THE EUROPEAN EXPLORATION TO THE NEW WOLRD (The First Permanent English Settlement as an American Milestone) Muhammad Yusuf ABSTRACT “The pursuit of happiness” was one of the spirit belonged to the European people in the Age of Exploration. This jargon was realized when the European lost their freedom to act, especially freedom to get better life and to embrace religious belief, hence, to have the freedom, they explored other hemisphere to reach their goal. The discussion is started by the description of England condition especially in the early of 17th century which pushed the English went out from their mother land. Jamestown conditions became pull factors, so they explored and tried to settle in it. This article will focus on push factors for the European exploring the New World. Push factors relate to the unstable condition of Europe especially in England such as religion, politics, and economy. Key words: Exploration, Settlement, New World Talking about the European arrival at Jamestown is absolutely relating to their reasons for coming to the New Land. The reasons may be consisted of internal and external reasons. Therefore, through this article the writer wants to describe some reasons that pushed them went out from their mother country, or may be called as push factors and some reasons that caused them interested to come to Jamestown, it is pull factors. Push refers to the forces existing in the place of origin that encourage or impel persons to emigrate. Pull refers to the attractive forces emanating from the migrants’ goal. Non-economic attractive forces include promises of political or religious freedom and such factors as climate and freedom from military service. As was the case with push forces, most of pull forces are, in the final analysis, economic (Daniels, 2002; 17). Everett S. Lee in his A Theory of Migration, Demography (1966) in Indonesian edition by Hans Daeng, Lee formulated four factors of migrations, they are: the consisting factors in the hometown, the factors in the destination area, obstacles between both places, and individual factors (Hans Daeng, 2000: 6). Based on these theories, the writer concluded two factors of migration done by the English people; the factors existed in their mother land (England) and the factors in the destination place (the New World). Europe in the 17th Century The term Europe has multiple uses. Its principle ones are political and geographical. Politically, Europe comprises those countries in the European Union (EU) , but may at times be used more casually to refer to both the EU together with other non-EU countries generally, in the same region. As the birthplace of Western Culture, European nations played a predominant role in global affairs from the 17th century onwards, especially after the beginning of colonization in the new world since 1600s. The colonization done by European was based after some explorations to other hemisphere. The condition in their countries forced them to expand the old territories to have new one and to gain better live. The European with uncertain condition of multi crisis from various dimensions of life became basic reasons that caused them to search resolution. The reason for searching of fertile land and in order to take part in international trade became big issues for the European countries to cross the oceans. These explorations were intensified and colonies were founded in America by the absolutist and mercantilist European state. Knowledge about these areas grew, as did the means of transportation to get there. The conquest of the new world and the ability of the states to form a world-wide navigation network connecting all oceans, combined with their aggressive hunt for commercial hegemony resulted in the first instance of a united human space since the time when mankind first spread across the earth. As a result, groups of people belonging to very different cultures that had previously been separated by distance were able to meet (http://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/history/migration). These reasons may be termed as push factors exploring other area especially the new world. According to Roger Daniels in his Coming to America, push refers to the forces existing in the place of origin that encourage or impel persons to emigrate. These forces may be catastrophic, political, or most often, economic pressure of kind or another, including the pressure of a growing population (Daniels, 2002: 17). The growing population may be in social term. The religious pressure also became an important reason that caused original people to migrate, for example, the migration of the Puritan to the New World in 1621 for seeking the freedom of religious belief. Heidler et. al. (2003; 4) explained that many European had been socially outcast, politically disenfranchised, economically deprived, or religiously oppressed. Therefore, these reasons of migration; politic, economy, social and religion becomes big issues to explain. Politically, the Europe in the 17th century had feudalism as a political system. Feudalism was a system of contractual relationship among the members of the upper class in medieval Europe, in which lords made grants of fiefs to vassals in return for pledges of military and political service (Encyclopedia Americana,Vol. 11, 2004: 138). During the long centuries of feudalism, European society had been conservative in thought. Then, between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries, the old relationships between noble and peasant broke down, new towns sprang up under the impetus of commercial expansion, and the modern nation-states began to emerge. Out of these far reaching changes on society grew the conditions that led to the settling of the New World. The European in this century was known by feudal society based upon a caste system and it had revolved about agricultural production with the individual’s position in it firmly fixed through a complicated program of rights and obligation (Hacker and Zahler, 1947:1). Economically, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Europe was influenced by mercantilism. Mercantilism is a set of economics views prevailing in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. Adam Smith called it the “mercantile system” and the term “mercantilism” is derived from that. This economic theory holds the prosperity of a nation depends upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of trade is "unchangeable." Economic assets, or capital, are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy, by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs. The economic policy based upon these ideas is often called the mercantile system (Encyclopedia Americana,Vol. 18, 2004: 710). By this economic system, the Europe achieved its glory. In this situation, the merchants were helpful to the nation; they financed the mercenary armies recruited from the lower class enabled the kings of Portugal, Spain, England, and France to unify their countries. With the growth of a merchant class and vigorous state support of commerce improved the national unification and large-scale commercial activity (Hofstadter, et. al. 1959: 6-7). The merchants with the impetus of commercial expansion enabled them to finance costly voyages of exploration. Hence, the growth of economy became one of many reasons for the European to explore other area. Religion was an important motivating factor which caused many European people coming to the New World during this period. The Reformation, Counter Reformation, and other religious activity in Europe pushed many to migrate to America, where they would be free from the religious turmoil and persecution that swept throughout Europe at this time (http://search.yahoo.com /push/factors/coming). Dealing with this, Hacker and Zahler (1947:3) in his The Shaping of the American Tradition asserts that religious upheaval also caused the European migrating to other area and exploring the new place for their religious belief. The growth of some aspects in many sides such as thought, politic, economy, culture, and intellectual encouraged the break of Catholic doctrine embraced by the King pushed in the name of God. To face this worse condition of religion, Martin Luther (1483-1546) a German Augustinian friar who inaugurated the Protestant movement and John Calvin (1509-1564) a French theologian and reformer, play an important role in this matter. The religious revolution begun by both spawned a number of sects throughout the Europe. The sects became followers of Luther and Calvin such as the Puritan, Presbyterian, and Huguenot. These sects were expanded notably in England, Scotland, Scotch-Irish, France, Netherlands, and Germany. This religious intellectual movement was not expanded smoothly. The state became an obstacle of this growth; as a result, the adherents of religious belief who challenged the state were in hard violence so that religious freedom was annoyed. Hence, the religious refugees had abandoned the Old World to seek religious freedom and economic opportunity in the New World. Since the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery, Europe had become a major influence in culture, economics and social movements in the world. European demographics are important not only historically, but also in understanding current international relations and population issues, because in this beginning of 17th century, a big wave of emigration from Europe to North America had started. The Age of Discovery was not only marked by the Renaissance but also by New Monarch, it was a period of exploration, invention, and scientific development. This Renaissance marked by the intellectual development also became a reason for the European to discover other hemisphere. The European countries competed to develop their countries in many sides; politic, economy, culture, and also wealth. With those things, expanding their territories through exploring other land especially the New World was reasonable. The Unstable England Condition The seventeenth century was a period of political and religious ferment. In the British throne from 1603 to 1688 sat four Stuart kings, each in his way attempting to continue the strong monarchical authority so successfully exercised by the Tudors during the previous century. Opposing the absolutist policies of the Crown and drawing its strength from country gentlemen and city merchants was a faction which hoped to subordinate the King to parliament, was the controversy over religion. James I and Charles I took their stand on the Elizabethan settlement. They supported the Church of England and enforced-intermittently-the laws which required religious conformity. By this policy they opposed the wishes of the Catholics, who wanted to re- establish the tie with Rome, of the Separatists, who wanted each Christian congregation to enjoy independence, and of the much more numerous and influential Puritans, who believed in an established church but wanted radical changes in church government and practice (Blake, 1952: 3). Furthermore, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when permanent English settlements were begun in America, the people of Great Britain had just passed from the reign of an age of Faith into that of an age of Reason. The age of Faith was marked by religion domination in many aspects; not only in social condition but also in political affairs. In this age, there was such absolute intellectual laziness, and indifference to the exercise of reason in speculative matters, that men accepted tenets in religion and politics, however absurd, as truths, and bestowed no thought upon them. Then, the age of Reason took over the former age because of people unbelieving to the monastery and the Bible. This change of reign caused the people of England starting to settle in the New World. Goerke (1962; 28-30), in his American History and Government for Prospective Citizens, explains three reasons for the English to settle in the New World: political freedom, religious problems, and searching for economic freedom. In the following, the writer tries to present widely. The reasons above created tensions and pressures within the homeland, coupled with the hopes for sudden and substantial profits through discovery or trade. While profit was the compelling motive in the minds of merchant groups that began to shape up plans, it would be principally the religiously dissatisfied and the economically disinherited who would furnish the man power to carry them out (Keyes, 1954; 61). Politics At this time, the English were fighting among themselves as to which type of government was suitable for their country. Many centuries before, exactly in 1215s, the people of England had revolted and forced King John (1167-1216), to sign what became known as The Magna Carta. It was about certain freedom to the British people. Magna Carta became the rights of Englishmen, so, they believed that they born with these rights. Everybody had his own rights; no one should have his life, his liberty, or his property taken away from him without proper legal hearings or trial, but, after some centuries later, this valuable Magna Carta with many rights of Englishmen in it, were being taken from them (Goerke, 1962; 29). Hence, the English people based on the spirit of Magna Carta search the New World to find their political rights. The desire to be free from political persecution also drove many English to the New World. Political problems in England came to a head during the reign of James I, who ruled from 1603 to 1625. King James tried to make and enforce laws without the consent of Parliament, the lawmaking body of England. James believed in the “divine right of kings”, it was the theory of Government in Europe in Medieval Age. Through this theory, the Kings or the Rulers claimed that God had given the right to rule. They claimed that they were God’s representatives on earth, responsible only to God for their actions but, insisting that he was responsible to no earthly power for his action. Most members of Parliament refused to accept this theory of government. As a result, an intense quarrel broke out between James I and Parliament (Curti, and Todd 1972: This quarrel brought England to be uncertain of governmental type in England which then followed the change of reign. When the reign of an Age of Faith was changed by age of Reason, England was partially freed from a long political bondage. The English mind was thoroughly aroused to action. Wonderful social changes followed; and during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, all classes had more freedom than ever before. Yet the laities were not wholly free. Henry had not specially changed the theology or the rituals of the church in England, and there appeared three powerful and antagonistic parties in the realm. There were the English party, or Churchmen, who adhered to and enforced the doctrines and rituals of the Church of Rome, but who gave their allegiance to the English monarch, and not to the Pope; the papal party or supporters of the authority of the Roman hierarchy, and the doctrinal Protestants who were disliked by the others (http://www.publicbookshelf.com/public _html/Our_Country_Vol_1/ life17th_dh.html). In this age of Reason, the English mind was thoroughly aroused to action. It swayed the age to the movement of society. Individuals and associations found new and promising fields of action, the most attractive of which was the virgin soil of the New World to get their new hopes, free of action to decide what to do in their life and without shackle. Religion The various Christian denominations in the United Kingdom have emerged from schisms that divided the church over the centuries. The greatest of these occurred in England in the 16th century, when Henry VIII rejected the supremacy of the pope. This break with Rome facilitated the adoption of some Protestant tenets and the founding of the Church of England, still the state church in England, although Roman Catholicism has retained adherents. This religious problem became a reason for the English coming to the New World. And surely, when a big religious problem was happened in England that caused the people were unhappy and as a result to come to the New World. That was when England ruled by Henry VIII, he had done a contradictory act. He was willing to change his religion from Catholic to Protestant just because to marry another girl Anne Boleyn after divorcing Catherine. This religion conversion by Henry VIII impacted to the English people; they had to do what Henry did. But it was a difficult thing to convince the people of England that they too should change their religion just because the King had done so…. At this time England did not have freedom of religion. In those days all the people in the country had to belong to the same religion (Goerke, 1962: 29). As explained above in political aspect, there were three powerful and antagonistic parties; the English party, or Churchmen, the papal party or supporters of the authority of the Roman hierarchy, and the doctrinal Protestants. Puritan denomination emerged then; it was when Parliament established a liturgy for the Church of England, the Puritan refused conformity to it, for they acknowledged no authority but the Bible in matters of religion. They were more austere in manners, more simple in their worship, and demanded greater purity of life, and so they acquired the name of Puritans. It was given in derision, but soon became an honorable title. Each class was intolerant, and for more than a century and a half, there was a chronic triangular contest between the English Churchmen, the Roman Catholics, and the Puritans, which caused many of each class to seek peace in the forests of America (http://www.publicbookshelf.com /public_html/ Our_Country_Vol_1/ life17th_dh.html). After the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the quarrel between Puritan and Anglican grew increasingly sharp and finally broke out into civil war. The first of Stuart, James I who succeeded Elizabeth, believed strongly in the divine right of kings. He hated non-conformist, not only because they opposed the national church, but also because they supported the powerful middle - class party in Parliament that wanted to limit his royal authority. By upholding the Anglican establishment, James bolstered his own prerogatives. During his reign (1603-25), The Puritan (that is, those who wished to “purify” the Anglican Church) and the Separatists (who wished to separate themselves from the Anglican Church completely) were persecuted more severely than they had been in Elizabeth’s time, and their situation became acute when James’ son, Charles I, succeeded his father on the throne (Hofstadter, 1959: 22-23). As a result, thousands of people left England rather than changed their religion. Some of these people came to the English colonies in America. In many of the British settlements in America, religious freedom was practiced. Meanwhile in other settlements only certain religious were welcomed. For example, Lord Baltimore set up colony in Maryland which was to be a heaven of refuge for Catholics. The pilgrims and Puritans set up colonies in Massachusetts for persecuted members of their faiths (Goerke, 1962: 29). These members of religion sought an environment which was more tolerant than that of England under the rule of Charles I (1629- 1640), who valued the Catholic ceremonial elements in the Church of England and who allowed the management of the church to rest with Archbishop Laud, a man who deliberately antagonised Protestant groups (http://search.yahoo.com/push/factors/coming). Economy To gain and have a better life for every human being especially in economy became an absolute reason to migrate from the old place to the new residence. For this economic reason, the writer will divide into two meanings; positive and negative. Positively, because it has worth meaning to the nation and the Kingdom, but negatively, economic problems in England pushed the English to explore the New England. Firstly, economic motivation in positive form can be traced in the ambition of English aristocrats to found great estates in America. In the case of the first and second Lords Baltimore, this impulse took priority over the wish to provide a refuge for fellow Catholic. The original plan was frankly feudal. Land was to provide the basis for wealth and power. The Calverts would derive princely revenue from their own tenants, and they would make generous grants to other English gentlemen, who, after financing the transportation of peasants, might expect to enjoy a good income from their rent payments. Similar ambitions had previously been entertained by a number of favoured individuals who received large estates from the Virginia Company, and the same thinking was evident later in the calculations of the proprietors of the Carolinas, the Jerseys, and Pennsylvania. But plans for establishing baronial estates in America usually led to disappointment. Thousands of Englishmen were willing to try their fortunes in the New World, but few were willing to pass the rest of their days as humble tenants in a new country where land was abundant and cheap (Blake, 1952: 5). Secondly, in negative term meant by the writer that is economic problems became a reason for the English to leave their mother land to the New England. Going to the New World may be the only way out for their economic problems in England. However, they were many other English who stayed in England for their ability to survive. For this reason to leave England, Goerke explain briefly: “The English came to America was in their search for economic freedom, that is, the freedom to make a living and not have to give all that you make to the government. Taxes were very high in England at this time. Why were taxes so high? Because, the British rulers were in the process of building the strongest navy in the world. Much money collected in taxes was wasted in high living and in foolish activities of the court. Many Englishmen then were not able to make a comfortable living because of these high taxes. Another reason why the average Englishmen was unable to make a good living in England at this time (17th and 18th centuries) was due to the fact that England was undergoing an important change. The change was from agriculture to pastoral pursuits, that is, from farming to animal raising (Goerke, 1962: 30)”. He asserts that a farmer in that time could make more money on an acre of land by raising sheep on that acre than by planting crops. It was reasonable, because in planting the crops there were many steps to do; plowing the field, sowing the seed, preparation for harvest which needed more than a farmers. It was different than to raise sheep; it just needed a little preparation. This changing from agriculture to sheep raising caused much unemployment in England (Goerke, 1962: 30). Brief Description about European Exploration Before going on wider explanation about English settlement, the writer tries to depict the European exploration as a milestone of exploration of the world. Since the Age of exploration, Europe was famous by voyagers and conquerors. Some of them just did the exploration and some others tried to settle in this virgin land. The voyage was not an easy thing to do, because the conquerors must be able to conquer the ferocity of the sea with the big wave and awful storm which of course can destroy them. Hence, some voyagers were not lucky in their exploration but some others succeeded and try to settle in the new land. Dr. Marlou Schrover from Leiden University wrote about European Expansion who expanded other areas, some of them from Western Europe such as England, Germany, France, Netherlands, and Belgium. Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece are including in Southern Europe (http://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/history/migration). The Spain had their conquest of the Indians of Central America brought power and prestige to Spain even though for only a short time and produced dreams of fabulous riches all over Europe. The Portuguese, in one great effort, conquered Brazil, although they were not strong enough to hold it. The France laid the foundation of a French-Canadian state but lacked the population surplus necessary for ultimate success in colonizing the vast territory. The enterprising Dutch founded a New Netherlands along the Hudson River (Werkmeister, 1949: 7). Hofstadter stated that an Irish monk, St. Brendan, had approached the North American continent in the sixth century (Hofstadter, 1959: 1). From Northern Europe that is Norway was became the first European who explored the North America. They sailed to the west from Greenland, the settlement built by Eric in 985s. Then probably in 1001s, his son Leif explored to north east coast in the area known by Canada. He lived and made a settlement there at least in a winter. It is may be proven by finding the ruins of the Norse houses in L'Anse aux Meadows, North Newfoundland (Whitney, 1950:11). Based on above statement, it is known that the New World had been explored and settled since the ninth century, long centuries before settlement at Jamestown, or even exploration done by Columbus, John Cabot and other explorers. Hofstadter even stated that in the sixth century the Buddhist missionaries from China had reached the fiords of British Columbia (Hofstadter, 1959: 1). But, because this discovery was non European discovery, so it will not be a matter of discussion in this thesis. In spite of that, this discovery became information should be known, because this exploration was the earliest of the New World discovery. In 1492, it is well known that Christopher Columbus was the greatest navigator who explored the New World in 1492 (Hofstadter, 1959: 1). Then, John Cabot landed possibly in Newfoundland or Labrador in 1497. Although there is a different views about who first came to the New World between Columbus and Cabot; Henry William Elson (1949: 20) an Author of Side Lights on American History, Modern Times and the Living Past wrote in his History of the United States of America: “The continent of North America was discovered first not by Columbus, but by John Cabot. He was a seaman and merchant, and that, next to the Northman, he was the first white man known to have made a voyage to North America”, but in his book he did not mention the reason based his view. The possible reason may be raised is, that he based his writing on the third of Columbus voyage that was in 1498, Columbus touched on the mainland of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco River. From some voyages had done by Columbus, he just concluded that he had discovered a new continent (Chitwood et. al, 1950: 3-4). The second reason, Nelson was true to state that Cabot was the discoverer of North America not Columbus because Columbus did not discover North America but Bahama, it was in the south of North America. Nevertheless, they are many sources can convince that Columbus was earlier than Cabot who came to the New World. The map of exploration by Columbus and Cabot (http://encarta.msn.com/media_early_european_explorers.html). The New Land the European explored was named America. The question will be emerged properly is “Why this New World was not named Columbus as the first discoverer?” Oppositely, it was named America based on the sailor after him that was Amerigo Vespucci. In 1501 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, sailed on a Spanish expedition along the cost of what is now South America. When he returned to Europe, he wrote a letter expressing the bold opinion that he had seen a new continent. News of Vespucci’s conclusion reached a famous geographer, who proposed calling the newly discovered lands “America” in honor of Amerigo Vespucci. Columbus missed even the honor of having the new lands named after him (Curti and Todd, 1972: 11). This is the difference between Columbus and Vespucci. After his discovery of the New World, Columbus did not expose his exploration upon the world. Hence, for many years it was not known that Columbus had discovered this new continent. On the contrary, Vespucci wrote about his discovery, he said that he had seen a new continent. He wrote a brief account of the “New World” as he called it, he created a greater sensation than Columbus ten years before. His pamphlet was translated into many languages, and he was hailed throughout Europe as one of the greatest mariners of his time. Then, in 1507 Professor Waldseemuller, of the little college of St. Die among the Vosges Mountains of Lorraine, published a pamphlet on geography, and in this he first suggested the name America. “I see no reason why,” he stated, “this fourth part of the world should not take its name from its sagacious discoverer and be called Amerige or America.” The suggestion found favor and it was not long before the name America found its way on all new maps and globes representing the Western Hemisphere (Elson, 1949: 22). These discoveries then became a milestone of other voyagers who came to the New World. Some voyagers just done the exploration and some others tried to settle in the New Land they found. The settlement of the New World was not an easy work to do because not all settlements were success. In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed across the Atlantic intending to settle on the site of what is now St. John’s, Newfoundland. But Gilbert and all his shipmates were lost in a storm. Then, Sir Walter Raleigh with the backing of some wealthy Englishmen, he organized an expedition to explore the Atlantic coast. The expedition returned with good reports. Hence, in 1585 Raleigh sent out his first group and landed on Roanoke Island, off the coast of what is now North Carolina, but was failed. In 1587 Raleigh sent out a second group who also settled in the same place. Unfortunately, the Spanish attempt to invade the England in 1588 prevented Raleigh from sending fresh supplies for three years. When in 1591, a relief expedition finally did reach Roanoke, the settlers were gone. To this day, the fate of this little band colonist- the “Lost Colony”-remains a mystery (Curti and Tood, 1972: 18). The settlement of Roanoke Island was the failed settlement while the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 was the first permanent English success settlement in the world. There were other English success settlements later on, such as Plymouth settlement in 1921 by the puritan. 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