Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1): 93-108 Review article DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/njb.v9i1.38671 SPECIAL ISSUE: ICBSN 2021 ©NJB, BSN 93 Intellectual Property Right on Basmati Rice: Current Scenario and Evidences of Origin, Diversity, Cultivation and Use Values of Basmati Rice in Nepal Bal Krishna Joshi1 , Krishna Hari Ghimire1, Prakash Raj Bista2, Ram Baran Yadaw3, Ram Krishna Shrestha4, Gaurish Krishna Kharel5, Prakash Paneru6, Ram Bahadur KC6 and Deepak Bhandari6 1National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center, NARC; Khumaltar, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Kathmandu; 3Directorate of Agricultural Research, NARC, Province-2, Parwanipur, Bara; 4Crop Development and Agro-biodiversity Conservation Center, Department of Agriculture, Lalitpur; 5Kto Inc, Kathmandu 6Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu, Received: 0 Mar 2021; Revised: 14 May 2021; Accepted: 22 May 2021; Published online: 31 Jul 2021 Abstract Basmati rice, also called the king/prince of rice landraces has very special values in Nepalese society as well as in other countries of Indian Subcontinent. With the objectives of collecting, analyzing and documenting Basmati related information in Nepal, we visited different sites; carried out key informant surveys; organized focus group discussions, online interaction and discussion meetings; requested all relevant offices/ persons/ stakeholders through phone, website, and letter to share information; organized high level official meeting, and Basmati rice expert meeting; documented video documentary and did online as well as library search. Because of its high market value at global level, many countries and organizations have been attempting to get intellectual property rights (mainly patent and geographical indication tag) on Basmati rice. India applied for GI tag to Basmati rice in the European Union (EU) in July 2018, and Nepal submitted opposition letter along with proofs and evidences of origin, diversity, cultivation and use values of Basmati rice on 9 December 2020. A total 133 Basmati type rice landraces are grown in 60 districts of Nepal. Basmati rice is traditionally grown, sold, and consumed in geographically localized areas of Nepal since ancient time. International and national scientists have defined lower altitude of Nepal as one of the centers of origin of Basmati rice. Many Nepalese basmati rice landraces have been characterized and evaluated using morphological traits, isozymes and DNA markers. Four basmati type of rice landraces have been registered in National Seed Board. Many community seed banks have maintained different types of Basmati rice landraces. National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center and International genebanks have collected more than 80 and conserved 68 basmati landraces. Basmati rice landraces have geo-linked traits. The historical culture of production, consumption and marketing of native basmati rice in Nepal should always be favored by both national and international rules and regulations. Nepal has ample and valid evidences to get geographical indication (GI) right on Basmati rice. Keywords: Geographical indication, Basmati rice, origin, diversity, historical literature Corresponding author, email: joshibalak@yahoo.com Introduction Rice diversities consisting of 2500 native landraces and 153 improved varieties are being grown in 75 out of 77 districts and within an altitude range from 60 to 3050 m in Nepal [1–7]. Before 1980, Nepal was exporting rice including aromatic rice to India, China, Singapore and Bangladesh [1,8–12[. In 1977, a total of 105,000-t rice was exported [1]. The word ‘Basmati’ is used as an adjective describing the things having aroma or fragrance. Basmati, the prince/king of rice is a valued and expensive cereal. Many landraces are very localized and possess specific traits, for instance, Basmati with aroma [2,13,14]. In general, Basmati type landraces include all aromatic rice landraces. Aromatic rice is grown in 10% of total rice area (i.e. 150,000 ha out of total 1491,744 ha rice area) with total production of 375,000t in Nepal [15]. Average productivity of such landraces is about 2.5 t/ha. Basmati rice emits aroma which could be a geographical indication (GI). Geographical indication is a sign used on products that has a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or reputation that are due to that origin. It is a very common practice to provide GI tag to the agricultural products in the world to monopolize the marketing. Germany has the highest number of GI tagged products with 9,499, but, Nepal does not have any one [7]. A total of 361 GI products have been registered in India as of September 2019. Darjeeling tea was the first GI tagged product in India, registered in 2004. In 2010, Basmati rice also got registered as GI product in India. India has also submitted Nepal Journal of Biotechnology Publisher: Biotechnology Society of Nepal ISSN (Online): 2467-9313 Journal Homepage: www.nepjol.info/index.php/njb ISSN (Print): 2091-1130 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7848-5824 mailto:joshibalak@yahoo.com Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 94 application to EU for geographical indication tag to Basmati rice in 2018 [16]. In addition to EU, India has also sought registration of ‘Basmati’ in different countries. Basmati rice is grown in Indian Subcontinent and many countries have their own native Basmati rice [16–18]. Many diverse Basmati types of rice landraces are being grown in different parts of Nepal since ancient times [1,6,14,19,20]. Therefore, the Nepalese farming communities have rights on using Basmati rice. Nepal applied opposition letter to EU with regards to GI tag to Indian Basmati rice on 9 December 2020. To be eligible to get GI tag to Basmati rice, Nepal needs to develop and generate relevant proofs and evidences. The objectives of this paper, therefore, were to compile Basmati rice related proofs and evidences of origin, diversity, cultivation and use values in Nepal; to analyze historical cases of Basmati and aromatic rice landraces and to aware and generate information about GI tag to Basmati rice. Methodologies Basmati rice type (which include all aromatic rice landraces) have been grown in different parts of Nepal since ancient time. There are key farmers and researchers who are well familiar with Basmati type rice landraces. Both primary and secondary data were collected, analyzed and discussed. Information related to geographical indication and Basmati rice were telecasted, published in different media and shared widely to make aware and improve understanding of geographical indication. Nine different methods to generate and compile Basmati rice related proofs and evidences were adopted. We visited 6 different sites; surveyed 15 key informants; organized 5 times focus group discussion; organized 3 times online interaction and discussion meetings; requested call through phone, email, website and different media to relevant organization across the country; organized two times high-level-official meetings; organized a Basmati rice expert consultation meeting; developed three video documentaries, and surveyed literatures. Proofs and evidences were grouped and analyzed under 10 different areas as shown in Figure 1. Database of Genesys (https://www.genesys-pgr.org/), National Genebank of Nepal and community seed banks were analyzed. Districts growing aromatic rice landraces were mapped in the country map. Total number of aromatic rice landraces was estimated based on their name given by farmers. Aromatic rice diversities were grouped under two: Basmati group (any landraces that contain at least the word Basmati in their name) and non- basmati aromatic group (any landraces that emits aroma but do not have the word Basmati in their name). Figure 1. Groups of potential proof and evidences of origin, diversity, cultivation and use values of Basmati rice Findings All relevant stakeholders, farming communities, experts and high officials attended in various official meetings agreed that Basmati rice originated in Nepal and different types of Basmati rice are being grown. Basmati rice has multidimensional values associated with farming communities, wealthy people and special occasions. Farmers and researchers are also well familiar with the historical importance, diversity, market value and use of Basmati rice in Nepal. Geographical indication in Nepal Because of climatic variation, Nepal is rich in agrobiodiversity and some of them are produced in very specific areas e.g. Jumli Marshi, Jethobudo, Basmati, Juju Dhau, Pharping pear, etc. More than 100 agricultural products are potential for geographical indication (GI) tag in Nepal [7,21]. It is well known that if Jethobudo grows other than Pokhara valley, its quality decreases. None of the products are registered as GI in Nepal; however, there are many products including Basmati, marketed informally as GI and getting higher price for assured better quality in different parts of the country. Three traits (famous, special trait and origin) are very important on GI system. Basmati is very famous, has a very special trait and originated in Nepal, and therefore, hold capacity to get GI tag. Legally registration system as GI has not been existed in Nepal, but there is a policy provision for GI [7]. Basmati rice in Nepal and India Basmati rice emits a specific aroma in the field, at harvesting, in storage, during milling, cooking and eating. Some landraces may emit aroma in only few stages e.g. at 12 34 5 6 8 7 9 10 Deep rooted evidences for GI Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 95 harvesting, during cooking, etc. In Nepal Basmati type rice covers all aromatic rice landraces (short grain, medium and long grain types) and varieties [22]. It is grown in Tarai and Mid Hill agricultural ecozones. This is highly reputed rice and cost very high. Therefore, normal family cannot offer such rice all the day. Basmati rice are sold in many locations by the name of production areas. Many short and medium grain aromatic landraces are grown and consumed locally but they are not known much in the international market. In India, Basmati type rice include only long grain rice that emits aroma in most of the time [16–18,23]. Along with Basmati, many short and medium grain aromatic rice varieties are grown in different parts of India. Some of them are superior for taste and aroma as compared to long grain aromatic varieties [18]. Though Basmati rice includes all aromatic rice in Nepal, we have to standardize the Basmati rice for international trade as per the international standard including in India and Pakisan. Relatively traditional grown Basmati rice are better in quality and aroma than Basmati varieties developed by breeder and grown in high input conditions. Tools and techniques now are available to check the adulteration of Basmati that help protect the interest of consumers and farmers [18]. Ready-to-use kit along with DNA markers could be used for Basmati authentication. An international code of practice has been developed for maintaining the reputation of Basmati rice [18]. Figure 2. Historical events on intellectual property right (IPR) over Basmati Rice and its geographical indication (GI) cases in Nepal Historical Events on IPR over Basmati Rice Because of very highly recognized and preferred trait of Basmati rice, different types of intellectual property rights are being tried on Basmati rice around the world. For example, US-based RiceTec Company patented Basmati rice in 1997 [24]. India registered Basmati rice under the regime of geographical indication in 2010. In Nepal IPR over agricultural products and technologies are very negligible. In case of Basmati rice, Nepal applied detail proofs and evidences of origin, diversity, cultivation and use values of Basmati rice in EU in Dec 2020. Historical details of IPR over the Basmati rice and GI cases are given in Figure 2. Evidences of origin, diversity, cultivation and use values of Basmati rice Basmati rice possess geo-linked trait i.e. quality and aroma. Same genotype of Basmati rice if grown in other than its original home localities, their quality differs and could not get same quality products as produced in their native localities. This property of Basmati rice is then provided as GI tag. Many different types of information and methodologies are needed to get GI tag [21]. Evidences on aromatic rice in Nepal are described below. 1997 Detail evidences submitted to EU 2 Sept 1997 Nepal, member of WIPO RiceTech, US patented Basmati rice June 2000 India opposed US patent on Basmati rice 23 April 2004 2002 RiceTech withdrew basmati rice patent Nepal, member of TRIPS/WTO May 2010 July 2018 11 Sept 2020 5 Oct 2020 28 Nov 2020 2 Dec 2020 7 Dec 2020 8 Dec 2020 9 Dec 2020 15 Dec 2020 16 Dec 2020 20 Dec 2020 6 Dec 2020 5 Dec 2020 4 Feb 2021 GI tag to Basmati rice in India (7 states) by APEDA India applied GI tag to Basmati rice in EU Notice on GI tag to Basmati rice published in OJ of the EU Pakistan decided to oppose India claim over GI tag in EU GK Kharel got informed notice of OJ of the EU on GI tag to Basmati rice Notice of OJ of the EU on GI tag to Basmati rice published in Dekhapadhi Notice of OJ of the EU on GI tag to Basmati rice published in Setopati Basmati GI tag issue entered in DI and MoICS after application notice by APAA Nepal Basmati GI tag issue entered in NARC and MoALD Proofs and evidences collected 1st high level meeting and decided to oppose Oppose letter prepared and submitted and received acknowledgement from EU Disseminated widely through media Meeting with NAPA 2nd High level meeting 29 Dec 2020Panel Discussion on Basmati case, NAPA 1 Jan 2021Committee formed Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 96 Linguistic and ancient literature evidences In literal meaning, basmati means aroma or scented [3,7,9,25]. It is made up of two Sanskrit words, ‘Vas’ means aroma and ‘Mati’ means ingrained from the origin. In Nepali language, the equivalent of Vas is Bas (aroma) and therefore, aroma related rice landraces and varieties are called Basmati. Almost all Nepali understand the meaning and importance of Basmati and Basmati rice and therefore, this word Basmati has become the very common Nepali word. Ancient literatures have mentioned Basmati rice as an important food, nutritional and medicinal items [1,26–30]. Chandranighantu (250 years old literature) has described Sali Dhan [29,31]. Ayurved has grouped rice diversity in three categories and among them shukdhanya category includes 15 sali dhanya jaat including Basmati type [29]. Nepali literature of 1960 BS (1903 AD) reported 61 landraces including Basmati type [27]. In Lumbini, which is birth place of Lord Gautam Buddha, there is aromatic rice landrace called Kalanamak, which was used as holy grain during Baudha period (900 BC). Because of its religious important, community has started conservation works for Kalanamak rice landrace (called Bhaudhakalin Kalanamak Dhan) and reviving the culture [32,33]. The Father of Lord Budhha is the king Suddhodhan which mean pure rice with aroma. Nepal has also registered aromatic rice by this name, Suddhodhan Kalanamak. Kalanamak rice also contain high iron and zinc [34]. Many researchers have documented and published about Nepalese basmati rice landraces and many of these are available online [1,6,9,19,30,35–48]. Folklore Basmati is common word in Nepal and has been used for giving name to ladies. Other plant species having aroma are also named with this word e.g. Basmati sponge gourd, Basmati Rayo, Basmati banana, etc. We can see some stories, poems, songs associated with Basmati in Nepal. For example, there is Deuda song in Western Nepal, “Basmati ko dhan pakya garai basai gaya” which mean during maturity, Basmati rice emits aroma and any one can feel its aroma around the field. Similarly, fair dance song called Hathhorha is held in Baisakhi festival. There is a long song this fair dance and its part (“Basmati ropanya syara O bamja Jhuprai bamja”) also relate Basmati rice [49]. Traditions, specialty and reputation Basmati rice is traditionally grown, sold, and consumed in Nepal since ancient time [1,10–12,25,33–36,44,48,50–58]. Historically, public mind always considers Basmati rice as a special grain aromatic rice grown and produced in a particular geographical area. Basmati rice landraces have geo-linked traits and they are grown in different parts of Nepal [4–7]. It is highly valued and most important rice landraces fetching premium price in the market (8,9,19,21,25,36,38,38,41,50,57,59–62). Basmati is a group of rice landraces used on special occasion [10,51,55]. Farmers’ experiences indicated that organic Basmati is far better than non-organic in quality and aroma. The aroma decreases when an aromatic rice is grown with chemical fertilizers. The application of home made compost (made up from native and local materials and livestock dungs) is a must if the real aromatic rice is to be produced. Aroma is higher in recently harvested rice over old stock. Rice dehulled with local Dhiki is with higher aroma as compared to grain milled in a rice huller [19]. Its straw is very soft and long therefore farmers prefer to make different home items, Gundri, Chakati, Chataai, etc. from its straw. Basmati rice straw is also used to make marriage-temple or house and this is very old tradition in Tarai region. Sociocultural, economical and market value Basmati rice has social and cultural values in Nepalese communities [10–12,14,33,52,55,57,58]. Social status is very high for those family who consume and grow aromatic rice. Common culture from ancient time is to offer Basmati rice based food items to guest, relatives, VIP, in festival, special function, marriage ceremony, etc. [57,60]. Nepali community consider Basmati rice grain as holy, pure, chokho, virgin and therefore used during fasting, offer to Gods and Goddess, and used in different religious ceremony (chhat, shraddha, etc.). It is also a component of axeta and vikxa. There are a lot of socio cultural evidences particularly in Tarai area. It is used during Ram Janaki Bibaha, in general marriage ceremony, Kul deuta pooja, etc. Some farmers use Basmati rice grain in death ceremony and Ritual Shraddha. For this, they allocate separate land for continued growing of Basmati rice and harvest from this land is used during ritual program. On the day of Shraddha, their home use to be full of delicious rice smell. In many religious events, there is a function called hom- halne where aromatic rice grains are used and one can feel smell of rice around during this function. Basmati rice has a very high economic value [19,44,59,60]. The aromatic rice is very popular in both domestic and international markets and fetches premium price. Gin and Shahi [28] reported that Nepal used to export about 200 metric tons of fine quality aromatic rice per annum earning about 4l million rupees in 1977. Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 97 Table 1. List of Basmati landraces conserved in National Genebank, Nepal SN Accession Landrace Collected site 1 NGRC01669 Jhinuwa Masino Gorakhkali, Gorkha 2 NGRC01698 Basmati Dhan Kalsil, Bajura 3 NGRC 01811 Basmati Dhan Mundi, Humla 4 NGRC 01815 Basmati Dhan Tukche, Mustang 5 NGRC 01825 Basmati Dhan Makai, Humla 6 NGRC 01835 Sunaulo Dhan Badhu, Bajura 7 NGRC 01867 Masino Basmati Dhan Dhading 8 NGRC 01945 Basmati Dhan Lalitpur 9 NGRC 01967 Kalanamak Dhan Khungai, Rupandehi 10 NGRC 02022 Hanse Dhan Dandagaon, Salyan 11 NGRC 02030 Basmati Dhan Dipayal, Doti 12 NGRC 02036 Sunaulo Dhan Martadi, Bajura 13 NGRC 02066 Hansaraj Dhan Madigaon, Bajhang 14 NGRC 02093 Hansaraj Dhan Manara, Dadeldhura 15 NGRC 02094 Basmati Dhan Manara, Dadeldhura 16 NGRC 02103 Sunaulo Dhan Bhandara, Dadeldhura 17 NGRC02821 Jhinuwa Masino Gorkha Bazaar, Gorkha 18 NGRC03016 Kanakjira Udayapur 19 NGRC03023 Sunaulo Ghaiya Sanagaun -7, Doti 20 NGRC03038 Sunaulo Ghaiya Silgadhi-9, Doti 21 NGRC03050 Sunaulo Ghaiya Sallaghari-11, Dadeldhura 22 NGRC03051 Danda Basmati Dasharat chand-9, Baitadi 23 NGRC03052 Danda Basmati Dasharat chand-9, Baitadi 24 NGRC03096 Kalo Masino Taranagar (DADO), Gorkha 25 NGRC03249 Jhinuwa Basmati Dhan Raluka, Nuwakot 26 NGRC03268 Basmati Dhan Thumpakhar, Sindhupalchok 27 NGRC03289 Rato Basmati Dhan Parsa 28 NGRC03291 Rato Basmati Dhan Bara 29 NGRC03293 Basmati Nokhi Dhan Bara 30 NGRC03326 Kanakjira Dhan Sunsari 31 NGRC03364 Basmati Dhan Chhinnamasta, Saptari 32 NGRC03369 Kalanamak Dhan Kapilvastu 33 NGRC03375 Basmati Dhan Dhanusha 34 NGRC03389 Basmati Dhan Beldari, Kanchanpur 35 NGRC03415 Basmati Dhan Phulkaha Katti, Siraha 36 NGRC04999 Kalo Masino Gaikhur, Gorkha 37 NGRC05007 Hansaraj Basmati Dhan Chaudhari-6, Mauri bagar, Bajhang 38 NGRC05017 Hansaraj Dhan Banjh-8, Bajhang 39 NGRC05018 Shyamjiro Banjh-8, Bajhang 40 NGRC05691 Shyam Jira Gadariya-1, Kailali 41 NGRC07862 Jarneli Dhan Barpak, Gorkha 42 NGRC07869 Begani Ghaiya Saurpani, Gorkha 43 NGRC07889 Masino Basmati Bichaur-4, Lamjung 44 NGRC07900 Mohanbhog Patharaiya-9, Kailali 45 NGRC07915 Kalo Jhinuwa Ghanpokhara, Lamjung 46 NGRC07923 Lekali Basmati Ghanpokhara, Lamjung 47 NGRC08267 Seto Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 48 NGRC08273 Kalo Tuned Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 49 NGRC08276 Chhoti Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 50 NGRC08277 Rato Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 51 NGRC08278 Hansaraj Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 52 NGRC08289 Kanakjira Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 53 NGRC08300 Jorayal Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 54 NGRC08303 Hansaraj Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 55 NGRC08308 Kalo Basmati Dhan Shivasatasi Municipality, Jhapa 56 NGRC08372 Kalo Basmati Dhan Kawasoti N.Pa.- 14, Nawalpur 57 NGRC08442 Hansaraj Dhan Satyawti Gaupa, Gulmi 58 NGRC08586 Basmati Dhan Betali – 4, Ramechhap 59 Co - 10271 Hansaraj Dhan Satyawti Gaupa, Gulmi 60 Co - 10406 Basnadaar Lamda Dhan Sayaal -5, Doti 61 Co - 10512 Basmati Dhan Betali - 4, Ramechhap 62 Co - 10669 Kalo Tuned Basmati Shiwa satasi N. Pa. - 3, Jhapa 63 Co - 10681 Shyanmjira Khjura Ga. Pa. - 4, Banke 64 Co - 10691 Basmati Dhan Bhadrapur N. Pa. - 1, Jhapa 65 Co - 10692 Chulthe Basmati Bhadrapur N. Pa. - 1, Jhapa Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 98 66 Co - 10751 Basmati Dhan Bagmati - 6, Lalitpur 67 Co - 10764 Aglo Basmati Dhan Bagmati - 7, Lalitpur 68 Co - 10765 Hocho Basmati Dhan Bagmati - 7, Lalitpur 69 Co - 10915 Basmati Dhan Gokulganga Ga. Pa. - 4, Ramechhap 70 Co - 11257 Kalo Basmati Ganeshaman N. Pa. - 7, Dhanusha 71 Co - 11258 Sunaulo Sugandha Bhartapur Mahangarpalika, Chitwan 72 Co - 11381 Gajiyabad Basmati Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 73 Co - 11382 Puspa Basmati Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 74 Co - 11416 Basnadar Kalo Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 75 Co - 11427 Thaniya Basmati Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 76 Co - 11454 Kalanamak Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 77 Co - 11462 Basphool Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 78 Co - 11464 Baspare Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 79 Co - 11468 Basmati Paschimko Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan 80 Co - 11470 Jhinuwa Basmati Bharatpur sub - MC - 19, Chitwan Note: There are other Basmati (aromatic) type rice accessions in National Genebank of Nepal that need to further study and verification. Many local rice millers (around 60 rice factories) are marketing basmati rice by different brand names at local and national levels. Some of native aromatic landraces are as competitive as modern varieties [8,9]. Many households prefer to grow economically valued traits ie aroma [63]. Relatively quality of Nepalese Basmati rice is better than other countries. Three landraces (Basmati, Rato Basmati, and Kalo Nuniya) are very popular aromatic landraces in Nepal and have a high market value in comparison with other varieties [64]. Basmati comes under the group of five-qualities (Pancha Gudiya) product in Nepal. These five qualities are purity, quality, tasty, healthy and nutritious. Some of Basmati landraces are medicinally important [29]. Basmati rice landraces milled in local mill (dhiki) content low glycemic index and therefore are useful for diabetes patients. Databases Four basmati type of rice landraces have been improved and registered in National Seed Board of Government of Nepal. They are Pokhreli Jetho Budho rice registered in 2006, Lalka basmati registered in 2010, Suddhodhan Kalanamak and Kalonuniya registered in 2020. These registrations have also been published in Nepal Gazette (Nepal Rajpatra) on different dates [3,65–67]. Many community seed banks have maintained different types of basmati rice landraces in their localities [68–70]. National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center (National Genebank) under Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC, www.narc.gov.np) has collected and conserved more than 80 basmati type rice accessions from different areas of Nepal (Table 1). There are other landraces which are Basmati type but recognized as different names. Their examples include Hansraj, Jethobudho, Jhinuwa, Kalo masino, Tilki, Ghiu puri, Begani, Jarneli, Gauriya, Kalo nuniya, Kala Namak, Kanak Jira, Kariya Kamod, Krishnabhog, Sali Dhan, Shyamjira, etc [4–6,45,71]. International genebanks (https://www.genesys- pgr.org/) has conserved more than 68 basmati rice accessions collected from different parts of Nepal (Table 2) and some of them were collected in early 1970s. Some of basmati type accessions conserved in the International Rice Research Institute (www.irri.org) genebank include Asamiya Basmati, Basmati, Basmati Anpjhutte, Basmati Dhan, Basmati Gola, Basmati Lamo, Basmati Masino, Basmati Nokhi, Basmati Pahade, Basmati Red, Basmati Uzarka, Basmati White, Danda Basmati, Kalo Basmati, Masino Basmati, Rato Basmati, Sete Basmati, Seto Basmati, etc. Many of these accessions conserved in IRRI has already been shared with other countries for research and utilization [67]. Table 2. Nepali rice accessions named Basmati available from Genesys SN Accession Acquisition Date Local Name 1 PI 549247 1984/12/13 Basmati mutant 2 IRGC 16213 1972/06/30 Masino Basmati 3 IRGC 23861 1972/04/05 Dhera Dun Basmati 4 IRGC 23787 1972/04/05 Basmati Dhan 5 IRGC 58881 1981/08/31 Basmati Lamo 6 IRGC 58882 1981/08/31 Basmati Masino (Purple Tip) 7 IRGC 58886 1981/08/31 Basmati Red 8 IRGC 58884 1981/08/31 Basmati Nokhi 9 IRGC 58883 1981/08/31 Basmati Masino 10 IRGC 59054 1981/08/31 Kalo Basmati 11 IRGC 58880 1981/08/31 Basmati Gola 12 IRGC 58885 1981/08/31 Basmati Pahade 13 IRGC 16136 1972/06/30 Asamiya Basmati 14 IRGC 83309 1994/09/22 Basmati 15 IRGC 83679 1994/09/22 Seto Basmati 16 IRGC 83317 1994/09/22 Basmati Mutant 17 IRGC 83316 1994/09/22 Basmati Mixed 2 18 IRGC 83650 1994/09/22 Rato Basmati 19 IRGC 83310 1994/09/22 Basmati Dhan 20 IRGC 83314 1994/09/22 Basmati Dhan http://www.narc.gov.np/ https://www.genesys-pgr.org/ https://www.genesys-pgr.org/ http://www.irri.org/ Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 99 21 IRGC 83784 1994/09/22 Basmati 22 IRGC 86925 1996/10/24 Basmati Dhan 23 IRGC 83313 1994/09/22 Basmati Dhan 24 IRGC 83312 1994/09/22 Basmati Dhan 25 IRGC 83661 1994/09/22 Red Basmati 26 IRGC 83308 1994/09/22 Basmati 27 IRGC 83315 1994/09/22 Basmati Dhan 28 IRGC 88761 1995/06/02 Basmati Mixed 1 29 IRGC 83678 1994/09/22 Seto Basmati 30 IRGC 83676 1994/09/22 Sete Basmati 31 IRGC 83311 1994/09/22 Basmati Dhan 32 IRGC 16130 1972/06/30 Basmati 33 IRGC 58887 1981/08/31 Basmati White 34 IRGC 58879 1981/08/31 Basmati Anpjhutte 35 IRGC 59205 1981/08/31 Rato Basmati 36 IRGC 58888 1981/08/31 Basmati Uzarka 37 IRGC 110313 1996/10/24 Danda Basmati 38 IRGC 62000 1982/04/20 Masino Basmati 39 IRGC 117438 2008/12/15 Basmati Lamo::IRGC 58881-1 40 IRGC 127766 2011/05/01 Rato Basmati::IRGC 59205-1 41 IRGC 132324 2013/11/01 Basmati Red::IRGC 58886- 2 42 IRGC 133780 2011/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 83313-1 43 IRGC 133781 2011/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 83315-1 44 IRGC 133779 2011/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 23814-1 45 IRGC 133785 2011/11/01 Basmati Gola::IRGC 58880-1 46 IRGC 133805 2011/11/01 Basmati Masino::IRGC 58883-1 47 IRGC 133810 2011/11/01 Basmati Mutant::IRGC 83317-1 48 IRGC 133824 2011/11/01 Basmati White::IRGC 58887-1 49 IRGC 133809 2011/11/01 Basmati Mixed 1::IRGC 88761-1 50 IRGC 133806 2011/11/01 Basmati Masino (Purple Tip)::IRGC 58882-1 51 IRGC 133815 2011/11/01 Basmati Nokhi::IRGC 58884-1 52 IRGC 133962 2011/11/01 Danda Basmati::IRGC 110313-1 53 IRGC 134149 2011/11/01 Kalo Basmati::IRGC 59054-1 54 IRGC 134335 2011/11/01 Rato Basmati::IRGC 83650-1 55 IRGC 134357 2011/11/01 Red Basmati::IRGC 83661-1 56 IRGC 134410 2011/11/01 Sete Basmati::IRGC 83676-1 57 IRGC 134411 2011/11/01 Seto Basmati::IRGC 83679-1 58 IRGC 134645 2011/11/01 Dhera Dun Basmati::IRGC 23861-1 59 IRGC 134791 2012/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 83310-2 60 IRGC 134792 2012/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 83312-2 61 IRGC 134836 2012/11/01 Masino Basmati::IRGC 62000-2 62 IRGC 134880 2011/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 86925-1 63 IRGC 134948 2013/11/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 83311-2 64 IRGC 135656 2011/11/01 Basmati Mixed 2::IRGC 83316-1 65 IRGC 135657 2011/11/01 Basmati Pahade::IRGC 58885-1 66 IRGC 135712 2014/05/01 Basmati Dhan::IRGC 83314-2 67 IRGC 136202 2015/05/01 Basmati Uzarka::IRGC 58888-2 68 IRGC 140367 2018/01/05 Seto Basmati::IRGC 83678-1 Note: There are many other Basmati (aromatic) type rice accessions (with other than Basmati name) collected from Nepal in this Genesys database. Source: [67], https://www.genesys- pgr.org/ Center of diversity Basmati rice has been originated in Indian Subcontinent [16–18,72–74]. The center of diversity of aromatic rice are the foothills of Himalayas in the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Bihar, and Tarai region of Nepal [17,38,54,75] and produced in geographically localized areas of Nepal. The center of diversity and dispersal route are indicated in Figure 3. International and national Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 100 scientists have defined lower altitude of Nepal as one of the centers of origin of basmati rice [38,56,72,76,77]. The Tarai belt of Nepal was once considered as the bowel of aromatic rice landraces [38]. Choi et al [76] reported three major geographically structured genetic groups of aromatic rice and they are Bhutan and Nepal which is admixture of cluster 2 and 3; Bangladesh, India and Myanmar which made distinct cluster, and Iran and Pakistan which also made distinct cluster. Figure 3. Center of diversity and dispersal route of aromatic rice in Asia.Source: [17] Historical evidences and research Ancient documents (Ayurved, Chandraniganthu), old scientific literatures [1,26,27,29,32,33] and culture of Lord Gautam Bauddha [33] have mentioned different features and uses of aromatic rice. Cultures and values associated with Basmati rice have been passed from generation to generation. Basmati rice is the most preferred by all Nepali people. Basmati rice was used by King family, very rich people, in special occasion, festival, very special function, etc. It is common culture in Nepal to offer Basmati rice to VIP and guest. Family having Basmati rice also got respected by the communities. It has been used as indicator of rich people and neighbors easily know cooking variety of rice by smelling aroma. Research on basmati rice started in 1951 with the collection of 930 rice germplasm (including aromatic landraces) from across 54 districts and their evaluation at Parwanipur and Khumaltar [1,26] in Nepal. NARC and other organizations have been working for developing aromatic rice varieties using local basmati rice landraces since early 1960s [8,9,40,67,78–82]. Nepali students (BSc Ag) in India have also experiences of taking Basmati rice including wild rice from Nepal to India with expecting good amount of money. They remembered; teacher taught about the importance of Basmati rice and possibility of patenting this rice (Prabeen Dahal, 2020 personal communication). Basmati rice diversity and production areas There are many different forms of basmati rice landraces in Nepal, grown in different districts [1,4– 9,19,27,30,35,38,41,50,60,61,71,83–85]. We found total 133 aromatic rice landraces by name. Among them, 43 landraces contain the words in association with Basmati in their name (Table 1 and 2) and 90 landraces were named by the word other than Basmati (Box 1). Farmers in particular area may give their own name to aromatic rice landraces introduced from other areas. Four aromatic landraces have been improved and registered in National Seed Board of Government of Nepal and two exotic aromatic varieties (Sunaulo Sugandha and Sugandhit Dhan-1) have been released for general cultivation. In IRRI Genebank, there are about 86 landraces described by the name Basmati irrespective of grain dimensions and intensity of aroma in IRRI [23]. Maximum variation was observed in Nepal, followed by India and Bangladesh in aromatic germplasm [23]. Very high diversity at both phenotypic and genotypic levels in Basmati rice have been reported in Nepal [6,7,38,45,71,78,86]. Intra landrace diversity was also found commonly in many aromatic landraces [79,80]. These aromatic landraces possess very different traits and based on 12 bases, types of aromatic rice landraces and varieties along with meaning and examples are given in Table 3. Some are with awn and some are awnless with red, white and black grain. Based on grain size, there are three types of Basmati rice, namely short, medium and long grain Basmati rice [30,70,72,87]. Aromatic rice does not exist for deep water condition in Nepal. Rahmani and Box 1. List of basmati (aromatic) type landraces (not named by the word basmati) in Nepal (total= 90) Aachame Masino, Anadi Basnadar, Anjana, Bagane, Bagari, Bahani, Baharni, Barambhusi, Basnadaar Lamda Dhan, Basnadar Kalo, Baspare, Basphool, Batisara, Bayarni, Begani, Belguthi, Biramphool, Chengul, Chiniyapuri, Chirankhe, Dudhe Marsi, Gauria (Gaure), Ghaiya Rato, Ghyu Puri, Ghyu Kumari, Gude Kalo, Gude Seto, Gudgudo, Gudura, Gurdi Kalo, Gurdi Seto, Hansaraj, Hanse Dhan, Hapsa, Hapsa Rato, Indrabeli, Jaran Dhan (Kalo), Jarneli, Jaswa, Jethobudho, Jhinuwa, Jhinuwa Ghaiya, Jirasari, Jogini, Kalanamak, Kalo Bayarni, Kalo Jhinuwa, Kalo Masino, Kalo Nuniya, Kalo Nuniya Thulo, Kalo Jhinuwa, Kanak Jira, Kariya Kamod, Kasturi, Khairo Anadi, Khalte Kholo, Koili, Krishna Bhog, Krishna Charcha, Lajee, Lalbachchhi, Madhukar, Mahabhog, Mahajogani, Malbhog, Masino Jhinuwa, Motisor, Pahenle, Pakhe Jhinuwa, Pakhe Tunde, Pokhreli Masino, Pran Peuri, Rahumanuwa, Rajbhog, Ram Tulsi, Ramjoin, Sali Dhan, Samundraphinj, Seto Bayarni, Seto Jhinuwa, Shyamjira, Sisuwapanheli, Sunaulo Dhan, Sunaulo Ghaiya, Suwawat, Thapachini, Tilki, Tulsi Prasad, Tulsiphool, Tunde. Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 101 Harinkher can also grow in shade area. Similarly Koili is shade loving aromatic landrace. Pranpyuri is very soft basmati rice landrace. Table 3. Grouping of Nepalese rice landraces based on different criteria SN Basis Type Meaning Example 1 Planting season Chaite aromatic Dhan Spring rice, transplanting in Chaitra Tauli Bhadayia aromatic Dhan Early type Bhadaiya Basmati Barkhe or Agahani aromatic Dhan Normal rice Basmati, Kasturi, Jhinuwa, Jaswa, Chananchur , Ujrka Basmati, Lalka Basmati, Tulsi Prasad, Gopalbhog Hiunde aromatic Dhan Winter or boro rice Pakhe Masino 2 Maturity Early aromatic rice Early maturity Bhadaiya Basmati, Gyu Puri Medium aromatic rice Medium maturity Thapachini, Anadi Basnadar Late aromatic rice Late maturity Gurdi, Koili, Basmati, Kasturi, Jhinuwa, Jaswa, Chananchur , Ujrka Basmati, Lalka Basmati, Tulsi Prasad, Gopalbhog, Tilki 3 Grain size Short grain aromatic rice Small size grain with aroma Jethobudho, Panhele, Motisar Medium grain aromatic rice Medium size grain with aroma Mahajogani Long grain aromatic rice Long size grain with aroma Anadi Basnadhar 4 Ecosystem (production environment) Rainfed upland aromatic rice Unbunded condition Suwawat, Begani Ghaiya Rainfed lowland aromatic rice Bunded condition Hansaraj, Sali Dhan Irrigated aromatic rice Bunded condition Tilki, Kalo Masino 6 Cultivation Introduce d aromatic From abroad Sunaulo Sugandha, Sugandhit Dhan-1 Improved aromatic Developed by breeder Lalka Basmati, Sudodhan Kalanamak Landrace aromatic Maintained, developed by farmers Kariya Kamod, Krishna Bhog 7 Morphotype Tall aromatic rice Tall height Kalo Masino, Anadi Medium aromatic rice Medium height Hamsaraj, Thapachini ya Dwarf aromatic rice Short height Tulsi Kathey 8 Grain color White aromatic rice Grain with white husk Tauli, Hansaraj Black aromatic rice Grain with black husk Shyam Jira, Kalanamak, Kalo Nuniya Red aromatic rice Grain with red husk Begani Ghaiya, Sali Dhan 9 Photoperiod response Aus (Saro, Gaddar or Ghaiya) aromatic rice Mature within a certain period, photoperiod non sensitive Ghiu Puri, Begani Ghaiya Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 102 Aman (Agahani or Sarihan) aromatic rice Mature at particular time, photo period sensitive Kalanamak, Tilki, Gauriya, Ujaraka Basmati, Tulsi Prasad, Kanakjira 10 Awn Awnless aromatic rice Grain without awn Pokhreli Masino Short awn aromatic rice Grain with very short awn Rato Basmati, Lalka Basmati Long awn aromatic rice Grain with long awn Seto Basmati, Hansaraj 11 Aroma Complete (universal ) aromatic rice Emits aroma in all stages (field, harvesting, storage, milling, cooking and eating) Hansaraj, Sali Dhan, Kalo Masino, Jhinuwa, Jethobudho, Kalanamak, Kalo Nuniya Partial aromatic rice Emits aroma in only few stages (cooking and eating) Lalka Basmati, Jorayal Basmati, Anadi, Chananchur , Jaswa, Gauriya, Ujarka Basmati 12 Name Basmati named rice Name has at least basmati word Basmati, Ujarka Basmati Non basmati aromatic rice Name has other than basmati word Kasturi, Jhinuwa Source: [1,7,19,22,36,50,52,57,61,70,86,88,89] Source: [1,2,6,7,14,19,20,30,35,36,41,47,48, 50–53, 57,61,65,68,70,78, 81–83, 85–91] Aromatic rice is produced in many Asian countries [18]. Aromatic rice landraces mainly Basmati, Kalanamak, Kariyakamod, Kalonuniya, Hansraj, Jethobudho, Jhinuwa, Syamjira, Tilki, etc. are being grown in more than 30,000 hectares of 41 districts in Nepal [4–6,57,65]. Aromatic rice is cultivated from East Mechi to west Mahakali. There are many Ghaiya aromatic landraces as well in Doti and Achham districts. Aromatic rice Gauri, Paranpyuri, Kalo Gude and Jhinuwa are still cultivated in small areas in Surkhet valley. Survey and literatures have shown that aromatic rices are grown in 60 districts out of 77 in Nepal (Figure 4). The Tarai belt was once considered as the bowel of aromatic rice landraces [38]. Altitudinal distribution of aromatic rice landraces is given in Table 4. Aromatic rices are grown from 60 to 1800 m altitude in Nepal. Figure 4. Districts (marked by star sign) showing cultivation of native Basmati (aromatic) type rice landraces in Nepal Source: [1,6,7,14,19,20,51,52,65,69,70,78] Agro-morphological and nutritional based evidences Collection, characterization and evaluation of native aromatic rice landraces have been started since 1951 in Nepal [1,26]. A large number of landraces and introduced aromatic rice varieties were characterized and evaluated both at on-farm and on-station by many Nepalese researchers using agro-morphological traits [1,7,9,21,28,30,39,43–45,51–53,58,70,71,78–80,82,84,86– 88,92]. Cooking and eating qualities are the main important features in Basmati rice. These qualities are associated with different factors. Nutritional analyses have been done in some of native and improved Basmati type rice varieties and landraces [21,22,48]. The protein content was maximum in Red Basmati (7.74%) and minimum in Black Basmati (6.51%) among the four Basmati varieties [22]. These nutritional profiles indicates that there is variation within and among different types of aromatic rice landraces grown in Nepal. Isozymes and DNA based evidences Many Nepalese aromatic rice landraces have been explored through isozymes and DNA markers [18,38,45,76–78,92–94]. DNA profile and fingerprints of some aromatic rice landraces using SSR markers are given in Figure 5. National and foreign scientists have used Nepalese aromatic rice genotypes for genetics study, molecular breeding and diversity study, and reported variation within and among landraces collected from different parts of Nepal. Bardiya Bajhang Darchula Mustang Dolpa Mugu Humla Achham Kailali Doti Baitadi Bajura Jumla Jajarkot Dailekh Dang Salyan Surkhet Banke Myagdi Rolpa Rukum Kalikot Tanahu Lamjung Kaski Manang Gulmi Palpa Siraha M a h o tt a ri Bara Parsa Chitwan Gorkha LTP Nuwakot Rasuwa Dolakha Dhankuta Taplejung Ilam Jhapa M o ra n g Saptari B KTM Sindhuli Kavre K h o ta n g CHINA INDIA N Syangja Aromatic rice growing district, Total: 52 Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 103 Table 4. Distribution of Basmati type rice landraces in Nepal SN Rice Cultivar Districts Altitude, m Achhame Masino Chitwan, Jhapa, Makawanpur, Morang 200-800 Asamiya Basmati Morang <600 Badiya Basmati Bara, Rautahat, Parsa <600 Bagari Chitawan, Siraha 60-300 Baharni Bara, Parsa, Saptari, Siraha <500 Basmati Bara, Bajura, Dadeldhura, Darchula, Dhanusha, Doti, Humla, Jhapa, Kapilvastu, Kanchanpur, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Mahottari, Morang, Parsa, Pyuthan, Ramechhap Rautahat, Rupandehi, Sarlahi, Siraha, Sindhupalchok, Taplejung, Udayapur 200-1000 Basmati Anadi Bara <300 Basmati Anpjhutte Dolakha <800 Basmati Nokhi Bara <300 Belguthi Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Sankhuwasabha, Panchthar, Ilam, Jhapa, Terhathum <800 Biramphool Dhading, Jhapa, Kathmandu, Kaski, Lamjung, Morang, Parbat, Siraha, Sunsari, Udayapur 400-800 Charan Basmati Bajura 1000 Chengul Bara, Parsa, Sunsari <500 Chhoti Basmati Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari <300 Chirankhe Bhojpur, Dhankuta, Illam, Okhaldhunga, Panchthar, Terhathum <1800 Chulthe Jhapa, Sunsari 60-300 Danda Basmati Dadeldhura 1530 Deradun Basmati Bake 300 Gauria Arghakhanchi, Baglung, Kapilvastu, Lamjung, Myagdi, Nawalparasi, Ramechhap, Rupandehi, Sankhuwasabha, Sunsari, Terhathum 300-1400 Ghyu Kumari Bara, Parsa, Sarlahi, Sindhuli <500 Gola Basmati Sunsari <500 Gude (Seto, Kalo) Dailekh <1100 Gudgudo Gulmi <1100 Hansraj Bajhang, Baitadi, Darchula, Dadeldhura, Jhapa, Kanchanpur, Morang, Palpa, Pyuthan, Salyan, Sunsari, Surkhet, Syangja 60-1100 Hapsa Jhapa <300 Hapsa Rato Jhapa 60-300 Indrabeli Dhading, Dhankuta, Gorkha, Lamjung 800-1400 Jaran Dhan (Kalo) Arghakhanchi, Bajhang, Dang, Gulmi, Jajarkot, Kaski, Parbat, Rukum, Salyan and Surkhet 800-1400 Jaswa Dhanusha, Mahottari, Morang, Rautahat, Saptari, Siraha, Sunsari 60-300 Jethobudho Kaski, Myagdi, Parbat, Sunsari, Syagnja, Tanahun 600-1250 Jhinuwa Baglung, Doti, Gorkha, Kailali, Kanchanpur, Kaski, Kathmandu, Lamjung, Myagdi, Nuwakot, Parbat, Shankhuwasaba, Sindhupalchok, Sunsari, Syangja, Tanahun 300-1300 Jirasari Jhapa, Morang, Panchthar, Ramechhap, Sunsari <600 Jogini Chitwan, Ramechhap 500 Jorayal Basmati Doti <800 Jorpal Basmati Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari <1200 Kalo Basmati Dhankuta, Jhapa, Kathmandu, Morang, Sunsari <1200 Kalo Jhuse Basmati Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari <300 Kalo Nuniya Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari 60-300 Kalo Nuniya Thulo Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari 60-300 Kalo/Kala Nimak Bardiya, Chitwan, Nawalparasi, Rupandehi 100-400 Kalotunde Basmati Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari <300 Kanak Jira Bara, Bardiya, Chitawan, Jhapa, Kailali, Kanchanpur, Kapilbastu, Morang, Salyan, Sunsari, Syanja <600 Kariya Kamod Dhanusa, Morang, Saptari, Siraha 200-400 Kasturi Bara, Kailali, Parsa 500-1400 Krishna Bhog Achham, Dhankuta, Kanchanpur, Ramechhap <1400 Krishna Charcha Bajura <1400 Lalbachchhi Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari 60-300 Lalka Basmati Bara, Dhanusha, Parsa, Rautahat 60-300 Lanjhi Bara, Parsa <500 Lekali Basmati Lamjung 1500 Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 104 Mahabhog Kailali, Dhading, Rasuwa, Bara, Parsa 200-600 Mahajogini Bara, Parsa <300 Masino Basmati Dhading, Khotang <900 Motisar Bara, Parsa <300 Pahade Basmati Ilam <1000 Pahenle Bajhang, Bardiya, Gorkha, Ilam, Kaski, Lamjung, Myagdi, Palpa, Parbat, Sinduplanchok, Syanja 600-800 Pokhreli Masino Solukhumbu, Sankhuwasabha 600-800 Pran Peuri Sallyan, Surkhet 1200-1400 Rajbhog Dhading, Kailali, Kanchanpur <600 Ram Tulsi Panchthar, Terhathum 800-1100 Ramjawain Bara, Parsa <600 Rato Basmati Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari 60-300 Rato Basmati Sano Bara, Jhapa, Mahottari, Morang, Parsa, Siraha, Sunsari <300 Ratotunde Basmati Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari <300 Sali Dhan Baitadi, Dadeldhura, Gorkha <1200 Samundrabakhi Phim Dhading, Nuwakot <600 Samundraphinj Dhading, Kaski, Makawanpur, Nuwakot 200-600 Seto Basmati Bara, Jhapa, Morang, Parsa, Sunsari 60-300 Shyamjira Banke, Doti, Jhapa, Kailali, Kanchanpur, Morang, Sunsari 60-300 Thapachini Achham, Bajhang, Bajura, Dadeldhura, Kailali, Lamjung, Terhathum 200- 1400 Tulsi Prasad Nawalparasi, Parsa, Dhanusa 200-1400 Tulsiphool Dhanusha, Jhapa, Mahottari, Morang, Saptari, Sindhuli, Siraha, Sunsari, Udayapur 60-300 Ujarka Basmati Bara, Parsa, Rautahat 60-300 Source: [2,4–6,14,19,63,68,90,91] Figure 5. DNA profile of aromatic and non aromatic rice landraces (upper figure) and DNA fingerprint (down figure) of Basmati type rice landraces using SSR markers. Source: [78] Gaps and policy implication Research and mechanism for implication of GI is urgently needed in Nepal as this sector is neglected and underutilized. Research, development and education system should focus on native crop diversity and traditional knowledge along with traditional products and process. Documentation of different kinds of information e.g. traditional, folklore, scientific information etc. should be done for all types of native Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 J u l ; 9 (1):93-108 Joshi et al. ©NJB, BSN 105 agricultural genetic resources. Accelerated research is necessary to identify the geo-linked traits and products, and geographical indicator of genetic resources. Simple mechanism should be in place to register native agricultural products as GI at Provincial and National levels. Conclusion There are strong proofs and evidences of the origin, diversity, cultivation and use values of Basmati rice in Nepal based on survey, on-farm and on-station trials, lab research, and information from local, regional, national and global levels. Basmati type rice possesses quality trait for getting geographical indication tag and it includes all types of aromatic landraces i.e. short, medium and long grain Basmati rice in Nepal. Nepalese farming communities in many districts are maintaining, growing, using, marketing and sharing Basmati type rice landraces since unknown time period. The rights of Nepalese communities, therefore, should not be prohibited for production, consumption and marketing of their basmati rice landraces. Legal system for GI tag should be immediately established in Nepal and agricultural products must be registered. Harmonized system (HS) on trade should also be established separately for aromatic rice in Nepal. 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