual talk. the article highlights ca's unique insights into the way social processes, relations, and identities are constructed and experienced at the level of everyday interaction, and draws attention to some of the ways in which the method can be of benefit to social scientists from a variety of disciplines. key words: introduction as socialized individuals, we spend much of our lives talking, or interacting, with other people. interacting is not just a mechanical process of taking turns at producing sounds and words. interacting is a semantic activity, a process of making meanings. as we take turns in any interaction we negotiate meanings about what we think is going on in the world, how we feel about it, and how we feel about the people we interact with. this process of exchanging meanings is functionally motivated: we interact with each other in order to accomplish a wide range of tasks. very often we talk to other people to accomplish quite specific, pragmatic tasks: we talk to buy and to sell, to find out information, to pass on knowledge, to make appointment, to get jobs, and to jointly participate in practical activities. at other times we talk simply for the sake of talking itself. an example of this is when we get together with friends or workmates over coffee or dinner and just have a chat. it is to these informal interactions that the label casual conversation is usually applied (eggins and slade 1997:6). despite its sometimes aimless appearance and apparently trivial content, casual conversation is, in fact, a highly structured, functionally motivated, semantic activity. motivated by interpersonal needs continually to establish who we are, how we relate to others, and what we think of how the world is, casual conversation is a critical linguistic site for the negotiation of such important dimensions of our social identity as gender, generational location, sexuality, social class membership, ethnicity, and subcultural and group affiliations. in fact, casual conversation is concerned with the joint construction of social reality. as stated by eggins and slade (1997:7), “we treat conversation as an exchange of meanings, as text, and recognize its privileged role in the construction of social identities and interpersonal relations.” they (1997:8) also add that “casual conversation is the kind of talk we engage in when we are talking just for the sake of talking.” language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 2 this raises the question of just what we mean by “casualness”. berger and luckman in eggins and slade (1997:18) point out that to see the takenfor-granted background of everyday life, we need to problematize it in some way. how, then, can we problematize the casualness of casual conversation to discover what is going on? they state that we problematize the casualness of casual conversation by critically analyzing it. critical analysis involves describing casual talk in an explicit, systematic, and necessarily, technical way. it involves analysing how language is used in different ways to construct casual conversation and how patterns of interaction reveal the social relations among the interactants. therefore through this article, i try to analyze the interactional patterns in casual conversation through which interactants jointly construct social relations. however, i just analyzed the grammatical patterns at the clause level which indicate power and subordination within interaction. review of related literature casual conversation eggins and slade (1997:8) state “casual conversation is the kind of talk we engage in when we are talking just for the sake of talking.” in casual conversation we see language being used as a resource to negotiate social identity and interpersonal relations. casual conversation is motivated by interpersonal goals: people chat not just to kill time, but rather to clarify and extend the interpersonal ties that have brought them together. interpersonal ties are the accumulation of values for four main dimensions: the status relationships enacted by participants, the frequency with which they come into contact, the degree of affective involvement they feel towards each other, and their sense of affiliation with each other. the apparent triviality of casual conversation disguises the significant interpersonal work it achieves as interactants enact and confirm social identities and relations. this is what we regard as the central paradox of casual conversation. the paradox lies in the fact that casual conversation is the type of talk in which we feel most relaxed, most spontaneous, and most ourselves, and yet casual conversation is a critical site for the social construction of reality. the relaxed nature of casual conversation leads to a very common perception by those who participate in such talk that it is trivial and that „nothing‟ happens. however, the evidence of analysis suggests that conversation is anything but trivial. it suggests that casual conversation, in fact, constructs social reality. conversation analysis conversation analysis is an approach to the study of natural conversation, especially with a view to determining the following:  participants‟ methods of turn-taking, constructing sequences of utterances across turns, identifying and repairing problems, and employing gaze and movement.  how conversation works in different conventional settings. here are some examples of conventional settings in which conversation analysis could take place: interviews, court hearings, telephone conversations, card games. conversation analysis (commonly abbreviated as ca) is the study of talk in interaction (both verbal and non-verbal in situations of everyday life). ca generally attempts to describe the orderliness, structure and sequential patterns of interaction, whether institutional (in school, a doctor's surgery, court or elsewhere) or in casual conversation. ca is the study of recorded, naturally occurring talk-inhttp://www.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms/whatisaturn.htm http://www.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms/whatisanutterance.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/school http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/surgery_%28disambiguation%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/court http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conversation language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 3 interaction. but what is the aim of studying these interactions? principally, it is to discover how participants understand and respond to one another in their turns at talk, with a central focus on how sequences of action are generated (hutchby and wooffitt 2008). ca investigates social action with a focus on participants' understanding of one another‟s conduct. this premise (language use as social action), as well as certain aspects of sequence organization, which refers to relations between turns such as adjacency pairs. through their messages, participants accomplish actions and display their understanding of one another‟s actions, and these actions can stand in a particular relation to one another. moreover, for ca the research data are typically naturally occurring interactions. grammatical patterns in casual conversation the major grammatical resource which english offers for making the interpersonal meanings: the clause systems of mood is used. the analysis of mood choices in casual conversation can reveal tensions between equality and difference, as interactants enact and construct relations of power through talk. the grammatical resources of the language here are used to construct and enact personal identity and interpersonal relationships. grammatical patterns are revealed by studying the types of clause structures chosen by interactants and are displayed within each speaker‟s turns. the patterned choices are part of what indicates the different social roles being played by the interactants, and how such roles are constructed in our culture. at the clause level, the major patterns which enact roles and role relations are those of mood, with the associated subsystems of polarity and modality. mood refers to patterns of clause type, such as interrogative, imperative, and declarative. these patterns have to do with the presence and configuration of certain negotiable elements of clause structure. polarity is concerned with whether clause elements are asserted or negated, while modality covers the range of options open to interactants to temper or qualify their contributions. research method this research is based on the analysis of casual conversation of telephone conversation recorded from the radio. the recorded conversation was taken from the „english program‟ broadcasted by rct fm radio on sunday. as usual there are three speakers in that program, two as broadcasters, while the other is the participant of the program who calls them by phone. each participant/caller spends about 10 to 15 minutes to talk with the broadcasters. the speakers of the „english program‟ on that day were andi and asri as the broadcasters and the caller, irwan. there are three stages in analyzing the grammar of casual conversation of the „english program‟, namely: (1) transcribing the conversation completed with the transcription key; (2) presenting the summary of turn, move and clause completed with conversational structure as offered by eggins and slade (1997). it is aimed to describe the interactants‟ position by looking at who makes what kinds of moves, and who plays which roles in the exchanges of a dialogue. this summary, then, is used as a base of quantifying speech function choices (table 1) and mood choices (table 2). based on those two tables, it is possibly that the interactants‟ position could be analyzed and interpreted; (3) making interpretation of the conversation based on speech function and mood choices analysis as offered by eggins and slade (1997). language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 4 analysis and interpretation based on the analysis of speech function choices and mood choices, it may reveal whether the speaker is as dominant or as incidental participant in that talk, and how the speaker expresses his proposition. the results of speech function and mood choices analysis are presented in table 1 and table 2. table 1summary of speech function choices in “ english program ” no speech function andi irwan asri 1. number of turns 29 25 25 number of moves 42 (7) ( nv 1, 2, 30 (3) 26 (2) 3, 4, 6, 9, 10 ) ( nv 7, 8, 11) ( nv 5, 11 ) number of clauses 53 35 31 2. open initiate : offer 2 initiate : question : opinion 3 2 1 initiate : state : opinion 1 1 initiate : state : fact 1 total 6 4 1 3. continue monitor 2 prolong : elaborate 2 3 1 prolong : extend 2 1 prolong : enhance 2 1 append : elaborate 2 append : extend 1 1 append : enhance 1 3 total 10 11 1 4. react : responding develop : elaborate 1 develop : extend 3 engage 1 1 1 register 12 1 17 reply : accept 2 1 reply : agree 2 2 reply : acknowledge 1 reply : answer 2 4 1 reply : affirm 2 confront : disavow 1 confront : contradict 1 total 23 10 23 5. react : rejoinder tracking : confirm 1 tracking : clarify 3 1 tracking : probe 1 response : resolve 2 response : repair 1 total 3 5 1 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 5 table 2 mood choices in “ english program ” no mood choices andi irwan asri 1. number of turns 29 25 25 number of clauses 53 35 31 2. declaratives 23 ( 43,4% ) 19 ( 54,3% ) 13 ( 41,2% ) full 17 ( 32,1% ) 13 ( 37,1% ) 1 ( 3,2% ) elliptical 4 ( 7,5%) 6 ( 17,1% ) 4 ( 13% ) incomplete 2 ( 3,8% ) 8 ( 25,8% ) 3. polar interrogative full 2 ( 3,8% ) 1 ( 2,9% ) 1 ( 3,2% ) elliptical 1 ( 2% ) 2 ( 5,7% ) 2 ( 6,5% ) incongruent interrogative 2 ( 3,8% ) 1 ( 3,2% ) 4. wh-interrogative full 3 ( 5,7% ) 1 ( 2,9% ) 1 ( 3,2% ) elliptical 1 ( 2%) 1 ( 2,9% ) incomplete wh-interrogative 1 ( 2% ) 5. imperative 1 ( 2% ) 6. minor 14 ( 26,4% ) 4 ( 11,4% ) 9 ( 29% ) 7. most frequent i : 2; irwan : 2; we i : 5; the topic : 1; irwan : 2; you subject choice (retmono & asri) my time : 1; you (irwan) : 1; : 2; we (generic) : 1 (asri) : 1; your impersonal : 1 ; you (irwan) : 7; opinion (asri‟s you (asri) : 1; your opinion) : 1; we opinion (irwan & (generic) : 1; asri) : 1; impersonal : 3 impersonal : 6 8. negation 1 ( 2% ) 1 ( 2,9% ) 9. adjuncts : circumstantial 4 13 7 interpersonal 8 12 2 textual 20 9 7 10. modalization (i) probability high 2 (subjective; impl.) median 5 (subjective; expl.) low 3 (subjective; impl.) (ii) usuality high 1 1 median 1 11. modulation (i) obligation median : advice 1 total no of modalities 1 13 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 6 dominant and incidental participants we can see from the table 2 that there are three participants in “english program” (andi, irwan and asri). it shows that andi produces 29 turns while irwan and asri produce the same turns, 25. this suggests that three of them are the dominants. although irwan and asri both have the same turn, asri always tends to re-say what andi and irwan have already said. it may be her lack of shared knowledge (she does not have enough knowledge about the topic they are talking about in that sunday morning, so she is rather excluded from a lengthy section of the talk). it can be seen from her moves; she often produces supporting reactions (register). from the talk it shows that both andi and irwan do not seem to listen to the moves made by asri, as exemplified by the following utterances: 14 / c andi (iii) and how much time you spend … == reading == 15 / a asri (i) == reading. 16 / a andi (i) == and get information from other sources. 31 / a irwan (i) no, no (ii) everyday. nv 4 andi [ laughter ] 32 / a asri (i) oh, really ? nv 5 asri [ laughter ] 33 / a irwan (i) you know, (ii) in a week i must … meet with a … lecture, (iii) my lecture == asri produces one initiating question of opinion, twenty four supporting reaction (2 agree, 1 acknowledge, 1 answer, 1 accept, 1 engage, 1 clarify and 17 register). in contrast, two other interactants are active in order to sustain the conversation. it may suggest that the topic they are talking about is interesting and they know it much better than asri does. number of turns there is a remarkably close similarity in the number of turns for each of the dominant players, with andi just beating the others. this suggests that the three are competing for turns, or at least consider themselves to have the right to equal turns at talk („talk among equals‟). andi is revealed as the most assertive interactant. number of moves the number of moves produced by each interactant is also almost similar, realizing the equality of their position. however, proportions have changed slightly: andi emerges as speech functionally dominant (he gets more moves into his turns), while irwan also gets more value out of his turns, producing more moves though same turns to asri. number of clauses andi produces more clauses for his number of turns/moves. this confirms that he gets more airspace than the others, more value from his role as speaker. it also reveals that there is substantial, but certainly not total, congruence between moves and clauses, as we would expect in a casual context. by considering the categories of moves produced by the three speakers, table 1 shows the following:  andi dominates openings, with irwan opens four and asri only once. this shows that asri is strikingly dependent on the other interactants: mostly she talks only in reaction to the contributions of others.  as an opener, andi favours questions to the other interactants‟ opinion, suggesting that he enacts a role of „stirrer‟. it also indicates a certain egocentricity. asri‟s single opening is a question of opinion to irwan in order to know whether there is any other question to language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 7 andi (okay, is == that all irwan ?). her question to irwan is caused by the limited time in “engish program” for each caller. asri‟s single opening also indicates that she does not risk presenting her own opinions for debate.  irwan continues more often in which he has to prolong his statements by elaborating. it shows that he wants to make his statements understandable and clear for the other interactants. it can be seen through the following moves: move 9/a – clause (i) “i want to practice english”; move 24/a – clause (i) “maybe i… i [pause] must use time to… work mm… a job,”; move 26/b – clause (ii) “maybe it needs about three hours a day.”; move 58/b – clause (ii) “roberto benigni.” and move 68/a – clause (i) “what we will do to our beloved person.”. he also continues his statements by qualifying them, thus using more argumentative strategies. however, when andi continues, he is more inclined to add information, a neutral means of broadening the field. while asri only continues once by elaborating her statement. it seems that she does not try to keep her talking for it is possibly that she does not have the idea or knowledge of what they are talking about; consequently, it will be safe for her only as a listener.  andi monitors twice, while irwan and asri do not. the first monitor, he checks to see whether the other interactant, irwan, still follow him (turn 18: can you see it clearly ?). while the second one, he monitors whether the other interactants, irwan and asri, support his response, as the following description: rs: d: extend 44/b andi (ii) but okay, mm … but … but honestly, that‟s what most of us do. c: monitor 44/c (iii) right?  in responding reactions, we see that both andi and asri produce the most, and irwan the fewest. even though asri produces the same responding reactions with andi, she does not talk as much as him. in fact, the most of her responses are register (very minimal supporting reactions) with two agreeing reply. while other responses are engage, accepting reply, acknowledge and answering reply. thus, all her responses are supporting, and many are minimal in negotiatory terms. she appears to be using language to construct a role for herself as a supporter.  andi‟s responses, on the other hand, are proportionally similar to asri‟s which 12 of his 23 responses are registers. thus, he can be said as a facilitator and a supporter since he encourages the other speaker to take turn. his registering reactions are also used as backchannel, as well as evaluative reactions, for example in his utterances: hmm (backchannel) and oh, that’s nice (evaluative reaction). besides using confronting response, he also prefers extensions, a continuation of his pattern in continuing moves. these results indicate that he plays a confrontational role, in which he also adds more to extend the discussion, while the others tend to keep things on the same terms. irwan appears with 10 responses consisting of elaborating develop, engage, register, answering reply, affirmation and contradicting confront. thus, irwan appears to be using language to construct a role for language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 8 himself more than as a supporter. his reaction in various responses shows that he can be called a good interactant since he is not only able to elaborate his response, but also able to express his engage, register, answer, affirmation and contradicting confront when he thinks it should be confronted.  the number of rejoinders produced by each speaker indicates that all speakers contribute to the maintenance and open-endedness of the talk. we can see from the table 1 that irwan produces the most rejoinder which nearly half of his rejoinders are tracking moves (i.e. supporting). this suggests that irwan supports sustaining interaction by keeping the exchange open. irwan confirms in which he seeks verification of what he indicates he has heard from andi‟s statement. he is also the only one to probe, indicating the work he does to promote continued talk. besides that, he gets to resolve a lot, enacting his position as an insider relative to andi and asri. he also repairs what he has said (turn 42: oh… four times).  however, all of andi‟s rejoinders are tracking moves (i.e. supporting). he clarifies by seeking additional information in order to understand the prior move. this shows not only his role as a supporter, but also his role as a provocateur.  asri‟s rejoinder on the other hand is only once. she also clarifies in order to seek additional information from irwan‟s statement in turn 51 (mm… i think i am interested in [pause] movie). in brief, the speech function analysis shows that interactants differ in the roles they play. these role differences can be summarized as follows.  andi takes on the role as a provocative initiator, and offers much new information after his initiations. he is willing to keep his negotiation going on by his initiating open and supporting of other‟s contributions.  irwan keeps negotiating by his sustaining moves, which is achieved either by continuing his contributions, or by reacting the others‟ contributions. he offers new information after his initiations and also supports the others‟ contributions. his role is to react, frequently giving responses (andi‟s questions), taking time to justify and develop his position.  asri is dialogically active, but again largely through reacting to others‟ contributions. her reactions are overwhelmingly supporting, and this indicates a concern to facilitate and uphold the talk. table 2 for mood choices both confirms and extends on the picture which emerged from the speech function analysis. in summary, table 2 shows the following patterns: declaratives declarative clauses can be defined as clauses in which the structural element of subject occurs before the finite element of the clause. approximately half of andi‟s, irwan‟s and asri‟s contributions are declaratives. both for andi‟s and irwan‟s contributions are mostly full declaratives, but for asri the figure is much less. the table shows that the figure for andi‟s contributions of full declaratives is the most. this is consistent with his contributions being more initiating than the others. his full declarative clauses are also accounted for in his production language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 9 of many qualifications and explanations of his reactions: his develop and continue moves are non-elliptical structures. this is further evidence that he does indeed get more value for his turns than other speakers, making full comments rather than elliptical reactions. interrogatives there are two types of interrogatives, polar interrogative and wh-interrogative. the former is also known as yes-no interrogatives, can be identified as clauses where the finite element occurs before the subject, while the latter consists of a wh-question word e.g. who, what, which, when, where, why, how, in what way, for what reason, etc. the purpose of the wh-word is to probe for a missing element of clause structure. if we aggregate all interrogatives (andi: 10; irwan: 5; and asri: 5), the results are consistent with suggestions that andi takes his role as initiator by requesting information from others. the supportive/facilitative nature of andi‟s questions is implied in wh-interrogatives (which give the respondent more room to respond) and polar questions. for his incongruent interrogatives (in the form of declarative) can be aimed to ascertain what the other interactant, irwan, has done. it also shows that he has close relationship with irwan by not presenting standard interrogative pattern. he may think that it will be more familiar if his utterances are expressed informally. andi‟s wh-interrogative are mostly fully expressed and aimed to: (1) keep him as an initiatory role by greeting the caller of „english program‟, irwan, and asking him to introduce himself, like andi‟s turn no 1 (okay, who’s this calling ?) (2) challenge prior talk by asking for other interactant‟s opinion, such as andi‟s turn no 50 (yeah, what are you interested in … irwan?) thus andi‟s high use of full wh-interrogatives is another way in which he engages irwan in talk while retaining some status as an initiator. imperatives imperative typically do not contain the elements of subject or finite but consists of only a predicator, plus any of the non-core participants of complement and adjunct. although the number of imperatives is very small, it is significant that irwan and asri do not produce any imperatives, while andi does. andi‟s imperative is addressed to irwan. this is one way andi enacts his authority. minor clauses one very important category of clauses in casual conversation is that of minor clauses. these are clauses which have no mood structure at all e.g. right, thanks, yeah. minor clauses tend to be very brief, and are often formulaic. however, their brevity is not due to ellipsis. minor clauses do not have any mood structure, i.e. they do not consist of elements of subject, finite, etc. andi uses a strikingly high proportion of minor clauses, indicating his supportive role in the interaction. he often provides feedback and gives his full attention to the other interactant, irwan, by presenting minor clauses, such as: oh, good; hmm, yea; yeah; etc. in order to show that he is still involved in the conversation. it also seems that indonesian speakers tend to say “okay” when they want to turn to another subject, such as in: (1) andi‟s turn 12: (i) okay (ii) so… tell us so … (iii) we listen (2) andi‟s turn 44: (i) okay, language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 10 (ii) but okay, mm… but… but honestly, that‟s what most of us do. (iii) right? (3) asri‟s turn 70: (i) okay, (ii) is == that all irwan? most frequent subject choice the subject is the pivotal participant in the clause, the person or thing that the proposition is concerned with and without whose presence there could be no argument or negotiation. a casual conversation cannot proceed unless a subject is proposed. we can see that irwan is very frequently the subject of his own clauses, and while he just makes asri the subject, he never makes andi the subject. this suggests that irwan is by far the most egotistical of the speakers: his involvement in the conversation is highly personal, as he frequently talks about himself and his interests. in contrast, asri never makes herself subject. her preference for getting absent people, irwan and generalization as subject is further evidence of her lack of personal engagement: she is getting the talk going, but it does not closely touch her. andi does refer occasionally to himself as subject, but is strikingly oriented towards having irwan as subject. he makes irwan the subject either by appointing him with the word “you” or using vocative, “irwan.” it indicates that he always supports irwan‟s utterances. it also suggests that andi has close relationship with irwan by addressing his name as the subject. it may also indicate that andi wants to intensify that his utterance is addressed to certain speaker (i.e. irwan) that should be the next turn in his talk. negation negation is not used at all by asri while both andi and irwan produce one negated clause. this shows when both of them make confronting moves; they employ the negative and contrary realizations. adjuncts adjuncts are elements which are additional, rather than essential, to the proposition. they function to add extra information about events expressed in the core of the proposition. we find almost the same proportion of circumstantial adjuncts and interpersonal adjuncts produced by irwan. this seems to suggest that irwan‟s moves are concerned more with adding extra details than the others. he also often expresses his utterances with metaphorical expressions of probability “i think” (in his moves no. 9/c, 21/a, 51/a, 54/a and 66/a) and probability value in the clause through word “maybe” (in his moves 21/a, 24/a, 26/b and 35/a). andi, on the other hand, produces a higher proportion of textuals than the others. this suggests that his moves are concerned more with establishing coherence and continuity. this also indicates his orientation to the logical continuity of his contribution in relation to prior talk (his own, or that of others) and his orientation to the interactive continuity of his contribution. we also can see that asri has the same proportion of circumstantials and textuals. this seems to suggest that asri‟s moves are concerned with adding extra details and also with establishing coherence and continuity. but the analysis shows that in adding extra details, asri only re-say what andi and irwan have said in their contributions such as: (1) andi‟s move 16/c : (iii) or you watch mm … (iv) you know, (v) your activity every == day. nv2 [ laughter ] language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 11 asri‟s move 7/a : (i) == everyday. (2) irwan‟s mov 26/b : (ii) maybe it needs about three hours a day. asri‟s move 27/a : (i) three hours a day. modalities one final dimension of mood which needs to be considered in the analysis of casual conversation is that of modality. modality refers to a range of different ways in which speakers can temper or qualify their messages. there are two types of modality: modalization and modulation. modalization is a way of tempering the categorical nature of the information we exchange. modulation is a way of tempering the directness with which we seek to act upon each other. figures for total modalities show that irwan uses most, then followed by andi while asri does not. in fact, andi uses no modulation, and just one modalization (a will of usuality). thus, it can be said that andi modalizes slightly more than irwan, which is perhaps more evidence of irwan‟s assertive status in the interaction. irwan uses most modalizations and he is concerned with life‟s uncertainty. he also prefers to modalize subjectively, indicating his ego-orientation. conclusion the categories and procedures involved in analyzing the grammatical resources interactants can draw on to make interpersonal meanings in casual talk. the grammatical tools represent the essential starting point for a comprehensive analysis of casual conversation. choices in mood have allowed us to explore, confirm, and extend our intuitive impressions of the differential roles being enacted by conversationalists in a range of excerpts. the analysis of mood choices in casual conversation can reveal tensions between equality and difference, as interactants enact and construct relations of power through talk. references eggins, s. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter. eggins, s. and d. slade. 1997. analysing casual conversation. london gerot, l. and p.wignell. 1994. making sense of functional grammar. sydney: antipodean educational enterprises. hutchby, i. and r. wooffitt. 2008. conversation analysis. cambridge: polity press language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 187 an analysis of deixis in the novel of ‘ketika cinta bertasbih 1’ by habiburrahman el-shirazy wiwiek sundari english department, faculty of humanities diponegoro university, indonesia wiwieksundari@lecturer.undip.ac.id abstract this study was aimed to describe the deixis usage in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 by habiburrahman el-shirazy. theoretically, this study is expected to be useful for the researcher of language and literature, and practically, this research can contribute the importance of understanding and preserving literature through language. the researcher used a qualitative descriptive method to analyze the content. furthermore, the data collection had been transcribed and grouped based on the characteristic, form, and function that were related to the formulation of the research objectives. based on the data analysis, this analysis found the usage of all kinds of deixis included person (i, you, they, we, he/she), time (now, tomorrow, later), place (here), discourse (it, that), and social (sir). keywords: deixis, novel, ketika cinta bertasbih 1 introduction the study of language as a means of communication has become an important aspect in linguistics. as noted by robert (2002) cited in (arbain, 2016) the communicative functions of language is reference and predication, that is, representing thing that happen in the world (or a possible fictional world) and the participants involved in those situations. it means that when people do communication, they share the meaning in spoken utterance or written text which can be known from its context (irawan & andriani, 2018). the words which are interpreted its meaning based on the context is called deictic or deixis. as one of the studies pragmatics, deixis has a referent that move around depending on the situation its use. deixis makes meaning language becomes more organized and effective so it doesn't cause confusion and does not cause a different perception on the recipient of the language horn & gregory (2006) in (siahaan, 2017). further, they stated that the use of language in communication makes it easy for the user. one of these conveniences is the existence of a reference system and referential. the reference system can provide convenience but also cause confusion, and misunderstanding of meaning between language users in understanding the meaning and reference. in such, one who is able to understand the referent of an utterance he must be also able to identify the context and speech. therefore, this understanding of references closely related to understanding the deixis usage. this is in line with purwo (1985) in (setiakawanti & susanti, 2019) who suggests that a word is deictic if the referents move or change, depending on the person being speaker and depending on the time and where the words were spoken. deixis are divided into five forms, namely deixis persona, place/space deixis, deixis time, discourse deixis, and social deixis (yuliani et al., 2013). the five deixis are mutually influenced and complement each other. thus, dseixis is useful as an explanation the meaning of the speech so that the meaning contained in the speech is acceptable well by readers. this matter is the goal in language that needs to improve on each language user. the use of deixis can found in various sources. one of sources containing words and phrases deixis is a novel. in addition, deixis concerns the ways in which a language encodes or grammaticalizes features of the context of utterance or speech event, and thus also concerns ways in the interpretation of utterances on the analysis of that context on utterance (nursafira et al., 2019). to sum up,(desmawati, 2018) states that deictic terms are used to refer to ourselves to other and https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ mailto:wiwieksundari@lecturer.undip.ac.id http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 188 to object in our environment. deixis used to locate actions in a time frame relative to the present. deictic term shows social relationship the social location of individual in relation to other parts. one of the literary of social relationship that absorbs the reality of life and elevates the values contained in the society is novel. a novel is a literary work that explores the human life, both individual and collective existence in the face of problems that occur, for example, with fellow human beings, the environment, and yourself (susanti & susanti, 2018). it is one form of a literary work, novel is a fictional story in the form of writing or words and has intrinsic and extrinsic elements. a novel usually tells about human life in interacting with the environment and each other. in a novel, the author tries his best to direct the reader to pictures of the reality of life through the stories contained in the novel (nurgiyantoro, 1994). therefore, this study is concerned to analyze the deixis usage in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1. the novel has a living area which is too wide and depicts the life of people’s relationship. the stories portrayed the reality that is imagined by the thought of the author. the author is not a public servant, but he managed to turn the imaginary and sensitivity skills through writing the novel. in short, this novel tells the story of three teenagers who are studying at a college in cairo, namely al-azhar university, who in their journey to study they have many obstacles that they must face. conflicts that hit them was mainly a matter of obstacles, the three of them were: anna altafunnisa, khairul azzam, and furqan, andi hasan, and other supporting roles. the language use in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 generated social meanings, and the novel showed the ability of users to associate language sentences with appropriate contexts for the novel there is a series of words, including the selection and use of words that are deixis. a word is said to be deixis if reference moving or changing, depending on the time and place of the word spoken, for example, word i, here, and now. deixis signals a referent and it relates that referent to a common ground shared by the speaker and the addressee. it is the ability to situate the speaker and hearer in relation to one another and to the world around them. levinson (1983) cited in (ramasari, 2020) says that deixis belongs within the domain of pragmatics, because it directly concerns the relationship between the structure of languages and contexts in which they are used. lyon (1983) in (putri & yana, 2020) argues that the notion of deixis (which is merely the greek word for ‘pointing’ or ‘indicating’ it becomes a technical term of grammatical theory) is introduced to handle the ‘orientational’ features of language which are relative to the time and place of utterance. furthermore, deixis implicates not only the characteristic functions of the demonstrative pronouns but also tense and person, and a number of other syntactically relevant features of the context of utterance. as quoted from levinson’s book “pragmatics” in (muqit, 2019) there are five kinds of deixis, they are: person deixis, time deixis, place deixis, discourse deixis, and social deixis. thus, in this study, the researcher will be going to use those kinds of deixis in analyzing the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1. methodology this research applied qualitative descriptive method. data used in this research are words and sentences that contain deixis in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1. the novel was written by habiburrahman el shirazy and was released in 2007. further, this study was conducted with a number of procedures as follows: 1) collecting the data from the utterances which are found in that novel, 2) identifying and classifying the data usage of deixis of person, time, place, discourse, and social, 3) making the description the usage of deixis by the characters and the referent of the deixis, and 4) making the conclusion usage of deixis data. findings and discussion based on data analysis, ketika cinta bertasbih 1 novel by habiburrahman el shirazy included a number of deixis, namely person deixis, place deixis, time deixis, discourse deixis, and social deixis. the following was the analysis of each deixis. person deixis person deixis is one form pronomina deixis (herman & pardede, 2020). in the novel of ketika https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/habiburrahman_el_shirazy language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 189 cinta bertasbih 1 was found the usage of person deixis, both the first and second person deixis or third person. furthermore, the following was the three types of person deixis analysis. 1. first person deixis single 1) person deixis i (aku) the following were the example of person deixis (aku) that were found in the novel. a) i (aku) am amazed to any students’ discipline like mr. engineer (p. 5). b) but, i (aku) have promised to give special present (p. 15). c) relaxed. i (aku) have nothing to do tonight (p. 24). i (aku) was at the data (a) refers to eliana. in this conversation, azam did not reply with any words, he just smiled to eliana. meanwhile, in data (b) experienced a transition deixis i was referring to eliana. this could be seen in the quote conversation between ashraf and fahri on page 15, namely: she said, "i have promised to give special present”. then, azam replied, “it’s not important...” usage person i (aku) in the data (3) refers to eliana who was talking with azam. it could be seen in the following conversation excerpt. "relaxed. i (aku) have nothing to do tonight", said azam. 2) person deixis i (saya) the following were the example of person deixis (saya) that were found in the novel. a) yeah, i (saya) know sir. i’ve ever gone there. (p. 46) b) should i (saya) marry her? (p. 48) person i (saya) on the data (a and b) was referring to azam. in this conversation, azam was talking with pak ali. pak ali was discussing about a girl who was the first actress in the novel. based on the data analysis it can be concluded that there are two forms deixis first person in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1, namely (1) person i (aku) and (2) person i (saya). each of these first persona has a different referral using. person i (aku) in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 based analysis used in informal situations, for example in speech acts between two participants who had the equal age, while person i (saya) was used in formal situations to speak to the older one. 2. first person deixis plural 1) person deixis we (kita) in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 was found a number of first person plural deixis we (kita), as seen in the data excerpt below: a) let us (kita) go to hadiqah dauliyah... (p. 84) tiara and cut mala b) we (kita) should have a discussion while enjoying the sun rise (p.85) azam to hafiz data (a) was a conversation between tiara and cut mala, while (b) was between azam’s blandishment to hafiz. plural deixis person we (kita) is exclusive plural, because they are talking partners involved. 2) person deixis we (kami) the usage of the word we (kami) in this novel were seen in the data below: a) we (kami) are so sorry about the havoc. (p.144) b) we (kami) are six persons. (188) deixis we (kami) person in the data is the first inclusive person plural. it meant, person we (kami) in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 partner does not involve the talking. 3. second person deixis single 1) person deixis you (kau) in the novel was found deixis second person. it was seen, for example, in the data below. a) you (kau) said that you will concern with your study. do you (kau) forget it? (p.85) b) this is a desease, you (kau) have to be aware fez! (p.85) c) have you (kau) prayed for tahajjud? (p.194) person deixis you (kau) above were included to second person deixis (solvegia, 2013). the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 190 form chosen for the speaker and talking partners are familiar or of differences in social status. in the novel, deixis you (kau) was used by people who have a higher social status to greet the other person a lower social status. 2) person deixis you (kamu) usage person deixis you (kamu) in this novel were shown below: a) have you (kamu) ever met anna? (p.70) b) please not to use the earphone. you (kamu) will not hear adzan. (p.154) persona diexis you (kamu) above were used in between two parties who are already familiar relationship, like fadil,azzam, and pak ali. 4. second person deixis plural 1) persona deixis you (kalian) a) the night will be coming. you (kalian) have to be here. (p.145) b) where did you (kalian) get them? (p.286) person deixis on the data (a) refers to azam and nanang, and the utterance was delivered by a driver when he carried them. while, the data (b) was happening to kolonel fuad and the citizen. 5. third person deixis single 1) person deixis he/she (ia) person deixis he/she (ia) also used in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1. deixis use it shown in the example below. a) i believe that anna has a decision. she (ia) is just confused. (p.291) b) i hope that you will not be shocked with my explanation. the girl is golda olmetz. she (ia) works in a prostitution... (p.299) on the data (a) third persona he (ia) was stated by furqon to refers to anna. while, the data (b) was also stated by furqon to refer to a girl, named golda. 2) person deixis he/she (dia) in the novel, it was found the form of third person deixis (dia). the following is an example of the intended use deixis form: a) he is my father (p.158) b) yeah, he (dia) had ever won the competition of musabaqah tilawatil quran in aceh (p.266) on the data (a) the form of he (dia) referred to furqon’s father. the statement was a respond to a girl on the phone. furthermore, the form of he (dia) was on the data (27) referred to azam, and it was uttered by zahraza. 3) persona deixis he/she (beliau) in the novel, it was also found the form of third persona deixis he/she (beliau). the following is an example of using the form of it. a) and my mother will be happy if mbak elia goes to my house by wearing muslimah’s clothes. she (beliau) may say there is a beautiful angel coming to me. (p.322) on data (29) shows that he (beliau) refers to azam’s mother. according purwo (1984: 24) third persona deixis may assert persons or things (including animals) and the first and second deixis persona just stating people. essentially deixis is a way to interpret utterances based on the context of speech analysis. 6. third person deixis plural 1) person deixis they (mereka) in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 was found third person deixis them (mereka). the following is an example of ‘mereka’. a) they (mereka) enjoy their life (p.185). b) they (mereka) are coming (p.262) person they (mereka) in the data (a) refers to azam’s friends. in this case, azam just speaks to himself, because he looked his friends were sleeping nice. while, the data (b) was referring to azam and his little sister. it was uttered by their mother. based on analysis of deixis of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 novel, it is known that plural persona they (mereka) are under a changing reference. this is due to the change of context. place deixis the concept of the distance is relevant to spatial deixis, it refers to the relative location of people and things are being indicated. in the https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ language circle: journal of language and literature 16(1) october 2021 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 191 novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 was found deixis which refers to the place, as shown below: 1) ... ordering any food to be delivered here (ke sini). (p.173) 2) coming here (ke sini)? to our home? (p.262) the form of here (ke sini) in the data (a) refers to a mbak zulfa’s house, whereas the form of here (di sini) in the data (b) refers to a specific place (azam’s house). thus, an understanding of the two forms of the same requires the involvement of the context the word is used. time deixis deixis shows the unit of time in the speech. it distinguishes between the moment of the utterance (coding time) and the moment of the reception (receiving time). the following english sentences difference would seem obvious: 1) the receipt will be given later (nanti). (p.14) 2) okay, now (sekarang) we go to buy anything you need... (p.15) 3) how if we discuss something after subuh tomorrow (besok)? (p.26) even if the use of deixis temporal above in principle have been standard, but the 'time' we can use/say with a more explicit description, using o'clock, date, day, year, and so, for example at 9.00 a.m, monday, etc. discourse deixis deixis indicates the reference marker in a section of discourse, and discourse deixis is also known as ‘text deixis. the forms are often used to express deixis discourse, of which, is deixis which includes pronouns, both persona and demonstrative, deixis place, and much more. furthermore, the deixis discourse contained in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 were showed at the data below. 1) you said that you will concern with your study. do you forget it? (p.85) 2) i have a good news. what is that? (p.118) the evident of it above refers to your study. whereas, the evident of ‘that’ refers to the good news. deixis discourse is relating to certain parts of the discourse that has been granted or being developed (levinson, 1983). in relation to pragmatic competence, deixis discourse can be used to generate and interpret the discourse as a whole. in other words, by understanding deixis this discourse, pragmatic competence in indonesian language properly and correctly increases. social deixis deixis indicates social relationships and social levels. it involves mark of social relationships with direct or oblique reference to the social status or role of participants in the speech event. the use of deixis social most visible is the use of what are called aspects of language, such as politeness (kesopanan) or 'speaking ethical' (etika berbahasa) (nababan, 1987). furthermore, novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 provided specific views with the use of deixis social, and it can be seen in the data below: 1) sir, we don’t need to talk about the malaysian’s students, just discuss about the first topic. the sun has shone, and we didn’t get breakfast yet. (p.41) 2) you have to believe in yourself mas, that everything will be okay. remember, allah will follow someone’s prejudice. (p.311) deixis social category can be said to mark an opponent said social status (hasanah, 2016). in a social context, in the novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1, individuals specifically marked social differences in between speakers and opponents said the higher, older, or more powerful. moreover, in deixis social formation contained social differences on the role of participants, particularly the aspect of social relationship between the speaker and the slistener or the speaker with reference to the topic. conclusion in this study, the literary works novel of ketika cinta bertasbih 1 reflected the deixis usage built by the characters. it was found that the dominant species in the novel deixis was deixis pronouns https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ http://journal.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature, 16(1) october 2021 __________________________________________________________________________ 192 person. this was related to the existence of characters as the driving narrative, forming a story line. moreover, the characters developed dispositive given form and content by the author. the main character as a recurring character in the telling of the story often use pronomina i (aku). furthermore, this novel was also found the use of deixis place, deixis time, deixis discourse, and deixis social. each of these deixis related closely by grammatical traits context speech or speech related events interorestation utterances are highly dependent on the context of the speech. references arbain, a. (2016). an analysis on the plot of jane austens novel “pride and prejudice.” lingua: journal of language, literature and teaching, 13(1), 127. https://doi.org/10.30957/lingua.v13i1.20 desmawati, e. (2018). analysis of feminism in the novel of little women by louisa may alcott. journal of language and literature, 6(2), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.35760/jll.2018.v6i2.2487 hasanah. (2016). a pragmatic study on deixis in the song lyric of harris j’s “salam” album. uin malang. herman, h., & pardede, h. (2020). deixis analysis in the business article of the jakarta post. wanastra: jurnal bahasa dan sastra, 12(2), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.31294/w.v12i2.8464 irawan, r., & andriani, d. (2018). an analysis of educational values of novel “ maze runner ” by james dashner. journal of english language education and literature, 3(1), 38–50. levinson, s. c. (1983). pragmatics. cambridge university press. muqit, a. (2019). the analysis of the sociopolitical fiction novels under binary opposition (case study of indonesian novel entitled “orang-orang proyek” by ahmad tohari). informasi, 49(1), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.21831/informasi.v49i1.237 28 nababan, p. (1987). ilmu pragmatik (teori dan penerapannya). proyek p2lptk, dirjen dikti. depdiknas. nurgiyantoro, b. (1994). teori pengkajian fiksi. gajah mada university press. nursafira, m. s., putri, w. c., yunira, s., gari, n., & hamuddin, b. (2019). psychological analysis of fatih’s character-building in egosentris: a novel by syahid muhammad. elsya : journal of english language studies, 1(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.31849/elsya.v1i1.2461 putri, j. a., & yana, y. (2020). deixis on tribunnews.com “the story of ade jigo was rolled up by the tsunami 2018.” project (professional journal of english education), 3(6), 703. https://doi.org/10.22460/project.v3i6.p703710 ramasari, m. (2020). an analysis of deixis existed on articles at jakarta post. journal of language and literature, 8(2), 146–169. https://doi.org/10.35760/jll.2020.v8i2.3369 setiakawanti, r. n., & susanti, e. (2019). analysis pragmatic study on deixis in the articles jakarta sport. project (professional journal of english education), 1(6), 757. https://doi.org/10.22460/project.v1i6.p757762 siahaan, s. (2017). plot concept analysis of montgomery’s novel. anglo saxon: jurnal ilmiah program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris, 8(2), 194–206. solvegia. (2013). the usage of deixis in advertising slogans related to fragnance. siauliai university. susanti, i., & susanti, i. (2018). volume 9, no. 2, august 2018. 9(2), 68–82. yuliani, salombe, m. k., & waris, a. (2013). an analysis the main characters and the plot in the novel of bacharuddin jusuf habibie’s habibie azahroni. (2016). an analysis of characters in “i love you mom” short story book by arleen amidjaja. literary criticism journal.nd ainun. journal of english language teaching society, 1(1), 1–14. https://doaj.org/ http://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=47-yduaaaaaj%26hl=en http://id.portalgaruda.org/? http://sinta2.ristekdikti.go.id/ https://academic.microsoft.com/ teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research (car) language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 9 teaching transactional and interpersonal conversation: a classroom action research arif suryo priyatmojo semarang state university arifsuryo.unnes@gmail.com abstract based on the standard competence of indonesian’s curriculum relating to speaking activities, the students are demanded to express meaning/ messages in both transactional and interpersonal conversation using spoken languages in every context of situation. two different kinds of conversation have their own characteristics, from which we still encounter students facing difficulties to communicate with others. the study was aimed at describing whether by giving different time allocation for the students to practice doing transactional and interpersonal conversation can impove the students’ conversation skills. it is a classroom action research conducted in my own class; the students in a transactional and interpersonal class became the subject of the study. the class consisted of 24 students in the second semester in the academic year of 2012-2013. to collect the data, i used four ways of collecting data in the forms of observation, questionnaire, interview and video recording. those four different ways of collecting data were used at initial, middle and final teaching learning process to measure the progress of the study. time allocation was my teaching technique to improve the students conversation skill. based on the result of the study, i found that time allocation has positive significance for the students’ conversation activities. this improvement was validated by involving a critical colleague and research participants. it can be seen that the students could conduct conversations in longer period of times for both transactional and interpersonal conversations using different degrees of formality, topic preferences, language uses, mode, purposes and cultural contexts. this suggests that the students need longer time to practice by which they are able to do conversation with others in very meaningful ways. keywords: transactional and interpersonal conversation, time allocation. introduction living in academic societies, students need to do communication with others to achieve a number of intended meanings. one form of communication is a spoken activity, like conversation. in doing so, interactants in any conversation are required to meet some elements of communication to be successfully understood by interlocutors. conversation is defined as a spoken activity, the purpose of which is to arrive at a mutual understanding of the interactants (hartley, 1993: 22). conversation is obviously far more than words. pridham (2001: 2) states that “conversation can take place through 10 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 body language, through prosodic features such as intonation, speed, stress and volume even through silence or laughter”. in the second semester of the academic curriculum, the students take a course study namely interpersonal and transcational conversation where the main source material is a book entitled “speaking naturally”. referring to kinds of conversation, they have particular characteristics as mentioned by hartley (1993: 20) that it should be from one individual to another, face to face and the reflect personal characteristics both the form and content. these two distinctive conversation also relate to the definition by brown and yule (1983) in pridham (2001:25) that any conversation appears to be a chat between interactants with their different purposes. in one side, transactional language is used in obtaining goods and service, and on the other side interactional/ interpersonal language is used when people relate to each other to socialize. hence, it can be inferred that a conversation is a spoken activity done by two individuals that has a purpose either to get things done or to socialize. teaching english as foreign language for indonesian students is quite challenging especially in speaking skill as they are accustomed to speaking using their own native language in any context of situation. they tend to use english in only their nurturing class contexts. as a result, most students can not communicate well in spoken language. one of the causes of this unsatisfactory result is due to the traditional approach used by most teachers. they still focus on sentence construction rather than on functional objective. in recent years, literacy model is introduced by the government to overcome such problems. as stated in this model, four levels are given for different level of students. performative is addressed to the students of elementary students, functional for the students of junior high school, informational for the students of high school and epistemic for university students (wells, 1991: 53) in hammond et al. (1992: 11). the students doing conversation have objective to communicate with others in very meaningful ways. they are supposed to see the context of culture and the context of situations in order to achieve the intended meanings. some other ways such as discourse markers, fillers and prosodic features are needed to achieve the meaningful communications. however, it is not that easy for my students to do purposeful and meaningful conversations. based on my observation in the learning process for the first meetings, constraints faced by the students are elaborated in table 1. language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 11 table 1. students’ problems in conducting conversation most problem indicators description exposure the students tend to do such interogation in doing conversation (not in natural way) and it is predictable. here is an example: time the students were not able to use the allocated time so that they did the conversation in a very quick manner. it is so different when they did this in their native language (indonesia or javanese) discourse markers and prosodic features the students tend to use their own dialect expression of their own languages in spite of english discourse markers. for example, they used “apa itu”, “opo kui”, “errrrr”, “ehmmmm”, instead of ‘well’, ‘you know’, etc. it makes the conversation unnatural. it can also be found that most students only produce pairing questions and answers (adjacency pairs). their utterances are such the predictable structure of a conversation. the students and the teachers quite know the learning goals behind talks in the clasroom, the conversational role the should plan and the structure of conversation accordingly in what pridham (2001: 6) term as ‘speech events’. the students also produced more voiced pauses in their conversation activities such as er, um, ehm, apa itu, etc. where they hesitated. morever, i also get evidence the students’ problem in conducting conversation. it was based on the questionnaire that i gave at the first meetings. the following are the most common problems based on the students responses: table 2. students’s response toward conversation problems indicator 1 2 3 problems of doing conversation finding appropriate vocabularies in both conversation speaking grammatically afraid to make mistake (taken from nicenet.org) from those evidence, i as the lecturer consider that the students had constraints in making successful conversations. hence, i consider how to improve their 12 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 competence of doing conversation by using time allotment technique. methodology research design this study focuses on how to improve students’s conversation skill, in which the students’ progress of doing conversation become the main indicator of its success. to proceed this, i used classroom action research (car) focusing on how to improve students’ conversation skill in the learning process in my own class. the followings are research cycles. figure 1 action research cycle (source: kemmis & mctaggart, 1988, p. 10) subject of the study a number of 24 students became the subjects of the study. they are the students from the second semester of the academic year of 2012-2013. data gathering to gather the data, three instruments were used. the first one is observation; this was used to identify the problems happening in the class. it was based on the direct preobservation questionnaire interview reflection & evaluation in cycle 1 action in cycle 1 asking the students to do conversation in different time allocations (5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes). planning in cycle 1 planning in cycle 2 action in cycle 2 asking the students to do conversation in different time allocations (30 minutes and one hour). the topics were many based on the topic discussion in the reference book. reflection & evaluaition language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 13 observation, and here i observed directly while the teaching and learning process was going on. next, i used a questionnaire to find out their problems based on their own personal reasons. then, it was an interview. i used this in order to hearing their deeper reason of such problems they have. the last one is video recording by which i coud get the conversation transcript. the video recording was used in the learning process. data analysis and interpretation 1. collecting the data based on preobservation, pre-questionnaire, preinterview and video recording 2. interpreting the data into evidence 3. doing the cylces – planning, action, observation, evaluation & reflection 4. collecting the data based on postquestionnaire and post-interview 5. interpreting the data into evidence findings and discussion based on data interpretation, it can be seen that most students had problem in doing conversation both interpersonal and transactional conversation. furthermore, they had much difficulty in the transactional conversation. to solve such constraints, i used time allocation given for the students before tlp. it was started by giving 5 minutes time, 10 minutes time and 15 minutes time. the students did conversation in pairs with the proposed themes given. they were free topic discussions found from varied media such as video from ted. com, current issues in news, their own interest, etc. the purpose of which was to arouse students motivation and confidence to speak up in pairs. in doing this, the students were getting accustomed to having fillers and discourse markers to convey their intended meanings. it was quite different from their first meetings in which they still often used indonesian dialectical expressions. here, they started to shift from l1 dialectical expressions into l2 expressions. hence, they started to produce natural and meaningful utterances. the following is one example taken from students conversation: transcrip 3 s1: “how’s your life?” s2: “well, not so bad” s1: “hmm, great then. please tell me your vacation last weekend!” s2: “you know, it’s fantastic huh. seems hard to come back to school life”. s1: “i know that, let’s fight for our best this semester”. s2: “great then, well ............... how was cintia?” 14 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 based on that transcript of conversation above, it can be inferred that two students are having interpersonal conversation. they are in the same level as one another uses very informal, but meaningul language. both students were also successful in using fillers and discourse markers such as “well”, “hmm” and “you know”. these are english expression used by the english spaking people to make the conversation meaningful and to make the interactants seem closer. it is such interpersonal conversation as we can not find the most specific topic. the interactants produced some topics such as “vacation”, “school life” and “cintia”. we can conclude that they did such conversation in order to socialize. another example is taken from a conversation between a student and a teacher as the following: transcript 5 s3: ”good morning sir. i am sorry to bother you, is it possible for me to see you now?” s4: “of course. what is it about?” s3: “i am sorry, i need to see you since i need to get information about my remedial assignment in academic writing”. s4: “yes, well you need to revise your assignment as you did bad in structuring the ideas” s3: “i am sorry sir, do i need to have another new assignment or just revised the previous one” s4: “new is better” s3: “ thank you sir, i’ll do that. i think that it is clear for me what to do” s4: ” you may leave this room and do your work” s3: “ thank you sir” s4: “ok” this is a transactional conversation between a student and a teacher. we can see from the language used by the interactants. in one side, the student (s3) used very grammatical and formal language as his position is lower than the teacher (s4), by which he is supposed to use appropriate language. on the other hand, the teacher (s4) produced informal language as he is superior than the student. it relates to the cultural context of gerot and wignell (1994: 10) (who we are, what we say and what we do). here, the student and the teacher know what to say using different languages. it reflects what the indonesian people should say in this particular context. it is quite different from the result of the convesation in the first meetings where they still mixed the language use in both kinds of conversation. the students have learned language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 15 how to differentiate the language use for different purposes in conversation. meanwhile i assumed that i could get better result of my students’ conversation if i used a longer allotted time. hence, i made a plan to have 30 minutes to assign my students to have conversation based on themes or topics found in the reference book we used in the teaching and learning process. to apply such plan, the students were asked to have conversation both interpersonal and transactional conversation in pairs. based on the result of the observation in tlp, it can be seen that the students were well motivated in doing conversation because they were actively participating in the class doing the conversation. they also used such fillers and discourse markers to convey their intended meaning by which the messages were achieved by the interlocutors. the students’ voices of their interest to use the allocated times can be seen from the followings based on the evidence of the post-questionnaires: student 1 “i think that is a good way because by doing practice with period of time we are not only practice to talk, but we also practice how to manage the time in order to control our conversatio with the given topics by our teacher. this thing is especially when we are doing transactional conversation because in interpersonal conversation we don’t have any specific topics to talk each other. we could talk anything we want “ student 2 i think it is very good way to improve the student's skill in conversation because we know that not all of the students are practicing to speak english. they just speak a little conversations in english because they still usually use indonesian language to speak with their friends. moreover they just speak english in conversation class. hence, by giving a period of time for students to do conversation practice, it can keep the students to speak up in english student 3 “i think it is a very good way to improve the student's skills, especially to make conversations with others. we know that students seldom practice to speak in english in their daily life. they only practice it at college if they're asked by the lecturer first. the students, including me, usually speak in their region languages, in javanese or indonesian language, and they will practice more to speak in english in interpersonal and transactional conversation class. so by giving a period of time for students to doing conversation practice, at least it will be able to drill the students to speak in english more often in their daily life”. the validation issue to measure research validity, i included three different voices to triangulate the result finding. they are students’ voices, a critical colleague and research expert. they were asked to give their critical 16 language circle journal of language and literature vol. ix/1 october 2014 responses upon the research process started from the problem formulation, action reserach cycle and result finding. by accumulating these three different voices, i hope that the result of this research can be accepted by public as a systematic classroom action research. first, most students give their voices related to the techniques i used in the tlp. they said that this technique is great, but need to focus more on transactional conversation as they encountered problems of finding appropriate vocabularies in doing transactional conversation. then, i also received voice from my critical colleague. he said that i used a nice technique, systematic research, great research progress. finally i also included research expert related to my research that i conducted. the research expert said i had good problem identification and systematic way to overcome. furthermore, i need to focus on one particular conversation either transactional or interpersonal to get comprehensive outcome. conclusion to have conversation in the target language is quite challenging for the students of indonesia as they are accustomed to speaking in their native language. some constraints are faced by the students. we need to have varied technique to improve their competence in doing conversation in the terget language by which they can convey their intended message in very meaning ways. one of which is by giving alloted times for the students as they need to practice with others. by having times the can produce natural english by combining discourse markers, fillers and prosodic features. references brown, g. and yule, g. 1983. discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press. gerot, linda & p. wignell. 1994. making sense of functional grammar. nsw: gerd stabler. hammond, j. 1989. the nceltr literacy project. in prospect 5, 1:23-30 hartley, peter. 1999. interpersonal communication (2nd edition). london and new york: routledge. kemmis, s. and r. mctaggart. 1988. the action research planner (3rd edition). geelong, victoria: deakin university press. pridham, francesca. 2001. the language of conversation. london: routledge. wells, g. 1978. apprenticeship in literacy. in interchange 18, 1/2: 109-123. 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 the language of traders’ community in klewer traditional market sala: a sociolinguistics role in preserving tradition triyoga dharma utami semarang state university abstract this paper aims to describe the realization of language use, recognize the verbal interaction patterns in trading and socializing and identify the determinants of language use by the javanese community with their non-javanese speech-partners. the study refers to the sociolinguistic theory, based on the qualitative research by the author in 2004. supporting data collected is daily conversation at the research location. it is found that the language use by the kiosk-owners and their workers as the members of javanese traders‟ community is closely related to their everyday social relations. the language used is bahasa indonesia, javanese language and mixture of the both. the determinant factors of language use are divided into lingual and non-lingual factors. the lingual factors include sala dialect, speech level, and javanese language position as a mother tongue. the non-lingual factors include the multiculturalism relating to the speaker‟s diversity of their ethnic backgrounds, realization of social relationships among the speakers, and cultural traditions. key word: language use, sociolinguistics, cultural traditions, the city of sala introduction that language indicates a nation is still axiomatic. language which is used in spoken and written ways is a reflection of the speaker and the writer respectively. linguistics as a discipline, by implication, gives plentiful opportunity to its scholars for language study with the provision to language elements including the questions (what, who, why, when, where, and how) about the language to appear arbitrarily. the following is the excerpt from the language use which is often found in traditional markets. x1: ini berapa ini? (1) a1: yang satu setel? x1: nggak, ya ini, ni. a1: ini tiga lima. ini cap alus ini, yang satu setel tiga tujuh setengah. x1: (ekspresi menolak) (5) a1: la berapa, ibu? x1: tujuh belas lima, ‘ndak nawar lagi saya. a1: ambil lima? x1: tujuh belas lima. a1: oh ‘ndak boleh. (10) x1: ini empat. a1: ‘ndak boleh. yang ini aja, itu. ini aja, ibu. ini dua lima. x1: satu ukuran ya? a1: ya. ini mau dari pekalongan? laris lho, bu. aku nek abis banyakbanyak’o’. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 59 x1: kalo yang ini satu ukuran ya, mbak? (15) a1: ya. ada masih. berapa itu? pas saja duatuju lima. wislah. lainnya ‘ndak boleh. ini mau ‘ndak? dua lima, bu. x1: ini, sama ini?. a1: la coba. ini baik, pekalongan. baruuu aja ngirim. x1: udah dua puluh itu. a1: ‘ndak boleh. ambile’e ‘ndak boleh. (20) x1: ki pira iki? a1: tiga puluh. baik lho, bu. ada soklat, ada ijo, biru. soklat itu manis’o’. x1: dua puluh ya? a1: ‘ndak boleh. x1: ambil empat aku. (25) a1: iya. udah, dua tujuh-setengah, pas. x1: how much is this? (1) a1: one set? x1: no, this one. a1: this is a sleek-branded one, a set is three seven and a half. x1: (setting expression declined) (5) a1: what do you think, ma‟am? x1: seventeen-five, i won‟t have any good deal more. a1: you take five? x1: seventeen and five. a1: oh, no it can‟t be. (10) x1: the four ones. a1: no. just take this, that one, ma‟am. this is two-five x1: one size huh? a1: yes. how about this, from pekalongan? the best-seller one, ma‟am. i„ve sold a lot for this one. x1: so this is only one size, right? (15) a1: yes. there are lots for this one. i wonder how much it costs. just take at twoseven and five for your deal. it‟s ok. about that one, will you? two-five, ma‟am. x1: this, the same one? a1: please, try. a good one, pekalongan. newly sent. x1: twenty for this one. let‟s make a deal. a1: no. i could not pay out such price to get the goods. (20) x1: (in javanese) for this, how much does it cost? a1: thirty. you know it is good, ma'am. there are the brown, green, blue ones. the brown one is nice. x1: twenty, right? 60 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 a1: no. x1: i will take four. (25) a1: you will. for twenty seven and a half, right. (field record on march 21, 2004) situational context field: the process of buying and selling clothes at klewer traditional market, located in a javanese trader‟s kiosk. mode: the speech is made by setting hands in motion while selecting the goods and bargaining a deal. the prospective buyer is looking for items she wants and making offerings. the kiosk owner serves by offering several options and trying to maintain prices. tenor: the prospective buyer (x1) is a nonjavanese woman, aged 40s. the kiosk owner (a1) is a javanese woman, aged 30s.` the choice of language use in the interaction between the kiosk owner and prospective buyer above is bahasa indonesia (written hereinafter as bi) with a non-formal variety. it can be recognized from the use of some non-standard lexicons and subject deletion. the examples of non-standard lexicon are aja 'just', kalo 'if', 'ndak and 'nggak 'no', udah 'already '. the subject deletion can be observed in the speech line 18. the first speech line contains the choice of language including the mixture codes of bi and javanese language (written later as bj). the subject deletion can be viewed in the third speech. the deletion refers to a subject that has been presented previously (ini „this‟). the third speech also experiences the subject-phrase modification. #a1: (silakan) coba. ini baik (kualitasnya), (buatan) pekalongan. (ini) baru (saja ada yang me)ngirim. # a1: please, try. a good one (for its quality), (made in) pekalongan. (this is) newly sent. although the kiosk owner and prospective buyer use the same language, misunderstandings between both of them can occur. it can be observed in the speech lines 7 and 8. the way of the prospective buyers in revealing the numeral lexis that refers to the price she demands brings about confusion for her speech-partner. the data in the speech line 8 shows that the kiosk owner is trying to obtain understanding. the response from the prospective buyer in the speech line 9 directly makes the kiosk owner realize and bid a decision (line 10). the conversation also shows that the use of bi as an option for the kiosk owner is still influenced by bj, as her native language. the lexicon used by the kiosk owner is alus 'sleek' (line 4). the lexicon phonologically appears to bj. if the kiosk owner said this lexicon in bi, it would be pronounced halus not [alus]. in the bj lexicon, the sound /h/ is rare at the beginning of any syllable. alus as bj lexicon as the kiosk owner‟s choice is tied to specific term that refers to the goods (registers). the kiosk owner understands the register of cap alus is included with one type of her goods. it can be observed in this conversation between two speakers with different ethnic background that a native language use cannot be excluded by any means. such mixture code phenomena can be found in the next speech of the kiosk owner in the conversation above. other bj lexicon uses are nek 'if' (line 14) and wislah „never mind‟ (line 16) language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 61 and affective particle la (line 6 and 18). several other lexicons are a variety of interference as a bilingualism feature by the kiosk owner. the first is the use of particle by deleting the initial consonant sound and combining with a lexicon that precedes it. the conversation above contains two particles which have such deletion, that is, kok in banyak'o' (line 14) and manis'o' (line 22) and we in ambile'e (line 20). ambile'e also experiences another form of interference before the addition of deleted particles we becomes e. ambile'e is a mixture of the bi lexicon of ambil 'take' with bj suffix -e. the second is the bj phonological influence on a number of lexicons. the examples are the deletion of sound /h/ in alus, also duatuju 'twoseven' (line 17) for it should be [duatujuh] in bi, and ijo 'green' (line 22) for it should be [hijau] in bi, pronunciation of sound / s / in soklat 'brown' in line 22 for it should be [coklat] in bi and diphthong sound / au / to be / o / on ijo 'green'. the delivery of speech after speech implies a level of understanding. the both parts develop this understanding although the both attempts to defend their own demand and request. the prospective buyer wants low prices and the kiosk owner wants the goods to be sold out and gain the profits. the level of understanding is also affecting the prospective buyers to participate in pronouncing the bj speech (line 22). sociolinguistic study: an approach to function in linguistics, phenomena of the language use in everyday life that proves the speaker‟s identification with the impact of social and psychological situations can be included in the study of sociolinguistics and can be observed in the language use. hymes (1974) provides a number of themes that characterize the sociolinguistic study. the themes of these sociolinguistic study include (1) theory of language that describes not only the organization of grammar but also the flow of spoken language; (2) the grounded theory and methodology that include the questions not only about the structure but also function; (3) the speech community is determined by the way a group of people speak and not be interpreted in basis of the distribution of grammatical features merely; (4) competence is the personal ability to communicate in accordance with the context, not just revolve around grammatical knowledge and (5) language is something that forms the community that use the language and not just something that is created by humans. trudgill (1983) reaffirms hymes‟ thought by stating that the study of language in a social context is a part of the main topics of linguistics. the study of linguistics can be an empirical evidence-based study about the language that is used in a social context. according to trudgill such a study shows the use of sociolinguistics as a means of linguistic research (a way of doing linguistics) which focuses on how language plays a role in society (trudgill, 1974). this way begins and is known through many labov‟s studies about the relationship between language and social class. for the field of sociolinguistics, halliday divides it into 15 subdivisions. three of them that are related to the formulated problem in this writing are to study in the fields of language, socialization and transmission of cultures, ethnographic methodology-based linguistics and text-analysis based linguistic theory (in depdikbud, 1995:30). one of the advantages that can be achieved from sociolinguistic studies is the scholars can apply the result and the research‟s course of action itself to solve any certain social problems related to the certain community (salzmann, 62 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 1993:190). in our public life, the social constraints faced by a certain society can be reflected through the way they speak. the city of sala and its javanese speech community the conversation above appeared in actual fact in the traditional market, klewer, which is located in the city of sala. this writing is taken from the sociolinguistic study by the author with the topic of language use in klewer market by trader community (2004). at that time, the author found that the ethnic background-based study of language use by the trader community was never examined before, especially in the klewer traditional market. the author does not intend to take sides to one particular ethnic community which is a majority. the use of nonjavanese term simply means to illustrate the diversity of the ethnic communities around sala in addition to the existence of javanese ethnic. more specifically, the author intends to take some pictures of the uniqueness from the group of people in using their language in a certain setting. the city of sala itself is quite unique and widely recognized as one of the javanese cultural center. under this label, the general distinctiveness is that the people in sala are known for their gentleness. the people outside accept that the gentleness performs speechbehavior of the people in this city. nevertheless, the generalization should be taken into some deconstruction since the city itself is full of case history from the past. the history has created the characters of this city‟s dynamics. beside the presumption as a center of javanese culture that glorifies strata of the nobility, actually there are other predicates that the city has had since dutch-colonization era. two among them are brought together by the people whose livelihoods were established during those times until the modern era. the two predicates are the city of sala as the market town and the city of merchants (sudagaran). from the deep-rooted history of sala, the status of merchant community (sudagar) even is as welladjusted as the noble community (priyayi) due to their bargaining power in economy line of work had an impact on entire groups of people in the city of sala. in addition to javanese ethnic, many of the trader community in this city are the immigrantresidents with several ethnic backgrounds. these people are known for their resiliency as nomads and traders. they are not only the minangnese, maduranese, and banjarnese people as our local natives, but we can also find groups of people from outside of the indonesian territory, such as the descendants of arabians, indians and chinese people. with a multi-ethnic setting like this, the city of sala community tends to manifest as a multi-lingual society. each and every ethnicity has a mother tongue. however, there are several studies that have revealed the existence of the bj use among the ethnic immigrant communities (markhamah 2000 and saddhono 2003). this is related to the fact that javanese is the largest community in the city of sala. in linguistics view, within such circumstances people in the city of sala can be classified as a bj speech community. in most javanese community, there is a system of social strata as the influence of mataram traditional power as anthropologist clifford geertz describes in his book, religion of java (1960). in his research, geertz also finds the pattern use of bj-based speech among the social groups‟ native speakers that is the noblepersons and peasants. the presence of speech level use in one area indicates the area applied coating system in the basis of class and social language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 63 status of the community. the status-based language use then leads to the diversity of language use by the bj speech community. the people in the klewer market and the role of language in the community community can be understood as a group of people who occupy the same area and often has a purpose, social rules or the same kinship ties. thus, each community has a habit of behaving differently from each other, including the language use. this is because the interests and issues that bind together the individuals to join in a particular community are different from that of other communities. sense of togetherness among the members of the community can encompass a variety of interests, whether economic, social, or cultural ones. a traders‟ community is one community that is common in our everyday life. members of this group are those whose livelihoods are trading. they gather and carry out activities in one area, such as the traditional market. in addition to the economic and social functions, the traditional market happens to reflect social reality of a pluralistic life. language becomes a significant thing to support social interaction among them as well as their interests in trading. herein we find their certain uniqueness while they use everyday language during their activities as traders in the traditional market. the traders‟ community in the traditional markets is known as the people who speak fluently. this expertise is essential to sell the goods. they should skillfully get accustomed to serve and convince the prospective buyers. the activity in the klewer market started with activities of buying and selling clothes in slompretan area and then moved to another area around banjarsari. the sort of goods was batik clothes and used clothing. around 1955, buying and selling activities commenced in the area that is now occupied. however, these activities were not been accommodated in a building spot. in trading their goods, the traders just held or swung their goods as they pleased. the javanese people call this situation with the term of pating klewer or kleweran (soedarmono, 2000). these terms refer to the way the traders spread their commodities around. physically, klewer market was built in 1970 and inaugurated in 1971. klewer market consists of two floors with an area of approximately 13,500 square meters and contains 48 shops and 2223 kiosks. the total number of traders with the kiosks has been up to two thousand people. this amount does not include the merchant who is not classified into kiosk-owners, like those who occupy the area along the path and the souvenirs sellers. thus, it is apparent from the quoted conversation above that language plays important role while the klewer market traders‟ community presents their roles. facing multiethnic and multi-language in the environment is clearly a challenge for the traders. the capability of dealing with language should be coupled with the mastery of vernaculars that can link the traders with other people with different native languages. on the lingual situation, some certain uniqueness in the bj use relate to dialect and registers for the variety of the speech level. the roles that the javanese community traders present in language use certainly can enhance the intended general distinctiveness that the people in sala are known for their gentleness. the impression from the gentleness that performs speech-behavior of the community surely can help increase the multicultural 64 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 awareness as well as the trader community earnings. the patterns realized within verbal interaction the patterns that fill the transactional discourse structure are the part of a system. speech after speech, the speakers who are involved in this discourse bring to the fore the system they are following. the system reveals their locality, culture and tradition where the action is. the kiosk owners often have verbal interaction with their workers. the kiosk owner and the worker co-exist within one group as the community members of javanese traders. this group is classified into the javanese kiosk owners (hereinafter written jko) and javanese kiosk workers (jkw). based on these findings, the group has interactions with other javanese and non-javanese groups as their specific speech-partners. the interaction occurs because of the social relationships they realize in regular and repeated ways. the other groups in klewer are buyers, purveyors of goods and collectors. a purveyor is a person who offers goods to resale in the kiosks. the kiosk owner has the authority to determine whether or not the goods are acceptable. the products are offered by a variety of ways. a purveyor may entrust to the kiosk owners so the goods are sold in cash. or, a purveyor may offer to sell goods in credit so the kiosk owners have to pay per month, per week or depending on their agreement. the second is the common option that most of the kiosk owners take. thus, a purveyor then may switch the role as a collector. purveyor and collector groups consist of people with diverse backgrounds, from javanese and non-javanese ethnicity. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 65 1. the scope of bj use figure 1. scope of bj use from figure 1, the use of bj tends to be in the parts of jko and jkw. in various circles, jko has variation choice to interact verbally with one speech-partner. jkos have the authority to position themselves to face their speechpartners. with jkws, jko positions tend to have condition with a language choice of ngoko variations. with their fellows of other jkws, a jkw adjusts bj variation option based on several things, such as age and level of relationship. in interacting with the purveyor and collector, jko has the authority to choose the three bj speech levels. the same thing happens to jko‟s interaction with javanese buyers (jb). meanwhile, such authorities in choosing bj variations that jko owns are not owned by jkws. with jkos, the jkw‟s bj variation choice is between krama and madya. alternatively, from a number of observations, the jkw‟s responses to the jko‟s speech tend to need not in verbal way. this phenomenon occurs because most of the speech that jkos deliver to jkws is imperative. 2. the scope of bi use the use of bi can be found in the work atmosphere. it is mainly found when these groups interact with other community members as well as buyers from out of java island. the use of bi by jko and jkw does not last continually but in certain situations like when using the register or being carried in the context of the speech situation while the jkw helps the jko serve the non-javanese buyers (njb). the use of bi by the jko and jkw inserts and tends to be mixed with the use of bj. jko j b kram a mady a ngoko jkw jko krama madya-ngoko jkw purveyor collector krama-madya-ngoko nonverbal ngoko krama madya nonverbal krama madya-ngoko 66 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 figure 2. scope of bi use 3. the scope of mixture language use (bj and bi) figure 3. scope of bi and bj mixture use among the community members, the diversity of ethnic backgrounds can be found. some kiosk owners are those who are from outside of java area, the chinese and arabians. their elder generations had long dwelt in the land of java, especially in the city of sala. they are familiar with the bj use in their environment that some have mastered bj very well, especially in speaking. the choice of a mixture of bi and bj is widespread in the working situation, which involves the relationship between jko with njb, jkw with njb, jkw and jko with njko and njkw. the mixture of bi and bj use happens in accordance with their role in their business. the same thing is displayed in the relationship between the jko and the groups of purveyor and collector. a wide space for the mixture language use is provided by jko and jkw in order to serve njb. conclusion it can be learned from the everyday language use by the javanese traders‟ community in klewer sala that their regulated and repeated verbal interactions with the ethnic jko n j b njko bi jkw purveyor collector bi bi jko n j b njko c jkw purveyor collector c c jkw c language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 67 javanese and non-javanese ethnic in socializing and trading reveal the choice of language use by this community. the choices are bj, bi, and a mixture of both. the determinants then can consist of lingual factors as sala dialect, speech level variation in bj, and language status of native language (bj) and second language (bi). the use of sala dialect in bj use relates to the location of klewer in the heart of the city of sala. thus, the speech level still cannot be ignored by the speakers. the evidence is the use of respect variations to the elders, more powerful ones (in this case between employer and worker) and buyers. however, common usage of krama variations is not fully spoken so completely that it can be shifted into madya variations. the non-language determinants in the language use between the community their speech-partners are their ethnic backgrounds, social relationships among them and the roots of cultural tradition. within their diverse ethnic backgrounds, most of the community members still maintain their native language. the proximity of the relationships in fact identifies the language use. the last but not less important factor is the root of cultural tradition that the community still maintains its existence in klewer. the evidence can be found in general look of their principles of trading (by serving the buyers considerately) and the goods (batik clothes) as well as bj use. this is a small picture of a proof that the phenomenon of language use in traditional markets. many learning processes can be explored and exploited for the sake of economic, social, and cultural nation. relating to the contribution of the community role in preserving the cultural traditions, the local government in the city of sala has considered significant policies to the local cultural preservations including the traditional markets. it relates also to the attempts to set back the strong characters that have been built through the history. to introduce this, the mayor of the city puts the slogan of “sala in the future is sala in the past”. beyond the symbols of the past heritage, the strong characters as “the city of merchants” affect the character building for being self-supporting community. the mayor, joko widodo, has been proven to be successful in this. one of the awards in 2007 that the mayor gained is from central java chamber of commerce for his excellent remark on siding with the small medium enterprises community through his management of the street vendors in a sociable ways as well as the traditional market revitalization. herein, we can be aware more that language use has its imperative role to help build the social, cultural and economy characters of the city. references depdikbud. 1995. teori dan metode sosiolinguistik i. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. geertz, c. 1960.the religion of java. illinois: free press. gumperz, j. 1971. language in social groups: essays by john j. gumperz (selected and introduced by anwar s dil). california: stanford university press. hymes, d. 1974. foundations in sociolinguistics: an ethnographic approach. philadelphia: university of pensylvania press. kundharu s. 2004. etnik madura, perspektif integrasi linguistis kultural. surakarta: pustaka cakra. 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 markhamah. 2000. etnis cina: kajian linguistis kultural. surakarta: universitas muhammadiyah press. nurhadiantomo. 2003. “malintegrasi sosial prinonri (telaah tentang menajamnya konfigurasi pemilahan sosial „pri-nonpri‟, kekerasan kolektif/kerusuhan yang menimpa kolektivitas tionghoa dan implikasinya)”. penelitian pusat studi budaya dan perubahan sosial lembaga penelitian universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. salzmann, z. 1993. language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. new york: westview press. soedarmono. 2000. “kota sala” dalam rubrik pringgitan. suara merdeka cybernews: http: www.suaramerdeka.com. [20 agustus 2003] soejatno kartodirdjo. 1982. “revolusi di surakarta tahun 1945-1950”. disertasi australian national university. australia. sudaryanto. 2001. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. trudgill, p. 1974. sociolinguistics: an introduction. london: penguin books. trudgill, p. 1983. on dialects: social and geographical perspectives. london: basil blackwell. utami, t.d. 2004. pemakaian bahasa komunitas pedagang etnik jawa dengan mitra-tutur etnik jawa dan non-jawa di pasar klewer sala (kajian sosiolinguistik). surakarta: universitas negeri sebelas maret surakarta. (thesis) widodo, j. 2009. mewujudkan kota solo berkarakter. solopos, 29 august 2009. (article). bundel ke 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 43 sea navigation communication: realization and lexico-grammatical features henny wahyu wardani – bplp semarang abstract communication makes use of language with its inherent features which are determined by its contents: context of culture and context of situation. maritime communication falls within closed register which provides fixed realization which is ritualized having no other variation. the ritual constraints can be seen in its unfolding sequence of communication: summon-response; turn-over signal and useof explisit message markers., key words: contex of situation, closed register, ritual constraints, message-markers. introduction language is a means of communication that arises in the life of individual through on ongoing exchange of meanings with significant others (halliday 1978:1). in the process of exchanging meanings the participants of a given communication take turns creating and interpreting a text that make up discourse. halliday’s view of language has the following as the main concept. (1) language is a resource of making meaning (2) the resource of language consists of a set of interrelated systems (3) language users draw on the resource each time they use language (4) language users create texts to make meaning (5) texts are shaped by the social context in which they are used (6) the social context is shaped by people using language discourse language as social practice should be analyzed in contexts. malinowski, an american sociologist, (1923) introduced two types of contexts: (1) context of situation, and (2) context of culture (halliday and hasan, 1985:8). the context of situation is the immediate environment in which a text is actually functioning, while the context of culture serves as a broader background against which the text has to be interpreted (halliday and hasan, 1985:46) according to firth (halliday and hasan, 1985:8) the context of situation includes: (1) the participants in the situation: what firth referred to as persons and personalities, corresponding more or less to what sociologists would regard as the statutes and roles of the participants; 44 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 (2) the action of the participants: what they are doing, including both their verbal action and their non verbal action; (3) other relevant features of the situation: the surrounding objects and events, in so far as they have some bearing on what is going on; (4) the effect of the verbal action: what changes were brought about by what the participants in the situation had to say. he further pointed out (eggins, 1994:52) that learning to use a language is very much a process of learning to say what the other fellow expects us to say under the given circumstances. once someone speaks to you, you are in a relatively determined context and you are not free to say what you please. contexts, then govern language use. the three features of context of situation in functionalsemantic tradition halliday proposes three features of context of situation( halliday and hasan, 1985: 12; eggins, 1994: 52), as follows: (1) the field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures as some essential component? (2) the tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles: what kinds of role relationship obtain among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another, both the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which 'they are involved? (3) the mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic, and the like. halliday (eggins, 1994:78) further claims that: (1) the field of a text can be associated with the realization of experiential meanings; these experiential meanings are realized through the transitivity patterns of the grammar; (2) the mode of a text can be associated with the realization of the textual meanings; these textual meanings are realized through the theme patterns of the language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 45 grammar; (3) the tenor of a text can be associated with the realization of interpersonal meanings; these interpersonal meanings are realized through the mood patterns of the grammar. the register theory the context of situation with its three variables: field, mode and tenor in which language is used determines the range within which meanings are selected and the forms which are used for their expression. in other words, they determine the register (halliday, 1994: 31). the theory of register attempts to uncover the general principles which govern the variations of language use. registers differ from dialects and the table below summarizes the differences. table 1 varieties in language dialect ('dialectal variety') = variety 'according to user' register ('diaptic variety') = variety 'according to the use' a dialect is : what you speak (habitually) determined by who you are (socio-regionof origin and/or adoption), and expressing diversity of social structure (patterns of social hierarchy) a register is: what you are speaking (at the time) determined by what you are doing (nature of social activity being engaged in), and expressing diversity of socia1process (social division of labour) so in principle dialects are: different ways of saying the same thing and tend to differ in: phonetics, phonology, lexicogrammar (but not in semantics) so in principle registers are: ways of saying different things and tend to differ in: semantics (and hence in lexicogrammar, and sometimes phonology, as realization of this extreme cases: anti languages, mother-in-law languages extreme cases: restricted languages. language for special purposes typical instances: structural varieties (standard/nonstandard) typical instances: occupational varieties (technical, semitechnical) 46 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 principal controlling variables: social class, caste; provenance (rural/urban); generation; age; sex principal controlling variables: field (type of social action); tenor (role relationships); mode (symbolic organization) characterized by: strongly-held attitudes towards dialects as symbol of social diversity characterized by: major distinctions of spoken/written; language in action/language in reflection open and closed registers different registers reflect variation according to the 'use'. many situational factors such as degree formality, domain or professional setting determine the speaker's choice of a given register or style. in formal use of language the total number of possible meanings is fixed and finite and maybe quite small, while in informal use the range of the discourse is much more unlimited. the former is associated with closed register and the latter is related to the open register. in closed register participants have to communicate by using a fixed language in which there is no scope for individuality, or for creativity. it is strict and rigid in nature. an example of such register is found in the international language of air or sea navigation. the paper will address the situational features of the language of sea navigation which will be referred to as the maritime english in the coming discussion. purpose of the study the paper attempts to describe features of closed register in maritime english by addressing the following questions: (1) how is the sea navigation communication unfolded? (2) what are the features of lexico grammatical choices used in the communication by referring to the realizations of the language functions used? limitation of the study the paper will focus on the communication between officers of the watch on board a ship(oow) and the officers of the vessel language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 47 traffic service (vts). in this case the communication is carried out when the ship is entering a harbour. review of related literature the unfolding sequence of a communication encounter is determined by what goffman (1976) named communication constraints (hatch, 1992:6). gofman divided these constraints into two types: (1) system constraints, that is the components required for all communication systems, and (2) ritual constraints, that is the social constraints that smooth social interaction. these two constrains provide a systematic framework for the description of discourse that governs, for example: (1) ways a communication is opened and closed by using channel open/close signals; (2) ways how participants hold and turn over the floor by using turn over signals; (3) ways how participants maintain communication by using backchannel signals; (4) ways how participants repair messages to make them interpretable. those signals can be realized through verbal and nonverbal means like eye contact, smile, physical gestures. mccarthy (1994: 144) is of the opinion that spoken discourse type can be analyzed for their typical patterns and the linguistic realization that accompany them (e.g. lectures, business negotiation, telephone calls, etc.) the analysis can be very useful for language teachers and material writers who want to create systematic speaking skill programmes and whose goal is to design activities that will generate output as close as possible to naturally occurring talk. complete naturalness, is probably impossible in the classroom, but the feeling that learners are engaging in an authentic activity is important to them, as is the feeling that they are being taught authentic and naturally occurring structures and vocabulary to use in simulation of real -life talk. the present paper attempts to analyze a spoken discourse used in maritime communication that differs quite significantly from daily, casual face-to-face conversation. it is a kind of telegraphic, face-to-face communication that has a particular patterns and realization. more over, although it is realized formally, it lacks some of the features of formal language like politeness phenomena and modalization to express deference and suggestion because the communication should be carried out in a straightforward, concise and unambiguous, business-like manner (imo model course 3.17, 2000). research methodology 48 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 this is a descriptive qualitative research which the data of which were analysed descriptevely by referring to the realization of the language used in sea navigation communication object of the study the object of the study was the external communication (shis to shore communication) between the officer of the watch (oow) of the vessel mv. stoertebeker who has to report to vts warnemuende traffic one hour before passing warnemuende breakwater, according to the local reporting scheme.vts is vessel traffic services: services designed to improve the safety and efficiency of vessel traffic and to protect the environment. the dialogue oow : warnemuende traffic, warnemuende traffic, warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, stoertebeker, stoertebeker, call sign yankee three charlie sierra, come in please, over. vts : stoertebeker, stoertebeker, stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic, warnemuende traffic, warnemuende traffic. advice. change to vhf channel 73 over. oow : warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra. information. changing to vhf channel 73 over. vts : stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. question. how do you read me over. oow : warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra. answer. i read you good over. vts : stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. question. what is your call sign. what is your flag state over. oow : warnemuende traffic,warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker. answer. my call sign yankee three charlie sierra. my flag state germany over. vts : stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. question. what is your position, present course and speed over. oow : warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra. answer. my position north east, distance 9 miles of fairway entrance. my present course 2 2 3 degrees, speed 18 knots over. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 49 vts : stoertbeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. question. from what direction are you approaching. what is your destination over. oow : warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra. answer. i am approaching from north east. my destination berth number 6 3 over. vts : stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. what is your present draft. what is your air draft over. oow : warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra. answer. my present draft forward 6 meters, aft 7 meters. my air draft 44m over. vts : stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. question. what is your eta in position buoy number 1 over ... oow : warnemuende traffic, this is stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra. answer. my eta 1700 hours local time over. vts : stoertebeker, yankee three charlie sierra, this is warnemuende traffic. information. you may enter fairway in position buoy number 1. units of analysis in analyzing the external communication, the features of the context of situation are applied. the unit of analysis is clause which is analyzed on the mode, field and tennor data analysis mode mode means the role language is playing in an interaction that according to martin (1989) involves to simultaneous continua which describe two different types of distance in the relation between language and situation. communication can be expressed either in written or spoken forms that differs in their mode characteristics as can be seen from the following table: mode characteristics of spoken/written language situation (eggins 1994:55) table 2 typical situations of language use spoken discourse written text +interactive 2 or more participants + face-to-face in the same place at the same time non-interactive one participant not face-to-face on his/her own 50 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 + language as action using language to accomplish some task +spontaneous without rehearsing what is going to be said +casual informal and everyday not language as action using language to reflect not spontaneous planning. drafting and rewriting not casual formal and special occasions yet when we see the dialog understudy which is similar to telephone conversation it lacks visual feedback because it is not in the form of face to face communication. furthermore the style of the realization cannot be set to be casual because it is a formal transactional communication. the spatial or interpersonal distance of ship-to-shore communication is like the one of a telephone communication describe in the figure below. casual conversation telephone e-mail fax radio novel -visual contact +aural +immediate feedback -visual +aural +immediate feedback -visual -aural +rapid feedback -visual -aural +rapid feedback -visual one-way aural delayed feedback -visual aural feedback in the analyzed dialogue we can see that the language is used to accompany the activity participants are involved in (ancillary function of the language) tenor tenor is defined as the social role relationships played by participants (eggins 1994:63). up to now analysis of spoken discourse has distinguished between two types of situation according to their typical tenor dimensions into the informal and the formal reflecting the power possessed by each participant, which can be presented in the table below. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 51 table 3 formal vs. informal situations informal formal equal power unequai. hierarchic power frequent contact or one-off. contact high affective involvement low affective involvement however, the conversation under study is deviant from the above characterictics of formal situation in which the participants are equal in power. consequently, the conversation can be said to be a nonhierarchical, with low affective involvement. in low affective involvement, conversations tend to be very brief and carried out in a business like manner emphasizing consensus and agreement (eggins 1994: 66). field the field of discourse is reflected in the vocabulary and the grammar structures (halliday & hasan 1989:25). the paper analyses the grammatical structure of the dialogue under study. the structures are associated with the types of process that are being talked about, which are mostly processes of material and relational. the unfolding sequence of the conversation under study: in all communication, there must be ways to show that communication is about to begin. the channel opening signals differ according to the channel (e.g. phone calls, letters, meetings, classrooms). the first move is produced by an officer on watch (oow) a ship entering a harbour. the channel opening signal is in the form of a summon calling the vessel traffic service (vts) of the port of destination followed by self-identification of the ship and its call sign. the summon is repeated three times to make sure the intended addressee that s/he/it the one being addressed to. the self-identification is also repeated three times to enable the addressee recognize the caller easily. the response is in the form of identification of the two participants to establish the communication that will follow. this summon-response sequence is ritualized in the sense that it does not have other variation, with no exchange of greetings between the two participants of the communication. 52 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 from the data, we can see that every move made by each participant is ended by the word over as a turnover signal that is not found in face-to-face communication, because it will sound strange to say 'over' each time we reach the end of a move. the signal provides cue for the addressee to begin the next move. in the maritime communication, overlaps, which is typical of daily, casual conversations, is something that is lacking. this means that the transmission of the message by the speaker is never interrupted by the addressee. to ascertain the clearness quality of the transmitted sound, there is a fixed procedure of asking the addressee 'how do you read me' to find out whether or not they can continue using the channel being used (e.g. in the analyzed data: channel 73). if the answer is 'i read you good', they can go on to the next exchanges. the contents of the message are made explicit by using message markers like: advice, information, question, answer, as found in the analyzed data of this paper. in casual conversations, participants sometimes need to make use of conversational implicature when there is discordance between the mood realized and the speech function intended. such a feature is never found in this telegraphic communication of sea navigation because each speech function is realized congruently to avoid misinterpretation which can be very fatal resulting in accidents. linguistically, some features of informal speech like omissions and elision are also found in sea navigation communication (e.g. 'changing to vhf 73' in which the subject and the auxiliary verb are omitted as found in the analyzed data; and 'letgo' for let'sgo). conclusions telegraphic sea navigation communication shares some of the characteristics of spoken discourse in terms of it : (1) is interactive, (2) has immediate feedback, (3) uses language to accompany action. it shares some of informal speech characteristics in terms of equal power that creates non-hierarchical communication. however, it lacks some of casual conversation features because it: (1) non visual (2) not casual, (3) is non face-toface. it reveals some conversational features which are lacking in daily, casual conversations namely: (1) it has ritualized opening signals in the form of self / identification of the speaker and explicit identification of the intended addressee, (2) it has ritualized turn over signal, that is the word ‘over’at the end of each move, (3) it has message markers to make explicit the speech language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 53 function realized. on the other hand sea navigation communication lacks several features of casual conversation as follows: (1) it has no greetings sequence, (2) it does not employ politeness strategies except the word 'please', (3) no overlaps due to a clear turn over signal (4) no backchannel signals which are usually used by an addressee to indicate that he/she is paying attention to the speaker. references eggins, s. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publishers. goffman, e. 1976. replies and responses. language in sociaty. halliday, m.a.k.1978. language as social semiotic. london: edward arnold. halliday, m.a.k. and r. hasan. 1989. language, context, and text. aspects of la,nguage in a socialsemiotic perspective. victoria: deakin university press. hatch, e. 1992. discourse and language education. melbourne: cambridge university press. international maritime organization, 2000. model course 3.17. maritime english. london: ashford open learning ltd. mccarthy, m. 1994. discourse analysisfor language teachers. melbourne: cambridge university press. martin, j.r., c. matthiessen, c. painter. 1997. workingwith functional grammar. london: longman. bundel ke 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 23 context in pragmatics indrawati – semarang state university abstract people carry out almost all social behaviors through language, either spoken or written. the language to be used needs rules and principles; and when it comes to see language from a socio-cultural perspective, and consider the „worlds of users‟ incorporating the context or „human condition‟, people refer to the pragmatic use of it, which means that pragmatics is the study of a context-dependent language. people owe their respects to great many linguists and experts in pragmatics for their various expertises in this field to explain „how the language operates in force of contextually implied conditions‟. with this view, the writer of this paper attempts to learn the important relationship between context and pragmatics. introduction the reasons underlying linguists renewed interest in pragmatics are their concern in the users of language as compared to an earlier focus on language as abstract system; and their belief that users and language are at the core of all things pragmatic as a truly existential condition (mey 2001: 29). in this user context, mey asserts that speaker hearer or interlocutors‟ interaction is demanded of their concerns of the notions of register, such as formality or informality of language use, choice of connotative words, as well as speakers‟ attitudes and rhetoric skill, such as how to get one‟s point across, and the like. in the past, linguists analyzed sentences regardless their context, nowadays, however, linguists consider context in comprehending the meaning of the sentence. in refer to context as an important aspect to interpret meaning, fillmore says that: “the task is to determine what we can know about the meaning and context of an utterance given only the knowledge that the utterance has occurred. i find that whenever i notice some sentences in context, i immediately find myself asking what the effect would have been if the context ( who speaks, to whom, what purpose, how a speaker says, when, and where aspects) had been slightly different” (fillmore 1977:119). the statement explains that context influences meaning, that when a context changes, meaning may change as well. the following sentence: “what time is it?” may have different meanings as it relates to different contexts, as follows. (1) the speaker produces interrogative sentence that asks the time to the hearer. the speakers or interlocutors are probably friends who start leaving for campus; (2) the speaker expresses annoyance to a 24 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 hearer, who probably comes late to an appointment; and (3) the speaker remembers that it‟s time for her/him to go home ( thomas, 1995: 50). the sentence makes sense in three different meanings pragmatically, but not semantically. as it is true that semantics concerns with dyadic relationship in which two aspects are involved between linguistic form and its meaning; whereas pragmatics concerns with triadic relationship in which three aspects involved that is linguistic form, its meaning and its context. related to this, leech explains that an utterance deals with abstract static entity as a sentence, which operates in syntax; a proposition operates in semantics, and verbal acts or performances in particular situation and time operated in pragmatics (leech 1983: 14). pragmatics is distinguished from semantics in being concerned with meaning in relation to a speech situation where context stands as one among various aspects (leech 1983: 15). then how exactly context plays its role in pragmatics that the deeper understanding of context may facilitate the interpretation of meaning? context context is discussed at length by many linguists, philosophers and anthropologists. malinowski emphasizes that language is understood in relation to the context of situation and the broader context of culture in which it was used. malinowski‟s phatic communion concept is referring to primitive language of trobriand islanders that the meaning of words depends on their context. the words: „wood‟, „paddle‟, and „place‟ for instance, had to be translated in the free interpretation in order to show their real meaning. the meaning of the expression „ we arrive near the village of our destination‟ literally: „ we paddle in place‟ is determined only by taking it in the context of the whole utterance (malinowski in widdowson 2007:93). the idea shows that the study of any language spoken by people under conditions different from our own and possess a different culture, must be carried out in conjunction with the study of their culture and environment (widdowson: 2007: 94). the point of malinowski‟s context of situation lies in the fact that speech, consisting of technical terms referring directly to environment, varies and changes based on behaviors that is closely related to social relationship. closely related to malinowski‟s context of situation is the one proposes by firth. he stated four kinds of context, as follows: (1) participants or speaker and hearer with their status and roles; (2) acts or all actions they language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 25 perform, verbally and non-verbally; (3) relevant characteristics including surrounding events having connection with the course of present action; and (4) the impacts the speech acts give on interlocutors or the changes of events as the consequence of speech acts (firth 1968). in later years, this idea inspires hymes (1972) to conceptualize the context in speech situation, comprising of eight components acronimally called speaking, they are: (1) s stands for setting and scene; (2) p stands for participants; (3) e stands for ends; (4) a stands for act sequences; (5) k stands for key; (6) i stands for instrumentalities, (7) n stands for norms and (8) g stands for genres. cultural context recoqnition is required, despite one‟s ability to figure out the situated meaning of some words (hinks 1996 in widdowson 2007:94). in a research, he reports that in yucatan, mayan people in mexico have their own cultural models of how physical and social space work and are related. a mayan shaman named “don chabo” is sharing a meal with his daughter-inlaw, margot, and a visiting anthropologist. a young man, named yuum, approaches from the outside and standing at the window and asks: “is don chabo seated?” margot replies, “go over there. he‟s drinking. go over there inside.” margot uses the mayan word for „there‟ that means “maximally distant from speaker”, the same word people in yucatan use for relatives who live outside yucatan, in other states in the mexican republic. she does this despite the fact she is telling yuum to go into her father-inlaw‟s house, not 10 meters away from hers and within the same compounds that contain several houses. margot is excluded from her father-in-law‟s house unless she has a specific reason to be there. thus she uses the word „far distant‟ due to social rather than physical distance. they use the word „seated‟ to mean that one is „at home‟ and available. in line with situational and cultural context, levinson also mentions about the knowledge of socio-cultural and context by stating two almost similar ideas, the first is that pragmatics discusses the relationship between language and context, that in order to use language, one is required to know the context in which the language is produced, and second, pragmatics discusses the speaker‟s ability to produce sentences correspond with context, he called „ the full communicative intention‟ of a speaker. he states that „by taking into account, not only the meaning of (an utterance) u, but also the precise mechanisms, such as irony, which may cause a divergence between the the meaning of u and what is communicated by 26 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 the utterance of u in a particular context (levinson 1983: 18). the following conversation offers the context‟s importance in understanding utterances: (a and b are on the telephone, talking over arrangements for the next couple of days) a: so can you come over here again right now? b: well, i have to go to edinburgh today sir. a: hmm. how about this thursday? (levinson 1983: 48) the above exchange operates presuppositions, implicatures, references and other factual and contextual aspects in order to make sense, which probably cannot be explained by semantics or syntax. levinson further states that the time of conversation „today‟ is different from „this thursday‟ ( this refers to time reference) – otherwise the speaker would probably have said „tomorrow‟ or „the day after tomorrow‟( this refers to conversational implicature). further, the place from which a is speaking is obviously not edinburgh, but neither is it a place that is too far removed from either edinburgh or the speaker‟s location (refers to pressuposition). in addition, a (being addressed as „sir‟) seems to be in a position that allows him to give orders to b (this refers to presupposition and implicature). levinson‟s idea of aspects of pragmatics goes along with leech‟s as presented in his book principles of pragmatics (leech 1983: 13-17), in that both ideas refer to pragmatics as the study which relates meaning in relation to speech situation. as context is one aspect of several related aspects in pragmatics, one must learn context being at work in speech situation. the speech situation calls for aspects of the followings: (1) addressers and addressees, speakers (writers) and hearers (readers), which these terms do not restrict pragmatics to the spoken language. addressers are persons produce utterances, and addressees are persons to whom the utterances are addressed; (2) context of utterance which includes relevant aspects of the physical or social setting of an utterance, which leech refers to any background knowledge assumed to be shared by speaker and hearer which contributes to interpretation of what speaker means by a given utterance; (3) goals of utterance, which means function of an utterance which explains the speaker‟s intention in producing utterance; (4) the utterance as a form of act or activity called a speech act, (austin 1962:100) refers to illocutionary acts. leech exemplifies the act of uttering the following sentence. “would you please be quiet?”; and (5) the utterance as a product of a verbal act. leech explains that an language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 27 utterance refers to „product‟ of a verbal act, rather than to the verbal act itself, although there is no distinctive difference between them. he shows the example: „would you please be quiet?”, when spoken with a polite rising intonation might be described as a sentence, as a question or as a request, depending on a particular situation. context in abstract situation is interpreted by halliday dan hasan, in which there are three concepts of area as follows: (1) field which means the total events where text and speaker activities take place and given a topic; (2) mode which refers to type of genres or channels by which utterances are produced; and (3) tenor which concerns with types of relevant social relations and interaction between interlocutors. the latter of which is known as register (halliday dan hasan 1976:22). register prerequisites context of situation. as also agreed by mey (2001: 13-42), once context of situation is obtained, it becomes easy for a hearer to know what linguistic form a speaker uses. the same concern on selection of linguistic form is put forward by harmer (2007:78) who underlines that register is the choice of words depending on topic, and tone whether formal or informal. the dynamic context (not the static one) provides changing environment allowing smooth interaction between interlocutors to take place. this similar dynamic state, according to huang (2007: 13) refers to any relevant features as setting or environment in which a linguistic unit is systematically used, comprising three sources, as follows: (1) physical context, or spatio-temporal location: he’s not the chief executive, he is. he’s the managing director. (2) linguistic context or surrounding utterances in the same discourse, that the previous proposition helps understand elliptical construction: john: who gave the waiter a large tip? mary: helen (3) general knowledge context. in real-world knowledge, there is a forbidden city in beijing, while there is no such a tourist attraction in paris: a. i went to beijing last month. the forbidden city was magnificent. b. ? i went to paris last month. the forbidden city was magnificent. leech‟s context is applicable to comprehend written language, and this is in line with nunan (1993: 117-118) and richards et al (1992: 82). nunan mentions two kinds of context: linguistic and experiential, where linguistic means words and sentences in a text; and experiential means the real-world a 28 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 text exists. many systemic functional linguists say that context and purpose or intention decide rules or grammar of discourse. richards states that context works around words, phrase or longer utterance, and text that helps interprete meaning. context might be in the forms of larger social situation presented in linguistic forms. besides that context is related to contextual meaning as the meaning of linguistic form in a context, or the meaning of sentence in a particular paragraph. van dijk (1977:191-192) mentions context as situation of speech interaction, characterized by two properties: (1) context, in which it is dynamic. context is not a world state, but a chain of events of world course of events, real happenings, activities between interlocutors here, now, logically, physically and cognitively. as such, context undergoes initial state, intermedial state and final state; (2) relation and perception. utterances need object, that is speaker and hearer as actual participants. besides that, speaker and hearer carry important functions of speaking and listening. the values of function differ between different groups. in relation to differences in userorientation, one can notice varieties of english. the status of english as one language is challenged by the many different “englishes” being used around the world (harmer 2007:79). southern englanders may say: “it‟s really warm in here”. northern englanders may say: “ it‟s right warm in here”, in which „right‟ is pronounced as „reet‟. australians may say: “bloody warm in here, mate”. as with americans, they may pronounce „warm‟ in which they sound /r/ clearly audible, unlike englanders who pronounce /r/ without audible sound. another user – orientation difference is reported as a result of a research on utterance denoting „prohibition function‟ between bataknese and javanese (gunarwan 1998 in gunarwan 2004). the results show that bataknese uses 43.17% of strategy of bald-on record utterance; whereas javanese uses only 19.64%. this means that batak culture shapes bataknese people to use direct prohibition utterance. in other words, bataknese people‟s speech behaviour is influenced by their prevailing cultural values. context in realization context is realized in implicatures, references and presuppositions. in the case of implicature, an utterance can implicate proposition not as part of related utterance. the implied proposition is called implicature (grice 1975). as implicature does not always come from the utterance, the relationship between implicature and utterance is not a language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 29 direct consequence of each other. an utterance produced by a hearer in response to the speaker‟s utterance is based on context. as there is no semantic relation between an utterance and the one being implicated, an utterance may elicit a large number of implicatures, depending on context or mutual background understanding between the speaker and the hearer. the sentence: “whose motorcycle is this?”, may elicit different implicatures depending on various different contexts. in a situation where the motorcycle gets in the way of other‟s, or being parked in front of other motorcycle, the implicature might be “move your motorcycle”. in a context where someone looks at it thoroughly as if shows admiration, the implicature could be “oh, no, that motorcycle hasn‟t been new for a long time”. in a situation where a friend seems to expect a ride, the implicature could be “oke, you can go with me”. in the case of reference, reference means the knowledge about what utterance refers to, in order to prevent ambiguity (mey 2001: 53). the sentence: “the service left much to be desired”, may give incomplete meaning, as the word „service‟ has several semantic meanings, such as religious ceremony, public assistance, set of crocery and so on. which of them is pragmatically appropriate in this text. we lack a frame of reference. but if the sentence is modified a little into: “the service last sunday left much to be desired”, we would tend to interpret the word as a church service, because in our familiar world such services are customarily held on sundays. and once the church service is understood, we would anticipate that what follows would fit into that reference: “the service last sunday left much to be desired.the hymns were badly chosen, the prayers inappropriate, and the sermon too long. and what is more, the organ was too loud”. presupposition refers to the truth or falsity of an utterance, in which the utterance is defined to hold something true, even if the sentence containing the presupposition is false. the sentence: “the cat is on the mat” regardless of whether it is true or false (that is, whether or not there is a certain cat on a certain mat), presupposes that there is some cat, and some mat: namely the cat and the mat that the sentence refers to (mey 2001: 185). in its realization, context exists along with texts and discourse, that their differences to each other can not be drawn distinctly. on the contrary, their relationship is even prevailing. a text is defined as a unity of meaning, not a unity of form. the text may function only when 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 context is clear, such as who writes the text, to whom it is addressed, what intention the text has, where and when the text is produced and the like. the public notice “no smoking” in the form of a drawing of a cigarrette and a slanting line on it, functions as a text. when the drawing is kept inside the warehouse and left unnoticed, it has no function as such. when the drawing is attached and put on the wall of a hospital, the functions of the text is clear. for example: for a doctor it means “ smoking is very dangerous for your health”. for a hospital staff it means “smoking litters and fills rooms with smoke.” for parents it may mean “prevent your children from smoking.” and for passive smokers it could mean “don‟t smoke near me”, and others. these interpretations are drawn through dynamic contexts or different contexts depending on whose perspectives the text is read. the discourse of the text is “an appeal to the public not to smoke in the viccinity of hospital”. the three educational philosophy formulated by ki hajar dewantara known as ing ngarso sung tulodho ing madyomangun karso tut wuri handayani is a text, and it functions when it is put on the wall of classrooms, and offices. the interpretation of the above text can be done through understanding context or background knowledge related to who writes the text, to whom the text is written, what the purpose of writing it, when and where the text is written, and the like. having knowledge of all of the above will help readers to interpret the menings of the text. the context is that ki hajar dewantara is the leader and teacher of taman siswa teachers institute in the early twentieth century. the three educational philosophy he wrote was intended to live up the spirit of teachers as leaders to be good role models, as teachers in general to motivate students, and as supervisors to facilitate students to do their best in their school. the context of time when it was written was clear that it wants to appeal to teachers to do their job to educate indonesian youths. teachers are the most important factors to develop the best quality generation. it is demanded of teachers to perform their best of their profession to increase the highest level of educated indonesian youths to fight for indonesian independence from the dutch colonization. however, the text in present day can function as political philosophy for political leaders, governmental officers and executives low and high ranks alike, to appeal to their devotion and noble service for their country, save it from collapse politically, socially and language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 31 financially. the original discourse of the text is “an appeal to teachers to devote their expertise to educate indonesian students.” conclusion context and pragmatics are two influentially interrelated concepts, that context is required to realize language use in pragmatic perspective. context, as a dynamic environment enables interlocutors to interact in accordance to both persons‟ socio-cultural background. in addition, context helps understand factors in producing, and interpreting speech oriented in users. in other words, the relationship of context and pragmatics is analogically between species and genus. references austin, j.l.1962 how to do things with words. oxford: oxford university press. firth, j.r. 1957. papers in linguistics, oxford: oxford university press. grice, h. p. 1975, logic and conversation. in p. cole and j. morgan (eds.) syntax and semantics, vol 3: speech act. new york: academic press: pp 41-58 gunarwan, a. 2004. pragmatik, kebudayaan dan pengajaran bahasa, paper unpublished presented in national seminar on semantics iii in sebelas maret university surakarta. halliday m.a.k. dan r. hasan, 1976. cohesion in english, london: longman. harmer, j, 2007. how to teach english, edinburgh: pearson education limited. huang yan, 2007. pragmatics. new york: oxford university press. hymes, d. 1972. on communication competence in j.b. pride dan j. holmes (ed) sociolinguistics. harmondsworth: penguin books. leech, g. 1983. principles of pragmatics. new york: longman group limited. mey, j. l. 2001. pragmatics: an introduction. massachussetts: blackwell publishers limited. nunan, d. 1993. introducing discourse analysis london: the penguin group. richard, j.c. dan r. schmidt. 2002.longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics, ( 3rd edition). london: pearson education limited. widdowson, h.g.2007. discourse analysis. oxford: oxford university press. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 139 تدريس مفردات اللغة العربية ااختبراتتب للررلة اللختوسة zukhaira semarang state university e-mail : zukhaira_unnes@yahoo.com abstract teaching vocabulary (mufrodat) is the basic foundation that must be mastered in the learning of foreign languages including arabic. learners can not communicate with arabic without having sufficient vocabulary to communicate well. the goal of teaching vocabulary (mufrodat) arabic for intermediate level is that the student has the repertory 700-1500 vocabulary to be able to communicate orally and in writing, and be able to use appropriate vocabulary in the correct sentence. methods and techniques of teaching, the media used, and evaluation in the teaching of vocabulary should be adjusted to the development and needs of learners. (pengajaran kosakata (mufrodat) merupakan landasan dasar yang harus dikuasai dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing termasuk bahasa arab. pembelajar tidak dapat berkomunikasi dengan bahasa arab tanpa memiliki kosakata yang cukup untuk berkomunikasi dengan baik. tujuan dari pengajaran kosakata (mufrodat) bahasa arab untuk tingkat menengah adalah agar pelajar memiliki perbendaharaan kosakata 700-1500 untuk dapat berkomunikasi secara lisan dan tulisan, dan mampu menggunakan kosakata yang sesuai dalam kalimat yang benar. metode dan teknik pengajaran, media yang digunakan, dan evaluasi yang dilakukan dalam pengajaran kosakata haruslah disesuaikan dengan perkembangan dan kebutuhan pembelajar. ) key words: vocabulary, arabic, intermediate level kosakata, bahasa arab, tingkat menengah مقدمة يعاىن معظم . إنو ليواجو كّل دارس لغة أجنبية مشاكل لغوية منها مشكلة ادلفردات فيصعب عليهم فهم النصوص كما . الدارسٌن من قلة ادلفردات أو الكلمات الىت يألفوهنا فإذا قرأ دارس نّصا تكثر فيو كلمات غًن مألوفة . خيافون من التحدث والكتابة باللغة اذلدف .وكّلما تزداد عدد ادلفردات غًن ادلألوفة كّلما تزداد صعوبة الّنّص عليو, يصعب فهمو عليو اتفق خرباء تعليم اللغات الثانية على أن تعلم ادلفردات مطلب أساسى من مطالب تعلم .اللغة الثانية و شرط من شروط إجابتها mailto:zukhaira_unnes@yahoo.com 140 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 أو فهم معناىا , ليست القضية ىف تعليم ادلفردات أن يتعلم الطالب نطق حروفها فحسب إن . أو رلرد وصفها ىف تركيب لغوى صحيح, أو معرفة طريقة االشتقاق منها, مستقلة فقط معيار الكفاءة ىف تعليم ادلفردات ىو أن يكون الطالب قادرا على ىذا كلو باإلضافة إىل شيء أال وىو قدرتو على أن يستخدم الكلمة ادلناسبة ىف ادلكان , ال يقل عن ىذا كلو أمهية. آخر (194 : 1989, طعيمة). ادلناسب ألن تعليم ادلفردات مهم جدا و مطلب أساسى من مطالب تعلم اللغة العربية و شرط من فلذلك ىف ىذه ادلقالة تبٌن الكاتبة عن تدريس مفردات اللغة العربية من جهة , شروط إجابتها خصوصا دلرحلة , غرض تدريس ادلفردات و طرق تدريسها و كذلك الوسائل و اختباراهتا و ادلقصود من ادلرحلة ادلتوسطة ىى الطالب ذلم اساس من اللغة العربية يعىن . ادلتوسطة . الطالب ىف ادلدرسة الثناوية و العالية البحث غرض تدريس المفردات لمرحلة المتوسطة .أ‌ غرض من تدريس مفردات اللغة العربية ىى أن يكون للطالب حويل , ىف ادلرحلة ادلتوسطة و يستطيعون أن يستخدموىا ىف الكالم إما عن العقيدة و عن العبادة و إما , مفردة700-1500 (departemen agama, 2004) .عن األخالق باللسان و الكتابة طرق تدريس المفردات .ب‌ language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 141 أّما طرق تدريس ادلفردات دلرحلة ادلتوسطة و خطوات تدريسها الىت يستطيع أن يستخدمها , أفندى): ادلعلم فيما يلى 9 200 :122-127) إستماع الكلمة .1 اما , يعطي ادلدرس الطالب فرصة ليستمع الكلمة الىت لفظها. ىذا ىو اخلطوة األوىل إذا كان الطالب يقدر على الصوت الذى صوهتا ادلدرس من . بالكلمة اجملردة أو اما ىف اجلملة . فللمرة الثانية والثالثة فيقدروا على استماعها صحيحا, ىذه الكلمة لفظ الكلمة .2 وتصويت . واخلطوة التالية ىى يعطي ادلدرس الطالب فرصة لتصويت الكلمة الىت مسعوىا .الكلمة اجلديدة تساعد الطالب على تذكرىا ىف وقت طويل اعطاء ادلعىن الكلمة .3 وضح ىذا . إال إذا اضطرت عليو, يعطي معىن الكلمة للطالب مع عدم استخدام الرتمجة االقرتاح ألنو إذا استخدم ادلدرس اللغة االم للطالب فليس ىناك االتصال ادلباشر باللغة . ينسى الطالب معىن الكلمة سريعا, واضيف اىل ذلك, ادلتعملة قراءة الكلمة .4 فيكتب ادلدرس تلك الكلمة ىف , وبعد أن استماع وتلفيظ مث فهم معىن الكلمة اجلديدة .و يعطى الطالب فرصة ليقرئها جبهر, السبورة كتابة الكلمة .5 142 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 فتساعد , إذا كتب الطالب الكلمة اجلديدة وكانت تلك الكلمة مازالت قائمة ىف ذىنهم .وكتب الطالب ىف كتاهبم مثل ما كتبو ادلدرس ىف السبورة. على استيعاب ادلفردات تضاء الكلمة ىف اجلملة ادلفيدة .6 اخلطوة االخًنة من انشطة تعليم ادلفردات ىى استخدام الكلمة اجلديدة ىف اجلملة الكاملة . يعطي ادلدرس مثال الكلمة مث يصنع الطالب الكلمة مثلها. شفويا أو حتريريا, أم ادلفيدة .تساعد ىذه الطريقة على معرفة الطالب معىن الكلمة وىذا اليعين انو ال يلزم تعريف الكلمة . ىذا ىو طرق و اسلوب ىف تدريس ادلفردات ينبغى الختيار الكلمة , لذا. ولكن ننظر كذالك اىل االوقات. اجلديدة باخلطوات السابقة . الصعبة أو الكلمة التأيت مبعناىا احلقيقي إال إذا اتصلت بسياق الكلمة فينبغى ىنا أن . ال تقدم ادلعاىن بالرتمجة إال للضرورة, ىف تدريس ادلفردات دلرحلة ادلتوسطة : وىذه األساليب أو الطرق ىى , تقدم األساليب أو الطرق غًن الرتمجة لتقدمي معاىن ادلفردات (20-26 : 1995, أسرارى) االقرتان ادلباشر واالشارة .1 النماذج .2 الصور والرسم .3 الرسم التقريبية .أ ادللّصقة .ب البطاقة الومضية .ج language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 143 التمثيل .4 السياق .5 اإلشتقاق .6 الرتادف .7 التضاد .8 التعريف .9 ىناك عدة أساليب نذكرىا بالرتتيب الذى نقرتح ورودىا فيو (198-199 : 1989)وعند طعيمة : كأن نعرض قلما أو كتابا عند ما ترد , (النماذج)إبراز ما تدل عليو الكلمة من أشياء .1 .كلمة قلم أو كتاب ".فتح الباب"كأن يقوم ادلعلم بفتح الباب عندما ترد مجلة , dramatizationمتثيل ادلعىن .2 كأن يلعب ادلعلم دور مريض حيس بأمل ىف بطنو و يفحصو , role playing لعب الدور .3 .طبيب إن كان , "ساخن"ىف مقابل " بارد"كأن يذكر ذلم كلمة , antonyms ذكر ادلتضادات .4 .ذلم سابق عهد هبا لتوضيح معىن كلمة " السيف"كأن يذكر ذلم كلمة , synonymذكر ادلرتادفات .5 .إن كان ذلم سابق عهد بكلمة سيف" صمصام" 144 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 و ذلك بذكر الكلمات الىت تثًنىا ىف الذىن الكلمة , associationتداعى ادلعاىن .6 , أوالد, أسرة, زوجة, زوج: الكلمات اآلتية" عائلة"كأن يذكر عند ورود كلمة . اجلديدة .اخل...... و ىذا أيضا من أساليب توضيح ادلعىن فعند . ومشتقاهتاroot ذكر أصل الكلمة .7 وما يشتق من ىذا األصل من . (كتب)مثال يستطيع ادلعلم بيان أصلها " مكاتبة"ورود كلمة (اخل..... كتاب , مكتوب, كاتب)كلمات ذات صلة بالكلمة اجلديدة .شرح معىن الكلمة العربية و ذلك بشرح ادلقصود من الكلمة .8 ىف حالة ورود كامة جديدة ىف نص يقرؤه الطالب ديكن تكليفهم بقراءة , تعدد القراءة .9 .النص قراءة صامتة عدة مرات حىت يستكشف أحدىم معناىا ديكن تكليف الطالب ىف ادلستويات ادلتوسطة و ادلتقدمة , البحث ىف القاموس .10 .بالبحث ىف القواميس العربية لتوضيح معىن الكلمة اجلديدة و ىذا آخر أسلوب ديكن أن يلجأ إليو , intermediate languageالرتمجة إىل لغة وسيطة .11 .ادلعلم لتوضيح معىن الكلمة و على ادلعلم أال يتعجل ىف ىذا األمر ىذه ىى األساليب أو الطرق و ادلعينات الىت ينبغى استخدامها ىف تعليم و توضيح يستطيع ادلعلم أن خيتار من . ادلفردات قبل اللجوء إىل الرتمجة عند الطالب ىف ادلرحلة ادلتوسطة أّما إذا . تلك ادلعينات حسب طبيعة الكلمات الىت يعّلما وادلرافق الىت تتمتع هبا ادلدرسة فال سبيل للمعّلم إال أن , استحالت االستعانة بأى واحدة منها ىف توضيح معاىن كلمات language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 145 ألهنا التقدم غالبا ادلعىن التام , ولينظر ادلعّلم إىل طريقة الرتمجة بكوهنا دون الفعالية. يرتمجها .للكلمات كما التتطلب اجيابية الدارسٌن وىف احلقيقة إذا أراد ادلعلم تعليم مفردات جديدة للدارسٌن فال بد لو من اتباع عدة :خطوات أمهها مايلى .ينطق ادلعّلم الكلمة نطقا سليما منوذجيا ويكررىا مرتٌن أو ثالثا والدارسون يستمعون .1 ينطق ادلعّلم نفس الكلمة والدارسون يكّررون .2 قد توّحد ىذه اخلطوة )يكتب ادلعلم الكلمة على السبورة أو يعرضها على البطاقة .3 (باألوىل حٌن تكون الكلمة مكتوبة على البطاقة جيوز توحيد ىذه )يوضح ادلعلم معىن الكلمة بالطريقة أو ادلعينة الىت يراىا مناسبة .4 (اخلطوة باألوىل إذا عرضت ادلعىن باالشارة أو النماذج أو الصورة .يقرأ الدارسون الكلمات مجاعيا أو فئويا أو فرديّا .5 .يضع ادلعلم الكلمة ىف مجلة فأكثر لتتضح معناىا ووظيفتها حنويا .6 . يتدّرب الدارسون على استخدام الكلمة داخل مجلة .7 الوسائل .ج‌ الوسائل ىى كل ما يستخدم ادلدرس ىف تفهيم التالميذ و إكساهبم ادلهارات أو كل (4 : 1995, أسرارى). مايساعد الدارس على إدراك واكتساب مواد دراسية 146 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 من الضروري أن يستفيد ادلعلم من الوسائل ادلعينة ىف التدريس عموما و تدريس اللغة الطالب ىف مرحلة ادلتوسطة أحب األمور , و من جهة األسس السيكولوجية. خصوصا :و الوسائل ادلعينات ىف تدريس ادلفردات اللغة العربية ذلذه ادلرحلة منها. اجلديدة و متحدى سلترب اللغة .1 األفالم السينمائية .2 ادلذياع .3 الصور .4 البطاقات .5 اختبار المفردات .د‌ ( :160-159: 1986, اخلويل)من ادلمكن اختبار ادلفردات بعدة طرق منها اخرت واحدة من الكلمات األربع لتناسب الفراغ ىف اجلملة . اال ختبار من متعدد .1 .(ادلاء, الكتاب, الطعام, الشراب)----أكل الواحد : مثل ذلك. اآلتية .أعط كلمة أخرى ترادف الكلمة اآلتية ىف ادلعىن. ادلرتادفات .2 .اشرح معىن كل كلمة شلا يلى. الشرح .3 .أعط كلمة تضاد الكلمة اآلتية يف ادلعىن. األضداد .4 اشتق اسم الفاعل أو اسم ادلفعول أو صفة ادلشبهة أو ادلصدري أو اسم . االشتقاق .5 .ادلكان أو اسم الزمان أو اسم االلة أو صيغة ادلبالغة من الكلمات اآلتية .اختز من القائمة الثانية كلمة تقارب نظًنة ذلا ىف ادلعىن ىف القائمة األوىل. التزاوج .6 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 147 . امأل الفراغ ىف اجلملة اآلتية بالكلمة ادلناسبة. ملء الفراغ .7 امأل الفراغ ىف اجلملة اآلتية بكلمة مناسبة مذكور . معاىن الكلمات ىف ادلعان الفارغ .8 .أول حرف منها أو آخر حرف منها أو عدد حروفها أو أول حرف و آخر حرف منها االختتام إما من , بعد أن نظرنا البحث ىف تدريس مفردات اللغة العربية و اختباراهتا دلرحلة ادلتوسطة جهة غرض تدريس ادلفردات وطرق تدريسها و أما من الوسائل و اختبارىا نستطيع أن نأخذ اإلستنتاج أن تدريس ادلفردات مهمة جدا و مطلب أساسى من مطالب تعلم اللغة العربية و و بادلفردات يستطيع الطالب أن يتكلم اللغة العربية رلتهدا . شرط من شروط إجابتها . باللسان و الكتابة العربية المراجع ادلعهد العاىل لفن التدريس و علوم : ماالنج. الوسائل ادلعينات ىف تعليم العربية. 1995. أسرارى الرتبية الرياض. أساليب تدريس اللغة العربية. 1986. زلمد علي, اخلويل : الرباط. مناىجو و اساليبو: تعليم العربية لغًن الناطقٌن هبا. 1989. رشدى أمحد, طعيمة منشورات ادلنظمة اإلسالمية للرتبية و العلوم و الثقافة المراجع اإلندونيسية departemen agama. 2004. kurikulum berbasis kompetensi: kurikulum dan hasil belajar, mata pelajaran bahasa arab untuk madrasah tsanawiyah dan aliyah. jakarta 148 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 effendy, ahmad fuad. 2009. metodologi pengajaran bahasa arab. malang: misykat bundel ke 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 1 unforgettable dream in brennan’s poem henriono nugroho – university of jember h-nugroho@hotmail.com abstract this article concerns with a stylistic analysis on a poem in terms of systemic functional linguistics and verbal art semiotics. the writing uses library research, qualitative data, documentary study, descriptive method and intrinsic-objective approach. the semantic analysis results in both automatized and foregrounded meanings. then the automatized meaning produces lexical cohesion and in turn, it produces subject matter. meanwhile, the foregrounded meaning produces the literary meaning and in turn, it creates theme. finally, the analysis indicates that the subject matter is about a young man in his girlfriend‟s dream, the literary meaning is about the memory of dream and the theme is about the unforgettable dream. keyword: automatized meaning, foregrounded meaning, subject matter, literary meaning, theme introduction generally, there are several theories of stylistics namely formal, functional, feminine, pragmatic, affective, cognitive, pedagogical and critical (webber, 1996). particularly the functional stylistics includes functionalism, systemic functionalism, tagmemics, prague school functionalism and west coast functionalism (matthiessen, 1995). based on systemic functional linguistics, language can be ordered in contexts with cline of instantiation (actualization over time): context of culture and language, situation types and registers, situations and texts, and situation and text (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). according to halliday and matthiessen (1999), moreover, context of culture (cultural context) concerns with meaning potential (overall meaning), and context of situation (situational context) deals with the actualization of meaning potential (actualized meaning potential). meanwhile, kluckhohn (1953) claims that culture (cultural context) refers to notions, values and norms, whereas the domain of socio-cultural context corresponds to universal categories such as language, art, science, technology, economy, social organization and religion. the language order is outlined in figure 1. mailto:h-nugroho@hotmail.com 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 fig. 1 the interrelatedness of context, language, situation and text context of culture situation types situations situation (cultural context) (socio-cultural context) (social context) (situational context) language registers texts text note: stratification = instantiation = in fact, a text is a semantic unit and a clause is a grammatical unit (halliday, 1994). then, semantics is an interface between context of situation and lexicogrammar; in this sense the semantic systems are related “upward” to contextual systems and they are related “downward” to lexicogrammatical systems (halliday, 1993). the contextual systems are field, tenor and mode. the semantic systems are ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings. the lexicogrammatical systems are complexing, transitivity, mood and theme. in addition, the semantic systems are related “sideways” to discoursal systems (eggins, 1994). the discoursal systems are structural conjunction, lexical cohesion, conversational structure and grammatical cohesion. the interrelationship of situation, discourse, semantics and lexicogrammar is diagrammed in table 1. table 1 the relation of context, text and clause c o n te x t situation field subject matter tenor role relation mode rhetoric t e x t discourse structural conjunction ** lexical cohesion conversational structure * grammatical cohesion language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 3 semantics # logical meaning # experiential meaning interpersonal meaning textual meaning c la u s e lexicogrammar complexing transitivity *** mood theme note: # logical meaning & experiential meaning = ideational meaning * including reference, substitution, ellipsis and cohesive conjunction ** including reiteration & collocation *** including polarity and modality moreover, literariness is defined as the difference between automatization or background and defamiliarization or foreground (jefferson, 1995: 37). background is also called ground, automatization, familiarization, and the normal, habitual, canonical, common, automatized or familiarizing pattern, whereas foreground(ing) is also called figure, deautomatization, defamiliar-ization, and the foregrounded, motivated, prominent, dominant, deautomatized or defamiliarizing pattern (jefferson 1995, hasan 1985, halliday 1971). then, the concept of background and foreground is used by hasan (1985: 99) to propose the semiotic system of verbal art. the verbal art semiotics deals with verbalization, symbolic articulation and theme, and verbalization itself is the semiotic system of language concerned with phonology, lexicogrammar and semantics. especially, verbalization – the lowest stratum – is where the point of primary contact with work reveals the meaning of language (the deep level of meaning). symbolic articulation – the middle stratum – is where the deep level of meaning functions as a sign, symbol or metaphor for the deeper level of meaning. finally, theme – the highest stratum is where the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning. this article is concerned with a stylistic analysis on a poem of christopher brennan as follows. 4 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 dream there is a breath at midnight that comes in sadness as a sigh, and then the day is dead and the young man doth his course begin, sowing new dreams in many a dreamer‟s head and two dreams have waked in one dark bed just as the last stroke fades in lonely air, having whispered and having sped with silent feet into sleep‟s poppied lair, in the morning she woke away he was gone; her tears and kisses were of no avail; perchance it was his good bye murmured on the midnight in death‟s visionary dale; she thought it was in sleep‟s fairyland when in the dark he pressed her warm soft hand (christopher brennan) the semiotic system of language logical meaning, logical metafunction or logical semantic logical meaning is a resource for construing logical relations (halliday, 1994: 36), and logical meaning describes a clause type (clause complex). in fact, the poem is realized by 2 clauses complexes consisting of 2 main clauses and 14 expanding clauses. out of 14 expanding clauses, there are 6 paratactic extending clauses, 5 hypotactic elaborating clauses, 2 hypotactic enhancing clauses and 1 hypotactic projected clause. thus, extension is the automatized pattern, because the poem is frequently realized by extending clauses. then, logical meaning is realized by complexing (clause complex), and the complexing analysis is presented in table 2. table 2 complexing analysis no. notation logical relation clause 1. 1 α main clause there is a breath at midnight language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 5 2. 1 =β elaboration that comes in sadness as a sigh 3. 2 α extension and the young man doth begin his course 4. 2 =β elaboration sowing new dreams in many a dreamer‟s head 5. +3 α α extension and two dreams have waked in one dark bed 6. 3 α α β enhancement just as the last stroke fades in lonely air 7. 3 =β 1 elaboration having whispered 8. 3 =β 2 elaboration and having sped with silent feet into sleep‟s poppied lair 9. 1 main clause in the morning she woke 10. +2 extension away he was gone 11. +3 extension her tears and kisses were of no avail 12. +4 α extension perchance it was his good bye 13. 4 =β elaboration murmured on midnight in death‟s visionary dale 14. +5 α extension she thought 15. 5 „β projection it was in sleep‟s fairyland 16. 5 β α β enhancement when in the dark he pressed her warm soft hand experiential meaning, experiential metafunction or experimental semantics experiential meaning is a resource for construing experience (halliday, 1994: 36), and experiential meaning discusses a process type (processes). actually, the poem is encoded by 7 clauses of material process, 3 clauses of relational process, 2 clauses of behavioral process, 1 clause of mental process and 1 clause of existential process. therefore, material process is automatized pattern, because it is frequently used in the poem. then, experiential meaning is encoded by transitivity, and the transitivity analysis is outlined in table 3. table 3: transitivity analysis no. process tenses clause 1. existential present there is a breath at midnight 2. material present that comes in sadness as a sigh 3. material present continues and the young man doth begin his course 4. material present sowing new dreams in many a dreamer‟s head 5. material present and two dreams have waked in one dark bed 6 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 6. material present just as the last stroke fades in lonely air 7. behavioral present perfect having whispered 8. material present perfect and having sped with silent feet into sleep‟s poppied lair 9. material past in the morning she woke 10. material past away he was gone 11. relational past her tears and kisses were of no avail 12. relational past perchance it was his good bye 13. behavioral past murmured on midnight in death‟s visionary dale 14. mental past she thought 15. relational past it was in sleep‟s fairyland 16. material past when in the dark he pressed her warm soft hand textual meaning, textual metafunction or textual semantics textual meaning is a resource for creating message (halliday, 1994: 36), and textual meaning explains a theme type (unmarked theme and marked theme). the poem is expressed by 13 clauses of unmarked theme and 3 clauses of marked theme. in fact, the marked theme takes place in clause 9 (circumstance: in the morning), clause 10 (circumstance: away) and clause 16 (circumstance: in the dark). then, textual meaning is expressed by theme, and theme analysis displayed in table 4. table 4: theme analysis no. theme rheme textual marked unmarked 1. there is a breath 2. that come in the sadness…. 3. and the young man doth begin …. 4. sowing 5. and two dreams have waked …. 6. just as the last stroke fades in…… 7. having whispered 8. and having sped 9. in the morning she woke 10. away he was gone language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 7 11. her tears…… were of no avail 12. perchance it was his good bye 13. murmured on…. 14. she thought 15. it was in sleep‟s….. 16. when in the dark he pressed ….. logogenetic process according to halliday and matthiessen (1998: 184-5), logogenesis is a process of making meaning through an instantial system (a changing system) when text unfolds (in the unfolding text). the speaker/writer uses the instantial system (the changing system) as a resource to create a text, whereas the listener/reader uses the instantial system (the changing system) as a resource to interpret the text. moreover, matthiessen (1995: 40) adds that logogenetic process reveals that lexicogrammatical shift (cf. butt, 1988: 83 on “latent patterning”) coincides with episodic shift (hasan, 1988: 60 on “textual structure”). textual structure is also called narrative structure (o‟toole, 1983), schematic structure (martin, 1985), staging structure (plum, 1988) and generic structure (eggins, 1994). in this poem, shifts (changes) are described as follow: shift from unmarked theme (clause 8) to marked theme (clause 9) coincides with shift from the appearance of dream to the memory of dream. thus, the instantial system of theme is used as a resource for making meanings in the poem, and logogenetic process is demonstrated in table 5. table 5 logogenetic process clause number lexicogrammatical shift cf. latent patterning episodic shift cf. generic structure 1 8 unmarked theme unmarked theme the appearance of dream 9 16 marked theme marked theme the memory of dream 8 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 lexical cohesion lexical cohesion is made up of several lexical chains, and each chain consists of a number of lexical items. the poem is constructed by 10 lexical chains consisting of 38 lexical items. the lexical chains include he (3), she (2), material process (9), relational process (3), behavioral process (2), mental process (1), existential process (1), repetition (8), synonym (6) and hyponym (2). thus, the poem is frequently realized by the main lexical chains of he, material process and repetition. the lexical cohesion is tabulated in table 6. table 6 lexical cohesion no. lexical chain lexical item total 1. he a young man, he, he 3 2. she she, she 2 3. material process comes, doth begin, sowing, have waked, fades, having sped, woke, was gone, pressed 9 4. relational process were, was, was 3 5. behavioral process having whispered, murmured 2 6. mental process thought 1 7. existential process there was 1 8. repetition midnight-midnight, dark-dark, dreams-dreams, sleep-sleep 8 9. synonym sadness = tears, silent = lonely, dead = death 6 11. hyponym day-morning 2 overall total 38 subject matter in section 2.2, experiential meaning is frequently realized by material process. in section 2.5, lexical cohesion is frequently encoded by material process. in other words, subject matter is frequently constructed by material process. the analysis of material processes indicates that the functional elements are actor (the young man), material process (appears), goal (her dream) and circumstance (at midnight). in brief, subject matter describes that a young man appears in his girlfriend’s dream at midnight. the analysis of material process is outlined in table 7. table 7 the analysis of material process language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 9 no. actor process goal circumstance 1. midnight comes in sadness 2. the young man begins his course 3. the young man sows new dreams in a dreamer‟s head 4. two dreams have waked in the dark bed 5. the last stroke fades in lonely air 6. two dreams have sped into sleep‟s poppied lair 7. she woke in the morning 8. he was gone away 9. he pressed her soft hand in the dark the semiotic system of verbal art verbalization: the deep level of meaning in section 2.1, extension is automatized, so a combination of extension, elaboration, enhancement and projection is foregrounded. thus, the foregrounding of logical relation takes place in clauses 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16. in section 2.2, material process is automatized, so other processes (relational, mental and existential) are foregrounded. therefore, the foregrounding of process occurs in clauses 1, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. in section 2.3, unmarked theme is automatized, so marked theme is foregrounded. accordingly, the foregrounding of theme exists in clauses 9, 10, and 16. then, the pattern of foregrounding is mapped out in table 8. table 8 patterns of foregrounding no. logical relation process theme 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. x x 9. 10. x x x x 10 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. x x x x x x x x x x x x table 8 reveals that patterning of the various foregrounded patterns points toward clauses 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16. thus, consistency of foregrounding converges to ward the last clause complex because of the foregrounding of logical relation, process and theme. then, the consistency of foregrounding makes the foregrounded patterns of the last clause complex produce consistently foregrounded meaning which is also called the deep level of meaning and the first order meaning. in short, the consistently foregrounded meaning is called the deep level of meaning: in the morning she woke but he was gone away; her tears and kisses were of no avail; perchance it was his good bye murmured on midnight in death‟s visionary dale; she thought it was in sleep‟s fairy land when in the dark he pressed her warm, soft hand. symbolic articulation: the deeper level of meaning in section 3.1, the deep level of meaning refers to the last clause complex because of the foregrounding of logical relation, process and theme. then, the deep level of meaning function as the sign, symbol or metaphor of the deeper level of meaning, which is also called the second order meaning and literary meaning. the deep level of meaning suggests that she woke in the morning but he had gone away and her tears and kisses disappeared; in her dreams, he said good bye when he pressed her warm, soft hand. in conclusion, the deep level meaning is the memory of dream. theme: the deepest level of meaning the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning which is also called theme and the third order meaning. hasan (1985: 97) states that theme is the deepest level of meaning in verbal art; it is what a text is about when dissociated from the particularities of that text. in its nature, the theme of verbal art is very close to generalizations which can be viewed as a hypothesis about some aspect of the social life of man. moreover, hasan (1985: 54) adds language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 11 that the deepest level of meaning is a meaning that arises from saying one thing and meaning another. in this poem, saying one thing (the memory of dream) means another (the unforgettable dream). in summary, the deepest level of meaning is the unforgettable dream. conclusion the lexicogrammatical analysis produces semantic components and there are two kinds of semantic patterns such as automatized and foregrounded. on the one hand, the automatized pattern produces the automatized meaning, and in turn the automatized meaning produces subject matter. at the stratum of verbalization, on the other hand, consistency of foregrounding makes some foregrounded patterns produce consistently foregrounded meaning which is also called the deep level of meaning and the first order meaning. at the stratum of symbolic articulation, the deep level of meaning functions as symbol, sign or metaphor of the deeper level of meaning which is also called the second order meaning and literary meaning. at the stratum of theme, the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning which is also called theme and the third order meaning. in summary, there is a symbolic relation between lexicogrammar and theme in verbal art. then the meanings in the poem are outlined in table 8. table 8 meanings of verbal art semiotics verbalization symbolic articulation theme consistenly foregrounded meaning literary meaning theme the deep level of meaning the deeper level of meaning the deepest level of meaning the first order meaning the second order meaning the third order meaning references butt, d. 1988. “randomness, order and the latent patterning of text” in david birch and michael o‟ toole (eds.) functions of style. london: pinter publishers. butt, d. et al. 1995. using functional grammar. sydney: macquarie university. eggins, s. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publishers. halliday, mak and r. hasan. 1985. language, context, and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. melbourne: deakin university press. 12 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 halliday, mak. 1993. language as a social semiotic. london: edward arnold. halliday, mak & christian matthiessen. 1999. construing experience through meaning: a language-based approach to cognition. berlin: de gruyter. hasan, r. 1985. linguistics, language and verbal art. melbourne: deakin university press. hasan, r. 1988. “the analysis of one poem: theoretical issues in practice” in david birch and michael o toole (eds.) functions of style. london: pinter publishers. hasan, r. 1996. “on teaching literature across cultural distances” in joyce e. james (ed.), the language-culture connection. anthology series 37. singapore: seameo regional language center martin, j.r. 1985. “process and text: two aspects of semiosis” in benson and graves (eds.) systemic perspectives on discourse. norwood, new jersey: ablex. martin, j.r. 1992. english text system and structure. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing. mukarovsky, j. 1977. the word and verbal art. tr. j. burbank and p. steiner. new haven: yale university press. matthiessen, c. 1995. lexicogrammatical cartography: english systems. tokyo, taipei, dallas: international language sciences publishers. pradopo, r.d. 1996. pengkajian puisi. jogjakarta: gajah mada university press. preminger, a. 1974. princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics. princeton: princeton university press. plum, g.a. 1988. text and contextual conditioning in spoken english: a genre based approach. unpublished phd thesis. sydney, australia: university of sydney. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 89 developing english materials using english-indonesian mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary vinta cahyaningsari vintappsunnes@yahoo.co.id isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school semarang indonesia mursid saleh mursids@hotmail.com graduate program universitas negeri semarang indonesia received: 5 august 2018. revised: 20 october 2016. accepted: 30 october 2016 abstract the fifth graders of isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school semarang had problems to study english vocabulary. they didn‟t enjoy to study english vocabulary using drill and writing method done by the teacher. they need the interactive english materials which make them enjoy to study english, especially to improve their vocabulary. this study employed research and development design to develop the english materials using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary. observation, questionnaire, interview, validation, and pre-test also post test were administered to collect the data. from the results of data collection the writer found that using english-indonesian mixed song lyrics is effective to teach vocabulary. the average score of pretest was 67,00 and of post-test was 88,38. it means that english-indonesia mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary could be implemented in improving the learners‟ vocabulary competence. therefore, english teachers are suggested to employ the english-indonesian mixed song lyrics for their future teaching materials. key words: elementary school students; mixed song lyrics; research and development. how to cite: cahyaningsari, v. & m. saleh. 2016. developing english materials using english-indonesian mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. ________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction teaching english to children of elementary schools is not an easy job. it needs patience because english is a foreign language for the students. it‟s not easy to teach the beginner how to pronounce and memorize english words. the students sometimes face some problems in acquiring the language as their foreign language. consequently, the teacher should be creative and be good model in teaching english for their students. when students learned english, sometimes they felt bored. in fact, harmer (2007) takes the view that the children can be easily bored and lose interest after ten minutes or so. the teacher must be creative in selecting, or even developing the materials and media to teach the children. he/she needs to choose the most suitable methodology in delivering the materials. one of the media that can make the students feel enthusiast to learn english is “song”. song is one alternative ways to increase english especially on vocabulary. most children enjoy singing songs, and usually they are happy to sing a song during teaching learning process. songs can play an important role in the development of language in young children learning a second language. dickinson (1987) states that one way to mailto:vintappsunnes@yahoo.co.id mailto:mursids@hotmail.com vinta cahyaningsar & mursid saleh. 2016. developing english materials using english-indonesian mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ motivate students‟ self enthusiasm in learning english is by using songs, which will enable them to give more reaction in learning english. singing a song is a nice activity for the students. most of the students enjoy singing together. memorizing words by singing a song is easier than memorizing them by saying them in sentences. in isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school, english becomes one of the local content subject which taught 2 hours in a week. english lesson is given from the first up to sixth grade. most of the students like to study english, but many of them are not active in the class. the main problem is because they have a very limited english vocabulary skill, so they are reluctant to speak because they are afraid to have some mistakes. the material book used by the teacher and the students also didn‟t support their need. the book didn‟t relevant with the curriculum and couldn‟t explore the students‟ ability to improve their english vocabulary. based on the background of the study, the writer assumes that the teacher needs a creative english material to motivate the students to be more active in learning english. the use of english materials by using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics in teaching and learning process will help the teachers and students engage together to get the main goal much better. it also helps the students to improve their english vocabulary better by using songs as a teaching media. research methodology this study addressed to develop a new product that is namely english materials using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics for elementary students in the grade fifth. in this research, the writer used the research and development model proposed by borg and gall. according to borg and gall (2003) a research and development is a research in which focused on developing and validating the use of the product of education. research and development is not only to make the theory but also develop the effective products that can be used in teaching and learning activity. there are some techniques in collecting the data, i.e. test, questionnaire, interview, observation and documentation (arikunto, 1996 ). while according to saleh (2008) the data of the research are collected with five ways, they are observation, interview, test, questionnaire, and document study. in obtaining the data in the preliminary research, the writer used some techniques/ research instruments; they are observation, interview, questionnaire, pretest and post test as instruments to fulfill the data. the techniques can be explained as follows: isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school semarang is located on islamic center, jl abdulrahman saleh semarang. there are 4 classes of the fifth grade. the writer chose randomly one of the class to do her research. she chose vd class as the experimental class. it consists of 33 students as the total sample on experimental group. in this study, population and sample were the students of grade five d which consist of 33 students, the english curriculum and syllabus of elementary school of the fifth grade students of isriati baiturrahman elementary school in the academic year of 2013/2014. in developing the product, the writer used only seven steps of r&d cycle. the first concern dealt with starting to arrange an observation of the available book. and then the writer had observation at isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school semarang. she did needs analysis and determined what materials were going to developed. having got some information language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 92 from the preliminary observation, she planned and developed the intended product, i.e. developing english materials using englishindonesia mixed song lyrics. afterward, an english teacher and an expert validated the product in order to know the product‟s practicality and effectiveness. furthermore, the writer revised the developed product based on the previous suggestions and corrections from them. the next step was trying out the products for the students. after the writer had the second revision, the final product was ready to be published. results and discussion in order to know the students and the teachers‟ need in english teaching learning process, the writer did some observation in hj. isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school as the preliminary research. the writer began to observe the curriculum, especially for the fifth grade of elementary school. the writer also observed the previous materials used by the teacher in her class. the first time, she observed the english worksheet used by the fifth graders, especially in “weather and season theme” as the object of observation. from this worksheet book the writer found that some parts of the book was not relevance with the standard of competence and basic competence. in order to know the students and the teacher‟s need on the developing english materials using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics, the writer did class observation in isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school as the preliminary research. during teaching and learning process, english teacher taught quite good because she explained well and understandable for learners. in addition, she also answered the questions from the learners directly. however, a number of important things were noted down as follows: the class was too noisy; teacher took the role; no song taught; no media used for teaching instead of teacher‟s book; and no character building inserted in the lesson plan. there were some students who paid attention to the teacher, some of the students did not seriously joined the teaching and learning process and the rest of the students didn‟t understand the materials. the teacher just explained the material as the teacher-centered. the teacher explained then gave exercises, so the students feel bored to the materials. in this school, english subject took 2 hours (2x35‟) for one meeting. it was taught only once a week. the teacher only used one text book (focus) to teach english. the students had no courage to come in front of the class, but they were too noisy in groups. no interactive media used for english teaching and learning process. the students didn‟t have self confident to speak english because their english vocabulary was still limited. they were afraid to make mistakes in speaking english. they felt ashamed if their friends laughed at their mistake in speaking english. they had the problem in memorizing english vocabulary. the teacher used drill method listen and repeat method, and writing method to help the students in memorizing english vocabulary, but it seemed that the students didn‟t enjoy using this method. in this study the writer also used questionnaires to get data and information in line with the needs analysis. from the questionnaire the writer can conclude that 28 students (84.8%) liked english, and only 2 students (15.2%) didn‟t like english. all of the students (100%) thought that english is important. there were 15 students (45.5%) stated that english was easy lesson, and there were 18 students (54.5%) stated that english was difficult. there were 23 students (69.7%) vinta cahyaningsar & mursid saleh. 2016. developing english materials using english-indonesian mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ stated that english was interesting study, and 10 students (30,3%) stated that english was not interesting. there were 25 students (75.8%) could understand when the english teacher teaches them and 8 students (24.2%) still didn‟t understand clearly when the english teacher taught them. there were 7 students (21.2%) stated that they had memorized many english vocabulary, and there were 26 students (78.8%) stated that their english vocabulary was still poor. there were 30 students (90.9%) thought that it was important to improve english vocabulary, and there were 3 students (9.1%) thought that improving english vocabulary was not important. there were 10 students (30.3% ) had no problem in memorizing english vocabulary, and there were 23 students (69.7%) had a problem in memorizing english vocabulary. there were 18 students (54.5%) stated that the activity in memorizing english vocabulary was boring, and 15 students (45.5%) thought that memorizing english vocabulary was a nice activity. there were 31 students (93.9%) stated that they liked studying english by adding some english songs in their activity, and there were 2 students (6.1%) didn‟t agree with that idea. the writer interviewed one of the english teacher miss atin megarani. from the result of interview, in hj isriati baiturrahman 2 elementary school, it was found that english was taught in all grades. each class consisted of 33 to 40 students. the time allotment for english class in each class was 2x35‟in a week .she used only “focus” book for teaching. according to the teacher, she used “focus” because it was recommended book to use for most elementary school in semarang. most of the english semester tests from the local government were based from that book. the teacher realized that actually she needed another book as references, but because of limited time, she only taught based on the focus worksheet book. in teaching vocabulary, the teacher asked the students to repeat after her over and over again, or noted some difficult vocabulary to memorize. the teacher used book and pictures as the media to teach vocabulary. she realized that her method and media for teaching were not effective yet. that‟s why sometimes the students were too noisy to join english class because sometimes they get bored. according to the english teacher, her students actually liked to study by using song. sometimes the teacher taught them the nursery rhymes songs to get the students interest in studying english. of course the songs were not relevance with the topic of the study, but the students enjoyed it. in the future, she expected to teach english fun by using song media to teach vocabulary. the song can be created by her as long as it is relevance with the english topic. the english teacher really supported the idea of the writer in developing the english materials using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics. the tests (pre test and post test) were given in the first meeting and the last meeting. pre test was given before the students had the treatment from the english teacher. post test was given after the english materials from the writer were given for the students. the result of pre test and post test can be used to measure the effectiveness of the product made by the writer. getting the data from the observation, questionnaire, interview, and tests the writer knew that some of the students were difficult to learn english. one of the interesting media was learning english by song. most of the students stated that they liked singing. the songs were created by the writer by mixing language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 94 two languages (english-indonesia) in one song. the songs were relevance with the topic. to make the songs easy to memorize, the writer used the tone from the familiar nursery rhymes or children songs in her created songs. the songs were delivered in the beginning and in the end of the lesson in each english meeting. after knowing the standard competence and basic competence, the writer also arranged the available syllabus to develop her lesson plan. during the completion, the content of the syllabus and lesson plan had been upgraded and revised several times based on the suggestions from the experts. the writer created and developed the english materials using english-indonesian lyrics by choosing one of the themes taken from the second semester. the theme was about “the weather and season”. the student‟s worksheet contained of listening section, speaking section, reading section, and writing section. the students worksheet consists of 30 colorful pages. the title of the worksheet is “what‟s the weather like today?” it has four sections: listening activity, speaking activity, reading activity, and writing activity. it was made and created according to the standard of competence and basic competence. the students‟ worksheet is for four meetings. the writer created seven english-indonesian mixed song lyrics. the songs are given in the beginning and in the end of the teaching learning process. on the other hand, the teacher‟s worksheet was the combination of the student‟s worksheet and lesson plan. every time the teacher opened the teacher‟s worksheet, she would find the lesson plan was placed on the right side and the student‟s worksheet on the left side of the page. before the products were tried out to the students, it had been necessary to get the validation from the experts and the teacher. there were one expert and an english teacher who did the validation in developing teaching materials. they are: 1. dr. dwi anggani linggar bharati, m.pd. 2. atin megarani, s.pd the first expert is dr. dwi anggani lb, m.pd. she is an expert in teaching english and developing the curriculum. the second validator is miss atin megarani, s.pd. she is an english teacher in sd isriati baiturrahman 2 semarang. she teaches fifth graders. during the try out, she taught english using the writer‟s product there were three steps of revisions that had been done by the expert. the researcher also made three times of revisions based on the experts‟ suggestions, ideas, critics, and judgments. the revisions dealt with the content of the students‟ book. after doing revision, the writer asked for permission to the english teacher who taught in fifth d graders to do a research in four meetings including pretest and post test. the writer asked the teacher to try out the writer‟s product in her class. the try out supposed to know whether the product was effective for teaching the fifth grade of elementary level or not. there were four meetings to try out the text book. it was expected to gain objective result. moreover, the teacher also might validate the product accurately based on practicing it in her class. trying out for the learners were conducted for four meetings to learn english using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics. the pretest began the try out on june 14th, 2014. after the learners had done the pre-test, the tryout was conducted in four days (monday, tuesday, wednesday and thursday). everyday, the meeting took two hours (2x35‟) each meeting on june 16th to 19th, 2014. and vinta cahyaningsar & mursid saleh. 2016. developing english materials using english-indonesian mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. _________________________________________________________________________________________ then on june 20th the learners had the posttest. in this research, the result of the score of the students in the post test was better than in the pre test. the analysis provided the writer about the information of the effectiveness of english indonesia mixed song lyrics to teach vocabulary by comparing pretest and post-test scores within the class. here are the results of the pretest and post test of the students of sd isriati baiturrahman 2 semarang in learning vocabulary especially in the topic of “weather and season” the result below showed the percentage of students‟ achievement in pretest. very good : 80 – 100 = 8 students = 25.8 % good : 70 – 79 = 4 students = 12.9% fair : 60 – 69 = 9 students = 29 % weak : 50 – 59 = 6 students = 19.35% poor : 0 – 49 = 4 students = 12.9% while the result below showed the percentage of students‟ achievement in post test very good : 80 – 100 = 27 students = 87.1% good : 70 – 79 = 3 students = 9.7% fair : 60 – 69 = 1 student = 3.2 % weak : 50 – 59 = 0 student = 0 % poor : 0 – 49 = 0 student = 0 % based on the test result above, the writer found there are more different result between pre test and post test. the writer could see the improvement of students‟ vocabulary score. the improvement was significance because in post test there were 27 students in level of very good category (80-100), 3 students were in good category (70-79), 1 student was in level of fair (60-69), and zero students were in weak and poor category. the improvement of students‟ achievement can be seen in the following figure. from the table above, it can be seen that english-indonesia mixed song lyrics is the effective media which can be used in learning english vocabulary. there is an improvement of student‟s score before and after learning vocabulary with and without songs. the mean of score increased from 67 in the pre test to 88,38 in the post test. the improvement was pre-test very good good fair weak poor post-test very good good fair weak poor language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 74 22,69 %. it can be concluded that there is an improvement in students‟ score. the learners‟ vocabulary competence was improved significantly. based on the processes and result above, the english materials using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics are effective to teach vocabulary for the fifth graders of sd isriati baiturrahman 2 semarang. in the last part of developing material, the writer did editing and revising in order to generate the final product. the final english materials by using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics were written and finalized entitled „what‟s the weather like today?‟ conclusions in learning english, the fifth graders of hj. isriati baiturrahman 2 semarang like to study english, but they had a problem in learning about vocabulary. the result of the questionnaire showed that the students had difficulty in learning vocabulary. most of the students were passive in learning vocabulary. some of them felt bored and didn‟t pay attention because the material which is presented by the teacher is less attractive. the writer noted some important point that the students need an attractive text book to guide them because the school provides limited facilities and media in teaching. the writer thought that the use of various media would attract the students‟ attention, and motivate them in learning english. english teaching materials by using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics was very helpful in studying english vocabulary the use of developing english materials by using english-indonesia mixed song lyrics gives some positive influences for the students in the teaching and learning process. based on the result of observations, questionnaires, pre-test, post test, the writer assumed that english-indonesia mixed song lyrics can be applied to improve the learners‟ competence in vocabulary, especially for the fifth grader of sd isriati baiturrahman 2 semarang. moreover, the test of effectiveness in pre-experimental design reported that there was significant improvement from the result of pre-test to post-test. it means that all the result of collected data agreed that englishindonesia mixed song lyric to teach vocabulary can be implemented for improving the learners‟ competence in learning english. references arikunto, suharsimi. 1996. prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: pt. rineka cipta borg, w. r, gall. m, d. 2003. educational research an introduction (7th edition). london: longman inc. brewster, j, ellis, g. and girard, d. 2003. the primary english teacher's guide (new edition). london: penguin books. dickinson, leslie. 1987. self-instruction in language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press harmer, j. 2007. how to teach english. boston: pearson. huyen, nguyen thi thanh and nga, khuat thi thu.2003. learning vocabulary through games. asian efl journal. accesses on 2012/10/01. retrieved from http://www.asian-eflhttp://www.asian-efl-journal.com/dec_03_vn.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 74 journal.com/dec_03_vn.pdf (20/07/2014) joklova, katerina. 2009. using picture in teaching vocabulary. bachelor thesis of masaryk university. retrieved from http:/is.muni.cz/th/123676/pedf_b/ bachelor_thesis-using pictures_in_teaching_vocabulary.pdf. (25/05/2014) saleh, mursid. 2008. enam tradisi besar penelitian pendidikan bahasa. semarang: universitas negeri semarang press zimmerman, cheryl boyd. 1997. do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? an empirical study. tesol quarterly, 31,1, pp. 121-140. retrieved from http:/www.jstor.org/stable/3587978 http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/dec_03_vn.pdf language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９７ １９７ e-module for clil with augmented reality in dynamic assessment to increase efl writing skill virgiawan adi kristianto1 virgiawanadikristianto@mail.unnes.ac.id harijadi gunawan buntoro2 hariyadi@mail.unnes.ac.id sri handayani3 handayani@mail.unnes.ac.id 1,2,3universitas negeri semarang abstract online learning becomes more challenging during pandemic as it requires instructional media or module which enable students to learn by themselves at home. therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the effect of e-module with augmented reality used during dynamic assessment to improve students’ writing skills in content and language integrated learning class. this study employed quasi experimental approach with non – equivalent control group design. 66 students of civil engineering department were involved as the samples of this study. total sampling was used in this study. the students’ writings were then assessed using esl composition profile rubric from jacobs by two independent raters. the data from the raters were then analyzed using spss. the results t-test showed that there was significant difference on the average score of the post-test data on both groups and that between the average score of pretest and post – test scores on the experimental group. keywords: online learning, e – module, instructional media, efl writing skills, introduction online learning and training are rapidly being utilized throughout the world to alleviate the time and space constraints associated with traditional forms of education (panigrahi et al, 2018). because of its ability to use various teaching techniques, strategies, and learning styles, online learning can be an excellent means for learning languages. (perveen, 2016). there are two types of online learning: synchronous and asynchronous settings (jolliffe, ritter, & stevens, 2012). both techniques provide several benefits. synchronous mode instills a sense of community through collaborative learning (teng, chen, kinshuk & leo, 2012; asoodar, atai, vaezi & marandi, 2014). due to the instructor and classmate presence, synchronous classes can generate high levels of motivation to continue participating in online activities (yamagata-lynch, 2014). the key advantages of the asynchronous mode are the opportunity to access educational resources at any time and from any location (pullen & snow, 2007). online learning becomes more challenging during pandemic as it requires instructional media or module which enable students to learn by themselves at home. therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the effect of e-module with augmented reality used during dynamic assessment to improve students’ writing skills in content and language integrated learning class. dynamic assessment http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:virgiawanadikristianto@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:handayani@mail.unnes.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９８ according to vyghotsky (1978), individual development takes place as a result of involvement in a task that is beyond the learner's current abilities, not because the learning process waits for the learner to be ready for it. therefore, when education and assessment are integrated, learners receive mediation or other forms of assistance to better understand and demonstrate their abilities. according to grigorenko (2002), the type of mediation provided by dynamic assessment is an intervention or treatment given to learners after the pre-test and before the posttest. ability is considered as something dynamic, not innate (lidz & gindiz, 2003). this means that ability cannot be considered as something that is static and stable and easy to measure. however, rather because of individual interactions in various activities, we can acquire certain abilities (poehner, 2008). thus, the goal of dynamic assessment is to comprehend the development of individual cognitive functions through interventions that necessitate a rethinking of the assessor's role. the collaborative nature of the assessor and the assessed is emphasized in dynamic assessment. because this collaboration is critical for directing and monitoring the development of the individual being evaluated. content and languange integrated learning coyle et al. (2010) proposed content and language integrated learning (clil) in the 1990s to characterize a type of learning that integrates learning a second or foreign language with nonlanguage materials such as economics and business, mathematics, engineering, and others. marsh and martin, 2012). clil has two characteristics that set it apart from other types of learning, such as immersion or dual language classes (gajo, 2007, lasagabaster, 2009, coyle 2007). the first distinguishing feature is the integration of language and non-language material content. although they are implemented differently in the field, these two features are integrated and have a balanced portion in clil. because the primary goal of clil is to gain skills in these two sections (eurydice, 2005), it is more than just teaching nonlanguage content in a foreign language, as is performed in language classes. the second characteristic is that clil is adaptable to different contexts and locations. clil learning modules can be organized according to the discipline of the learner. coyle et al. (2010) propose content, communication, cognition, and culture as the theoretical foundation for the versatility of content and language integrated learning (4c). the 4c model is defined by the following principles: 1. content: the goal of content and language integrated learning is for students to be able to independently construct knowledge and develop skills. 2. cognition: that content is cognizable. the linguistic demands of the content must first be analyzed before learners can construct knowledge. 3. the language learned must be contextual, capable of facilitating the process of learning content through language, and capable of serving as suggestions for constructing content and related cognitive processes. 4. interaction is vital in the context of learning. 5. clil is based primarily on intercultural awareness. writing in efl writing in a second language necessitates knowledge of both the written material and the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x １９９ linguistics of the second language itself. writing in english necessitates excellent grammar skills, imagination and ideas, determining the main idea and supporting it, and editing (kareem, 2014). according to younes and albalawi (2015), writing involves practice in terms of paragraph structure, language use, and mechanical skills. according to gathumbi and masembe (2005), writing skills are classified into two types: basic and advanced. writing involves vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation as basic skills. meanwhile, advanced levels necessitate idea connectivity in writing, structure, and communication content originality. as a result, learning english as a second language is difficult due to a lack of linguistic knowledge and content to create meaning (saville-troike, 2006). students face a variety of issues when learning to write in english, including a lack of vocabulary, lack of experience writing in english, and difficulties describing their ideas (shih & huang, 2020). according to hyland (2003), writing in english as a foreign language imposes two learning burdens at once: expressing ideas in writing and using english. as a result, grammatical errors are common. according to rahmatunisa (2014), there are three most common issues that students face when writing in english are linguistic, cognitive, and psychological. younes and albalawi (2015) identified the primary writing issues as grammatical, punctuation, and spelling. difficulties in using english could be caused by a lack of use of english in everyday situations (salma, 2015) methodology this study employed quasi experimental approach with non – equivalent control group design. 66 students of civil engineering department were involved as the samples of this study. total sampling was used in this study. the students were divided into experimental and control group. 39 students were included in the control group and 27 in the experimental group. the students were enrolled in english for civil engineering class at civil engineering department in which dynamic assessment was used in lieu of formal assessment for the final test. the format of the dynamic used in the class was the sandwich format based on poehner (2008). the sandwich format of dynamic assessment consists of pre – test, treatment, and post – test. however, the e – module was only given to the experimental group. the classical instructional material was given to the control group. therefore, this study was aimed at investigating the effect of e-module with augmented reality used during the dynamic assessment used to improve the english writing skill of the civil engineering department. the students were tasked to write a discussion text with the green construction technology as the main topic. the students’ writings were then assessed using esl composition profile rubric from jacobs (1981) by two independent raters. the data from the raters were then analyzed using spss. the average score from both raters were then analyzed for its normality and homogeneity using spss version 23 to determine whether parametric test can be applied to analyze the data. t – test was used to analyze the data to see the difference between the score on the control and experimental group. result and discussion e – module development the e – module only was developed by using online.flipbuilder.com to create an e – module which can mimic the movement of a real book when it is flipped. the result can be seen on this following link: https://bit.ly/englishforce. below is the cover of the e – module. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ https://bit.ly/englishforce language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２００ figure 1. e – module cover 3-d augmented reality application for the e – module was developed using unity version 2019.1.3f1. 3-d models created using sketchup version 2018. the barcode on the e – module must be scanned using the application to see the 3d image. the 3d image can be seen below. figure 1. 3d image from the barcode t his e – module was only distributed to the experimental group. the effect of the e – module the scores of the pre – test from the two independent raters were analyzed using spss version 23 for the normality. the results of the normality test using kolmogorov – smirnov test can be seen below. table 1. the result of normality test on the pre – test scores no control experimental asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .174 .200 the control class has a p-value = 0.174 and the experimental class has a p-value = 0.200. both pvalues are > 0.05. therefore, the scores in both groups are normally distributed. the data were then analyzed for the homogeneity test using levene statistics. the result can be seen on the table below. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２０１ table 2. the result of homogeneity test on the pre – test scores levene statistic df1 df2 sig. 2.203 1 64 .143 p-value = 0.143>0.05, then the two scores from the two groups have the same variance or are homogeneous. the normality test was also conducted for the post – test score. the result can be seen below. table 3. the result of normality test on the post – test scores no control experimental asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .200 .200 p-values for both classes are 0.200. both p-values are > 0.05. therefore, the scores in both groups are normally distributed. independent samples t – test was used to analyze the post – test data on both control and experimental groups. the result of the independent samples t – test can be seen on the table below. table 4. the result of t test on the post – test scores group n mean std. deviation std. error mean class control 39 64.64 9.516 1.524 experiment 27 74.33 6.294 1.211 no t – test for equality of means equal variances assumed t df sig. (2tailed) -4.632 64 .000 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２０２ based on the table above, tstatistics = -4.632 with the degree of freedom = 64, tcritical = -1.99773. the p – value = 0.000 < 0.000 and the tstatistics > tcritical, therefore, there was a significant difference between the average score of post – test on both control and experimental group. the mean value for the control group = 64.64, whereas the mean value for the experimental group = 74.33. the mean value was higher on the experimental group. it shows that the experimental group with e – module as treatment had higher score compared to the control group. paired samples t – test was conducted on the pre – test and post – test scores for experimental group to see the effect of e – module. the results of the paired samples t – test can be seen below. table 5. the result of t test on the pre and post – test scores mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 post 74.3333 27 6.29408 1.21130 pre 64.7778 27 11.52367 2.21773 no paired samples test equal variances assumed t df sig. (2tailed) 5.771 26 .000 based on the table above, tstatistics = 5.771 with the degree of freedom = 26, tcritical = -2.05553. the p – value = 0.000 < 0.000 and the tstatistics > tcritical, therefore, there was a difference between the average score of pre – test and post – test on the experimental group. the mean value for the post – test on the experimental group = 74.3333, whereas the mean value for pre – test on the experimental group = 64.7778. the mean value was higher on the post – test for the experimental group. it shows that there was a difference on pretest and post-test scores on the experimental group due to the distribution of e – module as the treatment. conclusion the e – module with augmented reality which was used as treatment on the experimental group has been able to increase the scores during the pretest and post – test on the experimental group as shown on the paired samples t – test results. when compared to the control group, the post – test score on the experimental group was higher. the independent samples t – test showed that there was significant difference between the average score of post – test on both control and experimental group. references abdul kareem, t. n. (2014). difficulties faced by efl students in writing composition at the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２０３ iraqi preparatory schools. al fath journal, 60, 1-19. asoodar, m., atai, m. r., vaezi, s., & marandi, s. s. (2014). examining effectiveness of communities of practice in online english for academic purposes (eap) assessment in virtual classes. computers & education, 70, 291–300. coyle, d. (2007). content and language integrated learning: towards a connected research agenda for clil pedagogies. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 10(5), 543-562. coyle, d., hood, p., & marsh, d. (2010). clil. gathumbi, a. w., & masembe, s. c. (2005). principles and techniques in language teaching: a text for teacher educators, teachers, and preservice teachers. jomo kenyatta foundation. gajo, l. (2007). linguistic knowledge and subject knowledge: how does bilingualism contribute to subject development?. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 10(5), 563-581. grigorenko, e. l. (2009). dynamic assessment and response to intervention: two sides of one coin. journal of learning disabilities, 42(2), 111132. hyland, k. (2003). writing and teaching writing. second language writing, 1-30. jacobs, h. l. (1981). testing esl composition: a practical approach. english composition program. newbury house publishers, inc., rowley, ma 01969. jolliffe, a., ritter, j., & stevens, d. (2012). the online learning handbook: developing and using web-based learning. routledge. lasagabaster, d. (2009). the implementation of clil and attitudes towards trilingualism. itl-international journal of applied linguistics, 157(1), 23-43. lidz, c. s., & gindis, b. (2003). dynamic assessment of the evolving cognitive. vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context, 99. marsh, d., & frigols martín, m. j. (2012). content and language integrated learning. the encyclopedia of applied linguistics. panigrahi, r., srivastava, p. r., & sharma, d. (2018). online learning: adoption, continuance, and learning outcome—a review of literature. international journal of information management, 43, 1-14. perveen, a. (2016). synchronous and asynchronous e-language learning: a case study of virtual university of pakistan. open praxis, 8(1), 21-39. poehner, m. e. (2008). dynamic assessment: a vygotskian approach to understanding and promoting l2 development (vol. 9). springer science & business media. pullen, j. m., & snow, c. (2007). integrating synchronous and asynchronous internet distributed education for maximum effectiveness. education and information technologies, 12(3), 137-148. rahmatunisa, w. (2014). problems faced by indonesian efl learners in writing argumentative essay. english review: journal of english education, 3(1), 41-49. salma, u. (2015). problems and practical needs of writing skill in efl context: an analysis of iranian students of aligarh muslim university. iosr journal of humanities and social sciences, 20(11), 74-76. saville-troike, m., & barto, k. (2017). introducing second language acquisition. cambridge university press. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature17(1) october 2022 p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x ２０４ shih, h. c. j., & huang, s. h. c. (2020). college students’ metacognitive strategy use in an efl flipped classroom. computer assisted language learning, 33(7), 755-784. teng, d. c. e., chen, n. s., kinshuk & leo, t. (2012). exploring students’ learning experience in an international online research seminar in the synchronous cyber classroom. computers & education, 58(3), 918–930. vygotsky, l. s., & cole, m. (1978). mind in society: development of higher psychological processes. harvard university press. yamagata-lynch, l. c. (2014). blending online asynchronous and synchronous learning. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 15(2). younes, z. b., & albalawi, f. s. (2015). exploring the most common types of writing problems among english language and translation major sophomore female students at tabuk university. asian journal of basic and applied sciences, 3(2), 7-26. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 37 spoken text features of the conversation in tv talk show of talk indonesia hidyatul mutmainnah hiday_elhalim@yahoo.com universitas negeri semarang indonesia djoko sutopo universitas negeri semarang, indonesia received: 30 june 2016. revised: 30 august 2016. accepted: 20 october 2016 abstract the aims of this study were to describe how the participants show spontaneity features, to describe how the participants show interpersonal function, to describe the information flow among the participants and to describe how the participants achieve coherence and relevance in the conversation of tv talk show of talk indonesia. this study applied descriptive qualitative research. the data were taken from two videos of talk show entitle talk indonesia that was broadcasted in metro tv. the data were analyzed by using conversation analysis. conversation analysis was used to analyze or investigate the structure and process of social interaction between humans. it was a kind of discourse analysis method that focuses primarily on talk (cameron, 2001:48). the result of this study showed that there were some various spoken features found in the conversation of talk show for instance spontaneity, interpersonality, interactivity and coherence features. each of features had some aspects. the finding showed that among participants showed the spoken text features variously. although some overlaps and interruptions occurred in the conversation, the talk show could still run well. keywords: conversation analysis; spoken text features; descriptive qualitative research; tv talk show. how to cite: mutmainnah, h. & d. sutopo. 2016. spoken text features of the conversation in tv talk show of talk indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. ________________________________________________________________________________________ introduction tv talk show is a program that principally includes a conversational discussion on some of the usually latest events in different respects of life; politic, social, economy, education etc. a tv talk show is supposed to direct its discourse to a large number of overhearing audience and to provide them with information and entertainment through conversation and talk. since tv talk shows are live programs, they involve spontaneous conversation between the participants who are usually a host and a guest, or if the show is multidimensional there will be more than one guest. in all cases, tv talk shows take place in a conversational media setting. people use language to communicate. they use many ways to express their feelings. sometimes they express them through written language or spoken language. people believe that languages are first spoken then written. the first time, human beings communicate using spoken language. they talk to others to negotiate, exchange meaning and express their feelings. mailto:hiday_elhalim@yahoo.com language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 38 quoted from the guardian in 1996 (cameron. 2001:6) „life is in many ways of a series of conversations, it makes sense to be as good as we possibly can at something we tend to take for granted‟. many linguists and researchers agree that talking is something we tend to take for granted. they try to analyze spoken discourse to know the aim of the talk that happens in people‟s lives and in society in large. talking or interacting is not merely a mechanical process of negotiating and making sense of meaning. this process of taking turns to negotiate and exchange meaning is functionally motivated whereby we interact with each other in order to accomplish a wide range of social purposes and tasks. discourse analysis is used as a tool to interpret and understand the spoken text. by understanding the spoken text, a misunderstanding can be avoided. that is why analyzing spoken discourse is crucial. mccarthy (1994:5) clearly explains that “discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used.” in other words, this branch of linguistics deals with how people construct their ideas in a cohesive and coherent way in order to communicate their message by means of written and spoken texts. this research emphasizes on analyzing spoken language from its features. the features give certain sign to be interpreted. there are many kinds of spoken text features that should be considered. by analyzing the features of spoken text in the conversation of talk show, i would like to know how among participants use some features of spoken text to express their feeling. for instance, some speakers or participants use some features such as filled pauses, repetition, false start and backtracking or incomplete utterances unintentionally. those features are as indication spontaneous reaction that is done by speaker in a conversation. furthermore turn-taking is a crucial thing to be considered to make the conversation run smoothly. sacks, schegloff and jefferson (1974, 1978) suggest that the mechanism that governs turn-taking, and accounts for the properties noted, is a set of rules with ordered options which operate on a turn-by-turn basis, and can thus be termed a local management system (levinson, 1995:297). for example when one participant, a, talks and then stops; another, b, starts, talks and stops, that is a good turn-taking. but sometimes an interaction cannot flow smoothly because of some interruptions. while one participant is taking his/her chance to speak, another may interrupt to show an agreement or amusement. this case can show the participant‟s intention and it can be revealed by doing this research. the conversation is called coherent when it makes sense. the coherence is achieved because speakers co-operate to make sure that what they say is relevant to what has been said before. coherence can be seen from the consistency of the topic being talked. when a speaker talks the other speaker should give relevant response in order the conversation can go well. so a good conversation should be relevant. in order that all features of spoken text in the conversation of talk show „talk indonesia‟ can be revealed, it was analyzed and interpreted to get the main conclusion. we can also know what is going on in that conversation. what intention of speakers that can be understood by the readers or audiences. this research reveals as many features as possible to get a complete result. the objectives of the study are (1) to describe how the participants show spontaneity features in the conversation of talk indonesia. (2) to describe how the participants show interpersonal function in the hidyatul mutmainnah & djoko sutopo. 2016. spoken text features of the conversation in tv talk show of talk indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 39 conversation of talk indonesia. (3) to describe the information flow among the participants in the conversation of talk indonesia. (4) to describe how the participants achieve coherence and relevance in the conversation of talk indonesia. methodology considering the purpose of the research and the nature of the problem, this research is a descriptive qualitative one. it is descriptive because the objective of this study are observing and finding the information as many as possible of the phenomenon (hariwijaya and triton, 2008:22). it is kind of method which is conducted by collecting data, analyzing the data, and drawing representative conclusion. in this kind of method, the data used as samples are not figures but some words or description of something. qualitative research is fundamentally interpretive. this means the researcher makes an interpretation and description of the data. qualitative research has a purpose to understand the phenomenon of subject‟s study such as action, perception, motivation, behavior etc; holistically and descriptively in words and language at specific natural concept and used some natural method (soegeng, 2006: 25). in this study the data are the conversations taken from video of tv talk show. data are what we gain through observation, sensing, people‟s information and documentary notes. arikunto (2010:33) stated source refers to the subject from which the data obtained. in this study, the sources of data are the conversations in the video of tv talk show entitled talk indonesia. there are two instruments that are used in this study, the theory of segmenting speaking text into turns and moves as suggested by halliday (1984) and the theory of transcription proposed by jafferson (2004). the technique used for collecting data is documentation study technique. documentation study may refer to the technique of collecting data by gathering and analyzing documents, while documents are any communicable materials (such as text, video, audio etc) used to explain some attributes of an object, system or procedure. after the data are obtained they are analyzed descriptively involving the description and the interpretation of the data. in analyzing the data there are several steps that should be administered. first is segmenting the spoken text into turns and move. the ordinal number (1,2,3,etc.) represents the turn produced by a given speaker and the alphabet (a, b, c , etc.) to represent the move. second is transcribing the spoken text into transcript layout. the symbol of transcription is represented in the appendix. third is analyzing the features of spoken text found in the conversation such spontaneity, interactivity, interpersonality and coherence and relevance. fourth is describing and interpreting the features of spoken language found in the conversation. the last is reporting the result of the research in table and chart. results and discusssion this chapter includes the finding and the discussion of the data. the finding includes four prominent results. first is spontaneity in the conversation of talk indonesia that consists of filled pauses, repetition, false start and backtracking, incomplete utterance and chunks. second is the information flow or interpersonality among the participants in the conversation of talk indonesia that consists of laughter or chuckles, disagreement or hedges, vague language, agreement, empathy language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 40 and evaluative language. third is the interactivity among the participants in the conversation of talk indonesia that consists of taking turn, agreement, back-channeling, discourse marker, interruption and overlapping. fourth is coherence in the conversation of talk indonesia. coherence consists of topic consistency which includes lexical repetition, lexical chains, referring expression, substitution and linkers and macro level coherence. spontaneity in the conversation of talk indonesia there are some aspects of spontaneity in the spoken text or language. they consist of filled pauses, repetition, false start and backtracking, incomplete utterance and chunks. there are some features found in the data. they are filled pauses 18%, repetition, 31,5%, incomplete utterance 46,5%, and back-channeling 2%. there are some functions of filled pause but in the research only found two kinds; they are filled pause to hold conversational turns and to give signal the end of utterance. these are the examples. dalton: it’s questionable now whether that violate campaign law paying people to attend the rallies is legal in most place in the world like us, ehmm are you and your partner joko widodo paying the people to attend the rallies? the part of the utterance is a complete act. although it is apparent that the speaker wants to continue, but is not quite prepared to continue fluently. by inserting a filled pause which has the function as a filling act, the speaker is permitted to continue the conversation, while taking enough thinking time to manage the following act. basuki: that’s what we have to do, we always go everywhere we give them our name card and without give money even arr.. we should like this or t-shirt if another one they have to ask from us, but for us we have to pay, we have to buy you know arr… dalton: =to get a shirt?= here, the first speaker (basuki) seems to try to continue, but fails to do so, relinquishing control of the conversation to the second speaker (dalton) as a result of a framing act. next is repetition. some speakers repeated their words to self repair and also gain time to plain or formulate what to say next. repetitions as verbal nodding, emphasizing and agreeing were also found. many incomplete utterances occurred in the both of the data. it was caused by overlapping or interrupting of participants in the conversation of talk show. this is the following example. basuki: yeah we are spreading name cards, we go to the kampong, this more cheaper.. dalton : =how you raising money? how are you, how are you getting money?= this evidence showed that basuki could not complete his utterance because dalton interrupted him before finishing his opinion. the information flow or interpersonality among the participants based on the finding some participants showed various ways to maintain interpersonal function in the conversation. there are some ways to show interpersonal function in a conversation such as using laughter, agreement, disagreement (hedges) and vague language (thornbury, 2005:4-5). there are five features found in the data. they are laughter 14,5%, hedges 14%, vague language 5%, agreement 56,5% and empathy 5%. laughter can both convey positive affect hidyatul mutmainnah & djoko sutopo. 2016. spoken text features of the conversation in tv talk show of talk indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 41 and assist participants in communicating negative intent (holmes 2000 cited from voge;58). it means that laughter can avoid contradiction or high tension among speakers. in this study, it was also found that laughter in this conversation was to assist participants in communicating negative intent and relieving tension. this is the example: rahayu : (laughs) are you saying that what to get you out there? dalton : oh oh no rahayu : (laughs) rahayu asked dalton that problem about money politic done by some politician also done by basuki accompanied with laughter in order to avoid negative intent. because of money politic that happen in indonesia is something risky to be talked. then basuki also laughed after rahayu asked that to dalton. it means that dalton also considered that problem and paid attention to that issue. to maintain the relationship among the speakers, they used hedges to express disagreement. in this study, some hedges were found such as yeah and but. some speakers also used vague language to express their opinion. thornbury (2005) stated that vague language is used to make the opinion not too assertive. there is only 5% vague language found. it is like in the following example. basuki: this is an accident because some maybe or volunteers they are…. basuki used the word „accident‟ to refer money politic that is done in his party. he meant that was not his fault because he did not know. to maintain the relationship among the speakers, they also expressed their agreements in several ways. for instance they used marker ‘you know, yeah, right, yes, ya, exactly, ya exactly and of course’. the last feature to show interpersonality that found in this research is empathy. in the both of the data were only found two empathies used by speakers. to show empathy some speakers repeated or gave stressing to another utterance. the interactivity among the participants in the conversation the information among the speaker will flow smoothly if they can cooperate with each other. it is like stated by stenstrom (1994, cited from brno 2007: 8) that spoken interaction is a joint, here-and now social activity which is governed by two main principles; speaker take turns and speaker cooperate. when other speaker is taking his turn so the others should give a chance to him expressing his idea or maybe give feedback to show attention to what they are talking about so that is why the information can flow smoothly. to know whether the interactivity in a conversation runs well or not the data was analyzed from some aspects such as turntaking, back-channeling, interruption, overlapping and discourse markers that occurred in the conversation. based on the finding in the first data there are 57 taking turns. dalton as the host of the talk show took 27 turn-takings, basuki the guest speaker took 18 turn-taking and rahayu took 12 turntaking. dalton dominated the interactions in the talk show that he took the most turntaking yet it did not mean that the information did not flow as expected. then in the second data there are 61 taking turns which is dominated by the host dalton with 24 turntaking, rahayu as co-host took 19 turn-taking then anggun as the guest speaker only took 18 taking turns. it should confirm with other features for instance back-channeling, overlap or interruption occurred. some speakers tried to give feedback by using back-channeling. the most dominant here is agreement back-channeling. it means language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 42 that most of the speakers tried to maintain the information flow by using agreement. this is the example: basuki: =but you talk in english, not all of the class could talk speak in english. rahayu: laugh dalton: all right all right, that reason is wise this finding showed an agreement backchanneling. the participant also repeated his word twice. it indicates that he did not have other reason instead of agreeing the rival in the finding, it can be seen that there are some interruptions and overlaps occurred in the talk show. they are disagreement, agreement, confirmation, completion, explanation, compliment, opinion and another possibility. the examples are in the following. a. disagreement btp: he prefer to meet the people directly because many… dt: =but in tv you can meet million people in one time= this interruption shows disagreement in which dalton used linker „but‟ that indicates the contrary of basuki‟s statement b. agreement rs: it is because the government also knows that there are a lot of, you know, drugs being traffic or even produced domestically and they are still having problem dealing with that, so to save to others, you know, like hey, especially we are talking about getting our people, the migrant workers, who are they in saudi arabia facing the death penalty, there are hundreds of them.. dt: =ya we try to ask mercy for them.we have to have mercy= interruption occurs to show an agreement. dalton agreed with rahayu‟s statement that the migrant workers in saudi arabia that are punished with death penalty should be given a mercy. he used „ya‟ to express it. c. confirmation btp: yeah we are spreading name cards, we go to the kampong, this more cheaper…. dt:=how you raising money? dalton interrupted basuki in order to get the correct answer from basuki because he answered out of the topic. he wanted to confirm whether basuki understood what dalton asked or not. d. completion btp: so the volunteer. rs:=so they made an initiative to make a t-shirt= rahayu interrupted the current speaker, basuki, to complete his statement. e. explanation acs: exactly the thing it’s … ya .. ya .. ya .. i can understand that they need that for closure but then…it’s… rs := it won’t bring that family back= rahayu interrupted anggun‟s statement because she wanted to add an explanation that if death penalty was applied it would not bring the family as a victim back. f. compliment dt: i meant we are happy to have you sir, but everyone rs: =he’s the good one = dalton seemed satisfied that jokowi, the invited speaker, was expected to come but he did not so basuki changed him as the guest speaker, but dalton explained later that hidyatul mutmainnah & djoko sutopo. 2016. spoken text features of the conversation in tv talk show of talk indonesia. language circle: journal of language and literature, xi/1. 43 actually everyone expected jokowi to come. dalton here actually was not satisfied, he used linker „but‟ that showed disagreement. yet the other participant, rahayu, tried to support basuki by giving compliment that basuki was the right person. g. opinion rs: [oh yeah, hopefully one shoot to death but you know … it’s like few of them …] dt: =ok, let’s see that this country goes, now talk about singer, perhaps it comes…ok= dalton interrupted because he wanted to share his opinion and also agreement with that case. h. another possibility acs: exactly.. dt: =or determine suppose ably= dalton interrupted to show another possibility that might happen or become the way out of the problem they were discussing. based on the theory of schelgloff (1972), there are four kinds of overlaps. in this research four kinds of overlaps were found. they are back-channel cue, insert, false start overlap and floor-taking. first is back-channel cue. it is as signal of agreement that consist of one or two word which does not disturb the current speaker. there are five back-channel cues found in the data such as in the next extract of the first data. dt: ehmm, pushing their campaign and this is done in a legal way, you providing campaign financing transparently rs: [yes] rahayu interrupted the current speaker but it did not disturb him to continue his utterance. rahayu used „yes‟ to show an agreement. second is insert. this overlap is begun when the current speaker is talking but it is finished when the current has not finished his utterance yet. it consists of some short words but longer than back-channel cues. this is the example found in the second data. acs: well again, you know, because i i understand that death penalty its that.. so it’s almost like a threat for those rs: [yes, fear factor] the overlap showed an agreement „yes‟ but it was still continued by using „fear factor‟. this overlap is called insert. it is not too intrusive. next is false start overlap. it is more intrusive than insert because it happens when the other speaker wants the current speaker to stop his utterance. it is begun when the current speaker is still conveying his opinion and finished before the current speaker finished his utterance. this is the example of the finding. dt: =yeah…… you should give them away or= rs: [ right, people are paying quietly] the last is floor-taking. this is the most intrusive among overlap. it is begun after the first speaker has begun speaking and continues after that speaker stops. the finding showed that floor-taking overlap was the most found. there were ten floor-taking from both of data. this is the example of floor-taking. acs: of course i understand that you know aa.. death penalty actually ehmm very reassuring for family of a victim that you know like some horrible big crime. dt: [yes because they wanted an eye for an eye. they missing their family] dalton cut anggun utterance when she has begun talking but he kept continuing his overlap until he finished. language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 44 various discourse markers are found in the first data such as „you know, you know what, yeah‟ with the most dominant is „you know‟. many kinds of discourse markers are found in the second data such as „you know, i mean, well, yeah, oh, but you know, and oh yeah‟. the most dominant discourse marker used by the speakers is „you know‟. coherence and relevance in the conversation coherence and relevance are the important aspects to make the text make sense. coherence can be seen from the consistence of the topic and macrostructure. there are some features that are showing consistence of the topic such as lexical repetition, lexical chains, referring expressions, substitution and linkers. (thornburry:2005) in this study, some speakers also tried to achieve coherence by using topic consistency features such as lexical repetition, lexical chain, referring expression, substitution and linkers. they tried to be relevant in giving response for example like following the adjacency pair. in the both of the data „question-answer‟ pairs were found. the other finding is adjacency-pair of „complimentresponse‟. the coherence of language can also be seen from macro-structure. both of the data have story sequences: general issueargument-conclusion. although some interruptions and overlaps occurred, it does not give big influence on the text coherence. also some finding show that some speakers did not give relevant response but finally they make self correction. the text still makes sense. among the speakers still got what they were saying. they still could understand each other. so it can be concluded that the data is coherent. conclusion in accordance with the aim of this study, that is describing spoken text features of the conversation in tv talk show of talk indonesia, it can be concluded that many various spoken features are used by participants/speakers. the participants showed spontaneity by uttering filled pauses, repeating some words, showing incomplete utterance and false start. there are some ways to show interpersonal function in a conversation. in this research, five features are found in the both of the data. they are laughter, agreement, disagreement (hedges), vague language and empathy. some speakers tried to give feedback by using backchanneling. the most dominant here is agreement back-channeling. it means that most of the speakers tried to maintain the information flow by using agreement. in the finding, it can be seen that there are some interruptions and overlaps occurring in the talk show. in this research four kinds of overlaps were found. they are back-channel cue, insert, false start overlap and floortaking. some speakers tried to achieve coherence by using topic consistency features such as lexical repetition, lexical chain, referring expression, substitution and linkers. they tried to be relevant in giving response for example like following the adjacency pair. references arikunto, suharsimi. 2006. prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: rineka cipta. brno. 2007. on backchannel in english conversation. retrieved from language circle: journal of language and literature xi/1 (october 2016) 46 https://is.muni.cz/th/80205/pedf_m/thesis.pdf cameron, deborah. 2001. working with spoken discourse. london: sage jefferson, g. 2004. a sketch of some orderly aspects of overlap in natural conversation. in g.h. lerner (ed.), conversation analysis: studies from the first generation. philadelphia: john benjamins publishing company. levinson, stephen c. 1995. pragmatics. cambridge: cambridge university press. m. hariwijaya and triton. 2008. pedoman penulisan ilmiah: proposal dan skripsi. yogyakarta: oryza mccarthy, m. 1994. discourse analysis for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press. sacks, h., schegloff, jefferson. 1978. a simplest systematic for the organization of turntaking. journal of language, retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/412243. schegloff, e.a. 2007. sequence organization in interaction: a primer in conversation analysis i. cambridge: cambridge university press. soegeng. 2006. dasar-dasar penelitian. semarang: ikip pgri semarang press. thornbury, scott. 2005. beyond the sentence: introducing discourse analysis. oxford:macmillan. https://is.muni.cz/th/80205/pedf_m/thesis.pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/412243 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 33 tense shift and rhetorical function in the abstract section of science journal by non-native speakers suharno diponegoro university abstract abstract is an important part of scientific work for both seminar presentation and journal publication in national or international level. every writer is obliged to write an abstract for his/her publication. the aim of this study was to examine a number of abstracts in english scientific papers by non-native speakers (indonesian lecturers). the study was focused on the linguistic and organizational features (i.e. tense shift and rhetorical function). the research results show that a number of abstracts in the data do not conform to the principles of abstract writing, that is some abstracts do not contain complete moves. in addition, the rhetorical shift is not always followed by the tense shift. key words: abstract, tense shift, rhetorical function, move analysis introduction writing scientific papers for publication is one of the main tasks of university lecturers. they must write articles or books in order to survive; writing articles especially writing scientific article in english might also help them promote their career and prestige as lecturers. the reason is that university regulations are not yet severe – unlike universities in developed countries (e.g. usa) with a “publish or perish” principle – or they are not well motivated to write articles. in indonesia, only a small number of lecturers in each university publish articles in international academic journals, or participate in international conferences. this lack of productivity may be due to the following reasons: they rarely practice writing in english; they still have language problems; and/or they do not have any motivation to improve themselves. however, it is likely that writing scientific or academic papers, especially in english for international seminars or journals is still the hardest work for many indonesian university lecturers, including diponegoro university lecturers . accordingly, in general, indonesian university lecturers or scientists have not yet got a significant presence in international scientific journal publications. a survey published by scientific american indicated that in 1994 the contribution of indonesian scientists and scholars to the body of world knowledge, science, and technology annually represents only 0.012%, which is far below singapore which contributes 0,179%, and highly insignificant if compared to that of the us scientists and scholars which amount to over 20%. (mien a. rifai, 2008). another disappointing fact is that a survey about ranking of college or universities in asia by asia week magazine (may, 1997) showed that a few famous universities such as gadjah mada university (ugm), indonesian university (ui), institute of technology bandung (itb), institute of agriculture bogor (ipb), diponegoro university (undip) attained low scores for contributing to international scientific journal publications in spite of being ranked 40th rank among colleges and universities in asia. in the globalization era (the 21st century) a foreign language competence, especially english is important if one hopes to participate in language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 34 international affairs through both spoken written media. the university lecturers who master both spoken and written english have the potential to self-develop and improve their institution‟s quality. and improving the english competence of lecturers is also in line with the undip‟s vision, that is “to be an excellent research university in 2020” (rencana strategis bisnis , 2008: 4). undip‟s vision is far from being realized since the criteria for being a research university are very tough to achieve. in this regard, carnegie classification in the us for research universities stipulates four criteria: (1) freedom in the academic and management affairs, (2) ability to produce more than 50 doctorates (ph.d. holders) per year, (3) ability to generate income us $ 4050 millions per year for a level 1 research university and us$ 15 millions per year for a level 2 research university, and (4) publication of scientific or research work in international journals (kompas, thursday, 23 september 2004, p. 4 “humaniora”). undip‟s vision to become a world-class research university is also influenced by the lima declaration which was issued in lima, peru in 1989 after a forum that was attended by university rectors/presidents around the world. the declaration names two criteria for excellence: academic freedom and higher education autonomy. undip‟s vision is also shaped by higher education document which contains higher education long terms strategy (helts 2003-2010) – a reference for developing indonesian higher education in the future. in helts 2003-2010 it is mentioned that the development of indonesian higher education will focus on three main issues: improving nation‟s competitiveness, autonomy of education management, and improving organizational health in managing higher education (forum sastra dan budaya iii, 2004: 3). as a teacher of service english unit (seu) diponegoro university, i noticed that writing abstract is one of the major problems for eap class participants (diponegoro university lecturers). abstract is an essential part of journal articles, and a journal editor usually requires abstract if a lecturer sends an article to the journal editor for publication. writing abstract can be a problem for an inexperienced lecturer. therefore, this project is intended to gather information which might be used to assist the design of an academic writing course for lecturers of diponegoro university who have potential to take postgraduate studies in englishspeaking countries (e.g. britain, usa, australia, etc.) the course participants may come from different faculties, e.g. medicine, engineering, marine sciences, economics, fisheries, etc. review of related literature abstract is an essential section in research articles. according to packham et al (1985:57) “the abstract is used to let readers know quickly what your assignment says. it is a brief summary of the whole paper. it is placed right at the front immediately after the title page. it should normally be 100-125 words long and should be written as a single paragraph.” meanwhile, stapleton (1987:21) states that the readers will only pay attention to the abstract after the readers have been attracted to the paper by the title. as the abstract should be written briefly, some students/participants (i.e. university lecturers) find difficulty in writing it. this may be due to partly, linguistic features such as tense shifts which are quite common in academic english. another problem may be emotional: “abstracts are in general expected to be nonevaluative, non-emotive, yet it is difficult sometimes to be entirely neutral when attempting language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 35 to describe one‟s own work” (gutkowski and urquhart, 1989:1). another language practitioner, graetz (1985) did research in abstract section. he collected 87 samples of abstract section selected from a number of scientific journals. eight journals were taken from health science, 13 from social sciences, 5 from education, and 15 from humanism. in his research, he focused on the opening sentences and concluding sentences. his research in the opening sentences can be grouped in the „syntactic-grammatical‟ and „semantic-rhetorical‟ categories. the first two groups use „passive construction‟ or „perfect tense‟ to elaborate topics, procedures, or problems on the opening sentence. the third and fourth groups use „thesis statement‟ and the fifth group contains sentences referring to the author (allusion to authority). while the concluding sentences are divided into two groups: „closedabsolute‟ and „open-uncertain‟. in terms of organization, graetz (1985) defines abstract as follows : it should be continuous narrative, written in whole sentences. it should not use separate paragraphs for the commonly recurring features of the problem, summary, introduction, method, etc. it should reflect the organization of the article, by following the exact order if possible. it should provide more information than the title. the title should not be repeated. the abstract should be brief, not waste words, yet be long enough to convey the author‟s concept. it should be non-critical and unbiased; it is not a review. it should be unambiguous, intelligible, readable, and a complete item in its own right. it should be written in the author‟s own language (as far as possible). while in terms of the language of abstract, graetz (1985:125) in swales (1990) states as follows : the abstract is characterized by the use of past tense, third person, passive, and the nonuse of negatives. it avoids subordinate clauses, uses phrases instead of clauses, words instead of phrases. it avoids abbreviation, jargon, symbols and other language shortcuts which might lead to confusion. it is written in tightly worded sentences, which avoid repetition, meaningless expressions, superlatives, adjectives, illustrations, preliminaries, descriptive details, examples, footnotes. in short, it eliminates the redundancy which the skilled reader counts on finding in written language and which usually facilitates comprehension. according to day (1979), in terms of function abstract can be divided into two types: informational and indicative. the first type is designed to encapsulate the paper; so it can and should briefly state the problem. the method is used to study the problem, and the principal data and conclusions. the second type is sometimes called a descriptive abstract and is designed to indicate the content of a paper, essentially serving as a table of content, making it easy for potential readers to decide whether or not to read the paper. because of its descriptive rather than substantive nature, it should not be used as abstracts in research papers, but it may be used in other types of publication (review papers, conference reports, the government report literature, etc.). day proposes (1979) four features or moves which should exist in abstract sections, especially informational abstracts. the following moves are as follows: move one : the principal objectives/scope of the investigation move two : the methods/procedures employed move three : summary of the results move four : the principal conclusions language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 36 meanwhile weissberg and buker (1990:186) proposes five features or moves and verb tense choice in abstract sections as described in tables 1 and 2. table1 five moves in the abstract section order of typical elements included in an abstract b = some background information p = the principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its scope m = some information about the methodology used in the study r = the most important results of the study c = a statement of conclusion or recommendation table 2 tense choice in the abstract section tense choice in the abstract section b background information (present tense) e.g. one of the basic principles of communication is that the message should be understood by the intended audience. p principal activity (past tense/present perfect tense) e.g. in this study the readability of tax booklets from nine states was evaluated. net energy analyses have been carried out for eight trajectories which convert energy source into heated domestic water. m methodology (past tense) e.g. children performed a 5-trial task. r results (past tense) e.g. older workers surpassed younger ones in both speed and skill jobs. c conclusions (present tense/tentative verbs/ modal auxiliaries) e.g. the results suggest that the presence of unique sets of industry factors can be used to explain variation in economic growth. (weissberg & buker, 1990: 192) example : composing letters with a simulated listening typewriter background purpose abstract 1with a listening typewriter, what an author says would be automatically recognized and displayed in front of him or her. 2however, speech recognition is not yet advanced enough to provide people with a reliable listening typewriter. 3an aim of our experiments was to determine if an imperfect listening typewriter would be useful for language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 37 method results conclusion composing letters. 4participants dictated letters, either in isolated words or in consecutive word speech. 5they did this with simulations of listening typewriters that recognized either a limited vocabulary or an unlimited vocabulary. 6results indicated that some versions, even upon first using them, were at least as good as traditional methods of handwriting and dictating. 7isolated word speech with large vocabularies may provide the basis for a useful listening typewriter. in addition to the features of abstract described above, cooley and lewkowicz (2003:112) quoted in paltridge & starfield (2007: 155) define the abstract of thesis and dissertation as follows : the abstract is written after the research has been completed and the writer knows exactly what is contained in the body of the text. it is a summary of the text and it informs readers of what has be found in the dissertation and in what order, functioning as an overall signpost for the reader. although it is the last part of a dissertation to be written, it is generally one of the first a reader will look at. indeed, if the abstract is not well written, it may be the only part of the dissertation a reader will look at. according to paltridge and starfield (2007: 155), in general the abstract is intended to give an overview of the study which answers the following questions:  what was the general purpose of the study?  what was the particular aim of the study?  why was the study carried out?  how was the study carried out?  what did the study reveal? then from the questions above, a typical structure of an abstract can be described as follows :  overview of the study;  aim of the study;  reason for the study;  methodology used in the study;  findings of the study corpus this research deals with a number of english scientific research papers (mostly published journal articles) written by non-native speakers (indonesian lecturers from several engineering faculties). i selected 20 papers from five universities/institutions: undip semarang, ui depok jakarta, ugm yogyakarta, itb bandung and its surabaya and four papers for each institution. the papers could be grouped as english for science and technology (est) since they were selected at random from several engineering majors: papers i-iv/undip (civil engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, and architecture), papers vviii/ugm (civil engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, and architecture), papers ix-xii/ui (electrical engineering, chemical engineering, metallurgy and material engineering, industrial engineering), papers xiii-xvi/itb (mechanical and aero space engineering, civil and environmental engineering, electrical engineering, and chemical engineering), and papers xvii-xx/its (mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, and architecture). for ease of reference, i would refer to the papers as (e.g. papers i-udp, v-ugm, ix-ui, xiii-itb, xvii-its etc.) meaning it was written by undip lecturers for udp, and by ugm, ui, itb, its language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 38 lecturers. the following are the chosen papers (table 3). table 3 the corpus code number title major i-udp agung wibowo. the contribution of the construction industry to the economy of indonesia: a system approach. civil engineering ii-udp saleh agus rosanto et al. the powerline communication-based computer networking is the solution for computer network installation. proceedings of 2008 student conference on research and development (scored 2008), 26-27 nov. 2008 johor, malaysia electrical engineering iii-udp tutuk djoko kusworo, et al. the effect of type zeolite on the gas transport properties of polymide-based mixed matrix membranes. reaktor, vol. 12 no. 2, desember 2008, hal. 68-77. chemical engineering iv-udp suzanna ratih & edy darmawan. a development plan for tourism potentials in coastal area of ujungnegoro, batang regency. received: february 2, 2005; accepted: may 25, 2005. architectural engineering v-ugm suprapto siswosukarto. study for determination of coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete at early ages. media teknik no. 1 tahun xviii edisi februari 2006 no. issn 0216-3012 civil engineering vi-ugm muhammad w. wildan. thermal diffusivity of zirconia/iron composites. media teknik no. 3 tahun xxvii edisi agustus 2005 no. issn 0216-3012. mechanical engineering vii-ugm crescentiana dewi poeloengasih et al. isolation and characterization of chitin and chitosan prepared under various processing times. indo. j. chem., 2008, 8 (2), 180-192. chemical engineering viii-ugm sudaryono. production of settlements on the basis of a spiritual space: a case study of parangtritis settlement of yogyakarta, indonesia. media teknik no. 4 tahun xxx edisi nopember 2008 issn 0216-3012. architectural engineering ix-ui kalamullah ramli et al. integrating passenger and modulo as learning tools for collaborative engineering education. makara,teknologi, vol. 6., no. 1, april 2002. electrical engineering x-ui anondho wijanarko. alteration of light illumination during cyanobacterial growth. jurnal teknologi, edisi no. 2, tahun xix, juni 2005, 140-1`46 issn 0215-1685. chemical engineering xi-ui rahmat saptono. the selection of materials for roller chains from the perspective of manufacturing process. makara, teknologi, vol. 7, no. 3, desember 2003 metallurgy and materials engineering xii-ui isti surjandari & annury citra seruni. design of product placement layout in retail shop using market basket analysis. makara, teknologi, vol. 9. no. 2 nopember 2005: 43-47. industrial engineering xiii-itb indra djodikusumo et al. tolerance stack analysis in francis turbine mechanical language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 39 design. itb j. eng. sci. vol. 42, no. 1, 2010, 73-90. engineering xiv-itb sri legowo et al. estimation of bank erosion due to reservoir operation in cascade (case study : citarum cascade reservoir). itb j. eng. sci. vol. 41, no. 2. 2009, 148-166. civil and environmental engineering xv-itb andriyan bayu suksmono. deconvolution of vlbi images based on compressive sensing. submitted to iceei 2009. electrical engineering xvi-itb yazid bindar. geometry effect investigation on a conical chamber with porous media boundary condition using computational fluid dynamic (cfd) technique. itb j. eng. sci. vol. 41. no. 2, 2009, 97-110. chemical engineering xvii-its y. triyogi et al. reducing the drag on a circular cylinder by upstream installation of an i-type bluff body as passive control. jmes 1543 © imeche 2009; proc. imeche vol. 223 part c: j. mechanical engineering science. mechanical engineering xviii-its totok mujiono. design of high frequency cmos fractional-n frequency divider. java journal of electrical and electronics engineering, vol. 1, no. 1, april 2003. electrical engineering xix-its didik prasetyoko et al. tungsten oxides-containing titanium silicalite for liquid phase epozidation of 1-octene with aqueous hydrogen peroxide. received: 12 may 2008/accepted: 10 october 2008/published online: 4 november 2008 © springer science+business media, llc 2008. chemical engineering xx-its endang titi sunarti b. darjosanjoto. space syntax analyses of surabaya, a javanese coastal city. architectural engineering method of analysis having selected the abstracts, it is necessary for me to outline the method of analysis. it will be a genre-based analysis, as it is only concerned with one type of papers (abstract section), i.e. scientific papers. swales (1985) defines “genre” as follows : (1) a genre is a recognized communicative event with a shared public purpose and with aims mutually understood by the participants within that event; (2) a genre is within variable degrees of freedom structured and standardized in terms of positioning, form and intent. the analysis is focused on the tense shift or tense choice which is closely related to the rhetorical functions in scientific writing. for example, lackstrom et al (1973) argue that grammatical choices are determined by rhetorical considerations; they show that, for example, the choice of verb tense depends on the degree of generality intended. the discussion of linguistic features, i.e. tense choice or tense shift was not put into separate sections, but was incorporated with the rhetorical functions. the objectives of this study, then, (1) to explore a number of approaches to the analysis of written texts; (2) to adopt a suitable method of analysis to the texts chosen. move analysis the reason for examining the abstract section of the 20 papers is that the abstract is an important part of a published scientific research papers; every writer has to include an abstract in his paper for publication. so it is necessary to scrutinize that part for pedagogical purposes. the areas which will be closely examined are the rhetorical function and the tense choice/shift. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 40 in examining the rhetorical functions, i will apply weissberg & buker‟s pattern (1990: 186). they propose five features which should exist in abstract section in a scientific research paper. i will refer to these functions as moves (swales 1981). thus, the five moves are as follows: move one : background information move two : the principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its scope. move three : methodology used in the study move four : the most important results in the study move five : conclusion or recommendation the following is a summary of the abstract sections in the 20 papers. table 4 rhetorical functions of the abstract sections in the 20 papers. no of paper move one move two move three move four move five i-udp ii-udp iii-udp iv-udp sub-total : 14 √ _ √ √ (3) √ _ √ √ (3) √ √ √ _ (3) √ √ √ _ (3) √ _ _ √ (2) v-ugm vi-ugm vii-ugm viii-ugm sub-total : 15 √ _ √ √ (3) √ √ √ √ (4) √ √ √ _ (3) √ √ √ _ (3) √ √ _ _ (2) ix-ui x-ui xi-ui xii-ui sub-total : 14 √ _ √ √ (3) √ _ √ √ (3) _ √ √ √ (3) _ √ √ √ (3) _ √ _ √ (2) xiii-itb xiv-itb xv-itb xvi-itb sub-total : 14 √ √ √ _ (3) √ √ √ √ (4) _ √ √ √ (3) _ √ √ √ (3) _ _ _ √ (1) xvii-its xviii-its xix-its xx-its sub-total : 10 _ _ _ _ (0) _ √ _ √ (2) √ √ √ √ (4) √ √ √ √ (4) _ _ _ _ (0) table 4 shows that there is still a great difference among the sample abstracts (udp, ugm, ui, itb, its). of the 20 abstracts, only three abstracts have complete moves (i-udp, v-ugm and xii-ui); six abstracts have less than three moves (ii-udp : 2; viii-ugm : 2; ix-ui : 2; xiiiitb :2; xvii-its: 2; xix-its: 2) and the rest range from three to four moves. in order to have a complete picture of the moves used in the abstract section, the discussion will be based on each move (moves i-v). language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 41 in reference to weissberg & buker‟s (1990) pattern, move one is background information (bi). of the 20 sample abstracts, eight abstracts do not contain move one (ii-udp, viugm, x-ui, xvi-itb, and xvii, xviii, xix, xx-its). it is interesting to note here, none of the its abstracts contain move one. in terms of its length (number of words), it seems that move one (bi) is quite dominant in several abstracts. for instance, in i-udp (civil engineering), iv-udp (architecture ), viii-ugm (architecture), xiii-itb (mechanical engineering), xiv-itb (civil and environmental engineering), move one (bi) which functions as an opening line is much longer than the other moves. consider the following. abstract (i-udp) –civil engineering construction industry contributes significantly in terms of scale and share in the development process for both developed and developing countries. the construction products provides the necessary public infrastructure and private physical structures for many productive activities such as services, commerce, utilities and other industries. the industry is not only important for its finished product, but it also employs a large number of people (directly and indirectly) and therefore has an effect on the economy of a country/region during the actual construction process. this research examines work done to determine the detailed effects of investing in construction. the effects considered are those on the micro and macro economy of the people directly or indirectly employed by the construction industry. the work is based on surveys, which were carried out in indonesia to investigate how the money invested in construction flows through the economy. it also examines at which point in the construction process income is received, and at which point it is spent. the results of these surveys were analysed using statistical methods and combined with results from economic inputoutput modelling. the results were then used to build a system model. a system model is developed to examine its use to compare labour intensive and equipment based construction methods. it was found that the construction sector provides a very important contribution to the national and local economy through its job generating ability for local people as multiplier effects. a system model developed is able to predict the effects of changes in policy on expenditure in the micro scale. (257 words) key words: construction industry, labour intensive construction, micro and macro economy move one: 82 words; 7 lines; 3 sentences abstract (iv-udp) architecture ujungnegoro is one coastal area in batang regency central java, which offers a unique environmental setting as well as enormous tourism potentials such as marine resources, aquaculture and plantations. furthermore, ujungnegoro has a variety of terrain ranging from move 1 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 42 plain to hills. despite these potentials, presently the government faces some problems which hinder the development of tourism in this area, namely limited capital for development purposes, absence of infrastructure, inadequate government assistance in terms of budgeting and technical assistance. this paper analyzes these problems and identifies appropriate planning strategies that may be adopted to promote the tourism industry in ujungnegoro, batang regency. these strategies will hopefully evolve into policies that will develop this area into uppropriate tourist destination. should this come to pass, this area will provide a greater contribution to the development of the area as a whole. (138 words) keywords: ujungnegoro, tourism potential and problems, development strategies move one: 78 words, 7 lines, 3 sentences viii-ugm (architecture) abstract parangtritis is a settlement existed on the coastal area of yogyakarta. as an absolute space, parangtristis has its own characteristic as a cluster of vernacular settlements. the underpinning of the existence of parangtritis is a belief of people that parangtritis is a place where the main gate of the unseen kingdom of queen of the south (the southern goddess) is located. with this underpinning of an abstract space, parangtritis had transformed to a spiritual space, a cultural space, a social pace, and recently to a commercial space. this transformation of space is in line with lefebvre‟s concept of the production of pace which works under a system of interconnected-relations (engagement) this paper aims to present some evidences, conceptual findings, and theoretical discussions where an engagement of absolute space and abstract space occurs in the case of parangtritis settlements of yogyakarta of indonesia. (143 words) move one: 111 words, 6 lines, 4 sentences. from the three samples above, it can be seen that i-udp (move one) contains 82 words/7 lines/3 sentences, iv-udp (move one) 78 words/7lines/3 sentences, and viii-ugm 111 words/6 lines/4 sentences. in reference to weissberg & buker‟s (1990) pattern, since move one (background information) is not an essential factor, one or two lines (1 sentence) will be enough. accordingly, the four abstracts (i-udp, iv-udp, viii-ugm) quoted above are not balanced since move one is much more dominant if compared with other moves; it means the length ranges from 78 to 111 words or from 6 to 7 lines and one abstract (iv-udp) only contains two moves (move 1 and move 2). there is also another abstract (ix-ui) which does not directly deal with the problem in the opening lines or background information (move one). instead of stating the problem or topic, the writer mentions the cooperation between the institutions. consider the following. abstract (ix-ui) move 1 move 1 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 43 the university of indonesia (ui), gerhard mercator university (gmu), the universiti kebangsaan malaysia (ukm) have agreed to cooperate as partners to develop a joint bachelor (3+1) and masters (1+1) degree, and collaborate in the research fields of multimedia and internet-based learning and application level active networks. this paper describes the introduction of the offshore project and the extending of information technology applications to the partner institutions in this international cooperation which would very much enhance the operations of the new initiative in engineering education, which could provide students in far distance with more flexible learning environment. keywords: groupware in education, multimedia-and internet-based education concept the identification of each move in the abstract section is also quite difficult for the average reader, as each writer has a different style in expressing the moves. for instance, the second move (i.e. objectives/scope of study) may be expressed explicitly or implicitly. of the 20 abstracts, only three abstracts used clear discourse markers in stating the objectives of the study (vii-ugm: “the objectives of the research were to prepare chitosan under various … .” ; viii-ugm :” this paper aims to present some evidences … .”; xii-ui : “the purpose of this paper is to identify … .”) and the rest have implicit signals. consider the following:  the photosynthetic of cyanobacterium anabaena cylindrica strain iam m1 in aerated liquid was preferred for high co2 fixation at low temperature environmental condition. (x-ui)  the selection of materials for an engineering component is not only requested by its design function and shape, but also the sequence through which it is manufactured. (xi-ui)  direct inversion of incomplete visibility samples in vlbi (very large baseline interferometry) radio telescopes produces images with convolutive artifacts. (xv-itb)  the bluff body cut from a small circular cylinder that is cut at both sides parallel to the y-axis was used as passive control to reduce the drag of a larger circular cylinder. (xvii-its) the four extracts above are the first sentences of their abstract sections. it is quite difficult to decide whether those statements are the first moves (background info) or the second moves (scope of the study or objective) as there are no explicit signals as in vii-ugm, xii-ui, etc. we could say that the four statements are methods/procedures employed, but they could also be identified as the objectives/scope of the study by virtue of the phrases: “ the selection of materials for an engineering component is not only requested by its design function or shape, …” (xi-ui). in addition, in terms of language xiii-itb does not conform to graetz‟s principle stating “it is written in tightly worded sentences, which avoid repetition, meaningless expressions, … illustrations, … descriptive details, examples, footnotes.” in xiii-itb we could find examples (“for example, as runner of francis turbine is joined with (sic) …”) and it uses contraction form which is commonly used in informal english (“… won‟t come or won‟t function …”) the rest of the papers only state the scope of the study by using various reporting verbs such as this research examines …, this paper also shows …, the study investigated …, this paper analyzes…, this paper presents… , this paper describes …, current works was carried …, (sic) move one language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 44 the present paper deals …, in this paper it will be demonstrated…, this effort can be performed…, in this paper we propose… , this paper discussed…, this study addressed…, etc. meanwhile, move three (methods) which is also obligatory does not exist in several abstracts (iv-udp, viii-ugm, ix-ui, and xiii-itb). those abstracts only contain two moves (1 and 2). the signals used in move three are quite varied and sometimes it is quite difficult to identify those signals as there is no standard pattern used in the sample abstracts. only several sample abstracts have clear signals, e.g.:  thermal diffusity of the samples was measured ...(vi-ugm)  chitin was prepared under ... ; chitin was then bleached using ... ; chitosan was evaluated ... . (vii-ugm)  simulated test can be reasonably used to obtain materials performance … (xi-ui  apriori algorithm is chosen as a method in the data mining process. (xii-ui)  both design geometry and operating variables were used on the cfd simulation. (xvi-itb)  the design was done in schematic level … (xviii-its) similarly, move four (the results) which is an essential component in the abstract writing does not exist in several samples ( iv-udp, viiiugm, ix-ui, xiii-itb). some sample abstracts use the following phrases as signals:  it was found that the construction sector provides … (i-udp)  furthermore, the result also implies that the value … (v-ugm)  the results found five category association rules … (xii-ui)  simulation results show that the circuit was … (xviii-its) in the move five (conclusion) the writers of the 20 abstracts use either modality or present tense. however, in 13 sample abstracts the concluding lines are not found (see table 4). of the 20 abstracts only 7 abstracts contain move five which is also obligatory in the abstract writing. the following are some examples of move five in the data. (1) a system model developed is able to predict the effects of changes … (i-udp) (2) should this come to pass, this area will provide a greater contribution to the development of the area as a whole. (ivudp) (3) the variety of the reported values … might be attributed to the nature of experimentation. (v-ugm) (4) however, for each composition, the thermal diffusity decreases as the temperature increases, because the thermal diffusity of both the matrix (zirconia) and the reinforcement (iron) decrease with increasing temperature. (vi-ugm) (5) these associations then will be interpreted as confidence and support to become consideration for the product layout.(xii-ui) (6) it means that the use of the burner inherently produces some problems of the flow distribution. (xvi-itb) tense shift and rhetorical function the tenses used in the abstract section move back and forth between past and present sometimes perfect tense. it seems that rhetorical shift is not always accompanied by tense shift. for instance, in paper xii-ui (containing complete moves) when the writer states the background information, scope of study, and methods, he uses the present tense, and the tense shifts to the past tense when he states the results and then shifts to modality when he gives language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 45 a conclusion. consider the following extracts (xiiui): (back ground of the study) retailing is an industry with high level of competition. it is a customer-based industry which depends on how it could be aware of what the customers‟ needs and requirements are. one technique most used in supermarkets is the mix merchandise. (present tense) (scope of study/purpose) the purpose of this paper is to identify associated products, which then grouped (sic) in mix merchandise with the use of market basket analysis. (present tense) (methods) apriori algorithm is chosen as a method in the data mining process. using weka (waikato environment for knowledge analysis) software, the association rule between products is calculated. (present tense) (results) the results found five category association rules and fourteen sub-category association rules. (past tense) (conclusion) these associations then will be interpreted as confidence and support to become consideration for the product layout. (modality) another paper (v-ugm) containing four moves has a different pattern. the tense shift moves from present perfect to present tense, and ends with modality. consider the following extracts (vugm): (background information) two active mechanism producing self-induced stresses in immature concrete have been identified as a result of thermal and non-thermal deformations. … (scope of study/purpose) various different values for coefficient of thermal expansion, generally expressed as „α‟, have been reported ranging from 6 to 32 …c. (results) the experimental work in the present study yields a value of …this resulted value confirms with those suggested in the codes (bs 8007, bs8110, eurocode, aci). (conclusion) the variety of the reported values of α at the earlier stages of hardening concrete might be attributed to the nature of experimentation adopted in the research. in paper xv-itb also containing four moves, the writer does not shift the tenses at all in the four moves (1, 2, 3, 4); he merely uses present tense. the tenses used can be seen in the following extracts (xv-itb): (background information) direct inversion of incomplete visibility samples in vlbi (very large baseline interferometry) radio telescopes produces images with convolutive artifacts. (scope of study) in this paper, we propose a new algorithm that is based on an emerging paradigm called compressive sensing (cs). (methods) under the sparsity condition, cs capable to exactly reconstructs a signal or an image, using only a few number of random samples (sic). (results) we show that cs is well suited with the vlbi imaging problem and demonstrate that the proposed method is capable to reconstruct a simulated image of radio galaxy from its incomplete visibility samples taken from elliptical trajectories in the uv-plane. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 46 another different pattern can be found in paper x-ui which uses merely past tense in the three moves; it means the rhetorical shift is not followed by the tense shift which can be seen in the following extracts: (methods) the photosynthetic of cyanobacterium anabaena cylindrica strain iam m1 in aerated liquid was preferred for high co2 fixation at low temperature environmental condition. cell growth (sic) successfully in single reactor at low temperature and light illumination of 288 k and 1000 lx, however, in accordance with arhenius prediction, biomass production and average carbon dioxide removal relatively small (sic). current works was carried (sic) to improve the performance of photosynthetic in this low temperature condition and consequently we proposed alteration of light illumination during microbial growth. (results) the overall average value of carbon dioxide transfer rate (ctrav) of cyanobacterial growth at alteration of light illumination was around 1.71 g/[dm3.h], which was about eleven times of result constant light illumination of 1000 lx. refer to (sic) average value of final cell concentration and light energy utility efficiency of cyanobacterial growth production (η), alteration of light illumination also increased biomass production and actually, produced more efficient than in constant light illumination, which were approximately, three times. (conclusion) additionally, kinetic studies of this microbial growth at alteration of light illumination also concluded that both of relationship between specific carbon dioxide transfer rate qco2 and x as essential factor concentration of carbon dioxide fixation and relationship between incident specific growth rate (μφ) and [hco3-] as essential compound concentration of cyanobacterial growth, followed a substrate inhibition model kinetic equation, that was proposed by andrew. from several sample abstracts described above it can be seen that there is one abstract (x-ui) which merely uses past tense for the whole abstract. this kind of pattern is in accordance with graetz‟s pattern stating: “the abstract is characterized by the use of past tense, third person, passive, and the non-use of negatives” (1985). on the contrary, there is another abstract (xv-itb) which uses fully present tense. this pattern does not conform to any patterns suggested in the theoretical framework. even the abstract which contains five moves (xii-ui) does not conform to any of the suggested patterns. it is also interesting to comment on the shift of tense in paper i-udp. consider the following statement: (1) it was found that the contribution sector provides a very important contribution to the national and local economy through its job generating ability for local people as multiplier effects. (i-udp) (2) simulation results show that the circuit was running well in this frequency input. (xviiiits) in the above statements there is no agreement between „reporting verb‟ and „reported verb‟ (was found … provides; show … was running). the first statement (i-udp) the tense shifts from past to present while the second statement (xviii-its) the tense shifts from present to past. there are two possibilities here:  the writers, in fact, have not yet mastered the english tense system, or language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 47  if they have already mastered such a system, they must have a good reason to shift the tense in reported verbs. the second possibility can be explained as follows: in the first statement (sentence 1), the writer wants to show that “contribution to the national and local economy …” is still true at the time of reporting. so, this kind of shift is possible and it is in line with what swan (1980:535) says: “… sometimes, even after past reporting verbs, the tenses are the same as the original speaker‟s. this happens when we are reporting people saying things that are still true when we report them.” and the tense shift above also agrees with day‟s (1979:119) principle in scientific writing: “ it is correct to say, „smith showed that streptomycin inhibits s. nocolor.‟ however, the second statement (xviii-its) uses a different shift (present to past). if the writer really knows the english tense system, it can still be justified since it is in line with what day (1979) says: “it is also correct to say „table 4 shows that streptomycin inhibited s.everycolor at all ph levels‟.” it means that “streptomycin which inhibited s.everycolor ..” is no longer true at the time of reporting. such a phenomenon is similar to statement 1 (xviii-its), i.e. “the circuit which was running well” is no longer true at the time of reporting.” it is equally interesting to note here about the use of present perfect in certain moves which are against the principle of tense choice suggested by weissberg & buker (1990:186). they only suggest that the past tense or present perfect be used in the second move (principal activity or scope of the study), e.g. “ in this study the readability of tax booklets from nine states was evaluated.” or “ net energy analyses have been carried out for eight trajectories which convert energy source into heated domestic water.” meanwhile, in the several sample abstracts (iiiudp, v-ugm, ix-ui) the present perfect is used in the opening lines or background information (move one) and it is also used in move four (results) in iii-udp. there must be a strong reason to use the present perfect in the opening lines. in scientific writing the writers always refer to previous research done either by themselves or by others working in the same field. based on his research, trimble (1985:126) proposes as follows: if the writers use the past tense in reporting research done previously by themselves or by others then that research is of secondary importance to the current work being reported on. if, on the other hand, the writer uses the present perfect or the present tense, then the research is of more direct and primary importance to the writer‟s current work. consider the following: (1) the permeation rates of o 2 , n 2 , co 2 and ch 4 has been studied for polyimidepolyethersulfone (pi/pes) blendszeolite mixed matrix membranes synthesized in our laboratory. (move one /iii-udp ) (2) two active mechanism producing selfinduced stresses in immature concrete have been identified as a result of thermal and non-thermal deformations. (move one/vugm) (3) the university of indonesia (ui), gerhard mercator university (gmu), the universiti kebangsaan malaysia (ukm) have agreed to cooperate as partners to develop a joint bachelor (3+1) and masters (1+1) degree, and collaborate in the research fields of multimediaand internet-based learning and language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 48 application level active networks. (move one/ix-ui) in the first two extracts (iii-udp and v-ugm) the use of present perfect is intended to refer to the previous research and it is of more direct and primary importance to the writer‟s current work. however, in the third extract (ix-ui) the use of present perfect tense is not related to the previous research or study like in the first two extracts. instead, it refers to the non-research issue, i.e. the institutional cooperation (ui, gmu, and ukm). in other words, the tense choice (present perfect) here is not concerned with rhetorical function or previous research. in the 20 sample abstracts the present perfect is also used in other moves (move three: methods and move four: results). in reference with weissberg & buker‟s pattern, moves three and four should use the past tense and the two extracts below (iii-udp and ix-its) do not conform to the pattern.  differential scanning calorimetry measurements of pure and pi/pes blends membranes have showed one unique glass transition temperature that supports the miscible character of the pi/pes mixture. (results/ iii-udp)  tungsten oxides (wo3) have been supported on the titanium silicalite (ts-1) by impregnation method. the solids have been tested for epoxidation of 1-octene with aqueous h2o2 in acetone as solvent.(methods/ ix-its) another interesting finding is the tendency of tense usage based on the groups (udp, ugm, ui, etc). in terms of tense occurrence in the 20 abstracts, the use of present tense is the most dominant (132), followed by past tense as the second rank (49), present perfect (11), modality (29), and past perfect (1). seen from the groups, the writers of udp, ugm, ui, and itb tend to use present tense while the writers of its tend to use past tense (see table 5). table 5 tense occurrence in the abstract section no of paper present tense past tense present perfect past perfect modality i-udp ii-udp iii-udp iv-udp sub-total : 13 9 3 7 (32) 4 1 2 _ (7) _ _ 1 _ (1) _ _ _ _ (0) _ 5 _ 4 (9) v-ugm vi-ugm vii-ugm viii-ugm sub-total : 5 6 1 9 (21) _ 3 8 _ (11) 2 _ _ _ (2) _ _ _ 1 (1) 1 _ 1 _ (2) ix-ui x-ui xi-ui xii-ui sub-total : 1 _ 6 9 (16) _ 12 1 1 (14) 1 _ 1 _ (2) _ _ _ _ (0) 2 _ 2 3 (7) xiii-itb 7 _ 3 _ 4 language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 49 xiv-itb xv-itb xvi-itb sub-total : 10 11 12 (40) _ _ 2 (2) _ 1 _ (4) _ _ _ (0) 5 _ 2 (11) xvii-its xviii-its xix-its xx-its sub-total : 8 1 _ 4 (13) 3 7 3 2 (15) _ _ 2 _ (2) _ _ _ _ (0) _ _ _ _ (0) if scrutinized further, in terms of grammatical point of view the reason of choosing and shifting certain tenses is not quite clear. for instance, in paper xvii-its the tense shift occurs in one move (methods) : the bluff body cut from a small circular cylinder that is cut at both sides parallel to the yaxis was used as passive control (sic) to reduce the drag of a larger circular cylinder. the small bluff body cut is called an i-type bluff body, which interacts with a larger one downstream. i-type bluff bodies with different cutting angles of θs = 0◦(circular), 10◦, 20◦, 30◦, 45◦, 53◦, and 65◦ were located in front and at the line axis of the circular cylinder at a spacing s/d = 1.375, where their cutting surfaces are perpendicular to the free stream velocity vector. (xvii-its/methods) with reference to the principles of writing abstract (day‟s or weissberg & buker‟s) the methods move should use past tense. in the above extract (xvii-its) the tense shift occur in one move: present tense past tense – present tense – past tense – present tense. there are two possibilities here: the writer has not mastered the tense system or he has a strong reason to do so. if we refer to trimble‟s pattern (1985) concerning the apparatus used, he states as follows : “if the apparatus is used temporarily, the writer will use the past tense; on the other hand, if the apparatus is used permanently, he will use the present tense.” but it seems that the extract above (xvii-its) does not conform to trimble‟s pattern either. the tense shift in the extract does not reflect whether the apparatus is used temporarily or permanently. in the first sentence (a complex sentence), the writer uses present tense (…that is cut …) in the subordinate clause, then he shifts the tense to past tense in the main clause (..was used …) without a clear reason (whether it is permanent or temporary apparatus). again in the second sentence (a compound-complex sentence), the writer uses present tense ( … is called …) in the first main clause and then shifts to past tense (…were located …) in the second main clause without a clear reason. the following is a summary of the tense choice or shift in the abstract section (table 5). table 6 tense choice in each rhetorical function no of paper move one move two move three move four move five i-udp ii-udp iii-udp iv-udp present t. _ pres. perfect present t. present t. _ past t. present t. present t. present t. present t. _ past t. present t. pres. perfect _ present t. _ _ modality language circle journal of language and literature vol. v /2 april 2011 page 50 v-ugm vi-ugm vii-ugm viii-ugm pres. perfect _ present t. present t. pres. perfect present t. past t. present t. present t. past t. past t. _ present t. present t. past t. _ modality present t. _ _ ix-ui x-ui xi-ui xii-ui pres. perfect _ present t. present t. present t. _ present t. present t. _ past t. modality present t. _ past t. present t. past t. _ past t. _ modality xiii-itb xiv-itb xv-itb xvi-itb present t. present t. present t. _ modality present t. present t. present t. _ modality present t. past t. _ present t. present t. present t. _ _ _ present t. xvii-its xviii-its xix-its xx-its _ _ _ _ _ past t. _ past t. past t. past t. pres. perfect present t. present t. present t. past t. present t. _ _ _ _ conclusion in terms of moves (rhetorical function) there is still a great difference among the data (20 abstracts). of the data, only three abstracts contain complete moves (5 moves) and even a few abstract (3) only contain 2 moves. in expressing the moves, some abstracts do not use explicit discourse markers so that it is quite difficult for the reader to identify the shift of each rhetorical function. in terms of tense choice or shift, there is also a great variety among the data. it seems that the rhetorical shift is not always followed by the tense shift. references day, r. a. 1979. how to write and publish a scientific paper. philadelphia: isi press. graetz, n. 1985. teaching efl students to extracts structural information from abstracts in ulijn, j.m. and pugh a.k. eds reading for professional purposes. lenven allo. _________, 2004. forum sastra dan budaya. gutkowski, j. & urquhart, a. h. 1989. the structure of genetic abstracts. plymouth: marjons college of h.e. _________, 2004. kompas, thursday 23 september. lackstrom, j., selinker, l. and trimble, l. 1973. technical rhetorical principles and grammatical choice. tesol quarterly 7, 2: 127-136. packham, g. et al. 1985. studying in australia: writing assignments. melbourne: thomas nelson australia. paltridge, b. & s. starfield. 2007. thesis and dissertation writing in a second language : a handbook for supervisors. london: routledge. ____________. 2008. rencana strategis bisnis universitas diponegoro. agustus. rifai, mien a. 2008. strategy in selecting the appropriate international journals. workshop on international scientific paper writing. lemlit undip. stapleton, p. 1987. writing research papers: an easy guide for non-native english speakers. language circle journal of language and literature vol. v / 2 april 2011 page 51 canberra: australian centre for international agricultural research. swales, j. 1990. genre analysis : english in academic and research settings. cambridge: university press. trimble, l. 1985. english for science and technology: a discourse approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. swales, j. 1985. a genre-based approach to language across the curriculum. paper presented at the relc conference, singapore. swales, j. 1981. aspects of article introductions. aston research report, no. 1. birmingham: university of aston. swan, m. 1980. practical english usage. oxford:oup and elbs. weissberg, r. and s. buker. 1990. writing up research : experimental research report writing for students of english. new york: prentice hall regents. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 103 discourse analysis on advertisement alim sukrisno semarang state university abstract this article is concerned with the analysis of discourse on advertisement. the aim of this discussion is to try to make sense of an advertisement from the point of view of linguistic construction, meaning, and its textuality. results of the discussion indicate that in order to be called a text the observed advertisement should be analyzed by means of elliptical operation. as soon as the elliptical clauses and sentences of the advertisement are established, the meaning or intention of the advertisement can be derived. unless the truths of the messages conveyed by the advertisement are clarified, ambiguities will still remain that will affect the understanding and response of the readers or potential buyers. as a material for discourse analysis, however, the advertisement is a very interesting thing to be talked about. key words: advertisement, ellyptical, ambiguity introduction look at the picture above. it is no doubt a photograph showing a number of features, trees, a road, vehicles, durian sellers, etc. this photograph can be readily found when we drive or ride up the hill from semarang downhill to unnes campus. the most striking thing seen in this picture is the presence of a banner of an advertisement hung above and across the road. this feature is quite conspicuous, not only because it is very colourful, thus in contrast with 104 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 other features, but also centrally placed in the picture, right in front of passers-by so that it is indeed eye-catching. generally, this banner is a take-for-granted thing for people who happen to be passing along the road and noticing it. it is an advertisement of a certain product, thing, or property. such a phenomenon can be found anywhere else in other parts of the cities or even countries. however, for people studying language, especially those interested in discourse, this advertisement is not just something. it is a very interesting thing worth pondering and then analyzing. at first notice, the ad is just an ordinary advertisement promoting a certain kind of goods/property. however, when we try to look at it again not from a common viewpoint but from the aspect of discourse, this ad brings about a number of questions. from the point of view of discouse analysis, this creates a number of problems. the questions that might come up in our minds are at least as follows. (1) how can we categorize the linguistic forms used in this ad—are they just words, clauses or sentences? the answer to this question can lead to other questions; (2) can the stretches of the linguistic forms used in the ad form a communicative text? and (3) does this ad convey truthful information? there may be some other problems arising from the advertisement above, but in this discussion i will only focus on trying to answer the specified questions above. to answer those questions, i will draw on several approaches commonly used in discourse analysis. the role of pragmatics in this discussion will also be quite apparent. method of the study object of the study the object of this study is a text on an advertisement about land poperty credit. data collecting activity the data are obtained by photographing an advertisement appearing on a banner hung across a road leading to unnes campus. procedure of data analysis (1) the data are exposed by copying the words written on the banner in the photograph; (2) they are then analysed by employing elliptical operation; (3) the textuality of the text is tested using de beaugrande and dressler‟s 7 standard of textuality; (4) the falicity of the textual meaning is examined by means of gricean maxims; and (5) existing ambiguity and infelicity is then removed. significance of the study the result of the investigation will be useful for readers of the research report in that they will have a better idea that advertisement, though, looking trivial, produces a wealth of meanings on the part of the receivers. review of related literature inevitably, though not surface-structurally manifest, the issues based on the available data being put forward in this paper, are very much related to the notions of discourse, text, discourse analysis, advertising discourse, ellipsis. therefore, to provide scientific relevance to the subsequent discussion pertinent to the statements of the problem, the concepts of discourse in general, discourse analysis, discourse on advertisement and the idea of ellipsis and that of text will be highlighted. language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 105 to begin with, the notion of discourse will be briefly talked about. discourse is defined differently by different people. schiffrin (1994) offers two definitions of discourse; „a particular unit of language (above the sentence), and a particular focus on language use‟. the former notion finds support in stubbs (1983: 1) who defines discourse as „language above the sentence or above the clause.‟ from structuralists‟ view, discourse is regarded „as a level of structure higher than the sentence, or higher than another unit of text‟ (in schiffrin, 1994: 24). discourse refers to „‟extended , multisentence „texts‟‟‟ (schegloff, in schiffrin et al., 2001). meanwhile, in a different manner, cook (1992) defines discourse as “text and context together, interacting in a way which is perceived as meaningful and unified by the participants (who are both parts of the context and observers).” from this, we can define that discourse analysis is an analysis of language use beyond sentences (tannen, internet source; brown and yule, 1987). in line with the general concept of discourse, advertisement is also a type of discourse (cook, 1992: 4) which is defined as „text occurring within a specific context‟ (http//74.125 ....). „context includes knowledge of elements existing outside the text‟ (op cit: 4). „the culture in which a certain advertisement is created forms part of the context‟ (op cit). most often, the structural appearance of an advertisement are words arranged together which visually do not seem to form a sentence or sentences. appearing this way, in turn, on the surface, these stretches of words are not sentences and thus not subject to discourse analysis which has been defined by tannen as an analysis of language use beyond sentences. in order to determine that the words in an advertisement are not just words but sentences, the concept of ellipsis must be obtained. therefore, the notion of ellipsis is worth reviewing here. according to martin (2001), „ellipsis refers to resources for omitting a clause, or some part of a clause or group, in contexts where it can be assumed.‟ in line with this, downing (internet source), claims that ellipsis together with presupposition may influence the establishment of a conversational tone in advertising discourse by setting up relationship between „characters of the fictional world and addressee ........‟ after the concepts of discourse, discourse analysis, advertising discourse and ellipsis have been briefly reviewed, finally, in order that we can relate the data with the discussion of text, the concept of what a text is will be presented. halliday and hasan define a text as „language that is functional.‟ (1985: 10). furthermore, they expand the term in four ways: text as meaning, text as a semantic unit, text as product and process, text as a social exchange of meanings (op cit, 10---11). for a text to be able to meet the requirements of being communicative, it must possess 7 standards of textuality; cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informaticity, situationality, and intertextuality (de beaugrande and dressler, 1981). these 7 standards of textuality will later be used to test whether or not the text presented in this observation is valid in terms of its textuality. discussion on the problems let me firstly try to answer the first questions by analysing the linguistic forms seen in the advertisement. arranged in a different layout, the forms of the ad looks as follows: 106 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 kredit kavling dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran 100 m = 20 juta hubungi (nomor-nomor ini) translated loosely, the english form of the above ad can be seen below: real estate credit close to unnes & close to ungaran nursing academy (una) 100 m = 20 millions contact ... (these numbers ...) for the sake of clarity, the analysis will mostly make use of the original data, in this case in bahasa indonesia, but if necessary, for practicality and convenience sake, english version will also be used. it goes without saying that given the four stretches of linguistic construction above, only one, that is the last stretch, hubungi ... (...), can be considered to be a sentence from the point of view of grammatical construction or a proposition in terms of pragmatics. it has the imperative force of requesting. whereas the first three forms, on the surface structure, look like words or phrasal nouns (np). if the above stretches of word construction should be regarded as a discourse which is subject to discourse analysis, they must serve as sentences because discourse analysis is previously defined as “the analysis of language „beyond the sentence‟” (tannen, internet source) which is supported by schiffrin (1994), and by stubb‟s (1983: 1) who states that “discourse is „language above the sentence or above the clause‟”. the question worth posing is that: should “kredit kavling”, „dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran” and “100 m = 20 juta” be treated as merely nps, or as separate sentences or even a single sentence forming a unified idea and consisting of several propositions? let me try to analyse these nps one by one. if either one of above nps, for example “kredit kavling”, stands alone without being followed by any subsequent nps, it will not mean anything from the point of view of propositional intent. however, together with the rest of the words they form a unified whole which means something to the receivers. since they are a unity conveying a certain meaning, each of the seemingly linguistically “non-sentences or subsentential” (stainton, 2007) must contribute some meaningfullness which in turn can be interpreted and understood by the receivers. to be meaningful, “kredit kavling” must be interpreted as not just two words combined together; they must be part of a construction bigger than just words or an np. however, the interpretation of those subsentential forms varies: first, it is a subsentential structure forming a clause, for example: “jika anda menginginkan kredit kavling”, ... secondly, it may be a subsentential structure having a capacity of a complete sentence, for example: “mau kredit kavling?” it can also be a non-sentence forming a language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 107 sentence when it is combined with „dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran” and “100 m = 20 juta”. one way of arriving at these particular meanings is by making these non-sentence constructions sentential by means of elliptical operation. therefore, by seeing each of them as an elliptical form, we can then offer some possible ellipses. each of the ellipsis always contains the idea of a proposition. the elliptical propositional sentences will appear as follows: (1) an ellipsis containing “kredit kavling” alone the ellipsis can be in the form of statement, imperative or a question, such as: a. ingin mendapatkan „kredit kavling‟? b. dapatkan „kredit kavling!‟ c. mau „kredit kavling?‟ d. kami tawarkan „kredit kavling.‟ e. etc. (2) an ellipsis containing “dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran” alone a. lokasinya „dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran.‟ b. yang terletak „dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran.‟ c. etc. (3) an ellipsis containing “100 m = 20 juta” alone a. harga per 100 m 20 juta (rupiah). b. setiap 100 m dihargai 20 juta (rupiah). though the above construction introduces a mathematical equation indicated by the mark (=), the english ellipsis will possibly appear “the price per 100 meters is 20 million (rupiahs). (4) ellipsis combining the three non-sentential forms ditawarkan kredit kavling yang berlokasi dekat unnes & dekat akper ungaran dengan harga per 100 meter 20 juta rupiah. the list of the possible elliptical sentences which can be offered is by no means exhaustive, for a different reader may construct different elliptical sentences which are equally acceptable depending on their own perception on those pieces of non-sentential information. similarly, we can offer different elliptical reconstructions of the above non-sentences in the form of a more meaningful unified sentential form or text, such as the following: no. 1 dapatkan „kredit kavling‟ yang terletak „dekat unnes dan dekat akper ungaran‟ dengan harga „20 juta (rupiah) per 100 meter (persegi)‟. „hubungi ..........‟ no. 2 ingin „kredit kavling‟? lokasinya di „dekat unnes dan akper ungaran‟. harga per 100 meter 20 juta (rupiah). jika tertarik, hubungi ......... no. 3 silakan „kredit kavling‟ yang letaknya tidak jauh dari unnes dan akper ungaran. harga per 100 meter 20 juta (rupiah). segera „hubungi nomor-nomor ini!‟ it is possible for a receiver to recover the message of the advertisement above as (1), (2), (3) or even any other equally acceptable interpretations. the important thing is that whatever interpretation is formed in the reader‟s 108 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 mind, the seemingly non-sentential constructions are in fact sentential and together they create a text conveying a certain message to the receiver. based on the analysis above, it can be concluded that each of the non-sentences appearing in the advertisement above is categorised as at least an elliptical clause or elliptical sentence which operates together to serve as a possible text. therefore, the first problem of this paper is solved. since the non-sentential linguistic forms used by the ad demonstrate elliptical sentences functioning as a possible text, another thing worth analysing is whether they are qualified as communicative text. in order to prove the communicativeness of the above text, we have to refer to de beuaugrande and dressler (1981). according to them, there are „seven standards of textuallty‟ for a piece of language use to qualify itself as communicative information. these 7 standards of textuality are listed by de beaugrande and dressler as follows: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informaticity, situationality, and intertextuality. whether the language use found in the text above meets these required standards of textuality will be the object of the next analysis. in terms of cohesion, the ad above is cohesive because the actual words are mutually arranged in a sequential order showing the logical connectedness from one set of words with another. this cohesiveness can be clearly seen after the sets of words are reconstructed using elliptical method. seen from coherence, this text presents the mutual accessibility and relevance of the textual world. this can be proved from the relation of the concept of selling a property with the support of its location, prices, and a way of obtaining further information and the concept of the presence of potential buyers. these two concepts are related to each other. the relationship of the two concepts can be easily accessed or understood in the words elliptically arranged in the text. viewed from the notion of intentionality, the above text meets the criterion of being intentional. this is due to the fact that through words cohesively and coherently arranged in the text the goal of the producer to sell land properties can be seen and understood clearly by readers/receivers. the plan to obtain the goal is by providing necessary information that would likely help interested readers/receivers to do further action in the forms of cohesive and coherent words. in consonance with the fourth standard of textuality: acceptability, the text is acceptable from the point of view of the receiver because the producer has built and presented information which enables the receiver to acquire knowledge about how to obtain pieces of land on credit. the fifth standard of textuality is informaticity which is, according to beaugrande and dressler (1981: 8), „concerned with the extent to which the occurrences of the presented text are expected vs. unexpected of known vs. unknown/certain.‟ viewed from this notion, the first elliptical sentence „kredit kavling‟ is unknown/new from the point of view of the receivers since it is just presented at the beginning of the text. the second and the rest of the elliptical sentences are to a greater extent quite expected because without that information the text will be completely uninformative. it is very much expected that the offer of „kredit kavling‟ will be followed by the presence of relevant information about the credit, such as location, price, and the procedure of being able to make a deal with the producer of the advertisement. situationality is the sixth standard of textuality which refers to factors making „a text language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 109 relevant to a situation of occurrence.‟ the text shows the feature of siuationality with the following reasons. it is displayed at a strategic place where a lot of people passing by can readily see and automatically read it. it contains information about one of the basic needs (land to set up settlement) for human beings (in this case, readers/receivers of the text), so some readers may be interested in and finally make a deal. social demand prevalent in the indonesian society which requires someone to have a permanent dwelling instead of just rented one serves as another relevant factor. therefore, considering the above factors, the text definitely meets the notion of textuality. talking about intertextuality, of course, the above text fulfills the last standard of textuality. the argument is that texts of similar type can also be seen in different parts of the city. as a result, in order to understand the text, the receivers can rely on the knowledge they have previously seen in other similar texts. after briefly analyzing the text from the aspect of its textuality, it can be summarized that the stretches of language use conform with the standards of being a communicative text, though some problems of felicity are still present. the third issue concerning the advertisement text i would like to address is the question whether or not the text conveys truthful information to the reader/receivers or potential buyers. among the four elliptical sentences forming the text above, in my opinion, the most problematic one is the second elliptical sentence: dekat unnes dan dekat akper ungaran. the truthfulness of this information will later influence the next ellipsis: 100 m = 20 juta. in order to find out the real intention of the second ellipsis, we have got to draw on the grice‟s maxim and clark and wege‟s (2001) „imagination in discourse‟. this elliptical construction: „dekat unnes dan dekat akper ungaran‟ (close to unnes and ungaran nursing academy/una) is quite problematic for potential buyers in a number of ways. a. reading this sentence (elliptical), one can get confused for two reasons. on the one hand, one can interpret that there is only a plot of land for sale on credit situated in between unnes and una. on the other, one can also arrive at an interpretation that there are more than one piece of land to sell. the plots of land may be located at two different places: some are close to unnes and others close to una or another possibility; all pieces of land offered are located between unnes and una. this problem seems to be difficult to solve since in bahasa indonesia, for the previous elliptical sentence: „kredit kavling‟, suffers a lack of plural marker. however, some of the ambiguities can be easily removed if this sentence is written in english, for the plurarity is obviously demonstrated. so, in english, the sentence can loosely be translated: „plots of land are available on credit.‟ the second ambiguity remains problematic. whether the pieces of land being sold on a installment basis are located at separate places or at one place, is difficult to be deambiguated; only the advertisement maker knows. normally, however, the pieces of land for sale are situated in one location. b. when we read the second elliptical sentence: „close to unnes and close to una‟, another problem arises. the problem is triggered with the use of „dekat/close to‟. according to clark and wege (in schiffrin et al., 2001), „taking part in discouse often 110 language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 demands a vivid imagination‟. this is in line with bradford et al. (1972) who claim that under their investigation „people appear to create visual or spacial representations as they understand many utterances.‟ referring to this, when reading the advertisement, given the discription of a location, a hearer or in this case a reader will use his imagination as to where the place is. the lexical choice of „close to‟ or „near‟ is quite relative. the relativity of the meaning of these words bring about difficulty in determining the location of the place being offered in the ad. in my imagination in trying to locate the place, i would raise a number questions: (1) how near is the location of the land for sale from unnes, (2) how near is it from una?, (3) are the land properties equally near unnes and una? still another question comes up: how far (many meters or kilometer) is unnes from una? these spacial questions are salient things that lead our imagination in determining the location of the offered land. in turn, location of a place, especially land for sale, is an essential thing in someone‟s interestedness in the land which may lead him to buy it. location of a place involves various conditions; among others easy access to the main road, closeness to an already existing place, spot, or building, such as railway/bus station, market, or university which contribute to the stategicness of the the location (land). in the case of the ad above, if the place described matches with the spacial imagination of the reader, the ad presents not only important but also effective information in attracting potential buyers. of course, the hope of interested readers is that the information they read is truthful. viewed from gricean (in mey, 1993) maxims, the second elliptical sentence, „close to unnes and close to una‟, seems quite problematic in at least two ways. first, in my opinion, the use of the lexis „dekat‟ or „near/close to‟ does not fulfil the maxim of manner: avoid obscurity and ambiguity. it is obscure because the word „near/close to‟ produces obscuriry in the readers‟ imagination in their attempt to locate the place. the word „near‟ is an approximant. to eliminate the obscurity, the maker should replace it with a more definite measurement (quantifier), for example: 500 m from unnes and 1 kilometer from una. if this is done, the obscurity will be removed. the second elliptical sentence also violates the maxim of quantity: „do not make your contribution more informative than required.‟ the addition to „close to una‟ from „close to unnes‟ is more than necessary. „close to unnes‟ will be quite informative since unnes is widely known. almost everybody knows where unnes is, whereas the notion of „close to una‟ has the effect of cheating the readers. the majority of people passing along under the advertisement banner including myself do not know where una is or even worse this campus does not exist at all. therefore, the second elliptical sentence, to some extent, violates the maxim of quantity. the problem will be erased if the words „close to una‟ is dropped. if the problems faced by this second elliptical sentence is removed, the third elliptical sentence: „100 m = 20 juta‟ will be relevant, because the price of the offered pieces of land can be appreciated whether it is reasonable or too expensive. as a consequence, the text as a whole will be quite informative, communicative and effective in persuading the readers to be potential buyers. conclusion from the discussion above, the answers to the questions put forward at the beginning of this paper which serve as the conclusions can be presented. first, the sequences np in the language circle journal of language and literature iv/2 april 2010 111 advertisement banner are elliptical sentences. second, these elliptical sentences function as a text. third, when the ambiguities of the text can be sorted out and removed, the text will be truthful and communicative. references bradford, j.d., barclay, j.r. and franks, j.j. 1972. sentence memory: a constructive vs. interpretive approach. cognitive psychology, 3. 193---209. clark, h. h. and wege, m. m. v.d. 2001. imagination in discourse. in schiffrin, d. and tannen, d. and hamilton, h.e. (eds.). 2001. the handbook of discourse analysis. oxford: blackwell publishing. cook, g. 1992. the discourse of advertising. london: routledge and kegan paul. de beaugrande, r-a and dressler, w.u. 1981. introduction to text linguistics. new york: longman downing, l.h. text world creation in advertising discourse (http://www.ucm.es/info/circulo/ no13/hidalgo.htm) grice, h. p. 1971: meaning (1958). in danny steinberg and leon jocobovits (eds.). semantics: an interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics, and psychology. cambridge: cup, pp. 53—9. halliday, m.a.k. and hasan, r. 1985. language, context, and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. burwood, victoria: deakin university press. horn, l. r. and ward, g. 2006. the handbook of pragmatics. oxford: blackwell publishing. http//74.125.155 ...... a discursive-semiotic approach to to cultural aspects in persuasive advertisement. martin, j. r. 2001. cohesion and texture. in schiffrin et al. (1981). the handbook of discourse analysis. oxford: blackwell publishing schiffrin, d. 1994. approaches to discourse. oxford: blackwell. schiffrin, d., tannen, d., and hamilton, h. e. 1981. the handbook of discourse analysis. oxford: blackwell publshing. stainton, r. j. 2007. the pragmatics of nonsentences. in horn, l.r. and ward, g. (eds.). the handbook of pragmatics. oxford: blackwell publishing stubbs, m. 1983. discourse analysis. chicago: university chicago press. tannen, d. discourse analysis (internet source) http://www.ucm/ paper title in capital, font size 14, single space, bold, center, not more than 15 words language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x post-editing of machine translation: creating a better translation of cultural specific terms danti pudjiati1, ninuk lustyantie2, ifan iskandar3, tira nur fitria4 1dantipudjiati@stkipkusumanegara.ac.id, 4tiranurfitria@gmail.com 1stkip kusuma negara jakarta, 23universitas negeri jakarta, 4institut teknologi bisnis aas indonesia abstract the knowledge of machine translation has great importance in the pre-translation process, particularly when translating a literary work. there were a plethora of studies about the translation of cultural-specific items (csi) with machines. however, they have not addressed machine translation post-editing to improve its translation. this study aims at describing the semantic analysis in the translation of cultural-specific items (csi) by machine translation (mt) from indonesian into english, analyzing their translation and whether or not they have similar meanings between the source text and target text to get a better quality translation. qualitative research using descriptive methods was applied. the data were 12 sentences of csi in the form of concrete and five sentences of csi regarding socio-cultural terms from the short story of betawi folklore entitled angan-angan si muin (muin's wishful thinking). the result revealed that the 2nd generated the better translation in concrete. both machine translations (mt) produced different translations for translating csi of socio-cultural terms. therefore, post-editing is taken to improve their translation with semantic analysis of relation meaning with primary considerations such as material, shape, size, function, and description. machines translator (mt) helps us to work efficiently and improve accuracy. but, the results of machine translations must still be reviewed by human translators to ensure key quality requirements are satisfied, including fidelity or correctness, intelligibility or clarity, and style, so we need post-editing translation. keywords: betawi folklore, cultural specific items, machine translation post-editing; relation meaning introduction machine translation systems are online applications or services that use machine learning technology to translate large amounts of text to and from supported languages (fitria, 2021b). the service translates "source" text from one language to a different "target" language. machine translation is translation performed by the machine with the formula or formula that has been entered into the program to help with translation. this is fully translated by the machine after providing input in the form of text from the source language which is then translated by the machine to be transferred to the target language (gestanti et al., 2019). with machine translation, translators can easily translate anywhere and anytime because translation applications can use computers, laptops, and even mobile phones (baharuddin et al., 2021). there are machine translations with various capabilities, and one of the most commonly used services are google translate and collins translator. language and culture, as well as language and behavior, have a very vital relationship. meanwhile, language is an expression of the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ mailto:dantipudjiati@stkipkusumanegara.ac.id language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x culture and self of the speaker, who understands the world through language (fitria, 2012). in other words, there is an insight that every culture is embedded with social dimensions, including people interaction. this interaction reflects the way their life as well as the way they communicate with each other (ukpong, 2017). the meaning of social and cultural is the relationship between the activities of cultural nuances and collaboration in the sense of social behavior. these activities are reflected in literary works as well (hoed, 2006). therefore, people should consider language as well as culture in translation, particularly in literary works because language and culture are an entity. such works contain cultural values as represent social and cultural practices. these practices may become the main determinant of word choice in translation. regarding the choice of the word during the translation process, a translator may use tools, i.e. machines (lin et al., 2021). knowledge of machine translation (mt) has great importance in the pretranslation process. many translators have various opinions about machine translation (mt) which is helpful, less accurate, and less fluent (moorkens et al., 2018). omar & gomaa (2020) stated that machine translation (mt) is useful to some extent, however; postediting of the automatic translations is imperative to address the translation errors usually made by the translation systems. taivalkoski-shilov (2019) also gave her view about the quality of translation by machine, namely the quality of a given translation product depends on the quality of the process during which it was brought into being, which in turn depends on social factors involved in the production. moreover, doherty (2016) explained that mt allowed for the creation of novel content types and newly created professional translation-related roles in the course of their development. post editing is related to mt whose quality is only comprehensible (plyth & craham, 2020). in other words, post-editing is necessary to improve the quality of translation by machine to be readable to the public. paying attention to the translation of cultural specific items (csi) using machine translation (mt), sekhri (2019) described that mt is useful because it facilitates the rendition of many elements, there should be a review of the text to find equivalents of csi and not to fall in cultural gaps. but, he also emphasized that translating csi with mt may fail in transmitting the message. guerberof-arenas & toral (2020) analyzed the translation of fictional stories from english to catalan and proved that the creativity of translation is shown by the translation without aid, rather than with (mt), and post-edited (mtpe). this creativity was pertinent to both narrative engagement and the translation process. in addition, baihaqi & mulyana (2021) examined robin hood's translation through mt and found that the machine cannot distinguish connotative or associative meanings which are frequently found in literary texts. sholikhah & indah (2021)described that translating texts with csi is not easy as one region to another has different cultures, so it is difficult to look for parallel words that contain culture, religion, social, customs, social organization, procedure, sign language, and ecology parts, and mt cannot translate the term of cultural words easily. mt has lexical errors when translating a cultural text from english into indonesian. these four studies indicated that translating csi through the machine is challenging due to the difference in relation meaning between the source and target language. while existing studies have established inaccurate translation of culturalspecific items (csi) with machines, they have not addressed machine translation postediting to improve its translation. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x the potential translation improvements through v would be potential. if raw mt quality is low, post-editing needs an attempt (balling et al., 2014). this means to attempt and quality is significant factors to determine post-editing practicability. monolingual post-editing is more assured when mt output is edited by specialists. prior research stated that more than 90% of sentences post-edited monolingual by an expert were discovered to be correct (schwartz, 2014). meaning does not relate directly to the reference, but it relates to the relationship of words as well as language. the word's meaning consists of lexical and non-lexical. for example, green as an adjective has four meanings, (1) color, (2) covered with grass, (3) fruit, and (4) person. the meaning of green depends on the context of sentences such as (1) she wears a green dress, (2) after raining, the land was green with the new growth, (3) the tomato is still green, (4) john is still green in accounting. the first sentence has lexical meaning and the rest have no lexical meaning. it depends on certain reference which is out of language and bound to the context (fitria, 2021a). teilanyo (2007) clarified the difficulty in finding the equivalent of target language words to transfer the cultural ideologies and ideas into the target language because both languages have different meanings cultures and subsystems. these different languages may have different classifications, prototypes, and semantic features. arifin (2009) stated that looking for equivalents in csi translations is difficult as there are different lexicons and cultures. as a result, a translator should adjust various aspects of the source language into the target language as part of the translation. however, newmark (1988) explained that the way of life is a culture, especially the use of language as a means of communication by certain people in one region. therefore, each language group shows specific features in terms of culture. he introduced cultural words which implied several considerations to translate, namely (1) the particular text type, (2) the character of readership, and (3) the importance of the cultural word in the text. then, he classified cultural words as well into (1) ecology: flora, fauna, hills, winds, and plains, (2) material culture: food, clothes, houses, towns, and transport, and (3) social culture: work and leisure, (4) organizations: customs, activities, procedures, (5) gestures and habits. we argued that machine translator (mt) is beneficial for translating cultural specific items (csi) by explaining their translation from two different machines in a book entitled “dongeng betawi tempo doeloe” by abdul chair published in 2017, especially a story of angan-angan si muin. angan-angan si muin translated into muin's wishful thinking was a story about a young man called muin who lived alone in a village in jakarta a long time ago. he just stayed in a hut and ate some raw vegetables nearby. for drinking and other water needs, there was a well that he dug close by his stay. in other words, the way he lived was very simple. he had two beehives; one was in his house and the other was in a jackfruit tree. after a traveler dropped in his hut and told him that honey is “valuable” because it can be sold. knowing this, he became extremely happy to earn a lot of money. unfortunately, his wishful thinking and uncontrollable action led him to destroy himself. he spilled a pot of honey and scattered it on the ground. eventually, he was very regretful and very sad. moral teaching that can be drawn from this story is daydreaming or wishful thinking tended to be a useless activity which was proved by muin’s unintended action due to daydreaming, i.e. the honey spilled. then it was reflected in a pantun as stated in the ending part of the story. “don't eat too much cucumber, cucumbers have a lot of sap, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x don't sit and be a daydreamer, daydreaming is very bad”. in betawi culture, pantun is usually recited for disseminating local wisdom. it could be found both in oral and written languages such as in this story. then, the problem arose “how to edit csi translated by machine from indonesian into english to be readable by target readers in terms of relation meaning?”. therefore, this study aims at describing the semantic analysis in the translation of cultural-specific items (csi) by machine translation (mt) from indonesian into english, analyzing their translation and whether or not they have similar meanings between the source text and target text to get a better quality translation. method the type of this research was qualitative descriptive. according to creswell (2012), qualitative research views the object as something dynamic, the result of the construction of thoughts and interpretations of the observed phenomena. therefore, this study tried to describe, analyze, and interpret the data of cultural-specific items (csi) dealing with betawi culture. these cultural items, as data, were taken from a short story. the instrument was the researchers themselves to collect data. we chose one story angan-angan si muin out of 26 randomly from a book entitled “dongeng betawi tempo doeloe” by abdul chair published in 2017. three phases were carried out to garner the data. initially, we selected 12 sentences of csi in the form of concrete and five sentences of csi in the form of socio-cultural terms from the source text. then, those sentences were translated into english by two different machines i.e. google translate and collins. after that, those sentences were presented in the form of a table to be analyzed in terms of relation to meaning. the data were then examined with four stages of data analysis procedures, namely (1) data reduction in which there is a synthetic thinking process requiring intelligence and a high breadth and depth of insight. reducing data means focusing on things that are important to look for, namely csi translation of two machines. (2) analyzing the data respectively to be compared to each other since all of them were generated from two machines using semantic analysis. (3) drawing conclusions of which machine produced equivalence meaning. (4) post-editing action to produce a quality translation. finding and discussion findings this study aims at describing the semantic analysis in the translation of cultural-specific items (csi) by machine translation (mt) from indonesian into english, analyzing their translation and whether or not they have similar meanings between the source text and target text to get a better quality translation. the culturalspecific items (csi) translation was generated from two machines. it can be seen from translation results that monolingual postediting increased the linguistic quality of mt output and bilingual post-editing is better in terms of adequacy (mitchell et al., 2013). monolingual post-editing means an output of machine translation can be edited without the source text and bilingual post-editing means it can draw on the source text for editing the target text. in finding csi in that story, baker (2011) asserted there are two groups i.e. abstract and concrete meanwhile alvarez & vidal (1996) grouped them into proper nouns and common expressions. additionally, thriveni (2002) described csi as habits, customs and traditions, myths and legends, beliefs and feelings, religious components, and environmental and geographical components. after that, durdureanu (2011) explained csi has relation to foods, drinks, time divisions, http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x geographical terms, measurements, currencies, institutions, clothes, sports, dances, music, jobs, professions, historical terms, and socio-cultural terms. therefore, this study considered the csi taken followed by baker (2011) and durdureanu (2011), namely concrete and socio-cultural terms. 1. concrete cultural-specific items (csi) using machine translation there were 12 sentences of csi in that short story regarding concrete aspects of physical culture). koentjaraningrat (2005) said that in traditional society there are several kinds of equipment systems and elements of physical culture used by the community in their culture. mostly, these concrete aspects related to kitchen utensils and furniture, are presented on the table as follows: table 1. concrete csi translation no source text 1st machine (google translate) 2nd machine (collins translator) 1. si muin tinggal di sebuah gubug yang sangat sederhana. si muin lives in a very simple hut. si muin lives in a very simple gubug. 2. perabotan di dalam gubug hanya ada sebuah ta’pang tempat dia tidur; the furniture in that hut has only one ta'pang where he sleeps; the furniture in the gubug has only a ta'pang where he sleeps; 3. beralaskan selembar tikar dan berbantal kelapa gabug. on a mat and a pillow with gabug coconut. based on a sheet of mat and with coconut gabug. 4. dalam gubugnya itu ada sebuah tempayan. in his hut there was a tempayan. in the gubug there is a jar. 5. …dengan gayung yang terbuat dari batok kelapa. …with a dipper made of coconut shell. …with dippers made of coconut shells. 6. di dalam rumahnya juga terdapat dapur dengan alatalat masak seperti periuk dan kuali. inside the house there was also a kitchen with cooking utensils such as pots and cauldron. in his house there is also a kitchen with cooking utensils such as pots and wok. 7. …dia hidup hanya dengan menyantap buah-buahan dan daun-daunan mentah yang ada di sekitar gubugnya. …he lives only by eating raw fruits and leaves around his hut. …he lives only by eating fruits and raw leaves that are around his gubug. 8. …dibuatkan kandang yang bagus dan dilengkapi dongdang. …made a good cage and equipped with dongdang. …made a good cage and equipped with dongdang. 9. …tempat meletakkan empanan kambing. …place to put the empanan goats. …place to put empanan goats. 10. …atau juga dibuatkan cangklekan untuk …or also made cangklekan to hang the …or also made cangklekan to hang the http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x menggantung daun-daun empanan kambing. leaves of goat empanan. leaves of goat empanan. 11. dengan memiliki sepasang kerbau, dia akan membuka sawah. by having a pair of buffalo, he will open a field. by having a pair of buffaloes, he will open the rice fields. 12. dari dongeng ini si empunya dongeng ingin mengingatkan akan pantun yang dulu terkenal dalam masyarakat betawi. from this fairy tale, the owner of the tale wants to remind the rhyme that was once famous in betawi society. from this fairy tale the owner of the fairy tale wants to remind of the pantun that was once famous in betawi society. we conducted the static post-editing of csi translation above where the machine translation (mt) output is generated first and after that, it is edited statically in a separate way. conversely, translators interact with the mt system at the same time the final version is generated. interactive models with online learning were examined well-known as the casmacat project. the finding recommended that interactive conditions need less technical effort (koehn, 2014). they affirmed a prior assumption that post-editors become faster because they get used to the mode of interactive mode. more technically, the process of this static post-editing referred to semantic analysis of relation meaning. therefore, since the target readers were supposed to be native, a cultural substitution strategy was applied by comparing the result of two machines to obtain some insights. the researchers explored that 2nd machine translator produced a better translation than 1st machine in the point of cultural equivalence since there were several differences in translation as shown in data numbers 1, 2, 4, 7, and 12. the ideology of 2nd machine translation is the cultural equivalence of domestication. however, the result of the translation of post-editing in terms of relation meaning improved the quality. to understand relation meaning, it refers to the triangle of symbolism from ogden et al. (1989) who explained that language and reality are not always identical because the word is not sufficient to describe the situation being portrayed. the main reason is a word also covers the society's point of view toward language to reality. this point of view is part of the cultural element followed by newmark's (1988) suggestion that a translator can only find an approximation of the equivalence. as post editing we applied manually with regard to the semantic of component analysis. this was applied to consider several csi translations, such as material, shape, size, function, and description as stated below: 1. the word gubug is translated into “hut”. the material of both gubug and hut is wood and bamboo and looks similar to each other. their size is could be the same and their function is as a place to stay. they are usually found in rural area. 2. the word ta’pang is translated into “bed”. ta’pang and beds are made of wood and their shape and size are more or less the same. both ta’pang and bed share a similar function as a place to sleep. they were found in a house. 3. the word kelapa gabug into “coconut fiber”. commonly, kelapa gabug or coconut fiber is a natural fiber extracted and used to fill something, like a pillow or cushion, or cloth doll in a tropical region. the function is to make these stuff comfortable when people make use of them. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x 4. the word tempayan is translated into “jar”. the material of tempayan and jars could be clay and their shape and size are about parallel. habitually, people use it for storing something liquid such as water and sweets and put it in a kitchen. 5. the word batok kelapa is translated into “coconut shells”. the description of batok kelapa or coconut shell is the outer hard part of the coconut fruit. it is located in between the coconut flesh and the coconut husk which can be made into some utensils, one of which is deeper. 6. the word periuk is translated into “pot”. the material to make periuk and pot is clay, however, nowadays they are made of steel or metal. even though the size and the shape can be different from each other, both periuk and pot are for cooking, so they share a similar function. 7. the word kuali is translated into “wok”. kuali or wok is made of clay or metal. their functions are for cooking and can be used for frying. the size and the shape of kuali and wok could be the same. 8. the word daun-daunan mentah is translated into “raw leaves”. the description of daun-daunan mentah or raw leaves is usually edible by some people. they are healthy and most the vegetarians like to consume these raw leaves. 9. the word dongdang is translated into “cage feeder”. dongdang or cage feeder is usually made of wood for a place of animal food, such as goats. in other words, they have the same function. 10. the word empanan is translated into “food”. empanan is a local language of betawi that refers to food. this term is often used for indicating food, particularly for a domesticated animal. 11. the word cangklekan is translated into “hanger”. cangklekan is also a local language of betawi and refers to a hanger. this hunger has the function to hang food for the animal, especially goats. 12. the word sawah is translated into “a rice field”. sawah or rice field is usually found in an agricultural region. it is a flooded field of arable land used for growing rice. 13. the word pantun is translated into “poem”. pantun or poem is often recited by betawi people to express their intention. pantun looks like a poem that has a pattern and sometimes it contains wise words. 2. socio-cultural cultural-specific items (csi) using machine translation there were nine sentences of csi dealing with socio-cultural activities for our data to analyze. all of them referred to social culture: work and leisure as stated by newmark (1988) which are in the form of a verb. they were summarized in the table below indicated in bold and italic. table 2. socio-cultural csi translation no source text 1st machine (google translate) 2nd machine (collins translator) 1. …beralaskan selembar tikar dan berbantal kelapa gabug. on a mat and a pillow with gabug coconut. based on a sheet of mat and with coconut gabug. 2. dapur tersebut boleh dikatakan hampir tidak pernah digunakan karena dia hidup hanya dengan menyantap buah-buahan… the kitchen is practically never used because he lives only by eating raw fruits… the kitchen can be said to be almost never used because he lives only by eating raw fruits… 3. sejak saat itu dia pun mulai from then on he began to from then on he began to http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x menampung dan mengumpulkan madu dalam dalam sebuah kuali collect and collect honey in a cauldron. hold and collect honey in a cauldron. 4. sejak saat itu dia pun mulai menampung dan mengumpulkan madu dalam sebuah kuali. from then on he began to collect and collect honey in a cauldron. from then on he began to hold and collect honey in a cauldron. 5. angan-angannya berjalan. the dream is running. his wishful thinking is walking. 6. nanti keduapuluh telur itik itu akan dierami. later the twenty duck eggs will be incubated. later, the twenty duck eggs will be planted. 7. pikirannya melayang terus. his mind mind keeps drifting. his mind drifts on. 8. malam harinya sambil tiduran telentang pikirannya menerawang. at night while lying on his back his mind was dreaming. at night while lying on his back his mind was dreaming. 9. tenaga kerbau itu akan digunakan untuk membajak sawahnya. the buffalo's power will be used to plow the fields. the buffalo's power will be used to plow its rice fields. the translation of socio-cultural csi generated from two machines had a similar translation as shown by data, numbers 2, 4, 8, and 9, namely menyantap :: by eating, mengumpulkan madu :: collect honey, menerawang :: dreaming, membajak :: to plow. the reason was they are categorized as action verbs which are also known as concrete words. this made both machines recognize well the meaning of those concrete words in the source language and automatically translate them in a good way. therefore, it was no doubt that the translation result was like each other which was not necessary to edit. data numbers 1, 3, and 6 were also concrete words but they had different translation results produced by two machines. the first machine translated more accurately while the second translated less accurately, directing to generate miss interpretation. the first machine translated, data number 1, beralaskan into on (position) which has the same meaning as the source language. on the contrary, the second machine translated beralaskan into based on which the meaning is not the same as the source language. data number 3, menampung, is translated into to collect by the first machine. this indicated that the first machine can translate the source word correctly. the second machine translated menampung into to hold which has a different meaning from the source word. it was not the intended message translated by the second machine. data number 6, namely the word dierami is translated into be incubated by the first machine. this translation is accepted because the meaning of the source language is transferred correctly into the target language. and, the second machine translated dierami into be planted. this was not a correct translation because the meaning is different. apart from the concrete words above as the data number 1, 2,3, 4, 6, 8, and 9, the rest data, i.e. numbers 5 and 7 were words that contained figurative language. they were berjalan and melayang. the full sentences were “angan-angannya berjalan” and “pikirannya melayang terus”. both machines translated differently. the first machine http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x translated it into “the dream is running” and the second machine translated it into “his wishful thinking is walking”. these two machines failed to translate words with a figurative meaning. therefore, they need to be revised. the translation result after applying full post-editing manually in terms of semantic analysis of data numbers 5 and 7 became angan-angannya berjalan into “his mind wandered” and pikirannya melayang terus into his dreams flew away. the word “wandered” was chosen because its meaning was similar to berjalan of connotative meaning in indonesian. “flew away” was selected due to the same comprehension between the source and target language. discussion translation is the most difficult process among all processes in language learning. it requires the application of advanced language aspects, including sentence restructuring, context analysis, interpretation of meaning, and so forth. indeed, machine translation is not can be simply released. machine translation is not completely reliable to do human work that involves many things in the brain, heart, and feelings social. for that the results of google translate, collins translation, or machine translation results still need to be edited by humans. there are two most famous processes of post-editing, namely ‘light’ and ‘full’ post-editing (cadwell et al., 2019). this process is based on the perspective of expected target quality which is relied on the text’s intended purpose and the quality of the raw mt output as well. light post-editing engages a human post-editor to have minimal corrections to the translation result. full post-editing is needed when recommendations vary the most, particularly focusing on the requirement of stylistics. language is an inseparable aspect of a particular culture and the translation process must also not exclude culture as an important aspect of language formation. in other words, language is a product of culture itself. culture is a part of human life that is reflected in everyday life either through words, actions, or certain habits. language reflects the culture of a place and forms the mindset and outlook on the life of its users. a translator must consider this cultural aspect in every translation process because the culture reflected in the source language can be very different from the target language. according to larson (1998), target language readers must interpret something based on their own experience and culture. simply put, readers can ignore the views and personal experiences of the original text writer. the relationship between culture and language can be seen in each translation project. so, the translator must understand the content of the project because translating is not only transferring data from one language into another language, but the translator also needs cultural knowledge to get a good understanding of the source text and the translator can translate it to people who have beliefs, behaviors, values. different morals and rules. system equipment and technology are the elements of culture that became the initial attention of anthropologists in understanding human culture. it seems clear the reason because the equipment and technology they use will provide a lot of information about the daily life of the community. koentjaraningrat (2005) said that in traditional society there are several kinds of equipment systems and elements of physical culture used by the community in their culture. the findings above, show there are several types of physical culture. first, productive tools. productive tools are tools to carry out a job that produces something that has use-value for individuals or society and culture in general. it can be as simple as a stone for pounding rice, or a complex tool for weaving cloth. second, container. it is a tool for storing, loading, and hoarding goods. at first, the container seemed http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x trivial to the community, but along with the increase in economic activity, the container became a primary need and continued to be developed. 3) culinary (food, drinks, meal, herbs, etc.). this is related to the knowledge system how to cook for each community group is different. in anthropology, certain types and foodstuffs can provide special meanings and symbols for the community, or are associated with certain religions. examples of physical cultures are: 1) the word gubug is translated into “hut”. the material of both gubug and hut is wood and bamboo and looks similar to each other. 2) the word ta’pang is translated into “bed”. ta’pang and beds are made of wood and their shape and size are more or less the same. both ta’pang and bed share a similar function as a place to sleep. they were found in a house. 3) the word kelapa gabug is translated into “coconut fiber”. kelapa gabug or coconut fiber is a natural fiber extracted and used to fill something, like a pillow or cushion, or cloth doll in a tropical region. 4) the word tempayan is translated into “jar”. the material of tempayan and jars could be clay and their shape and size are about parallel. people use it for storing something liquid such as water and sweets and put it in a kitchen. 5) the word batok kelapa is translated into “coconut shells”. batok kelapa or coconut shell is the outer hard part of the coconut fruit. 6) the word periuk is translated into “pot”. both periuk and pot are for cooking, so they have a similar function. 7) the word kuali is translated into “wok”. kuali or wok is made of clay or metal. their functions are for cooking and can be used for frying. 8) the word daundaunan mentah is translated into “raw leaves. they are usually healthy and most vegetarians like to consume these raw leaves. 9) the word dongdang is translated into “cage feeder”. dongdang or cage feeder is usually made of wood for a place of animal food, such as goats. 10) the word empanan is translated into “food”. empanan is a local language of betawi that refers to food, particularly for a domesticated animal. 11) the word cangklekan is translated into “hanger”. cangklekan is also a local language of betawi and refers to a hanger to hang food for the animal, especially goats. 12) the word sawah is translated into “a rice field”. sawah or rice field is a flooded field of arable land used for growing rice. 13) the word pantun is translated into “poem”. pantun or poem is often recited by betawi people to express their intention. pantun looks like a poem that has a pattern and sometimes it contains wise words. besides that, there are socio-cultural elements found in this research. socio-cultural is usually created by humans and is a system of values, ideas, and beliefs in behaving as social beings. this element plays a role in environmental changes to meet the needs of human life. the the example of social cultures are the words “beralaskan, menyantap, menampung mengumpulkan madu, dierami, menerawang, membajak”. the word "beralaskan " is similar to “on”. the word "menyantap" is similar to “eat” or “drink”. the word “menampung” is similar to “collect”. the word “mengumpulkan madu” is similar to “honey farmer” or “honey collector”. the word “dierami” is similar to “incubated”. the word “menerawang” is similar to “dreaming” and, the word “membajak” is similar to “plow” (activity of cultivating land by turning the soil so that the soil becomes smooth and easy to plan). words containing figurative language were also discussed, namely berjalan and melayang. they were taken from sentences “angan-angannya berjalan” and “pikirannya melayang terus”. such figurative language was translated inappropriately by the two machines since they were not equipped with the application of recognizing the words with connotative meaning. therefore, they were badly in need of editing. equivalence is the key word in determining whether a text can be categorized http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ language circle: journal of language and literature .... p-issn 1858-0165 available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id e-issn 2460-853x as a translation or not. in every translating and translating activity, the translator is faced with two texts that are linguistically and culturally different (silalahi, 2017). cultural untranslated. however, translation is not impossible if we think that the same concept: meaning, or message can be expressed in different ways. therefore, the translator needs the right approach and translation strategy so that he or she can overcome the problems that arise at the same time. transfer the text message of the source language into the target language. the translation approach and translation strategy as part of the translation process will affect the equivalence of the resulting translation. machines help translators work more efficiently, improve accuracy, and expedite return time (fitria, 2021c). they can forecast outcomes based on recorded data and can significantly increase job productivity. nevertheless, despite recent advances in artificial intelligence (ai), machine translations must still be reviewed by human translators to ensure key quality requirements are satisfied, including fidelity or correctness, intelligibility or clarity, and style. automation may be the future, but we still have a long way to go before we can construct an unbreakable technology. for better machine translation results, we need post-editing of translations. we can choose a team that has training or experience with post-editing machine translation (pemt). post-editing is an activity distinct from translation and requires a specific set of skills according to eneste (2013), the steps for editing the translated text also undergo a process, namely 1) reading the original text in the source language and trying to understand it, 2) making the translation in mind, then 3) editing the translation by comparing it with the text in the source language. these three steps are added to the last step, namely carefully reading the edited manuscript from beginning to end to ensure that there are no more mistakes and deficiencies in the accuracy of the translation, grammar, and spelling so that the translation does not feel like a translation. conclusion the two machines have generated similar and dissimilar translations regarding csi of concrete and socio-cultural terms. to generate an accurate final result of translation from the machine, post-editing machine translation (pemt) was a must to conduct to find out the final translation by using a single consideration, namely semantic analysis of meaning. besides, for figurative language translation, a full post-editing process should be employed so that the final translation is accepted by target readers at ease. therefore, further research pertinent to pemt could be implemented for particular academic fields or technical terms to investigate the process of editing, i.e ‘light’ and ‘full’ post-editing. references alvarez, r., & vidal, m. c. a. 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(2002). cultural elements in translation: the indian perspective. translation journal, 6(1), 15–27. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/ 30 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 a needs analysis in developing a writing curriculum for efl education students: a case study at the department of english education of semarang state university puji astuti semarang state university abstract this study was intended to evaluate an existing writing curriculum in an english education program. the curriculum evaluation was conducted through a needs analysis, focusing on the needs of the students in the program. it is hoped that the result of the study would provide useful information for the program about writing curriculum they are implementing. there were four aspects of the curriculum that this study investigated: (1) the goals/objectives of the writing courses, (2) the approaches/methodology, (3) the classroom management, and (4) the class/program resources. more specifically, this study intended to know whether the course objectives/goals were appropriate with the needs of the students, whether the approaches/methodology were contextual and met the needs of the students, whether the classroom management was effective, and whether the class/program resources adequate to implement the goals/objectives. the study was categorized as a case study since it was a certain case happened in a certain context. the same case may not happen to other contexts that have different characteristics to the context of this study. the study employed qualitative/descriptive design by utilizing four methods of data collection: (1) document analysis, (2) classroom observations, (3) questionnaire, and 4) interview. the analysis of the data was conducted throughout the study; once a piece of data was gained, it was analyzed right away. the data was coded and categorized which then allowed for generating findings. there are four major findings of this study: (1) the goal/objectives of the writing courses were appropriate to the students’ needs; however, the courses did not accommodate the realization of the goals/objectives, (2) the approaches/methodology, to some degree, were not contextual and did not meet the needs of the students, (3) the classroom management, to some extent, was not effective, and (4) the class/program resources, for certain aspects, were adequate to implement the goals/objectives of the courses. key words: curriculum, needs analysis, approach, method, classroom management introduction in the context of language teaching and learning, curriculum has to do with syllabus design, language teaching methodology, assessment and evaluation. curriculum evaluation is essential in any language program because it focuses on collecting information about different aspects of a language program in order to understand how the program works, and how successfully it works, enabling different kinds of decisions to be made about the program, such as whether the program responds to learners’ needs, whether further teacher training is required for teachers working in the program, or whether students are learning sufficiently from it (richards, 2001:286). one way to do curriculum evaluation is by conducting needs analysis. richards (1984) in nunan (1998:43) states three main purposes of needs analysis: it provides a means of obtaining wider input into the content, design and implementation of a language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 31 language program; it can be used in developing goals, objectives and content; and it can provide data for reviewing and evaluating an existing program. needs analysis conducted in this study, hopefully, could provide the basis for the evaluation of an existing writing curriculum, provide the basis for planning goals and objectives for a future curriculum, can help with the selection of appropriate teaching methods in the curriculum, and may provide the basis for developing syllabus and teaching materials for the writing courses. needs analysis is strongly recommended by nunan (2001:51), because a sound educational program should be based on an analysis of learners’ needs. writing as one of skills taught in efl instruction in indonesia is considered difficult to teach and learn. in some settings, writing instruction is not handled professionally. many writing instructors only focus on mastery of grammar and writing theories, not on practice writing. alwasilah and alwasilah (2006:47) claim such practice as one of the mistakes of indonesian education system. therefore, it is imperative that education program that prepares efl teachers handle writing instruction professionally. conducting needs analysis could be one of the many efforts to make it real. alwasilah (2001:26) suggests that professionoriented writing program should certainly be based on a needs analysis. needs analysis conducted in this study dealt with four aspects of writing curriculum in the research site. the four aspects are: 1) goals/objectives, 2) approaches/methodology, 3) classroom management, and 4) class/program resources. the four aspects are considered essential to be evaluated as they go together in one direction in the implementation of the curriculum. research design this study employs descriptive and qualitative design as it reveals some aspects of an implemented writing curriculum in an english education program. they are: goals/objectives, approaches and methods, classroom management, and class/program resources. those aspects were investigated and evaluated through a needs analysis conducted by doing classroom observation, administering questionnaire, conducting interviews, and analyzing documents. the four procedures were employed as the methods of data collection. the result of the needs analysis, hopefully, could be inputs for future development of the existing writing curriculum. as it was a certain case happened in a certain subject or context; the same case may not happen to other subject or context. therefore, the study is categorized as a case study. qualitative study focuses on specific situations or people and it emphasis on words rather than numbers (maxwell, 1996:17). yin (1994:1) argues that case study is the research strategy when the focus of the study is contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context and one has little control over events. this is in line with what merriam (1988:20) points out about case study, that it is an examination of a specific phenomenon such as a program, an event, a person, a process, an institution, or a social group. case study is also descriptive in the sense that the end product is a rich, “thick” description of the phenomenon under study. descriptive research is undertaken when description and explanation (rather than prediction based on cause and effect) are sought, when it is not possible or feasible to manipulate the potential causes of behavior, and when variables are not easily identified or are too embedded in the phenomenon to be extracted for 32 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 study (merriam, 1988:7). in addition, merriam states that the aim of descriptive research is to examine and present a detail account of events or phenomena. case study researchers are interested in insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing. this study has the characteristics of descriptive and qualitative case study. an initial study was conducted prior to major study. it was intended to introduce myself to the people in the research site, to study the situation and the people, to know what sort of writing curriculum they applied, what they did in their writing courses, what they believed as important for the courses, what they expected from the courses, their views on the courses, etc. most importantly, the initial study helped me sharpen the focus of the research—the research questions. maxwell (1996:44) points out that initial studies or pilot studies could generate an understanding of the concepts and theories held by the people the researcher is studying. there were three stages that i went through in the initial study: i observed two writing courses of the four level writing courses in the program, i interviewed the lecturer of the two writing courses and two students from each course, and i did document analysis throughout the study. data gathered from the initial study were analyzed, interpreted, and concluded. the result of the initial study provided valuable inputs for conducting the major study. the following figure shows the stages of the initial study: figure 1 stages of initial study in the major study; firstly i did classroom observation in the other two writing courses. secondly, i administered questionnaire to three writing lecturers and the students of the two writing courses. thirdly, i interviewed two writing lecturers and two students from each writing course. as in the initial study, document analysis was conducted throughout the study. the data resulted from the major study were then analyzed. the stages of the major study are represented in the following figure: classroom observation stage 1 stage 2 result interview d o c u m e n t a n a ly sis data to be analyzed language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 33 figure 2 stages of major study research site the study was conducted at english department of faculty of arts and languages of universitas negeri semarang (unnes) or semarang state university, from may 2005 up to may 2006. the department has two programs, namely english education and english literature. the focus of the study was the writing curriculum of the english education program. however, during the initial study, i got a chance to observe a class of english literature students taking sentencebased writing course (sbw), the first level of four-level writing courses. from the observation, it could be stated that both english education and english literature program applied the same writing curriculum. the following is the objective of each writing course in the department: table 1 the four writing courses and their objectives level name of course semester course objectives 1 sbw 2 students will develop their writing skill in producing wellorganized sentences with various english sentence patterns which show their lexicogrammatical potentials and their proper use of punctuation and writing mechanics. 2 pbw 3 at the end of the term the students will produce wellorganized paragraph by employing certain rhetorical strategies, cohesive devices, and other features of written language, covering simple genres that show their mastery in using their lexicogrammatical potentials and correct use of writing mechanics. 3 gbw 4 at the end of the course, students are expected  to know the various genres of writing: spoof, recount, report, analytical exposition, news items, classroom observation stage 1 stage 2 stage 3 result questionnaire interview d o c u m e n t a n a ly sis data to be analyzed 34 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 anecdote, narrative, procedure, description, hortatory exposition, explanation, discussion, review, and commentary.  to have a capability to write compositions based on the genres.  to have a capacity of analyzing the social functions, generic/schematic structures, significant lexicogrammatical features. 4 aw 5 at the end of the course, students are expected to have theoretical bases on writing scientific/academic essay and to be able to write some good pieces of scientific/academic writing. before going through the four courses, first semester students in the program should pass a course namely intensive course (ic). it is an 18credit course in which students are equipped with basic skills of english. the goal of the course is to make students ready to attend the next courses in the program (as stated in the ic text books, written by a team consisting of unnes lecturers, published in 2002). after taking a close look at the books, i could say that ic is an integrated skills course because in one unit, students are to learn: 1) expressions, 2) sentence pattern, 3) reading, 4) writing, and do 5) beyond practice. for the writing section, the books mention that the purpose is to train students so that they could write english expressions with good handwriting, grammar and punctuation. activities students have to do in writing section, for example, rewriting alphabets and simple sentences. there are three books used in ic, namely book 1, book 2, book 3, and listening practice book. regarding the objective of ic, one lecturer respondent argued that after going through ic, students would be, to a certain degree, homogeneous in terms of language proficiency and ready to attend the next courses in the department. a student respondent, however, thought that ic writing section did not give her opportunity to do real writing--writing her own sentences, as she was just asked to do rewriting activities. in other words, the writing section in ic did not give students experience of doing actual process of writing. respondents there were two categories of population in the initial study: 1) two lecturers of sentencebased writing course (sbw) and one lecturer of genre-based writing course (gbw) and 2) sbw and gbw students. the initial study was conducted from may 19 to july 20, 2005. at that period, the sbw students were in the second semester and the pbw students were in the fourth semester. the major study was conducted from november 15, 2005 to may 30, 2006. there were also two categories of population in the major study: 1) one lecturer of paragraph-based writing course (pbw) and two lecturers of academic writing course (aw), 2) pbw and aw students, they were in their third and fifth semester respectively. it is necessary to highlight that student respondents in the initial study were the same as student respondents in the major language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 35 study. they were students of english education program. the observation that i conducted in the initial study involved two groups of sbw students; one of english education program (31 students) and one of english literature program (33 students), and 39 students in the gbw course. for the interview, i chose two students from each course who i thought to be critical and outstanding in their class; they were active in class discussion and were informative and cooperative. i also interviewed the lecturer of the two courses. an opportunity came when a lecturer who taught sbw in english literature program offered me to observe his class and to interview him. i took the opportunity and it gave me an understanding that there was no difference in writing curriculum applied in english education and english literature program. there was no difference in terms of number of students or respondents in the major study. after the observation done, questionnaires were administered to all students of the two courses and their lecturers. there were three lecturers involved, one pbw lecturer and two aw lecturers—one senior lecturer and his assistant. the interview was conducted involving two students form each course. however, i chose different students to be interviewed but with the same rationale of selection as i had in the preliminary study. the lecturer of each course was interviewed except the aw senior lecturer due to time constraint. the findings referring to categories of writing curriculum proposed by reid (1993: 74-76), the writing curriculum that became the focus of the present study could be categorized as combination curriculum. it was a combination of languagebased curriculum and pattern-model based curriculum. the first course, sentence-based writing (sbw) course, reflects language based curriculum as it aims at students’ grammatical accuracy and correctness. the next two courses, paragraph-based writing (pbw) and genrebased writing (gbw), reflect pattern-model based curriculum because it focus on functional and situational writing, and on the expectations of the audiences for that writing. the goals emphasize the forms for writing, including thesis sentences and rhetorical modes such as narrative, the comparison/contrast paragraph, or the expository essay. seeing from its objectives, the highest level of the four-level writing course, academic writing (aw) course, actually had the characteristics of process-based curriculum; focusing on students’ fluency in writing. regrettably, in its practice, the course laid emphasis on students’ mastery of academic writing conventions. the purpose of the needs analysis conducted in the present study was to collect information from the students whether the four aspects of the existing writing curriculum: (1) goals/ objectives, (2) methodology, (3) classroom management, and (4) class/program resources, are appropriate to their needs as student writers. the following is the presentation of the findings: the goals/objectives of the writing courses it could be stated that the overall objective/goal of the four writing courses-to enable student writers to write with proper use of academic writing conventions, and the objectives of each writing course, were appropriate to the students’ needs. however, the four courses failed to accommodate the realization of the goal and the objectives because of two main reasons: the four courses put more emphasis on students’ mastery of grammar and writing theories and hardly gave the students experience of doing 36 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 actual process of writing in which they went through writing processes. in the intensive course (ic) writing section and the sbw course, most of the time the students dealt with exercises of sentence structure and grammar. it is true that students in those levels still learn patterns and structures of english. however, the program should take what o’donnell (1963:26-27) stated in silva and matsuda (2001:32) into consideration: while knowledge of grammatical structures may be an important factor, writing is a complex process and involves more than the manipulation and recognition of basic elements; it seems likely that the awareness of basic structures is essential to written composition, but it is obvious that such awareness is not always accompanied by proficiency in writing. in pbw and gbw course, the lecturers approached the writing instruction with what hobelman and wiriachitra in krall (1995:122) name as traditional “read-analyze-write” approach: student is given an example paragraph to read; the overall organizational pattern of the paragraph is explicated; finally, student is told to write a similar paragraph about a different subject. further, hobelman and wiriachitra argue that the traditional approach is deficient in two important respects. first, the teacher views the student’s writing as a product. she assumes that the student knows how to write and uses what the student produces as a test of that ability. second, the teacher focuses on form, i.e., syntax, grammar, mechanics, and organization, rather than on content. the content is seen mainly as a vehicle for the correct expression of the grammatical and organizational patterns taught, and the correct choice of vocabulary, after passing the three previous writing courses, to some extent, aw students are those who have adequate proficiency to communicate in written form. unfortunately, the lecturer respondents in this study hardly viewed it as the right moment to assist their students in their writing processes. instead, they used almost all of the course time to explain conventions of academic writing. the students, as a matter of fact, needed to do actual processes of academic writing. the stated objectives of the aw courses were essentially in line with the students needs. nevertheless, the course failed to accommodate the realization of the objectives. the approaches/methodology the approach and method of teaching and learning employed in the four courses were not contextual and did not meet the students’ needs because of some reasons: (1) teaching method mainly applied in the four courses was lecturing, this teaching method made the students bored with their writing course, (2) the needs of most of the students to do collaborative writing in their writing class was not accommodated, (3) the four courses employed product approach to teaching writing while process approach to teaching writing was more suitable to the students’ needs, (4) sufficient feedbacks on the students’ writing assignments were not given, and (5) the four courses hardly connected reading and writing as the agenda of class session or as part of assignments during the course. both groups of student respondents came up with four aspects they considered essential in a writing course, namely: group/class discussion, sample writing, collaborative writing, and feedback. the syllabus of each the writing course, as a matter of fact, says that there are many strategies to be applied in the classroom, the strategies include writing activities such as group and class discussion, editing, peer collaboration, conferencing, etc. nevertheless, classroom language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 37 observation data revealed that all the lecturer respondents mainly applied lecturing in their teaching writing. learning from the above depiction, it is then recommended that the writing courses in the program employ writing workshop in each class session. components of writing workshop that would suit the needs of the students in this study may include the followings. mini lesson or discussion on course materials in cooperative learning setting. this could be conducted at the beginning or at the end of class session. through cooperative learning, the discussion would take place effectively. the lecturer at this stage serves as a resource person. he or she could also offer something to the class that is meant to inspire and instruct or introduce a writing strategy. work time (writing and conferring). at this stage, student writers start a new piece of writing or go on to the next writing process/continue their piece of writing/write their ongoing project. lecturer moves among individuals, conferring with them. peer conferring and/or response group (collaborative writing). students work in group and do peer correction and conference; read and response to work in progress. lecturer mainly plays the role of resource person at this stage. share session. individuals read share their writing processes or share sample writings, ones they think the class could learn from. through the activity mentioned latter, student writers learn writing through reading. lecturer supports the process by becoming feedback provider. finished-work celebration. student writers come together to celebrate their finished works; in the form of portfolio or anthology of students’ papers or others. at this very stage, the lecturer congratulates the students for their finished works, gives general feedback on their learning writing, encourages them to keep on writing, etc. the classroom management there are five aspects of classroom management that become the focus of the study: (1) students’ opportunity to articulate their voices, (2) course description and outline/syllabus, (3) number of writing assignment, (4) roles of writing lecturer, and (5) encouragement. it could be claimed that classroom management in the four writing courses was, to some degree, not effective based on some considerations as discussed in the following paragraphs. both groups of student respondents got the opportunity to articulate their voices regarding their writing, their needs as student writers, the lecturer’s teaching performance, and regarding the course in general. even though the students were aware of the benefits of taking such opportunity, they hardly ever took it. it was mostly because many of them felt not comfortable and not brave enough to do so. most students in the first group were afraid that what they tell to the lecturer would affect their score. meanwhile, the second group of students thought that the lecturer(s) already had fixed plans for the course. therefore, they felt like they did not have to give any inputs. this group of students was also of the opinion that the lecturers’ authority was high. thus, they decided to just follow the course as it was. all in all, it could be claimed that the opportunity given for both groups of students to articulate their voices was not effective. such opportunity could be fruitful for the two parties— students and their lecturer, if the lecturer informs the students in the first place that whatever they articulate would not influence their score. questionnaire, as opposed to casual question and answer session, could be an alternative way of knowing students’ voices—needs, as it could 38 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 lesson students’ fear to say what they want to say. regarding course description and outline/syllabus, both groups of students were aware of its functions in their learning. however, they did not get the handout of the syllabus. their lecturers just informed some aspects of the course at the beginning of the course. what the lecturers did was an ineffective way of giving course information to students; the students might not know how far they were going, what assignment to do next, what to read next, etc. students deserve to have syllabus of the course they attend at hand. the first group of students admitted that writing assignments they had to do in their sbw and pbw course were too many. they found it boring and tiring. the second group of students experienced the same thing in their gbw course. meanwhile, in their aw course, this group of students did not get any academic writing assignment. assignment they frequently had to do was answering questions about academic writing conventions. on the whole, the assignments in the four courses were not effective. as the key component in a writing course, assignment should allow student writers learn writing through the act of writing or reading. the assignments should have a main goal, i.e. developing students’ writing skills. consequently, the number of writing assignment should not be too many so that students could go through writing processes with necessary feedback both from peers and lecturer during the semester. students in both groups argued that a writing lecturer should play many roles, most importantly the role as motivator, resource person, and feedback provider. unfortunately, their writing lecturers mostly played one role, presenter of course material it could be stated that the role that the lecturers played in the course was different from the students’ idea of roles of writing lecturer. regarding encouragement to keep on practicing writing, even though it was not given on regular basis, students in the two groups admitted that they got it from their lecturer. generally, the students needed such encouragement because they thought that writing is not an easy task for them. for that reason, it is recommended that writing teacher or lecturer provide continuous encouragement for his or her student writers during the course. the class/program resources based on the students’ voice, the class/program resources in the department were adequate to implement the goals/objectives of the writing curriculum, in terms of number of credit, number of meeting, written sources, and classroom size. in terms of outside class opportunity; however, the writing lecturers in the present study failed to provide. when the respondents in this study were asked to describe an ideal writing classroom, they stated that it is one that is clean, comfortable, and spacious. moreover, the room should have good lighting. the student respondents argued that in a good writing classroom, each student writer gets adequate assistance from the lecturer. the respondents also mentioned that the program should add some other facilities to complete those available in their writing class; the program should provide lcd, reference books, internet access, stationeries, scrap papers, and dictionaries. regarding number of students in their writing class, the majority of the respondents stated that it was too big. they proposed that it should be 20, so that each student writer could get necessary feedback and assistance in their learning writing. language circle journal of language and literature vol. iv/1 october 2009 39 recommendation for further study needs analysis conducted in this study was intended to help improve an existing writing curriculum. as mentioned in the previous part, the needs analysis concerned with the needs of student writers in the research site. it was because students are the key participant in any curriculum development. nevertheless, it would also be very fruitful to concern with the needs of the instructor, to know their teaching beliefs, ideas, their difficulties in teaching writing, etc. many of writing teachers/lecturers were equipped during their college years with principles of teaching writing. when they are in the field, however, they might face problematical circumstances but those principles could not help cure or they face circumstances where all those principles are hard or even impossible to implement. researching writing teachers/ lecturers would also help improve the quality of writing instruction. references alwasilah, a. ch. 2001. language, culture, and education: a portrait of contemporary indonesia. bandung: andira. alwasilah, a. ch. 2003. pokoknya kualitatif: dasar-dasar merancang dan melakukan 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(ed.). 1995. academic writing in a second language: essays on research and pedagogy. new jersey: ablex publishing corporation. brown, h. d. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: pearson education company. celce-murcia, m. (ed.). 2001. teaching english as a second or foreign language. boston: heinle & heinle. ferris, d. and j.s. hedgcock. 1998. teaching esl composition: purpose, process, and practice. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. hadley, a.o. 2001. teaching language in context. boston: heinle & heinle. kessler, c. 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cambridge university press. silva, t.j. and p.k. matsuda (ed). 2001. landmark essays on esl writing. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. stern, h.h. 1983. fundamental concepts of language teaching. london: oxford university press. sundayana, w. 2003. pengembangan kurikulum pendidikan bahasa inggris berbasis kompetensi. in revitalisasi pendidikan bahasa: mengungkap tabir bahasa demi peningkatan sdm yang kompetitif, ed. alwasilah, a. chaedar & abdullah, hobir, 31-61. bandung: andira. yin, r.k. 1994. case study research: designs and methods. california: sage publication, inc. bundel ke 2 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 55 formalistic reading on tension and theme in two poems: charles tomlinson’s winter encounters and robert frost’s the valley’s singing day henrikus joko yulianto – semarang state university abstract a poetic text has its own aesthetic values through its form and language. this statement was proposed by a movement called formalism and later was known as new criticism. the movement assumed that the aesthetic qualities of a poem are revealed in its poetic devices such as imagery, meter, symbol, and the like. new critics assumed that an interpretation of a poetic text in regard to the author or the historical background will bring about what they called as the intentional and affective fallacies. otherwise, a poetic text will convey a certain meaning through its own devices. new critics assume that language devices of poetic works embody some paradoxes or discordant and contrary qualities. not only focusing on ambiguity, irony, and paradox, the new critics also find out a tension or a reconciliation of the conflicts through a close reading on the poetic devices of the works themselves. meanwhile, a poetic work will also suggest a certain central idea or theme. in this case, a close reading of the two poems is meant to find similarities and differences of the tension and theme in both poems. key words: formalism, new criticism, tension, ambiguity, irony, paradox, the intentional and affective fallacies introduction a literary movement that flourished in a certain period will set forth a particular perspective to literary genres such as fiction but especially to poetic works. romanticism as one remarkable movement in english literature was especially famous for its poetic works of great poets such as william wordsworth, samuel taylor coleridge, john keats, and many others. wordsworth in his manifesto “lyrical ballads” written together with coleridge, stated that “poetry was a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” or “emotions recollected in tranquility” (tilak 1999:15). as literary movement developed and moved forward in the following periods, the views on poetry also changed. modernism as the movement that came after victorian period was also prominent in its views on poetry. one of the famous modern poets, t.s. eliot in his writing tradition and individual talent, proposed some arguments that were contrary to wordsworth‟s views. eliot argued that poetry was not a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquility, but it was “an escape from emotion and personality” (baym & gottesman, 1986: 1827). these two different views on poetry show a tension between the two perspectives on the aesthetic values of poetry. in accordance with wordsworth‟s notion on poetry, another british romantic poet, 56 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 samuel taylor coleridge stated that “poetry brings „the whole soul of man‟ into activity” (daiches 1982:105). in his manifesto, biographia literaria, coleridge discussed tension in poetry. as a work of literature, poetry is different from other works such as works of science in which the former proposes its object more on pleasure rather than truth and bases more on imagination rather than on fancy (raine 1985:190-191, 195). coleridge stated that a poet has tasks to reconcile the discordant qualities such as the general and the concrete, the idea and the image, the individual and the representative, and the like (daiches 1982:104). literature review reading and appreciating a literary work can start at the literary text itself. one method of approaching a work will also correspond with the emergence of the literary movements or schools of thought especially when the experts or say, literary critics agree on adopting the literary approach as a method or an approach to the work. the way or method that a critic uses in approaching and analyzing a literary work is called „criticism‟. bressler defines „criticism‟ as “a disciplined activity that attempts to describe, study, analyze, justify, interpret, and evaluate a work of art” (1999:4). he further elucidated that literary critics may carry out their activities in two ways – theoretical criticism that deals with theories, principles, and tenets of the nature and value of art and practical criticism or applied criticism that adopts the theories and tenets of theoretical criticism to a particular work (1999: 5). with these two criticisms, a critic can appreciate, analyze, and evaluate a literary work. a group of critics called new critics began to assert their criticism toward the previous literary views on literary works especially those which were propounded by romanticism and victorianism. the different views on appreciating poetry will influence the ways to interpret the meaning of poetry in general. some literary approaches have appreciated a poetic text as an artifact that reflects the poet‟s personality or a historical background in which the poem was written. the approaches also assumed that the poetic work embodies its own aesthetic qualities that one can not relate to other aspects outside the work. one of the movements and also criticisms focusing on the aesthetic intrinsic aspects of a poetic work is formalism and later known as new criticism. the word „formalism‟ was derived from „form‟ that refers to the shape and texture of a poetic text itself. kennedy and gioia call „form‟ as “the design of a thing as a whole the language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 57 configuration of all its parts” (2002:213). guerin & labor (1999:74) said that form has meant more than sentence patterns. it includes the relationship of stanzas in a poem, or the interplay of an octave and a sestet in a sonnet. meanwhile, holman & harmon (1992:202) stated that „form‟ refers to “the organization of the elementary parts of a work of art in relation to its total effect.” they categorize „form‟ into some kinds, such as „verse form‟ that means the organization of rhythmic units; stanza form that refers to the organization of lines in groups (1992:202). formalism as a literary movement and one approach or criticism is defined as “a criticism that emphasizes the form of the artwork, with „form‟ variously construed as generic form, type, verbal form, grammatical and syntactical form, rhetorical form or verse form” (holman & harmon, 1992 : 203). the movement began as a school in russia around 1920 by members such as viktor šklovskij, roman jakobson, vladimir propp, boris tomaševskij, and so on (1992:203). new criticism was a literary movement that sustained the literary practices of russian formalism and flourished in america in the 1930s by the critics such as john crowe ransom, allen tate, r.p. blackmur, robert penn warren, and cleanth brooks. the movement also prospered in england led by critics such as t.s. eliot, i.a. richards, and william empson (1992:316-317). holman & harmon defined the term „new criticism‟ as “the whole body of criticism that concentrates on the work of art as an object in itself; subjects the work to close analysis” (1992:317). they further said that the movement was primarily a protest against certain conventional and traditional ways of viewing life and art. the new critics were formerly protesting against the new humanism and they insisted that the morality and value of a work are present in intrinsic qualities of the work. their concern was with image, symbol, and meaning (1992:317). leitch (1988:26) quoted cleanth brooks‟ statement on characteristics of the new criticism: first, new criticism separates literary criticism from the study of sources, social backgrounds, history of ideas, politics, and social effects, seeking both to purify poetic criticism from such “extrinsic” concerns and to focus attention squarely on the “literary object” itself. second, new criticism explores the structure of a work, not the minds of authors or the reactions of readers. third, new criticism champions an “organic” theory of literature rather than a dualistic conception of form. brooks gave some other characteristics of new criticism as follows: first, new criticism separates literary criticism from the study of sources or extrinsic concerns such as social 58 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 backgrounds, history of ideas, etc. second, new criticism explores the structure of a work, not the minds of authors or the reactions of readers. third, new criticism focuses on the words of the text in relation to the full context of the work: each word contributes to a unique context and derives its precise meaning from its place in the poetic context. fourth, new criticism practices close reading of individual works, examining/taking account of nuances of words, rhetorical figures, and shades of meaning of a work. fifth, new criticism distinguished literature from both religion and morality because many of its adherents have definite religious views and seek no substitute for religion, morality, or literature (leitch, 1988:26-27). by applying „close reading‟ approach in a poetic analysis, one can find the diverse nuances of a poetic text as revealed in its elements. tension as one aspect that new critics focus on, means the resolution of opposites and especially concerns with its components, irony and paradox (guerin & labor 1999:90). the component is also called „ambiguity‟ (bressler 1999:44). the poem‟s meaning, therefore, is derived from the oscillating tensions and conflicts that come to the surface through poetic diction. the meaning of a poem does not reside in what the poet wants to say by his poem because this assumption will bring what new critics call „the intentional fallacy‟. in the same manner, the meaning is not found in the effects of the poem to the readers because this assumption will bring „the affective fallacy.‟ the meaning of a poem is found in the elements of the poem (belsey 1990:16-18). this brief paper deals with a formalistic reading on two modern poems: charles tomlinson‟s winter encounters (we) and robert frost‟s the valley’s singing day (vsd). the first one is a modern british poet while the second one is a modern american poet. the two poems tell about seasons. the former describes some scenes in winter while the latter recounts a scene in the past of a rainy day. in tomlinson‟s poem, the images reveal pairing elements such as house and hollow; village and valley-side; roof and cloud, and some others. meanwhile, in frost‟s poem, one can find ambiguity in denotative and connotative meaning of the imageries such as valley‟s singing day and some others related to the title. discussion before discussing the tension and theme of the two works, let‟s read the poems: winter encounter by charles tomlinson house and hollow; village and valley-side: language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 59 the ceaseless pairings; the interchange in which the properties are constant resumes its winter starkness. the hedges‟ barbs are bared. lengthened shadows intersecting, the fields, seen parceled smaller as if by hedgerow within hedgerow. meshed into neighborhood by such shifting ties, the house reposes, squarely upon its acre yet with softened angles, the responsive stone changeful beneath the changing light: there is a riding-forth, a voyage impending in this ruffled air, where all moves towards encounter. inanimate or human, the distinction fails in these brisk exchanges – say, merely that the roof greets the cloud, or by the wall, sheltering its knot of talkers, encounter enacts itself in the conversation on customary subjects, where the mind may lean at ease, weighing the prospect of another‟s presence. rain and the probability of rain, tares and their progress through a field of wheat – these, though of moment in themselves, serve rather to articulate the sense that having met, one meets with more than the words can witness. one feels behind into the intensity that bodies through them calmness within the wind, the warmth in cold. the valley‟s singing day by robert frost the sound of the closing outside door was all. you made no sound in the grass with your footfall, as far as you went from the door, which was not far; but you had awakened under the morning star the first-song bird that awakened all the rest he could have slept but a moment move at best already determined dawn began to lay in place across a cloud the slender ray for prying beneath and forcing the lids of sight, and loosing the pent-up music of over-night. but dawn was not to begin their „pearly-pearly‟ (by which they mean the rain is pearls so early, before it changes to diamonds in the sun), 60 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 neither was song that day to be self-begun. you had begun it, and if there needed proof – i was asleep still under the dripping roof, my window curtain hung over to sill to wet; but i should awake to confirm your story yet; i should be willing to say and help you say that once you had opened the valley‟s singing day. firstly, let‟s talk about ambiguity. the term „ambiguity‟ is defined as “the state of having more than one meaning, with resultant uncertainty as to the intended significance of the statement” (holman & harmon, 1992:14). meanwhile, the term „tension‟ was formerly introduced by allen tate. this latter word means “the integral unity that results from the successful resolution of the conflicts of abstraction and concreteness, of general and particular, of denotation and connotation” (1992:473). other components, irony and paradox are defined as follows – “irony is a broad term referring to the recognition of a reality different from appearance” (holman & harmon, 1992:254). meanwhile, culler asserted a corresponding notion that irony would depend on the referentiality of the text. (1985:156). he classified irony into some types such as – situational or dramatic irony and verbal irony. the former presupposes two orders in contrast with one another and this type is usually found in fictional or dramatic works; whereas, the latter means “a set of expectations which enable the reader to sense the incongruity of an apparent level of vraisemblance at which the literal meaning of a sentence could be interpreted and to construct an alternative ironic reading which accords with the vraisemblance which he is in the process of constructing for the text (1985:154-155). the term vraisemblance means the mask which conceals the text‟s own laws and also its relation to other texts (1985:139). „paradox‟ is another component of tension. brooks once stated that „the language of poetry is the language of paradox‟ (culler 1985:162). holman & harmon define „paradox‟ as “a statement that although seemingly contradictory or absurd may actually be well founded or true” (1992:342). brooks assumed that a poetic discourse is ambiguous and ironical especially in its modes of qualification. the following discussion focuses on a comparison and contrast of the aspects in the two poems. tension in winter encounters and the valley’s singing day winter encounters (we) and the valley’s singing day (vsd) both describe natural sceneries in a different season. the former language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 61 presents an ordering of two objects while the latter depicts one single object, that must be rain the poet calls „singing day‟. both poems embody ambiguity including irony and paradox in their own form and language. the tension would be a reconciliation of the discordant qualities of the poetic devices. in a word, the ambiguity and tension of the two poems may be compared and contrasted in view of their devices such as form, imagery (denotation and connotation), and figures of speech. we has a unique form, consisting of 29 lines written in a free verse and the lines are arranged in a one-to-one indented line showing the conflict of the qualities. the form of the poem represents „encounters‟ or meeting of some objects as the title says. meanwhile, vsd has 20 lines, written in a pastoral form. we begins with a descriptive ordering of two objects – “house and hollow; village and valley-side; the ceaseless pairings” (lines 1-2); whereas, vsd begins its lines with a rather narrative mode, which tells about the sound of rain – “the sound of the closing outside door was all” (line 1). the similarity of the two poems is that both are not written in a certain stanzaic pattern. in terms of meter, we has alternating metrical pattern between trochaic and iambic pentameter: house and hollow; village and valley-side: the ceaseless pairings; the interchange while in vsd, the meter has iambic and anapestic pentameter patterns, as in lines 1 – 2: the sound of the closing outside door was all you made no sound in the grass with your footfall the metrical patterns of the two poems show a paradox – discordant qualities between iambic – trochaic; and anapestic – iambic/trochaic. the rhyme scheme of we does not present a regular rhythmic sound; whereas, vsd does have a rhythmic sound, patterned in a certain rhyme scheme – a a, b b, c c, d d, e e, etc. the different rhyme scheme in we is appropriate to the atmosphere of the poem in which various objects are described in encounters with each other in a linear and somewhat straightforward movement so that it does not need any harmonious sounds of its rhyme scheme. besides, all the events of the encounters are described in the present. otherwise, in vsd, the rhyme scheme has the similar ending sound because the poem is a recount of past events so that the lines of the poem are more harmoniously rhyme schemed 62 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 than the lines of we. moreover, vsd tells about „singing day‟ in which the imageries mostly appeal to auditory sense so that the lines in the poem should produce harmonious sound effects especially in its ending lines. in terms of form and meter, the two poems show some similarities and differences. however, the conflicting elements of the two poems have been reconciled in view of the subjects the poems deal with. we tells about encounters in winter in which things of different qualities meet in such a mutually shifting relation – “meshed into neighborhood by such shifting ties” (lines 7-8); therefore, the form and meter of the poem should figure out the encounter of discordant qualities of objects. likewise, vsd recounts a sense of gratitude of a rainy season that took place „three days ago‟. the poem is like a chant that thanks for the coming of the rainy season so that the form and meter of the poem has to express a melodious and chantlike song. ambiguity, irony, and paradox also appear in imageries of the two poems. these can be apprehended especially in the conflict between denotative and connotative meaning of the imageries. in view of denotative meaning, we presents imageries that appeal to visual sense such as „house‟ and „hollow‟, „village‟ and „valley-side‟; whereas, vsd expounds imageries that appeal to auditory sense such as „sound‟, „footfall‟, „valley‟s singing day‟ as well as to visual and tactile sense, as in „dripping roof‟, „dawn‟, „pearlypearly‟, „diamonds‟. the titles of the two poems suggest ambiguity and paradox. the encounters in we can mean encounters among people but the preliminary lines of the poem present imageries of inanimate objects, though in the following lines, human is also included, such as „inanimate and human‟ and „a knot of talkers‟. in the same way, the valley‟s singing day in vsd is also ambiguous since the title can mean a day for singing songs in the valley. by reading the lines, one can find out one possible argument that the singing day here refers to the coming of a rainy season. another ambiguity of the poem is shown in the first line that says – “the sound of the closing outside door was all” but then the second line says otherwise – “you made no sound in the grass with your footfall.” it means that there is an incongruity between the former presence of sound and the latter absence of sound. the word „footfall‟ itself means „the sound of a footstep‟ but line 2 distorts the presence of the sound by saying „making no sound with footfall‟. the line actually means that the poet heard the footstep in the grass but probably the sound was soft and almost inaudible as if there was language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 63 no sound. the third and fourth lines also show a paradox between the lines „as far as you went from the door‟ that means „far‟ and „which was not far‟ that means „near‟. again there is an incongruity between what is meant by the images „far and near‟. in the same manner, imageries in we do not only suggest a literal or denotative meaning as the images say. the words „house‟ and „hollow‟; „village‟ and „valley-side‟ do not only refer to the physical house and hollow but they represent people, man and woman. the oscillation between the two imageries is that „house‟ is a manufactured object while „hollow‟ is a natural one. afterwards, the poem says that all, either animals or human has moved towards encounters (lines 13-14). however, the conflict of the two objects has come to a reconciliation that is shown by the vanishing discordance between the two – the distinction fails in these brisk exchanges – say, merely, that the roof greets the cloud or by the wall, sheltering its knot of talkers encounter enacts itself in the conversation (lines 15-18) the reconciliation of the conflict is reached in the encounter of the two qualities – the harmony of different aspects: these, though of moment in themselves, serve rather to articulate the sense that having met, one meets with more than the words can witness. one feels behind into the intensity that bodies through them calmness within the wind, the warmth in cold. an imagery in line 12, „a riding-forth, a voyage that is impending in the ruffled air‟ appeals to sense of movement (kinesthetic). the image is like a motion that drives all things to move towards encounter (line 14). the energy, therefore, is a tension that reconciles the discordant qualities in a more agreeable and congenial encounter – “encounter enacts itself in the conversation on customary subjects” (lines 18-19). another imagery in we that is also found in vsd is „rain‟ (lines 21-22). this image in both poems is something that people in the two poems is waiting for. in we, „rain‟ is considered as a kind of guest that his coming is expected; whereas, „rain‟ in vsd becomes the main object that people are describing and also appreciating. the image „rain‟ appeals to visual as well as tactile and kinesthetic senses. in we, „rain‟ has been presented in 64 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 contrary to another image, „tares‟ (line 22) that means „weed resembling corn‟. just as „rain‟ that keeps moving, the „tares‟ are also described to be in progress through a field of wheat (lines 23-24). in vsd, „rain‟ comes as the noisy sound outside the house. rain is compared to pearls and diamonds (lines 11 & 13). the pearls suggest „soft rain‟ while the diamonds represent „hard rain‟. if the tension in we is reached by the reconciliation of the two discordant objects into one, the tension in vsd appears in the narrator‟s acceptance of the falling rain as the beginning of a rainy season – i should be willing to say and help you say that once you had opened the valley‟s singing day (lines 19-20) in summary, the imageries in the two poems reveal irony and paradox. the paradox appears in the conflict between denotative and connotative meaning. however, the conflicts are reconciled in the tension between the two aspects. we reaches the reconciliation in the incorporation of one quality into another; whereas, vsd proposes an acceptance of the beginning of a rainy season. it means that the way of reconciling the discordant qualities of imageries of the two poems is different from each other. nevertheless, the result of the reconciliation is similar in which the two poems resolve the conflict with some encounters. in regard to figures of speech, both poems use metaphor and personification. through these figures of speech, ambiguity, irony, and paradox are also revealed. in we, metaphors appear in the pairing – „house‟ & „hollow‟; „village‟ & „valley-side‟, „the ceaseless pairings‟. the next images are „hedges barbs‟; „lengthened shadows‟‟ „a riding-forth‟, „ruffled air‟; „knot of talkers‟; „customary subjects‟; „a field of wheat‟. the ambiguity and paradox of these metaphors relate to denotative and connotative meaning. metaphor is a figure of speech that compares one thing to another thing. in this case, the imageries are metaphorical phrases that have connotative meaning and they refer to other things that the words may suggest. thus, „house‟ and „hollow‟ may refer to man and woman; „hedges barbs‟ are metaphors that mean discordant qualities; „ruffled air‟ means snowy weather; „knot of talkers‟ means a group of people; etc. in vsd, a metaphorical expression appears firstly in the title, „the valley‟s singing day‟ that refers to a rainy season in the valley. the following imageries also figure out metaphorical expressions – „sound‟ that refers language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 65 to the rain; „door‟ referring to „house‟ (synecdoche); „morning star‟ is the sun; „the slender ray‟ is a „dim sunlight‟; „the lids of sight‟ refers to „fog‟; „pent-up music of overnight‟ refers to „all-night rain‟; the rain is compared to pearls and diamonds; „dripping roof‟ means „a leaking roof‟. the conflict appears on the one hand in the narrator‟s complaint about the rain that has made his window curtain soaked wet because his roof was dripping, but on the other hand, he has to wake up and proclaim his gratitude for the rainy season. just as in we, ambiguity and paradox appear in the conflict between denotative and connotative meaning of the imageries. the second figure of speech, personification appears in some lines in both poems. this figure of speech gives human attributes to inanimate objects. in we, the lines such as „the house reposes‟ (line 9) uses personification. the verb „repose‟ is used for people. the verb means „to lay to rest‟. another line, „the roof greets the cloud‟ (line 16), the verb „greet‟ is also used for people. meanwhile, in vsd, most of the lines use personification in which the verbs used for people are addressed for inanimate object, the rain – you made no sound in the grass with your footfall (line 2) as far as you went from the door, (line 3) but you had awakened (line 4) that once you had opened (line 20) metaphor and personification in the two poems create ambiguity and paradox between the denotative and connotative meaning. however, one can decipher the meaning of the figures of speech to achieve the reconciliation of the ambiguity by finding out the relation between the words as denotation and their possible nuances in figurative expressions. theme in winter encounters and the valley’s singing day before discussing the theme of the two poems, let‟s firstly find out what the term „theme‟ means. holman & harmon define „theme‟ as a central idea. they further state that in literary works such as poetry, fiction, and drama – theme is “the abstract concept that is made concrete through representation in person, action, and image” (1992:475). looking back at the previous discussion on the intrinsic elements of the two poems, the writer made a statement on the theme of the two poems. one of the possible central ideas of we is “the need for everyone to live in a good relation with his fellows and surroundings regardless of any difference in 66 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 social background and other aspects.” another possible corresponding statement is that “there is no other meaningful thing in life but being with others.” the statement can be deciphered in the elements such as form, imagery, and figures of speech. this statement is already suggested by the title of the poem „winter encounters‟ that means the meeting of one with others and also with their surroundings. in the following lines, the idea on the meaning of the encounter is also asserted – there is a riding-forth, a voyage impending in this ruffled air, where all moves towards encounter. inanimate or human the distinction fails in these brisk exchanges – say, merely, that the roof greets the cloud or by the wall, sheltering its knot of talkers encounter enacts itself in the conversation on customary subjects, (lines 12-19) the image „riding-forth‟ means a kind of motion that moves either human or inanimate beings to encounter with one another. the image „ruffled air‟ as a metaphor refers to „snowy weather‟. in the same manner, the image signifies a busy or hectic atmosphere, the setting where human and inanimate beings have encountered. thus, the encounter is like a reconciliation of the discordant qualities in congenial and neighborly terms, as stated in the following lines – encounter enacts itself in the conversation on customary subjects, where the mind may lean at ease, weighing the prospect of another‟s presence, rain (lines 18-21) the last line of the quotation above shows the highest point of tension where the encounter of discordant aspects has brought forth reconciliation and an expectation of some prosperity. the last lines of the poem assert the idea on the need for encountering in favor of reconciliation of the different qualities – that having met, one meets with more them the words can witness. one feels behind into the intensity that bodies through them calmness within the wind, the warmth in cold (lines 26 – 29). language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 67 on the contrary, the theme of vsd is somewhat different from the one in we. though both poems tell about an experience in some seasons, the imageries of the two are somewhat different. in we, the idea on the meaning of man‟s recollection with his surroundings is expressed through the encounter of objects of different qualities. in vsd, the similar idea is expressed in the narrator‟s appreciation of the coming of the rainy season. thus, one possible statement of the latter poem‟s theme is “one should nourish an awareness of carrying out his duty while being persevering and enthusiastic about seizing delightful moments in his life.” the metaphor „valley‟s singing day‟ or „a rainy day‟ means a blessing or success that everybody wishes to achieve. in some ways, the idea is also suggested in we where people also expect the coming of rain – “weighing the prospect of another‟s presence. rain and the probability of rain, tares” (lines 20-22). in vsd, the image „rain‟ is described as pearls in the beginning of a day (dawn or daybreak/line 11) and as diamonds in the afternoon (line 13). the „rain‟ is a metaphor of „singing day‟ and the image refers to moments of delight and joy that people wish. the idea on „perseverance‟ and „awareness of one‟s duty‟ is revealed in the lines – i was asleep still under the dripping roof, my window curtain hung over the sill to wet; but i still awake to confirm your story yet; i should be willing to say and help you say (lines 16-19). in this case, the awareness of one‟s duty and willingness to do oneself a favor correspond with his gratitude to the nature for showering the rain to the valley. the tension between disenchantment as stated in lines 16-17 and the awareness of one‟s duty as expressed in lines 18-19 shows an irony and paradox of the poem. the reconciliation of the conflict is by an agreement and appreciation of the narrator for showing his gratitude for the rainy day. this reconciliation is almost similar to the one in we in which the two discordant qualities fuse into one – „calmness in the wind, warmth in cold.‟ in a word, the two poems convey an idea about one‟s wishes for delightful moments in his companionship with his surroundings. conclusion after reading the two poems in terms of formalistic approach, the writer concludes that tension and theme in the two poems are relatively similar. the two poems show 68 language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/1 april 2009 similarity and difference in form, imagery, and figure of speech. in topic, both poems tell about seasons. the difference is that we describe a hectic encounter during winter, while vsd recounts a past scene of the coming of a rainy day. in form, they are similar. both are not written in certain stanzaic pattern. but they are also different. we has 29 lines while vsd has 20 lines. the former is written in one-to-one indented line showing an encounter of one and another object and indicating an irony and paradox of the discordant qualities. the latter is written in a pastoral poem. in rhyme scheme, the poems are also different. since we is written in the present, it does not present a certain rhyme scheme, while vsd is in the past and is has a rhyme scheme. in imagery, the poems are similar in certain ways. first, both poems use certain imageries such as „valley‟ and „rain‟. the image „rain‟ is the one object that makes a central idea of the two poems. one imagery in we, „a riding-forth‟ seems to correspond with one image in vsd, „a slender ray‟. these two images appeal to sense of kinesthetic and mean a kind of flux or motion that in the former poem, it moves all towards encounter and in the latter one, it evaporates humid things and renews a day. another difference is that we presents imageries that appeal to visual and tactile senses; whereas, vsd has imageries that appeal to visual and auditory senses. in figures of speech, we uses metaphors while vsd presents personification. the metaphors in we especially those that relate to the tension and theme of the poem are expressed in the last line – “calmness within the wind, warmth in cold.” these metaphors embody a paradoxical but also a harmonious relation of the discordant qualities. personification in vsd relate to the giving of human attributes to the rain, as the valley‟s singing day. in summary, the tension in the two poems is expressed in the components ambiguity, irony, and paradox and they are revealed in the form, imagery, and figures of speech of the poems. in we, the ambiguity has been resolved in a reconciliation of the discordant qualities, while in vsd the reconciliation is achieved by the narrator‟s joyful and grateful expression for the rainy day. the theme of the two poems can also be deciphered in these elements. the similarity of the possible central idea of the two poems is that man should nourish a sense of compatibility with his fellows and his surroundings to make his life worth living. in a word, the two poems share a great idea about the importance of socializing with each other regardless of any background. the poems assert that the need for language circle journal of language and literature vol. iii/2 april 2009 69 intermingling with each other is for maintaining a convenient and compatible living. references baym, n. and r. gottesman 1986. the norton anthology of american literature. new york: w.w. norton & co. belsey, c. 1990. criticical practice. london : routledge. bressler, c. e. 1999. literary criticism – an introduction to theory and practice. new jersey: prentice hall. burton, s.h. 1977. the criticism of poetry. london: longman. culler, j. 1985. structuralist poetics – structuralism, linguistics, and the study of literature. new york: cornell university press. daiches, d. 1982. critical approaches to literature. new york: 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