Nepal J Biotechnol. 2 0 2 1 D e c ; 9 (2): 7-13 Research article  DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.54796/njb.v9i2.41908 

©NJB, BSN 7 

Microbial and Physico-Chemical Quality Assessment of Rivers of 
Kathmandu Valley 
Santosh Poudel1 , Akash Paudyal1, Bishnu Prasad Sharma1, Kamana Sharma1, Yubaraj Baral1, Shailaja Adhikari2, 

Manju Shree Shakya Hada1 
1Department of Microbiology, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal 
2Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Ltd. (KUKL), Kathmandu, Nepal 

Received: 05th Jun 2021; Revised: 13th Dec 2021; Accepted: 16th Dec 2021; Published online: 31st  Dec 2021 

Abstract 
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological characteristics of water. It is a measure of condition of water relative 
to requirement of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. The main objective of the study is to detect 
the physio-chemical and microbiological parameters of water sample from the Bagmati river and its tributaries of Kathmandu 
valley along with antibiotic susceptibility. In physico-chemical parameters, turbidity, temperature, pH, Electrical 
conductivity, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological Oxygen Demand, Ammonia, Alkalinity, Hardness, Chloride, Phosphate, Iron, 
Nitrate, Total Dissolved solids, and color were analyzed. Iron and Turbidity was found to be above the World health 
organization and Nepal Standard guideline in all the samples (100%), while Ammonia was found to be above the WHO 
guideline in 10(90%) samples. Among 11 samples, 10(90%) showed a low Dissolved oxygen level. Most Probable Number 
method was followed for counting total load of coliform and fecal coliform. Escherichia coli was isolated from the sample and 
subjected to Antibiotic susceptibility. Coliform was detected in all the samples and E. coli was identified as highly resistant 
towards Gentamicin (81.8%) and sensitive towards Chloramphenicol (81.8%). High value of ammonia, turbidity and low 
value of Dissolved Oxygen in the lower belts of river was due to large inputs of wastewater and organic loads caused by 
anthropogenic activities. High value of Coliform in all the samples indicates bacterial contamination in river water. The 
comparative study for the water quality variables in the urban areas showed that the main rivers and its tributaries were 
equally polluted.  

Keywords: E. coli, Bagmati, physico-chemical parameters, Antibiotic Susceptibility, Most Probable Number method 

 Corresponding author, email: Poudelsantosh550@gmail.com 

Introduction 
Water is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and 

the fluids of all known living organisms. It is vital for all 

known forms of life [1]. Among the type of surface water, 

River is the most accessible and widely available source 

of water to human beings. River water has various uses 

like irrigation, drinking, and water hydropower, directly 

related to people. River water has an economic backbone 

in the upliftment of the country [2]. 

Bagmati is one, with religion and geographical 

importance. Various important religious shrines like 

Gokarneshwor, Pashupatinath, Guhyeshwari, Teku 

dovan, and others lie on the river's bank [3]. The Bagmati 

River is considered the source of Nepalese civilization 

and urbanization. In contrast to the various large snow-

fed rivers of the Himalayas, it is a river originating from 

Baghdwar and Shivapuri hill at an altitude of 2650m. 

Bagmati River is the principal river of the Kathmandu 

valley river system. It drains the entire valley with its 

seven tributaries- Bishnumati River, Manohara River, 

Dhobi River, Nakkhu River, Balkhu River, Hanumante 

River, and Tukucha River [4]. 

The quality of the Bagmati River and its tributaries have 

been rapidly degrading. It contains large amounts of 

untreated sewage, and high levels of pollution of the 

river exist due primarily to the region's large population. 

Many residents of the Kathmandu valley empty personal 

garbage and waste into the river [5]. In Kathmandu, 

urbanization and industrialization contribute to 

deterioration in water quality with regional 

consequences for the aquatic system and health of 

downstream sub-basin user groups. Sewer lines for 

domestic and industrial wastewater have been connected 

to the river [6]. These activities are responsible for serious 

pollution and the production of foul odors near the 

riverside. River system water entering the core urban 

area is visibly black with filth stinks badly. In particular, 

the Hanumante River, Dhobi River, Tukucha River, and 

Bishnumati River are the most polluted [7]. A few 

kilometers of the uppermost section (High Mountain 

with a catchment area of 17 km2) is only suitable for 

drinking water supply [8]. The remaining sections are not 

Nepal Journal of Biotechnology 
Publisher: Biotechnology Society of Nepal ISSN (Online): 2467-9313  

Journal Homepage: www.nepjol.info/index.php/njb  ISSN (Print): 2091-1130 

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9327-8850
mailto:Poudelsantosh550@gmail.com


Nepal J Biotechnol. 2021Dec;9 (2): 7-13     Poudel et al.  

©NJB, BSN  8 

used for potable purposes due to greater water quality 

deterioration [9].  

Although many wastewater treatments plants have been 

constructed in the Kathmandu valley, only one of the 

Guheshwori wastewater treatment plant is currently 

functional. Various restoration project has been ongoing 

within Kathmandu valley focused on improving water 

quality and establishing minimum flow requirements 

[10]. 

Assessment of the Physico-chemical and microbiological 

parameters of the river water indicates the level of 

pollution and provides progression to understand its 

effect on the aquatic life as well as on the human 

population [11]. Water is the principal vehicle for the 

transmission of a wide range of communicable diseases. 

From the microbiological view, the presence of total 

coliform and fecal coliform shows then water quality. 

Coliform bacteria E. coli, which is a medically important 

bacteria causing many significant illnesses like 

Bacteremia, cholangitis, UTI, travelers' diarrhea, neonatal 

meningitis, pneumonia [12,13]. In addition, other bacteria 

like Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Proteus, and Vibrio 

in drinking water are major causes of water-borne 

diseases [14]. 

Various antibiotics are used for the treatment of the 

diseases caused by E. coli. In recent years the number of 

antibiotic-resistant strains of E. coli is increasing by the 

haphazard use of antibiotics [15]. Antimicrobial 

resistance is a global public health concern contributing 

to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly in low-

income countries. Studies on commensal bacteria are 

essential as they reflect the state of antimicrobial 

susceptibility patterns in populations. Overpopulation of 

Kathmandu valley and inappropriate use of 

antimicrobials signal significant rates of resistance 

among flora circulating within the community. Increased 

use of antibiotics in agriculture, domestic, livestock, and 

the hospital are likely to develop resistance by E. 

coli strains.  

This study was carried out to analyze different Physico-

chemical parameters and microbiological parameters of 

the Bagmati River and its tributaries. 

Materials and Methods 
Sampling site and sample 
A total of 11 samples were tested in the study. Water 

samples were collected from four different Bagmati River 

sites (Sundarijal, Before Guheshwori treatment plant-

Gaurighat, After Guheshwori treatment plant-Gaurighat 

and Chovar) and seven sites of its tributaries in 

Kathmandu valley (Bishnumati River-Teku dhovan, 

Balkhu River-Balkhu, Dhobi River-Baneshwor, Nakkhu 

River-Nakkhu, Tukuchu River-Tripureshwor, Mahohara 

River-Jadibuti, Hanumante River-Jadibuti). The sample 

was collected in a sterile bottle of 500 mL capacity for 

microbiological analysis and a sample bottle of 500 mL 

for physico-chemical analysis. The bottles were labeled 

with time, place, and date of sample collection and 

transported to the laboratory as soon as possible on the 

icebox. For Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological 

Oxygen Demand (BOD), two BOD bottles each of 300 mL 

were taken at the site, processed at the lab. The study was 

conducted from November 2019 to January 2020 in 

Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) 

laboratory, Mahankal Chaur, Kathmandu. 

Sample Analysis 
Analysis of Physico-chemical parameters 
The standard method for examining water and 

wastewater [16] was followed to analyze the Physico-

chemical parameters of water as Temperature (by 

mercury thermometer), pH (by digital pH meter), E.C. 

(by E.C. meter), Turbidity (by turbid-meter), Color and 

Ammonia (by colorimeter), Iron, Phosphate and Nitrate 

(by UV-visible spectrophotometer), Chloride, Alkalinity, 

and Hardness (by titration) and DO and BOD (by 

Winkler’s method). 

Analysis of microbiological parameters 
Microbiological parameters analysis was carried out 

following standard methods [16]. Enumeration of total 

coliform count and fecal coliform were done by Most 

probable number (MPN) method. 

Isolation of E.coli was done by enrichment in buffered 

peptone water and cultured in EMB (Eosin Methylene 

Blue)[17]. The colony was identified and confirmed by 

following respective biochemical characteristics[18] and 

subjected to antibiotic susceptibility using Kirby Bauer 

disk diffusion method following CLSI guidelines[19]. 

The antibiotics used were Ampicillin (10 µg), Gentamicin 

(10 µg), Cotrimoxazole (25 µg), Ciprofloxacin (5 µg), 

Ceftriaxone (5 µg) and (Chloramphenicol (30 µg).  

Results 
Physical parameters assessment 
Temperature of sample ranges from 90C of Sundarijal 

(SL), Chobar (CHOB), and 16.50C of Hanumante (HAN) 

and Guheshwori Before treatment (GBT). Color was 

observed highest in Tukucha (TUK) i.e., 40HU and lowest 

in Sundarijal (SL) i.e., 2.5HU. Only the water sample from 

Sundarijal was clear while all other samples appeared 

turbid and hazy. SL sample was found to have lowest 

turbidity i.e., 2.7 NTU whereas Mahohara (MAN) sample  



Nepal J Biotechnol. 2021Dec;9 (2): 7-13     Poudel et al.  

©NJB, BSN  9 

had the highest i.e., 759.32.  Only SL sample follows 

WHO and NDWQS guidelines (≤5 NTU). Electrical 

conductivity of samples varied from SL 49.2 µS/cm being 

lowest and BAL 1109µS/cm being highest. Out of 11 

samples HANU, TUK, BAL donot follow WHO 

guidelines with value (1039, 1090, 1109) µS/cm 

respectively. Value of TDS was highest in TUK i.e. (371 

mg/L) and lowest in SL (9 mg/L). All TDS value of 

samples lies within the guideline of WHO (1000 mg/L). 

Chemical parameter assessment 
pH of the sample Manohara was found to be lowest i.e., 

7.22 and sample Dhobi(DHOBI) was highest i.e., 8.65 

which doesn’t follow WHO guidelines. Water in most of 

the river samples were slightly alkaline. Dissolved 

oxygen in the sample SL has highest i.e., 12.4 mg/L while 

Bishnumati has lowest i.e.,0.77 mg/L. In the study 

performed BOD of the sample Bishnumati has highest 

i.e., 354 mg/L and SL has lowest 8.9mg/L.  Ammonia of 

the sample Sundarjal being lowest i.e., 0.2mg/L lies 

within the WHO guidelines while other sample don’t 

follow WHO guidelines. Sample Balkhu has highest 

value i.e., 90 mg/L. Highest value of   Total hardness was 

obtained from the sample Balkhu i.e., 344 mg/L and 

lowest value from Sundarijal i.e,.12 mg/L. All values 

were within the NDWQS guidelines (≤500 mg/L). 

Chloride value was highest in Tukucha i.e., 149.76mg/L 

and lowest in Sundarjal i.e., 1.92 mg/L. In the study 

performed phosphate value was highest in Tukucha i.e., 

3.5 mg/L and lowest in Sundarijal i.e., 0.0 mg/L. All the 

values of iron don’t follow the guidelines of WHO and 

NDWQS (≤0.3). Iron value was highest in sample 

Table 1. Physical Parameters of water samples. (* Temperature during measurement) 
P

h
y

s
ic

a
l 

P
a
ra

m
e
te

r 

S
u

n
d

a
ri

 j
a
l 

(S
L

) 

G
u

h
e
s
w

o
ri

 

B
e
fo

re
 T

re
a
tm

e
n

t 

(G
B

T
) 

G
u

h
e
s
w

o
ri

 

A
ft

e
r 

T
re

a
tm

e
n

t 

(G
A

T
) 

M
a
n

o
h

a
ra

 

R
iv

e
r 

(M
A

N
) 

H
a
n

u
m

a
n

te
 

R
iv

e
r 

(H
A

N
U

) 

T
u

k
u

c
h

a
 

R
iv

e
r 

(T
U

K
) 

D
h

o
b

i 

R
iv

e
r 

(D
H

O
B

I)
 

N
a
k

k
h

u
 

R
iv

e
r 

(N
A

K
) 

B
a
lk

h
u

 

R
iv

e
r 

(B
A

L
) 

B
is

h
n

u
 

M
a
ti

 

(B
M

) 

C
h

o
b

a
r  

(C
H

O
B

) 

A
p

p
e
a

ra
n

c
e

 

 

C
le

a
r 

T
u

rb
id

 

 

T
u

rb
id

 

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

T
u

rb
id

 

 

Temperature 
(°C) 

9° 19° 16.5° 12° 16.5° 16° 13° 11° 13° 15° 9° 

Color 
(HU) 

2.5 25 30 35 25 40 20 35 25 15 25 

Turbidity 
(NTU) 

2.7 52.59 295.12 759.32 122.66 179.78 186.71 261.33 112.03 305.80 15.57 

E.C.* 
(µS/cm)  

49.2 
(9.1°) 

258.7 
(13°) 

167.0 
(18.6°) 

567 
(13.0°) 

1039 
(16°) 

1090 
(14°) 

820 
(13.9°) 

701 
(14.5°) 

1109 
(12.5°) 

986 
(14°) 

983 
(11.6°) 

TDS 9 89 57 143 367 371 300 162 354 349 268 

Table 2. Chemical Parameters of water samples (* Temperature during measurement) 

P
h

y
s
io

 C
h

e
m

ic
a

l 
 

P
a

ra
m

e
te

r 

S
u

n
d

a
ri

 

ja
l 

(S
L

) 

G
u

h
e

s
w

o
ri

 

B
e

fo
re

 T
re

a
tm

e
n

t 

(G
B

T
)  

G
u

h
e

s
w

o
ri

 

A
ft

e
r 

T
re

a
tm

e
n

t 

(G
A

T
)  

M
a

n
o

h
a
ra

 

R
iv

e
r 

(M
A

N
)  

H
a

n
u

m
a

n
te

 

R
iv

e
r 

(H
A

N
U

) 

T
u

k
u

c
h

a
 

R
iv

e
r 

(T
U

K
) 

D
h

o
b

i 

R
iv

e
r 

(D
H

O
B

I)
 

N
a
k

k
h

u
 

R
iv

e
r 

(N
A

K
) 

B
a
lk

h
u

 

R
iv

e
r 

(B
A

L
) 

B
is

h
n

u
 

M
a
ti

 

(B
M

) 

C
h

o
b

a
r  

(C
H

O
B

) 

pH* 
 

7.7 
(9.1°) 

7.41 
(13°) 

7.72 
(18.6°) 

7.22 
(13°) 

7.45 
(16°) 

7.3 
(14°) 

8.65 
(13.9°) 

8.29 
(14.6°) 

7.61 
(13°) 

7.27 
(14°) 

7.56 
(11°) 

DO 
(mg/L) 

12.4 3.02 4.87 2.24 1.05 1.10 1.26 2.8 1.4 0.77 1.59 

BOD 
(mg/L) 

8.9 66 48 160 279 261 242 187 291 354 213 

Ammonia 
(mg/L) 

0.2 15 12 24 35 80 40 24 90 40 32.5 

Alkalinity 
(mg/L) 

24 108 88 88 264 288 248 160 404 296 294 

Hardness 
(mg/L) 

12 128 56 80 264 152 312 148 344 176 178 

Chloride 
(mg/L) 

1.92 26.88 19.2 65.28 103.68 149.76 69.12 46.08 111.36 80.64 88.46 

Phosphate 
(mg/L) 

0.0 0.4 0.2 1.0 2.0 3.5 2.5 0.5 2.0 2.5 2.5 

Iron 
(mg/L) 

0.4 1.6 6 23.2 8.8 4.4 6.4 3.2 6.4 15.2 4.8 

Nitrate 
(mg/L) 

0.2 0.9 2.1 3.7 5.7 5.7 4.8 1.0 4.6 5.3 2.1 



Nepal J Biotechnol. 2021Dec;9 (2): 7-13     Poudel et al.  

©NJB, BSN  10 

Manohara i.e., 23.2 and lowest in sample SL i.e., 0.4 

mg/L. Hanumante and Tukucha sample have highest 

Nitrate value i.e., 5.7 mg/L while Sundarijal sample has 

lowest i.e., 0.2 mg/L. 

Table 3. Total coliform count by MPN method 

Sample 

Number of tubes giving 
positive reactions 

MPN index 
(cfu/100mL) 

1 of 
50mL 
each 

5 of 
10mL 
each 

5 of 
1mL 
each 

Sundarijal 1 5 5 >180 
Guheshwori 
Before 
Treatment 1 5 5 >180 
Guheshwori 
Before 
Treatment 1 5 5 >180 
Manohara 1 5 5 >180 

Hanumante 1 5 5 >180 
Tukucha 1 5 5 >180 

Dhobi 1 5 5 >180 
Nakkhu 1 5 5 >180 

Balkhu 1 5 5 >180 

Bishnumati 1 5 5 >180 

Chobar 1 5 5 >180 

Microbiological analysis  
All 11 sample (100%) contain coliform above 180 per 100 

mL.   

Antibiotic Susceptibility 
Table 4. Susceptibility patterns of E. coli isolates. R= Resistant, 
I= Intermediate, S= Sensitive 

 

A
m

p
ic

il
li

n
 

1
0

 µ
g

 

G
e
n

ta
m

ic
in

 

1
0

 µ
g

 

C
o

tr
im

o
x

a
z

o
le

 

2
5

 µ
g

 

C
ip

ro
fl

o
x

a
ci

n
 

5
 µ

g
 

C
e
ft

ri
a

x
o

n
e
 

3
0

 µ
g

 

C
h

lo
ra

m
p

h
e
n

ic
o

l 

3
0

 µ
g

 

Sundarijal R R R S S S 

GBT S I S S S S 

GAT R I S S S S 

MAN R R S R I S 

HANU R R S I R S 

TUK R R R R I I 

DHOBI R R S S S S 

NAK S R S S S S 

BAL S R S S I S 

BM R R R R I S 

CHOB R R R I I R 

 

Table 4 showed that E.coli isolated from sites TUK, BM 

and CHOB were resistant against more than 50 percent of 

the antibiotics testes while isolates from sites GBT, GAT, 

DHOBI, NAK and BAL were susceptible to more than 50 

percent of the antibiotics tested. 

 
Figure 1. Green metallic sheen colony growth on M-Endo agar 

(E. coli).  

From 11 isolates, 6 (54.4%) were found multi drug 

resistant (MDR) i.e., resistant to 3 or more class of 

antibiotics. Most of the MDR isolates (45.5%) were 

resistant to the Gentamicin in this study. 

 
Figure 2. Antibiotic Susceptibility by disk diffusion 

method 

Discussion 
Turbidity in this study was recorded in range of 2.7NTU 

in Sundarijal to 759.32NTU in Manohara. The values of 

turbidity except Sundarijal were much higher compared 

Table 5. Antibiotic Susceptibility of E. coli (N=11) 

 Sensitive Intermediate Resistance 

Ampicillin 
(10 µg) 

27.27% 
(3) 

0 72.72% (8) 

Gentamicin 
(10 µg) 

0 18.18% (2) 81.82% (9) 

Cotrimoxazole 
(25 µg) 

63.6% (7) 0 36.4% (4) 

Ciprofloxacin 
(5 µg) 

54.55% 
(6) 

18.2% (2) 27.27% (3) 

Ceftriaxone 
(30 µg) 

45.5% (5) 45.5% (5) 9.1% (1) 

Chloramphenicol 
(30 µg) 

81.9% (9) 9.1% (1) 9.1% (1) 



Nepal J Biotechnol. 2021Dec;9 (2): 7-13     Poudel et al.  

©NJB, BSN  11 

to the previous study conducted i.e. 14.2NTU before 

mixing of tributaries of Kathmandu valley[20]. Discharge 

of industrial effluents such as alums and chemicals might 

contribute to the high value of turbidity.  Tributaries of 

Bagmati are major contributors to turbidness in Bagmati 

river. 

The pH value was found within the range of WHO 

standards and NDWQS guidelines value except the 

sample of Dhobi river, which is found to be 8.65. It is 

higher than the value reported in the previous study be 

8.20 [21]. High value of pH may be due to the increasing 

waste discharge and industrial effluent along with 

microbial decomposition of organic matters. 

Temperature ranged from 90C to190C, while previous 

study conducted  [4] during summer season recorded a 

maximum of 200 C. Since the study was conducted in 

winter explains the low temperature recorded.  

Electrical conductivity of the samples Hanumante, 

Tukucha, and Balkhu were 1039 µS/cm, 1090µS/cm, and 

1109µS/cm respectively that do not lie within the 

guidelines of WHO standard 0-1000 µS/cm. In the 

previous study [21], highest value was 889.59 µS/cm. 

Higher value indicates the presence of a higher amount 

of dissolved ions as well as plant nutrients in the water 

which might be due to the wash off of the fertilizer from 

agricultural lands. 

Alkalinity refers to the capability of water to neutralize 

acid. In natural water, there are many salts of weak acids 

such as silicates, borate-causing alkalinity. In this study, 

highest alkalinity was of Balkhu 404mg/L. The alkalinity 

observed in this study is higher than the result of 

previous study 360 mg/L [20]. Samples were collected 

during winter season, the flow and level of water were 

low. Higher value of alkalinity might be due to increase 

concentration of natural soil and minerals. 

The ammonia concentration for Sundarijal was only 0.2 

mg/L which was limit for surface water recommended 

by WHO [22]. But the concentration of ammonia for other 

samples was a lot higher than the recommended value 

which might be due to more amount of municipal waste 

dumping in the river of Kathmandu valley. Highest 

ammonia concentration was from Balkhu sample, 90 

mg/L, and Tukucha sample, 80 mg/L. Similar results 

reported by [20], also had a higher value of ammonia in 

Balkhu river indicating that it was more polluted than 

other rivers.  

The highest value of chloride recorded was 149.76mg/L 

in Tukucha followed by Balkhu 111.36mg/L, indicating 

most contaminated about chloride content. Previous 

study [23] , presented a similar result being Teku and 

Sundarighat as most contaminated sites[23] considering 

Tukucha river and Balkhu river joins on Bagmati in Teku 

and Sundarighat respectively. High chloride 

concentration in river is toxic to aquatic life and also 

increases the potential corrosivity of water[24]. 

Nitrate was recorded highest in Tukucha and 

Hanumante i.e.5.7mg/L which is higher than the data 

previously recorded [23], 3.95mg/L. Both studies 

showed similarity in the increment of nitrate content 

from upstream to downstream[23]. Excess levels of 

nitrates can be considered to be a contaminant of river 

waters. Most sources of excess nitrates come from human 

activity. The source of excess nitrates can usually be 

traced to agricultural activities, human wastes, or 

industrial pollution. Rainwater can wash nitrates in the 

fertilizer into streams and rivers[25]. 

Highest phosphate value was 3.5 mg/L in Tukucha. 

Sundarijal sample phosphate value was 0.0 mg/L and 

that of Chobar 2.5 mg/L which are low compared to that 

of the data of similar research [23], 0.24 mg/L at 

Sundarijal and 12.3 mg/L at Chobar [26]. Significant 

increase was seen in the level of phosphate as the river 

enters an urban core area, which is from manmade 

sources such as septic systems, fertilizer runoff, and 

improperly treated wastewater. 

At Sundarijal, BOD level was found to be within the 

guideline by BBWMSIP. However, the level of BOD 

increases with the increase in the organic waste in the 

river. BOD indicated the pollution of organic waste 

resulting low level of dissolved oxygen. Highest BOD 

was observed in Bishnumati. Previous study [26]  

showed a low level of BOD in Sundarijal but an 

increment in the level of BOD towards downstream.    

Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the core urban areas 

were significantly lower than that of Sundarijal showing 

that the water is anoxic. As the river flows downstream, 

the dissolved oxygen gets more reduced. Lowest 

concentration was observed in Bishnumati of 0.77 mg/L. 

Bacterial decomposition of incorporated organic matter 

was most likely for low level of dissolved oxygen similar 

research [23,26] also observed low level of DO  in Bagmati 

river.  

In this study, coliform was present in the entire river 

water sample. The presence of a high amount of coliform 

might be due to the fact; samples were taken from the 

river before it was subjected to a treatment of 

disinfection.  Previous studies on the river water from 

Kathmandu valley showed the presence of various 

viruses [27], Human Enteric Viruses, Protozoa, and 

Indicators of Pathogens[28] except in the sample of 



Nepal J Biotechnol. 2021Dec;9 (2): 7-13     Poudel et al.  

©NJB, BSN  12 

Sundarijal. The water is contaminated by various 

anthropogenic activities as it flows downstream. 

All 11 samples were positive for E. coli.  Identification of 

E. coli during the study indicates the fecal contamination 

of human origin in Bagmati River and its tributaries. 

Although there was a low detection rate of pathogen in 

Sundarijal during a previous study[28] but the detection 

of E. coli from the Sundarijal suggest the contamination 

of water even upstream of the Bagmati river, which 

cannot be neglected.  

Multiple drug-resistant (MDR) was 54.4% in this study. 

Other researchers have reported an increasing pattern of 

E. coli isolates against common antibiotics in Nepal[29], 

[30]. It is observed from the study that Gentamicin and 

Ampicillin were most resisted by 81.82% and 72.72% 

respectively by the E. coli isolates, similar results of high 

resistance against β-lactamase(Ampicillin)[31] and 

Aminoglycoside (Gentamicin) [30] were reported. 

Among the antibiotics, Chloramphenicol was more 

sensitive to the isolates. A high rate of effectiveness by the 

Chloramphenicol against MDR isolates of E. coli was 

reported in previous studies[31, 32]. 

Conclusion  
The study showed the variation in water quality of the 

Bagmati River and its tributaries. The quality of water is 

worse in the urban core areas compared to that of 

upstream. The presence of fecal coliform in river water is 

the prime indication of a possible source of an outbreak 

for waterborne diseases and water is not suitable for 

drinking purposes without proper treatment. High 

resistance towards some antibiotics shows the threat to 

the exposure of antibiotics resistance bacterial strains by 

the population of Kathmandu valley. Immediate action is 

needed to prevent further deterioration of the river and 

amplify efforts to slow the emergence and spread of 

resistance. 

Author’s Contribution  
The development of concept, preliminary work and 

laboratory analysis, was done by SP, AP, BPS, KS and YB 

under the guidance of MSSH and SA. All authors read 

and approved the final manuscript. 

Competing Interests  
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.  

Funding  
This study was not funded by any agency or institution.  

Acknowledgments  
All authors are grateful to the faculty and laboratory staff 

of Microbiology department of Tri-Chandra Multiple 

Campus for their continuous support in this research 

work, and special mention to the Kathmandu Upatyaka 

Khanepani Limited(KUKL) and all the staffs for 

providing laboratory and support.  

Ethical Approval and Consent  
This study was carried out with the approval from the 

concerned authorities. 

Data Availability   
The data can be made available upon request. 

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