LLT Journal, e-ISSN 2579-9533, p-ISSN 1410-7201, Vol. 26, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 346-364 LLT Journal: A Journal on Language and Language Learning http://e-journal.usd.ac.id/index.php/LLT Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 346 EFFECTS OF PEER TEACHING ON GRAMMAR LEARNING: DOES IT ENHANCE LEARNER AUTONOMY? Satrio Dewantono1 and Elisabet Titik Murtisari2* 1,2Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana, Indonesia satriodewantono25@gmail.com1 and elisabet.murtisari@uksw.edu2 *correspondence: elisabet.murtisari@uksw.edu https://doi.org/10.24071/llt.v26i1.5333 received 4 November 2022; received 19 April 2023 Abstract Peer teaching has been widely applied in university settings to assist language learners. However, concerns have been raised about the potential impact on learner autonomy as this teaching method involves a more able learner tutoring a lower- level one. Despite this, little attention has been given to examining this issue. For this reason, this qualitative study investigates whether peer teaching can help foster tertiary EFL students' autonomy in isolated grammar learning, which may serve as more intensive training to improve metalinguistic knowledge and grammar competence within restricted time frames. Based on reports from 29 survey participants and 11 interviewees, the study finds that peer teaching can promote learning autonomy, with students engaging in various activities to enhance their learning during tutoring and/or the peer teaching program. Participants reported improvements in learning motivation, subject understanding, problem-solving skills, and monitoring and evaluating skills. However, some students, especially those with lower abilities, appeared to be more reliant on peer tutors in constructing their knowledge, providing self-study materials, and frequency of grammar self- study. This study provides crucial qualitative findings that shed light on the effects of peer teaching on learner autonomy, particularly for EFL teacher education students' grammar learning. Keywords: grammar, learner autonomy, peer teaching, tertiary EFL students Introduction Grammar competence is vital for tertiary students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) to communicate effectively. To assist with the challenge of learning various structures within a limited time frame, isolated grammar courses are typically provided within communicative language programs. Relying primarily on the “focus on forms” method, such courses may help students to recognize grammatical forms and meanings more quickly. Additionally, they can aid learners gain explicit grammar knowledge, which is essential for their future careers as English language professionals, particularly as EFL teachers. However, with factors such as L1-L2 linguistic differences and complex abstract concepts of grammar, many EFL students often find grammar learning difficult. To deal with this issue, mailto:satriodewantono25@gmail.com mailto:elisabet.murtisari@uksw.edu2 mailto:elisabet.murtisari@uksw.edu https://doi.org/10.24071/llt.v26i1.5333 LLT Journal, e-ISSN 2579-9533, p-ISSN 1410-7201, Vol. 26, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 346-364 347 peer teaching has been implemented to help students in learning the language aspect (Mulatsih, 2018; Murtisari, Puspitasari, & Setiamunadi, 2020). The teaching method has long been recognized as a beneficial supplementary means to help learners with learning difficulties. Research has reported improvements on both the metacognitive (De Backer, Van Keer, & Valcke, 2012; Stigmar, 2016; Velez, Cano, Whittington, & Wolf, 2011) and academic aspects of the students involved in a peer teaching program (Arco-Tirado, Fernández-Martín, & Fernández-Balboa, 2011; Asgari & Carter, 2016; Bowman-Perrott, deMarín, Mahadevan, & Etchells, 2016). Offering a more individualized way of learning, peer teaching may also fill in significant knowledge gaps that regular teaching with the faculty teachers cannot deal with (Murtisari et al., 2020), which may be empowering for the assisted students. Despite all the reported advantages of peer teaching, there has been concern that such learning support might lead to students’ dependence on their tutor’s assistance (Murtisari, et al., 2020; Mynard & Almarzouqi, 2006). During tutoring sessions, less able learners may be reluctant to build their own understanding of the lessons through active participation and rely largely on the tutors’ explanations (Murtisari et al., 2020). Despite this issue, little attention has been paid specifically to the effects of such tutoring to the students’ learning autonomy. Often utilized to reduce drop-out rates (Bohórquez, Rodríguez, & González, 2019; Muller, Shacham, & Herscovitz, 2017), the potentials of peer teaching to promote learner autonomy have yet to be a main concern. Achieving a greater academic outcome is still the main objective with little regards to the role of learner autonomy in its success. Having the Vygotskian and Piagetian theories highlighting the importance of cooperation as the underlying foundations of peer learning (Velez et al., 2011), peer teaching is likely to have impacts on learner autonomy. Given the issue described above, this study aims to examine whether peer teaching enhances learner autonomy in terms of students’ evaluation and reported behavior. Specifically, the research seeks to identify the activities that students engage in during peer teaching sessions that contribute to autonomous learning, and to evaluate its effects on learner autonomy. The findings of this research could inform the development of peer teaching programs that may promote learner autonomy. Literature review Grammar learning Grammar is a fundamental aspect of English. It not only serves as a set of rules that one should apply accordingly, but also as a means of meaning making (Murtisari, Salvadora, & Hastuti, 2020; Richards & Reppen, 2014). However, it is often debated whether grammar should be taught or not, with contra arguments likely to be rooted in Krashen’s comprehensible input theory (Larsen-Freeman, 2015). Despite this, there is a growing consensus in the field of second language acquisition that a combination of implicit and explicit methods can enhance the learning of grammar for L2 learners. This view suggests that these methods are complementary, as argued by scholars in the field such as Ellis (2016) and Spada and Lightbown (2008). Supporting Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (1990), Newby (2006) contends that explicit declarative knowledge can also contribute to a person's LLT Journal, e-ISSN 2579-9533, p-ISSN 1410-7201, Vol. 26, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 346-364 348 language acquisition. Although this knowledge may not be immediately applicable in communication, it can improve a learner's ability to notice language patterns and can become part of their internal language learning process. Therefore, in EFL contexts, where learning time and L2 exposure are often limited, explicit instruction can be highly useful in promoting L2 learning. Research has shown that both teachers and students perceive explicit grammar instruction, primarily associated with the focus on forms approach, as "necessary and effective," despite being unpleasant (Jean & Simard, 2011, p. 467). Despite the crucial role of grammar, the learning of grammar is commonly perceived as a daunting part of an EFL student’s language acquisition journey. According to Grauss and Coppen (2015), the challenges in grammar learning may result from complex interactions between different aspects: grammar features (the complexity of certain forms), the learner (e.g., motivation), the pedagogical arrangement (e.g., teaching approaches/methods), and the teacher (e.g., teaching style). Furthermore, in an EFL context where students' L1 grammar differs significantly from English, the learning process can become even more challenging. Tertiary EFL programs also add pressure as students generally have limited time to master various grammatical forms and reach a post-intermediate level by graduation. Therefore, it is crucial to address such difficulties to assist students learn grammar more effectively. While learning grammar can be demanding, there are various strategies that students can use to make it easier. Cohen (2010) identifies four types of such strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective. Metacognitive strategies involve learners deliberately attempting to supervise and manage their learning (Cohen, 2010), and therefore are closely linked to learner autonomy. Using metacognitive strategies, students can perform autonomous learning of grammar (Stephen & Singh, 2010) by planning, monitoring, and evaluating it to control its progress. Learner autonomy Learner autonomy is often defined as the ability to take responsibility for one’s learning. This includes determining the goals, deciding the content and method of learning, monitoring the learning progress, and evaluating the learning achievements (Holec, 1981). Research suggests that learner autonomy yields positive effects on learners’ academic outcomes. For example, in Hu and Zhang’s study (2017), students who participated in a learner autonomy program performed better on a post-test than on a pre-test. Furthermore, autonomous learning is an ability that can be developed through natural or formal learning processes, rather than being an innate gift (Holec, 1981). It is critical to note that as a socio-cultural concept, learner autonomy does not take place in isolation but rather within an interdependent socio-cultural context (Lamb, 2017). This aligns with Bergen's concept of autonomous learning, which includes both independent work and cooperative acts with others (Dam et al., 1990, as cited in Lamb, 2017). Learning within an environment that encourages peer interaction and collaboration is therefore beneficial for the development of learners' autonomy. LLT Journal, e-ISSN 2579-9533, p-ISSN 1410-7201, Vol. 26, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 346-364 349 As grammar learning is a substantial undertaking, Pawlak (2017) emphasizes the importance of promoting autonomous learning for grammar acquisition. He argues that learners need to learn grammar independently outside formal environments to achieve adequate mastery of grammar. Simply familiarizing oneself with rules and completing exercises is insufficient to be able to apply grammar in spontaneous communication. To achieve this, learners must develop explicit and implicit grammar knowledge, which can be facilitated with learner autonomy. This approach can be particularly helpful in EFL settings, where exposure to the target language is limited in and out of the classroom. Although learner autonomy has the potential to promote grammar learning, there has been a lack of research on this specific issue. Typically, autonomy in grammar learning is examined within the context of students’ writing skills, which normally draws on the focus on form approach (e.g., Nazari, 2014; Vickers & Ene, 2014). Here, learner autonomy is seen to promote students’ L2 writing skills by enhancing their grammatical accuracy. This can be achieved by noticing and self- correcting grammatical errors in their writing in comparison to the writing model produced by native speakers of the language (Nazari, 2014). However, as English grammar involves complex abstract mechanisms, peer teaching focusing on specific forms may assist EFL students to better understand the semantic and pragmatic aspects of rules and how to apply them in context. Peer teaching Peer teaching or tutoring is frequently described as a practice in which more knowledgeable learners help those who are less able. It goes by different terms, including peer-assisted learning, reciprocal peer teaching, near-peer teaching, and supplemental instruction (Dawson, van der Meer, Skalicky, & Cowley, 2014). One of the most prominent theories in this area is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Learning, which emphasizes the importance of active participation from peers, adults, or teachers with better knowledge to assist the learning process (Velez, et al., 2011). By assisting less able learners with the support of their peers, peer teaching places its basic foundation on sociocultural theory. Peer teaching has been shown to aid students learning. A study by Colver and Fry (2016) demonstrated that students from across academic subjects who received peer tutoring were reported to obtain significantly better grades in the subject compared to those who did not. The participants revealed improved understanding, completion of assignments, and increased confidence. The positive effects of peer teaching might be attributed to its nature which provides more opportunities for learners to ask and respond to questions, more focus on tasks, and greater chances for practice and feedback (Bowman-Perrott et.al, 2016) and draws on mutual respect and openness to others’ ideas (O’Sullivan & Cleary, 2014). The tutors’ ability to provide easy-to-understand explanations due to a similar knowledge base is also found to be a significant factor in the success of peer teaching (Cornwall, 1980, as cited in Stigmar, 2016). Apart from its well-known impacts on students’ academic outcomes, research has also shown that peer teaching improves learners’ social skills, such as their confidence and how to relate to others (Topping, 2001, as cited in Miller, Topping, & Thurston, 2010). Riese, Samara, and Lillejord (2012) contend that peer teaching’s social benefits may result from the peer interactions during tutoring. LLT Journal, e-ISSN 2579-9533, p-ISSN 1410-7201, Vol. 26, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 346-364 350 According to the authors, such tutoring interactions are characterized by four different traits. First, they employ negotiation tasks, which allow tutors and tutees to decide what they want to do. Second, the talk is characterized by questioning and meaning-making. Third, they allow disagreements between tutors and tutees as peer tutoring provides a less formal learning environment. Last, there is a utilization of mediational means such as concrete tasks, tutoring session rules, and traditional tools such as whiteboards, books, and pencils. Such interactional traits may ultimately enhance students’ learning. While positive results have been found in studies that examine peer teaching in language learning (Arthurson, 2021), research on grammar-focused peer tutoring is still limited (e.g., Mulatsih, 2018; Murtisari et al., 2020). Previous studies have mostly investigated grammar as part of the tutoring of language skills such as writing (e.g., Kim, 2018; Snyder, Nielson, & Kurzer, 2016; Winder, Kathpalia, & Koo, 2016). In Mulatsih’s study (2018), peer tutoring was shown to enhance grammar learning by allowing students to study more intensively and gain a better understanding of grammatical forms. However, the potential issue of students becoming overly reliant on tutors (Murtisari et al., 2020) warrants further investigation. Peer teaching and learner autonomy While peer teaching has been shown to have positive effects, there are concerns that it may create a dependence among tutees. Mynard and Almarzouqi (2006) found that 60% of tutors reported tutees relying on them as a common issue. Tutees would ask for extra sessions before tests and even requested tutors “to do their homework” (p.18). However, Murtisari et al. (2020) argue that Mynard and Almarzouqi did not clearly explain what they meant by dependence. While requesting additional sessions could be problematic, it may not necessarily indicate dependence. Nonetheless, Murtisari et al. (2020) found that some tutees relied heavily on their tutors to explain concepts instead of trying to develop their own understanding. Such reliance may have resulted from rote learning strategies that promote passive learning (Menezes & Premnath, 2016). As a result, students who are used to receiving knowledge may struggle to be active participants in the learning process. Another possible reason is tutees may find the subject matter too challenging so they cannot participate in knowledge construction. However, other research, albeit limited, has also shown that peer teaching is beneficial to promote learner autonomy. Stigmar (2016) found that such tutoring may improve one’s self-regulation, which “includes elements of motivation, self- efficacy, time management, goal setting, metacognition, self-reflection, and organizational skills” (p.132). Supporting this, Bohórquez et al.’s (2019) study demonstrated that students involved in a peer teaching program improved their self- concept of autonomy by moving to a more practical, goal-oriented, and collaborative view of it. Collaborative activities such as “active questioning, explaining, monitoring, and regulating in the learning process” (Stigmar, 2016, p.131) can further enhance students’ autonomous learning. With this in mind, the present study investigates the effects of peer tutoring on EFL students' learner autonomy in grammar learning based on students’ reports. By exploring this issue, we seek to gain more insights into the potential benefits LLT Journal, e-ISSN 2579-9533, p-ISSN 1410-7201, Vol. 26, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 346-364 351 and challenges of peer teaching in EFL contexts, which could inform pedagogical practices and advance our knowledge of language learning. Research Method Context of the study This qualitative research aims to explore whether or not peer teaching may enhance learner autonomy in grammar learning based on students’ evaluation and reported behavior. In order to answer this question, it has the following two subsidiary queries: 1. What specific activities related to learner autonomy do students engage in during the peer teaching sessions/program? 2. How do students evaluate the effects of peer teaching on their autonomy in grammar learning? This study was conducted in an English Education Program at a private university in Central Java, Indonesia. The program implemented peer teaching to assist undergraduate students taking Basic and Intermediate grammar courses to improve their understanding of class lessons and provide more opportunities for practice. The tutors were mostly third- and second-year students and selected based on their communication skills and grammar knowledge. A short preparatory briefing was conducted for the tutors, but no specific guidelines or strategies were given before their teaching, and, therefore, the tutoring methods may have varied among the tutors. Flexible learning sessions were provided in small groups of no more than four students, with one-to-one tutoring available upon request. As encouraged, students generally grouped with those of similar levels and could have multiple sessions within a week. Participants This research involved 29 Indonesian EFL learners consisting of 27 first-year students and 2 repeating fourth-year students who took the Basic or Intermediate Grammar course during the period from August 2019 to August 2020 and had joined the peer teaching program within an offline, face-to-face setting. Eleven of the participants who agreed to give more information were selected to participate in follow-up interview sessions. To represent different groups of students with relative abilities, the following GPA ranges were used to select the students: low: x≤2.50, lower mid: 2.50