Microsoft Word - 11490 NSB Nath 2023.06.19.docx


Received: 21 Feb 2023. Received in revised form: 09 May 2023. Accepted: 08 Jun 2023. Published online: 19 Jun 2023. 
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Nath S et al. (2023) 
Notulae Scientia BiologicaeNotulae Scientia BiologicaeNotulae Scientia BiologicaeNotulae Scientia Biologicae    

Volume 15, Issue 2, Article number 11490 
DOI:10.15835/nsb15211490 

    ReReReReviewviewviewview    ArticleArticleArticleArticle.... 

NSBNSBNSBNSB    
Notulae Scientia Notulae Scientia Notulae Scientia Notulae Scientia 

BiologicaeBiologicaeBiologicaeBiologicae 

 
 

Role of bulking agents, process optimization, and different earthworm Role of bulking agents, process optimization, and different earthworm Role of bulking agents, process optimization, and different earthworm Role of bulking agents, process optimization, and different earthworm 
species in the species in the species in the species in the vermiremediation process of industrial wastes: A reviewvermiremediation process of industrial wastes: A reviewvermiremediation process of industrial wastes: A reviewvermiremediation process of industrial wastes: A review    

 

Snigdha NATH1, Asif QURESHI2, Subhasish DAS1* 
 

1Mizoram University (A Central University), Pachhunga University College, Department of Environmental Science, Aizawl 796001, 

Mizoram, India; snigdhonath@gmail.com; dassubhasish@pucollege.edu.in (*corresponding author) 
2Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Department of Civil Engineering & Department of Climate Change, Telangana, 

India; asif@ce.iith.ac.in 

 
AbstractAbstractAbstractAbstract    
    
Rapid industrialization and consumerism have aggravated the generation of industrial waste globally, 

consequently posing a serious problem related to their treatment, disposal, and management. Industrial wastes 
or sludges are mainly characterised by undesirable levels of heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and other toxic 
organic compounds. Deposition of such wastes in the environmental matrices for prolonged periods may result 
in serious contamination, and the consequent accumulation of these harmful constituents in the ecological 
food chain. Unavailability of appropriate disposal mechanisms for these sludges is a matter of serious concern 
that could severely pollute the environment and risk human health. Vermicomposting has emerged as a feasible 
and environmentally friendly bioremediation technology that could provide a solution to this problem. 
However, the vermicomposting of industrial sludges requires a better understanding of its inextricable factors 
to make it a viable process. Thus, the present study was undertaken to provide insights on the influence of 
different bulking agents and abiotic factors on the vermicomposting process, as well as, the role of different 
earthworm species in the successful implementation of this process in the bioremediation of industrial waste. 

    
Keywords:Keywords:Keywords:Keywords: abiotic factors; bulking agents; earthworms; industrial wastes; vermicomposting 
Abbreviations:Abbreviations:Abbreviations:Abbreviations: AOXs - Adsorbable Organic Halides; EDs - Endocrine Disruptors; EPS -Extracellular 

Polymeric Substance; MT - Multifunctional Metallothionein; PAHs - Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons; PHCs - 
Petroleum Hydrocarbons; TPHs - Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 

 
 
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction    
 
The environmentally nonchalant and linear approach to industrialization because of increasing global 

population and consumerism has resulted in an increased waste production in the 21st century (Stoeva and 
Alriksson, 2017; Minelgaitė and Liobikienė, 2019). Recent reports illustrate that industries produce millions 
of tonnes of wastes every year, and this waste generation is anticipated to increase by three times by 2100 
(Krishnan et al., 2021). Consequent amassment of environmental contaminants from industrial wastes in 
marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems has been a matter of serious concern (Tornero and Hanke, 2016; 
Wani et al., 2022). This has concomitantly aggravated the environmental problems related to industrial waste 

https://www.notulaebiologicae.ro/index.php/nsb/index


Nath S et al. (2023). Not Sci Biol 15(2):11490 

 

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management and disposal (Sandberg et al., 2019). In general, industrial wastes are characterized by undesirable 
levels of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Cr, As, Hg, Zn, Mn, and Ni) and other toxic chemicals or compounds 
(Wang et al., 2015; Su et al., 2019). Besides heavy metals, organic compounds such as phenols, pyrenes, 
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs), adsorbable organic halides (AOXs), 
endocrine disruptors (EDs), etc., constitute other major environmental contaminants (Filali-Meknassi et al., 
2004; Da Silva et al., 2007; Shomar, 2007; Nam et al., 2012; Oh et al., 2016; Johnson and Affam, 2019). 
Deposition of large amount of such wastes for longer period may result in percolation of these toxic 
constituents (toxic metals, phenols, pyrenes, PAHs, PHCs, AOXs, EDs, etc.) into groundwater through soil 
layers (Świerk et al., 2007). Besides groundwater contamination (Brockway and Urie, 1983), other possible 
consequences attributed to waste deposition include soil contamination and its related plant ecotoxic effects, 
and spread of harmful pathogens (Manzetti and van der Spoel, 2015). However, dearth of adequate 
dehydration and disposal mechanism of these wastes warrants effective mitigation measures of these 
environmental contaminants (Liu et al., 2019; Bilal and Iqbal, 2020). 

Although several methods have been utilized for industrial wastes treatment, their coverage has been 
insufficient (Raghunandan et al., 2014, 2018; Verma and Kuila, 2019). Techniques such as incineration, 
oxidation, chemical decomposition, etc., have their own limitations and are largely cost intensive (Zouboulis et 
al., 2019). In addition, the processes of waste incineration, oxidation, chemical decomposition, etc., have 
detrimental effects on the environment. The major effects on the environment include global warming, smog 
formation, eutrophication, acidification, formation of other recalcitrant by-products (carboxylic acids, 
alcohols, aldehydes, etc.), and animal toxicity (Kommineni et al., 2000; Yang et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2013). 
Conventional management strategies like land-filling does not actually solve the problem of environmental 
pollution, but rather contribute to further deposition of harmful contaminants in the environment (Zouboulis 
et al., 2019). In this regard, vermicomposting has emerged as a feasible and environmentally clean 
bioremediation technology which utilizes the biodegradation potential of earthworms (Bhat et al., 2017). 
Vermicomposting is generally a non-thermophilic decomposition process in which organic residues or wastes 
are transformed into a valuable finished clean product called vermicompost with the synergistic action of 
earthworms and mesophilic microorganisms (Bhat et al., 2013; Lim et al., 2016). Earthworms are capable of 
expeditious and effectual decomposition as well as remediation of various organic and industrial wastes 
(Hickman and Reid, 2008). Earthworms secrete an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) through their skin 
tissues when put under metal stress, which help them to bind with and accumulate heavy metals (Khan et al., 
2019). These EPS (a.k.a. exopolymers) are mainly proteins, polysaccharides, humic acids, nucleic acids, lipids, 
and enzymes (Costa et al., 2018). For instance, a recent study demonstrated that an extracellular polymeric 
substance (EPS) produced by the Bacillus licheniformis strain KX657843 isolated from the gut of Metaphire 
posthuma was efficient in the sorption of Cu (II) and Zn (II) (Biswas et al., 2020). It can be suggested that EPS 
producing microorganisms are primarily influenced by the earthworm gut environment (Biswas et al., 2019). 
In addition, multifunctional metallothionein (MT) protein production is stimulated in earthworms and these 
proteins aid in detoxifying various metal ions (Gruber et al., 2000). 

The vermicomposting process is dependent on various factors such as the initial C:N ratio, temperature, 
pH, moisture, light, and nature of the organic waste. Also, these factors influencing the process are inseparably 
associated with the earthworm species being utilized during the biodegradation process (Lim et al., 2016). 
Earthworms can degrade most organic materials with an initial C/N ratio around 30 (Ndegwa and Thompson, 
2000; Lim et al., 2016). The bulking agents make the organic wastes more palatable for the survivability of 
earthworms as well as maintain a conducive milieu for the worms to multiplicate (Adhikari et al., 2008). 
Temperature plays an important function in both composting and vermicomposting process as it affects the 
microbial as well as the earthworms’ activity. As per reports, microbial activity multiplies by two folds per each 
10°C increase in temperature and earthworms exhibit efficient activity at mesophilic temperatures ranging 



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from 15-30°C (Rostami et al., 2009; Rostami, 2011). The pH of the waste can be a limiting factor affecting the 
distribution and number of worms as earthworms are very sensitive (Ibrahim et al., 2016). Also, low moisture 
content negatively affect the survival and reproductive rates of earthworms (Wever et al., 2001). Availability of 
light also influences the vermicomposting process as earthworms have a hostility to bright lights. Ultraviolet 
rays from intense sunlight can cause partial-to-complete paralysis and fatality of earthworms (Ibrahim et al., 
2016). It is noteworthy to mention that the process of vermicomposting is also dependent on its micro or 
internal environment (inside the compost pile), for which the process conditions/parameters have to be 
maintained separately with respect to the above-mentioned factors (Bhattacharya and Kim, 2016; Lim et al., 
2016; Ganti, 2018).  

Although attempts have been made to understand the efficiency of vermicomposting on the 
biodegradation of different industrial wastes, the potentiality of different types of earthworms in the 
management of industrial wastes is yet to be fully explored. It is also necessary to understand the influence of 
various abiotic factors and bulking agents inextricably associated with the process and its process management 
for a successful implementation of the overall vermi-remediation process. Therefore, the present review was 
undertaken with the following objectives:  

i. Evaluate the influence of bulking agents, and abiotic factors, and different earthworm species on 
vermicomposting and its process management. 

ii. Understand the detoxifying mechanism employed by earthworms. 
 
 
Vermicomposting: an empirical approach in industrial waste managementVermicomposting: an empirical approach in industrial waste managementVermicomposting: an empirical approach in industrial waste managementVermicomposting: an empirical approach in industrial waste management    
    
Bioconversion of industrial wastes or sludges by earthworms is an effective method as it decreases the 

toxicity of these wastes and may act as an effective alternative to the traditional composting process and other 
inexpensive techniques (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2001; Bhat et al., 2017). 

 
Importance of bulking agents 
 Bulking agents are mainly carbon-based particles which add structure to the compost pile and help in 

controlling the air supply, moisture content, and other vital composting parameters (e.g., C:N ratio, pH, and 
temperature) (Adhikari et al., 2008; Chang and Chen, 2010; Lim et al., 2016; Karwal and Kaushik, 2020) 
(Table 1). Examples of some popular bulking agents include cow dung, poultry waste, rabbit manure, sawdust, 
rice bran, rice husk, sugarcane trash, grass clippings, biochar, and fruit and vegetable waste (Manish et al., 2013). 
Various bulking agents have mainly shown to induce positive effects on the survivability and reproduction of 
earthworms during vermicomposting, for instance, Domínguez et al. (2000) reported that amendment of paper 
and carboard mixtures with sewage sludge induced better reproductive rates in Eisenia andrei as compared to 
the control (without bulking agent). Kumar Badhwar et al. (2020) demonstrated similar positive results, 
wherein the amendment of cow dung in the vermicomposting of paper mill sludge and tea waste reported an 
increased reproducibility rate of Eisenia fetida.  Studies have also shown that amendment of cow dung and 
other bulking agents not only supports earthworm biomass and fecundity, but also enhances the quality of final 
vermicompost (Karmegam et al., 2019). 

 Augmentation of bulking materials with industrial wastes/sludges have been reported to accelerate the 
vermicomposting process mainly because of maceration and mixing of such carbon-rich agents in the 
earthworm gut (Domínguez et al., 1997). The bulking materials are capable of improving or stabilizing the C:N 
ratio by providing C and reducing the loss of N by ammonia volatilization, which consequently facilitates the 
bacterial activity during vermicomposting (Domínguez et al., 2000; Rostami, 2011). Bulking agents such as 
cow dung and sawdust have shown to control the C:N ratio during composting (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2012; 



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Biruntha et al., 2020). Bulking materials such as biogas slurry and wheat straw were observed to decrease the 
organic C content and increase the available NPK content in the final composted product (Suthar, 2010). 
Addition of biochar during composting has shown to reduce the loss of nitrogen content (Dias et al., 2010). 
Bulking agents help in maintaining pH  at an optimum range of 6-8 during composting (Chang and Chen, 
2010). Amendment of sugarcane bagasse during the composting of crude oil showed 100% degradation of total 
petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) (Hamzah et al., 2012).  

 
Table 1. Table 1. Table 1. Table 1. Effects of different bulking agents in the composting/vermicomposting process    

Sl. No.Sl. No.Sl. No.Sl. No.    Bulking agentsBulking agentsBulking agentsBulking agents    Process  Process  Process  Process      EffectsEffectsEffectsEffects    ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences    
1. Biochar Composting Reduction of nitrogen loss (Dias et al., 2010) 

2. 
Clinoptilolite 
and saw dust 

Composting 
High intake of heavy metals and 

increase in humic substances 
(Zorpas and 

Loizidou, 2008) 

3. 
Cotton gin and 

grape marc 
Composting 

Control pH and temperature, and 
enhance compost quality 

(Madejón et al., 
2001) 

4. 
Cotton waste 

and maize 
straw 

Composting 
Reduce nitrogen loss, enhance 

nitrogen fixation, and production of 
stabilized organic matter 

(Paredes et al., 1996) 

5. Cow dung Vermicomposting Increase in worm biomass 
(Gajalakshmi et al., 

2002) 

6. Cow dung Vermicomposting Reduction in C:N ratio 
(Kaushik and Garg, 

2003) 

7. Cow dung 
Composting and 
vermicomposting 

Increase in enzymatic activity in 
earthworms 

(Pramanik, 2010) 

8. Cow dung Vermicomposting 
Stabilize pH, reduce heavy metal 

content, and produce good quality 
compost 

(Garg and Gupta, 
2011a) 

9. Cow dung Vermicomposting 
Increase growth and reproductive rate 

in earthworms 
(Kumar Badhwar et 

al., 2020) 

10. Cow dung Vermicomposting 
Reduction in C:N ratio and increase 

in NPK content 
(Biruntha et al., 

2020) 

11. 
Cow dung and 

saw dust 
Composting 

Control pH, bulk density, and carbon 
content 

(Singh and 
Kalamdhad, 2012) 

12. Saw dust Composting 
Reduction of polyaromatic 

hydrocarbons 
(Oleszczuk, 2006) 

13. 
Grape stalk and 

olive leaf 
Composting 

Improve aeration, control 
temperature, regulate C:N ratio, and 

control pH 

(Alburquerque et al., 
2006) 

14. Onion peel  Composting 
Reduction in C:N ratio and 

production of mature compost 
(Abdullah et al., 

2013) 

15. Press mud 
Composting and 
vermicomposting 

Reduction in pH, total organic 
carbon, C:N ratio, and favours growth 

and reproduction of earthworms  

(Karwal and 
Kaushik, 2020) 

16. Rice husk Composting Control temperature and moisture 
(Chang and Chen, 

2010) 

17. Rice straw Composting 
Decrease in total organic carbon and 

organic matter 
(Zhu, 2007) 

18. Saw dust Composting 
Control pH, moisture, temperature, 

bulk density, and aeration 
(Adhikari et al., 

2008) 



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19. 
Star grass and 

sugarcane 
bagasse 

Composting 
Improve pH, moisture, and total 

organic carbon 
(Oviedo-Ocaña et al., 

2015) 

20. Sugarcane trash Composting 
Control pH, moisture, and carbon 

content  
(Goyal et al., 2005) 

21. 
Waste paper 

and plant 
residue 

Composting 
Decrease in organic matter, intake of 

trace metals, decrease in organic C and 
C:N ratio 

(Tian et al., 2012) 

 
Composting of industrial sludges with amendment of saw dust reported reduction of polyaromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Oleszczuk, 2006). Studies have shown that adding clinoptilolite (a natural zeolite) in 
the initial mixture helps in taking up of heavy metals, which warrants its efficiency as a bulking agent in the 
metal remediation of industrial sludges (Zorpas and Loizidou, 2008). Such favourable conditions induced by 
bulking agents promote the survival of earthworms (Manish et al., 2013; Ibrahim et al., 2016). 

 
Influence of climatic factors 

Apart from the influence of different bulking agents, abiotic factors like temperature, 
moisture/humidity, and light also play an important role in the quality of compost, as well as, the growth and 
reproductivity of earthworms (Gopal et al., 2004; Tang et al., 2007; Garg and Gupta, 2011b; Zhou et al., 2021) 
(Table 2).  

 
Table 2. Table 2. Table 2. Table 2. Influence of abiotic factors on composting/vermicomposting process 

Abiotic factorsAbiotic factorsAbiotic factorsAbiotic factors    ProcessProcessProcessProcess    EffectsEffectsEffectsEffects    ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences     

TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature    

Composting 
Increase in microbial population and efficiency of the 

process at high temperature 
(Chinakwe et al., 

2019) 

Composting 
Efficient degradation of tetracyclines and rapid 

composting at 70 °C 
(Yu et al., 2019) 

Composting 
Higher TOC ratio and reduction in C:N ratio at 

high temperature (46 °C). 
(Kianirad et al., 

2010) 

Composting 
Higher decomposition activity of microbes and mass 

reduction of organic matter at mesophilic 
temperature (35 °C-37 °C) 

(Tang et al., 
2007) 

Composting 
High protein degradation and high bacterial activity 

at 54 °C 
(Miyatake and 

Iwabuchi, 2005) 

Composting 
Higher degradation of organic matter and conversion 

of volatile matter at 60 °C 
(Nakasaki et al., 

1985) 

Vermicomposting 
High enzymatic activity and increase in total 

nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total potassium 
content at 30 °C 

(Zhou et al., 
2021) 

Vermicomposting 
Decrease in organic matter, high electrical 

conductivity, and high nitrate content at 25 °C. 
(Zhang et al., 

2020) 

Vermicomposting 
High organic matter degradation, reduction in C:N 

ratio, increase in total Kjeldahl nitrogen in winter 
(low temperature) 

(Garg and 
Gupta, 2011b) 

Vermicomposting 
Better growth of earthworms and good quality 

compost in temperature range 15 °C-25 °C 
(Rostami et al., 

2009) 

Vermicomposting 
Better vermicompost turnover, number of 

earthworms (Eudrilus sp.) and worm biomass at low 
temperature  

(Gopal et al., 
2004) 



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Vermicomposting 
Efficient life activity of Eudrilus eugeniae in 

temperature range 25 °C-28 °C 
(Shagoti et al., 

2001) 

Vermicomposting 
Efficient activity and reproductivity capacity of 

Eudrilus eugeniae at low temperature 
(Amoji et al., 

1999) 

Moisture/Moisture/Moisture/Moisture/    
HumidityHumidityHumidityHumidity     

Composting 
Decrease in total organic matter, increase in total 

nitrogen and better compost quality at 53% moisture 
content 

(Li et al., 2021) 

Composting 
Efficient process activity at initial moisture content 

of 55-70% 
(Yeh et al., 2020) 

Composting 
High organic matter degradation at 70-75% initial 

moisture content 
(Makan et al., 

2013) 

Composting 
Better stability and maturity of the compost at 65-

75% moisture content 
(Guo et al., 

2012) 

Composting 
High microbial activity at high moisture content (≥ 

50%) 
(Liang et al., 

2003) 

Vermicomposting 
High crude fibre degradation and increase in crude 

protein at 70% moisture content 
(Hossen et al., 

2022) 

Vermicomposting 
Better growth of earthworms and good quality 
compost in moisture content regime 65-75% 

(Rostami et al., 
2009) 

Vermicomposting 
Higher reduction in C:N ratio, decomposition rate, 

and kinetic reaction rate at 75 ± 5% moisture content 
(Palsania et al., 

2008) 

Vermicomposting 
Better vermicompost turnover, number of 

earthworms (Eudrilus sp.) and worm biomass at high 
relative humidity 

(Gopal et al., 
2004) 

LightLightLightLight     

Vermicomposting 
Increase in earthworms’ photophobic movement 

with increase in light intensity 
(Lin et al., 2018)  

Vermicomposting 
Higher cast productivity rate of Hyperiodrilus 

africanus in red light colour and least emigration rate 
in dark light colour 

(Owa et al., 
2008) 

Vermicomposting 
Reduced growth rate and reproductive rate of Eisenia 
fetida in exposure to high frequency light (UV rays) 

(Hamman et al., 
2003) 

 
The investigation on the influence of temperature on vermicomposting showed that earthworms’ gut 

enzymes exhibited  higher activity at an optimum temperature of 30 °C. Consequent increment in total NPK 
was also observed at similar temperature (Zhou et al., 2021). Conversely, Zhang et al. (2020) reported that an 
optimum temperature of 25 °C is essential for better organic matter degradation, whereas increasing the 
temperature slightly accelerated the rate of decomposition, mineralization, and nitrification. Microbes 
identified in a compost pile (mainly Proteo-bacteria and fungi) had greater decomposition activity at mesophilic 
temperatures (35 °C-37 °C) (Tang et al., 2007). The effectiveness of vermicomposting also depends on seasons. 
It was observed that organic matter degradation by Eisenia fetida was higher in the winter as compared to the 
summer. Reports also suggested that Eudrilus eugeniae showed efficient activity and reproductive capacity 
during the colder seasons (Amoji et al., 1999). Gopal et al. (2004) investigated the influence of prevailing 
weather conditions on the growth and biomass of Eudrilus sp. and the produced vermicompost. It was observed 
that the vermicompost turnover, number of earthworms, and worm biomass were negatively corelated to 
atmospheric temperature. Rostami et al. (2009) demonstrated that temperatures maintained in a range of 15 
°C-25 °C was optimum for the growth of earthworms as well as the decomposition process. Shagoti et al. (2001) 
reported that E. eugeniae demonstrated efficient life activity in optimum temperatures between 25 °C and 28 
°C. A pile temperature below 10 °C might induce stress on the earthworms and result in their mortality. 



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Likewise, a significant increase in temperature might reduce the activity of the earthworms, resulting in reduced 
reproductive rate (Ganti, 2018). Hence, temperature should be within the earthworms’ tolerance capacity to 
facilitate biodegradation of sludges (Bhattacharya and Kim, 2016) (Figure 1). 

 Liang et al. (2003) investigated the effect of moisture content on the compost microbial activity during 
the biodeterioration of sludges. Hossen et al. (2022) found that an initial moisture content of 70% was suitable 
for an efficient vermicomposting. Another study reported the influence of moisture content variation on the 
kinetic reaction rate of vermicomposting. It was observed that rate of vermicomposting and kinetic reaction 
rate was maximum at 75 ± 5% moisture content (Palsania et al., 2008). Yeh et al. (2020) reported that an initial 
moisture regime of 55-70% was more suitable for an effective composting of the wastes. Guo et al. (2012) 
reported that moisture content in the regime of 65-75% was optimum for obtaining a stable and mature 
compost. Makan et al. (2013) also reported that an initial moisture content of 70-75% resulted in a high organic 
matter degradation during composting. Li et al. (2021) demonstrated that an initial moisture content of 53% 
resulted in a considerable decrease in total organic matter and further facilitated in production of good quality 
compost. The right amount of moisture can be maintained by employing coarse materials in the compost pile 
which can absorb oxygen (Ganti, 2018). An optimum moisture content in the regime of 40-55% inside the pile 
was suitable for vermicomposting of different wastes (Das et al., 2020) (Figure 1). Composting of organic 
wastes requires a moisture content of 60-70% for successful results. 

 

 
Figure 1. Figure 1. Figure 1. Figure 1. Process conditions maintained during vermicomposting process    (modified from: (Bolong and 
Saad, 2020)) 
 
Earthworms are generally photo-sensitive to different light intensity and colour (Lin et al., 2018). It was 

reported that exposure of E. fetida to ultra-violet radiations (high frequency light) resulted in a reduced growth 
rate and reproductive rate in the species and it significantly decreased cocoon fertility rate by 70% (Hamman 



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et al., 2003). Additionally, the effect of light colour on the cast productivity as well as the emigration rate of 
Hyperiodrilus africanus was investigated. The results showed that red light colour was the most suitable for cast 
productivity followed by blue, green, dark, and white. Also, the rate of emigration was least in dark light colour 
indicating the preference of this earthworm species for that particular colour (Owa et al., 2008). Lin et al. 
(2018) investigated the effect of different monochromatic lights (white light, yellow light, green light, red light, 
and incandescent light) and light intensity (10 to 270 lx) on the photophobic reaction of earthworms and 
found that higher light intensity (270 lx) substantially affected the movement of earthworms away from the 
light. The results also found that red light exerted the weakest photophobic movement in earthworms. From 
the results, it can be inferred that exposure to high intensity light and different colours of light can considerably 
affect the movement of earthworms which consequently might affect the vermicomposting process of sludges 
and prolong its time period. 

 
Process management 

During vermicomposting, the process conditions or control measures inside the compost pile are also to 
be monitored to achieve efficient earthworm activity (Gurav and Pathade, 2011; Manyuchi and Phiri, 2013). 
Some of the process conditions which are maintained or monitored inside the compost pile include C:N ratio, 
pH, aeration, churning, pre-treatment etc. (Raut et al., 2008; Getahun et al., 2012; Manyuchi and Phiri, 2013; 
Das et al., 2020) (Figure 1). 

C:N ratio has to be in an appropriate balance to facilitate better degradation by enhancing the microbial 
activity during the process (Chen et al., 2011). To enhance industrial sludges with low initial C:N ratio, bulking 
materials with high C:N ratio is often employed (Zhang and Sun, 2016). Ndegwa and Thompson (2000) 
reported that C:N ratio = 25:1 is optimum for vermicomposting of biosolids. Similarly, Biruntha et al. (2020) 
tested varied feedstocks (C:N ratio range 23 to 70) in an E. eugenia based vermicomposting system and found 
that C:N ratio in the range of 23-30 is adequate for earthworm proliferation and waste degradation. In this 
regard, vermicomposting of sludges is a scalable process as a lot of bulking agents with wide C:N ratios have 
often been utilized during the process (Manish et al., 2013; Das et al., 2020).  

Most wastes result in an increase of acidic content of the compost pile during vermicomposting, which 
consequently affects the survival of earthworms (Katiyar et al., 2017). However, earthworms have the ability to 
maintain the pH by neutralizing both acidic and alkaline feedstocks by producing alkaline exudates and organic 
acids respectively (Goswami et al., 2014). Singh et al. (2005) reported that a high acidic initial substrate pH 
was unfavourable for vermicomposting, whereas initial substrate pH close to neutral favoured the most for 
waste stabilization. Amendment of bulking materials helps in maintaining a near neutral pH inside the 
compost pile (Adhikari et al., 2008; Chang and Chen, 2010). 

Maintaining proper air circulation in compost piles is a prerequisite for achieving an enhanced 
biodegradation rate (Das et al., 2020). In a bench scale experiment, it was observed that augmenting air for a 
time period of 4-6 hours at a flow rate of 0.62 L/min per kg was ideal for vermicomposting (Palaniappan et al., 
2017). Earthworms also maintain themselves a proper aeration in vermibeds by regulating their movement 
through it (Kaur, 2020). In this regard, bedding helps in maintaining a proper amount of oxygen during the 
process (Ganti, 2018). Selection of bedding materials plays a crucial role in the vermicomposting process. 
Besides maintaining optimum oxygen levels, bedding materials provide protection from extremes in 
temperature, as well as, a consistency in moisture content (Munroe, 2004). They also affect the growth and 
fecundity of earthworms during vermicomposting, for instance, Abd Manaf et al. (2009) studied the influence 
of two bedding materials (saw dust and newspaper) using biological parameters such as growth rate, number of 
worms, number of cocoons, and worm biomass. The results demonstrated that sawdust bedding was better for 
cocoon production and number of earthworms, while newspaper bedding was better for earthworm biomass 
production and growth rate. 



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 For maintaining better aeration and transfer of materials in the vermibeds, churning (turning of 
compost pile) is a common practice which is to be followed. Churning influences the pile thermodynamics and 
also assist earthworm movement (Getahun et al., 2012) (Figure 2). Abdoli et al. (2019) compared the 
composting efficiency in a static and frequently churned pile and found good microbial biomass and higher 
earthworm cocoon count in the latter. It also facilitates good porosity and reduces compaction in the vermibeds 
which is very essential for earthworm growth and proliferation (Bhattacharya and Kim, 2016). 

 Pre-treatment of sludges in vermicomposting can also influence the duration of the process, survival 
of earthworms, and nutrient availability. Pre-treatment reduces the process duration and eliminates the 
harmful pathogens (Ganti, 2018) (Figure 2). The conductivity of the sludges very much affects the process of 
vermicomposting as earthworms are known to be very sensitive to high conductivity (Gunadi et al., 2002). 
Thus, sludges or waste materials containing higher salt content should be leached to reduce the salt content. 
This is mainly achieved by watering the sludges for some period of time during the pre-treatment phase (Kaur, 
2020). Singh et al. (2021) observed that cellulolytic pre-treatment significantly lessened the earthworm 
incubation time and reduced C content but increased N availability in the waste. Alshehrei and Ameen (2021) 
reviewed the usage of chemical pre-treatment in municipal solid waste vermicomposting. Other pre-treatment 
options like microwave and thermal methods are also possible prior vermicomposting (Amiri et al., 2017; 
Tayeh et al., 2020). 

 

 
Figure 2. Figure 2. Figure 2. Figure 2. Flow chart illustrating the process of vermicomposting of sludges 
 
 
Role of different earthworm species in vermiremediationRole of different earthworm species in vermiremediationRole of different earthworm species in vermiremediationRole of different earthworm species in vermiremediation    
    
Often regarded as the intestines of Earth, earthworms play an important role in maintaining soil fertility 

and in the degradation of wastes (Martin, 1976). Earthworms are mainly categorized into three types 
depending on the portion of the soil profile that they inhabit, viz., epigeic, endogeic, and anecic (Domínguez, 
2018). With regards to vermicomposting, epigeic earthworms are mostly employed in the decomposition 
process followed by anecic earthworms (Table 3). However, the role of endogeic earthworms in soil organic 



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matter dynamics cannot be overlooked (Das et al., 2020). Generally, earthworms play two very important roles 
in vermicomposting, i.e., 1) degradation of wastes and 2) production of quality vermicompost (Yadav and, Garg 
2013). In this regard, the incorporation and influence of monoculture (use of one species) and polyculture (use 
of more than one species) techniques in vermicomposting have also been studied (Khwairakpam and Bhargava, 
2010). The results of Khwairakpam and Bhargava (2010) demonstrated that the quality and stability of the 
produced vermicompost from polyculture technique were better than the vermicompost produced from 
monoculture technique. Also, the overall reduction in pH, total organic carbon, and coliforms was higher in 
the polyculture reactors. Similar results were reported by Hussain et al. (2018) who compared the efficiency of 
kitchen waste vermicomposting by single species (Eisenia fetida/Eudrilus eugeniae/Perionyx excavatus) and 
three in combination. They found higher compost maturity, compost quality, microbial enrichment, and 
nutrient contents in the vermicompost prepared by polyculture technique. 

 
Epigeic earthworms 

Epigeic earthworms are mainly surface dwellers and live in the organic horizon and on or near the soil 
surface (Domínguez, 2018). They mainly feed on fresh organic matter found in forest litter, litter mound, 
vegetable and animal debris, etc. (Aira et al., 2008; Domínguez 2018). They exhibit high metabolism and 
reproductive rates which help them to adapt and survive in changing environmental conditions (Domínguez, 
2018). These earthworms play a very important role in degradation of organic matter and enhances the rate of 
decomposition as well as nutrient turnover (Gomez-Brandon et al., 2011). The influence of epigeic earthworms 
on soil microbiota is widely varying as they can instigate either an increase or a decrease in microbial biomass 
(Medina-Sauza et al., 2019). 

When it comes to vermicomposting of sludges, epigeic species E. fetida have been employed extensively 
(Domínguez, 2018). Apart from this species, E. eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus have also been utilized in the 
vermicomposting process (Gajalakshmi et al., 2001; Suthar, 2006; Ravindran et al., 2015). Other lesser utilized 
epigeic earthworms include species such as Dichogaster bolaui (epi-endogeic species) and Perionyx simlaensis 
(Bhardwaj and Sharma, 2015). Vermicomposting of wastes employing E. fetida recorded a significant decrease 
in pH, organic carbon, C:N ratio, total K and an increase in total N, available P, total Ca, and Mg. Also, heavy 
metals such as such as Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, and Ni in the final vermicompost material were under the 
permissible levels (Ahmed and Deka, 2022). Reduction of C:N ratio and humification index was reported 
during the vermicomposting of sludges by E. fetida (Boruah et al., 2019). More studies on the vermicomposting 
potential of E. fetida for different sludges and other organic substances have been reported (Garg and Kaushik, 
2005; Singh et al., 2010; Hait and Tare, 2012; Bhat et al., 2013; Hanc and Chadimova, 2014; Bhat et al., 2016; 
Busato et al., 2016; Cunha et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2016; Malińska et al., 2016; Mupambwa et al., 2016; Xie 
et al., 2016; Ravindran and Mnkeni, 2017). 

Reports have shown that Eisenia andrei could successfully reduce harmful pathogens such as Escherichia 
coli and Salmonella spp. during the vermicomposting of organic wastes (Procházková et al., 2018). 
Vermicomposting potential of dairy sludge and paper mill sludge by E. andrei has been investigated (Elvira et 
al. 1998). Vermicomposting of lignocellulosic wastes by E. eugeniae showed reduction of C:N ratio in the final 
vermicompost (Pandit et al., 2020). Pressmud vermicomposted by E. eugeniae showed a decrease in total 
organic carbon, C:N ratio, and C:P ratio in the vermicompost (Balachandar et al., 2020). Various other 
investigations on the efficiency of E. eugeniae in vermicomposting of sludges/wastes have also been reported 
(Lalander et al., 2015; Ravindran et al., 2016; Taeporamaysamai and Ratanatamskul, 2016; Soobhany et al., 
2017; Biruntha et al., 2020). 

Epigeic species P. excavatus has also shown heavy metal accumulation potential for metals such as Cd, 
Cu, Pb, and Cr during the vermicomposting of sludges. The final produced vermicompost showed a decrease 



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in total organic carbon, C:N ratio, and C:P ratio and an increase in total NPK content (Yuvaraj et al., 2018). 
More studies on the efficiency of P. excavatus in vermicomposting have been reported (Suthar, 2006; 
Ananthavalli et al. 2019). The potential of Lumbricus rubellus (epigeic) in vermicomposting of sludges has also 
been reported (Azizi et al. 2013; Shah et al. 2015) Vermicomposting of industrial sludges using consortia of 
different earthworm species has also been investigated. Yuvaraj et al. (2020) investigated the efficiency of 
vermicomposting of textile sludge using two earthworm species E. eugeniae and P. excavatus and reported good 
heavy metal accumulation by the earthworms and a significant increase in NPK content in the final product. 

 
Endogeic earthworms 

Endogeic earthworms, characterized by little pigmentation, low reproductive rates and long life cycles, 
live in deeper section of the soil profile and feed mainly on soils enriched with organic matter (Domínguez, 
2018). With respect to disturbed soil conditions, they prove themselves to be highly resistant and can survive 
unfavourable conditions like drought and food shortage (Jouquet et al., 2010; Domínguez, 2018; Das et al., 
2020). These earthworms are capable of ingesting a large amount of soil and assimilating greater soil organic 
matter (Bernard et al. 2012). They are highly diverse as they are found in urban soils to temperate soils 
(Schlaghamerský and Pižl, 2009; Glasstetter, 2012). 

Endogeic earthworms are not extensively used in vermicomposting as compared to the epigeic and anecic 
earthworms. One possible reason could be that these earthworms are not detrivores for which they do not feed 
on litter or debris and mostly prefer to live in deeper soil profiles (Das et al., 2020). However, a few studies on 
the vermicomposting potential of endogeic earthworms have been carried out. For instance, Das et al. (2016) 
investigated vermicomposting of sludges by endogeic species Metaphire posthuma. The results showed that 
there was increment in total NPK availability, stable humic acid C formation, fulvic acid C, and microbial 
biomass C in the final vermicompost produced. A decrease in total organic carbon and pH was also recorded. 
Sahariah et al. (2015) also investigated the efficiency of M. posthuma in vermicomposting of municipal sludges. 
The results showed that this species was potentially capable of accumulating heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, Mn, 
and Cu. Moreover, the final vermicompost product recorded an increase in total N and available P, K, and Fe 
content. Enhancement in humification rate and fulvic/humic acid C was also reported. Reports have also 
shown the vermicomposting potential of the endogeic species Pheretima elongata (Munnoli et al., 2000). 

Although other endogeic earthworm species have not been investigated extensively in vermicomposting, 
but they are equally resourceful when it comes to providing other services such as maintaining soil 
characteristics and in growth of different plant species (Doube et al., 1997; Hallam et al., 2021). For instance, 
Doube et al. (1997) investigated the ability of two endogeic species Aporrectodea trapezoides and Aporrectodea 
rosea in the growth of three crop plants - wheat, barley and faba beans. Bernard et al. (2012) reported that 
Pontoscolex corethrurus was capable of inducing a priming effect (stimulation of mineralization of soil organic 
matter) and subsequently enhancing soil respiration. Another species Allolobophora chlorotica has shown 
accumulation potential for the cationic analogue strontium (Sr) (Morgan et al. 2002). Van Vliet et al. (2006) 
reported that A. chlorotica and Aporrectodea caliginosa could efficiently accumulate heavy metals such as arsenic, 
cadmium, and zinc. Eck et al. (2015) investigated the priming effect of A. caliginosa on young rhizodeposits 
and old soil organic matter and found that this species induced strong priming effect on old soil organic matter. 

 
Anecic earthworms 

Anecic earthworms mainly live in the vertical galleries of the soil profile and feed on soil as well as litter 
and partially mineralized organic matter (Domínguez, 2018; Das et al., 2020). They mainly come out to the 
surface at night to feed on surface litter and other partially decomposed matter (Kiyasudeen et al., 2015). Anecic 
earthworms play a crucial role in accelerating the pedological processes by enhancing decomposition of soil 
organic matter, nutrient cycling, and soil formation (Kiyasudeen et al., 2015; Gavinelli et al., 2018). Bottinelli 



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et al. (2021) demonstrated that anecic earthworms (Amynthas adexilis) could induce soil generation to 
counteract the effects of soil erosion. The influence of anecic species Lampito mauritii on soil enzymatic activity 
in cadmium-amended soils has also been studied, wherein this species by accumulating Cd in their gut reduced 
the Cd-induced stress in microorganisms resulting in an increased microbial enzymatic activity (Sivakumar et 
al., 2015). Anecic earthworms, even if not extensively like epigeic earthworms, have been utilized in 
vermicomposting (Das et al., 2020). Rajadurai et al. (2022) investigated the vermiremediation efficiency L. 
mauritii on engine oil contaminated soils. The results showed a total reduction of polyaromatic hydrocarbons 
(PAHs) and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) by 68.6% and 34.3% respectively. Also, the 
vermiremediated soils recorded an elevation in the NPK content. Prashija et al. (2017) recorded decrease in 
pH, organic carbon, C:N ratio, C:P ratio, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and phenol content and increase in 
NPK and humic content in the final vermicompost produced from lignocellulosic wastes by L. mauritii. 
Goswami et al. (2014) reported efficient accumulation of heavy metals such as Mn, Zn, Cu, and As by L. 
mauritii during the vermicomposting of tea factory coal ash. The results also observed reduction of total organic 
C and pH to neutrality and increase in total N in the final vermicompost. Maity et al. (2008) found that L. 
mauritii was capable of immobilizing Pb2+ and Zn2+ in metal treated soils. The final vermicast showed 
reduction of C:N ratio as a result of reduction of organic C and nitrogen fixation. Available P and K content 
also increased as a result of worm activity. Banu et al. (2008) investigated the vermicomposting sludges by L. 
mauritii and found that organic carbon content decreased and total nitrogen increased in the final product. 
Tripathi and Bhardwaj (2004) studied the decomposition potential of L. mauritii and reported an increase in 
organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content by 14%, 102%, 33% and 42% respectively and 
decrease in C:N and C:P ratios by 43% and 14% respectively. Gajalakshmi et al. (2001) also investigated the 
vermicomposting potential of the anecic species Drawida willsi. 

 
Table 3. Table 3. Table 3. Table 3. Role of different earthworms in vermicomposting of organic and inorganic wastes 

CategoryCategoryCategoryCategory     
Earthworm Earthworm Earthworm Earthworm 

speciesspeciesspeciesspecies    

Wastes Wastes Wastes Wastes 
(organic/inorga(organic/inorga(organic/inorga(organic/inorga

nic)nic)nic)nic)    
EffectsEffectsEffectsEffects    ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences    

EpigeicEpigeicEpigeicEpigeic    
Eisenia fetida 

Patchouli bagasse 
from oil industry 

Decrease in organic C, C:N ratio, C:P ratio 
and total K, increase in total P and Ca, and 

heavy metal accumulation 

(Ahmed and 
Deka, 2022)    

Eisenia fetida 

Spent drilling 
fluid from 
Nature-gas 

industry 

Decrease in total organic C, C:N ratio, and 
increase in total NPK content 

(Wang et al., 
2021)    

Eisenia fetida 
Paper mill sludge 

+ citronella 
bagasse 

Reduction of C:N ratio and humification 
index 

(Boruah et al., 
2019)    

Eisenia fetida 
Spent grains 

from brewery 
Decrease in total organic C, and increase in 

total N and total humic substances 
(Saba et al., 

2019)    

Eisenia fetida Sewage sludge -    
(Malińska et al., 

2016)    

Eisenia fetida 
Fruits and 

vegetable wastes 
Decrease in total organic C and increase in 

total N 
(Huang et al., 

2016)    

Eisenia fetida Tannery sludge - 
(Cunha et al., 

2016)    

Eisenia fetida Filter cake Decrease in total organic C and total N 
(Busato et al., 

2016)    



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Eisenia fetida 
Wastewater 

sludge 
Decrease in pH value, total organic C, and 
C:N ratio, and increase in total available P 

(Xie et al., 
2016)    

Eisenia fetida Fly ash Decrease in C:N ratio 
(Mupambwa et 
al., 2016)    

Eisenia fetida Press mud 
Decrease in total organic C, C:N ratio, and K 
content, and increase in N, P, and Na content 

(Bhat et al., 
2016)    

Eisenia fetida 
Apple pomace 

wastes 
Increase in available nutrients such as N, P, K, 

and Mg 

(Hanc and 
Chadimova, 

2014)    

Eisenia fetida Dyeing sludge 
Decrease in electrical conductivity, C:N ratio, 

organic C, and K content, and increase in N, P, 
and Na content 

(Bhat et al., 
2013)    

Eisenia fetida Sewage sludge 
Increase in total N and P content, and decrease 

in metal content 
(Hait and Tare, 

2012)    

Eisenia fetida Beverage sludge 
Decrease in electrical conductivity, organic C, 
and K content, and increase in N, P, and Na 

content 

(Singh et al., 
2010)    

Eisenia fetida Textile sludge 
Reduction in C:N ratio and increase in N and 

P content. 
(Garg and 

Kaushik, 2005)    
Eisenia 

andrei    

Apple pomace 
wastes 

Reduction of pathogenic Enterococci and E. coli 
(Procházková et 

al., 2018)    

Eisenia 

andrei 

Sewage sludge 
and kitchen 

wastes 
- 

(Hanc and 
Dreslova, 2016)    

Eisenia 

andrei 

Dairy sludge and 
paper mill sludge 

Increase in N and P content, and low levels of 
heavy metals 

(Elvira et al., 
1998)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 
Coir pith 

Decrease in organic matter, total organic C, 
C:N ratio, C:P ratio and total phenolic 

content, and increase in electrical conductivity, 
total NPK and Ca content 

(Jayakumar et 
al., 2022)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 

Lignocellulosic 
organic wastes 

Stable C:N ratio (15:1) 
(Pandit et al., 

2020)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 
Pressmud 

Decrease in pH, total organic carbon, C:N 
ratio, water-soluble organic C and C:P ratios, 
and increase in NPK content and microbial 

population 

(Balachandar et 
al., 2020)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 
Biowastes 

Decrease inorganic matter content, total 
organic C, lignin, cellulose, C:N ratio and C:P 

ratio, and increase in NPK content  

(Biruntha et al., 
2020)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 

Municipal solid 
waste 

Decrease in C:N ratio 
(Soobhany et 
al., 2017)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 

Fermented 
tannery waste 

Reduction in heavy metals, total organic C, 
and an increase in total Kjeldahl N 

(Ravindran et 
al., 2016)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 
Kitchen waste 

Decrease in organic matter and organic C, and 
increase in electrical conductivity and total N, 

P, and K content 

(Taeporamaysa
mai and 

Ratanatamskul, 
2016)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae 
Food waste Increase in total N and decrease in total K 

(Lalander et al., 
2015)    



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Eudrilus 

eugeniae 
Tannery waste Decrease in total organic C and C:N ratio 

(Ravindran et 
al., 2015)    

Perionyx 

excavatus 
Seaweed 

Decrease in organic C and increase in NPK 
content 

(Ananthavalli et 
al., 2019)    

Perionyx 

excavatus 
Paper mill sludge 

Decrease in pH, total organic C, C:N ratio and 
C:P ratio, and increase in electrical 

conductivity, total N, total P and total K 

(Yuvaraj et al., 
2018)    

Perionyx 

excavatus 

Guar gum 
industry waste 

Decrease in organic C and increase in total N 
and P content 

(Suthar, 2006)    

Perionyx 

simlaensis 
Organic waste Decrease in C:N ratio 

(Bhardwaj and 
Sharma, 2015)    

Lumbricus 

rubellus 

Sugarcane 
industry waste  

Increase in essential nutrients like N, P, K, Ca, 
and Na 

(Shah et al., 
2015)    

Lumbricus 

rubellus 
Sewage sludge Decrease in heavy metals Cr, Cd and Pb 

(Azizi et al., 
2013)    

Eudrilus 

eugeniae + 
Perionyx 

excavatus 

Textile mill 
wastewater 

sludge 

Decrease in heavy metal content and increase 
in NPK content 

(Yuvaraj et al., 
2020)    

EpiEpiEpiEpi----
endogeicendogeicendogeicendogeic    
EndogeicEndogeicEndogeicEndogeic    

Dichogaster 

bolaui 
Organic waste Decrease in C:N ratio 

(Bhardwaj and 
Sharma, 2015)    

Metaphire 

posthuma 
Jute mill waste 

Decrease in total organic C and pH, and 
increase in N, P, and K availability 

(Das et al., 
2016)    

Metaphire 

posthuma 

Municipal solid 
waste 

Reduction in pH and total organic C and 
increase in total N and availability of P, K, and 

Fe 

(Sahariah et al., 
2015)    

Metaphire 

posthuma 
Organic waste Decrease in C:N ratio 

(Bhardwaj and 
Sharma, 2015)    

Pheretima 

elongata 
Potato peels - 

(Munnoli et al., 
2000)    

AnecicAnecicAnecicAnecic    
Lampito 

mauritii 

Lignocellulosic 
organic waste 

Decrease in pH, organic C, C:N ratio, C:P 
ratio, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and 
phenol content, and increase in N, P, K 
content, dehydrogenase and humic acid 

(Prashija et al., 
2017)    

Lampito 

mauritii 

Tea factory coal 
ash 

Decrease in total organic C and increase in 
total N content and heavy metal accumulation 

(Goswami et al., 
2014)    

Lampito 

mauritii 
Metal treated soil 

Decrease in C:N ratio and increase in 
availability of P and K 

(Maity et al., 
2008)    

Lampito 

mauritii 
Sago sludge 

Decrease in organic C and increase in N and P 
content 

(Banu et al., 
2008)    

Lampito 

mauritii 
Kitchen waste 

Decrease in C:N ratio and C:P ratio and 
increase in N, P and K content 

(Tripathi and 
Bhardwaj, 

2004)    

 
Underlying mechanism of earthworms in waste detoxification processUnderlying mechanism of earthworms in waste detoxification processUnderlying mechanism of earthworms in waste detoxification processUnderlying mechanism of earthworms in waste detoxification process    
Earthworms are capable of crushing organic materials into smaller fragments with the help of their gut 

mediated processes. The gut extends from the mouth to the anus and consists of different sections like muscular 
pharynx, oesophagus, intestines, and associated digestive glands (Figure 3).   

 



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Figure 3. Figure 3. Figure 3. Figure 3. Internal mechanism of earthworms in organic material decomposition and metal uptake. The 
font in red colour designates the three major sections in an earthworm gut (foregut-frontal region; midgut-
middle region, and hindgut-posterior region) (modified from: (Lemtiri et al., 2014))  

 
The gut usually consists of mucus and microbes such as bacteria, protozoa, and fungi which contribute 

to degradation of organic matter at accelerated rates (Munnoli et al., 2010). The influential grinding 
mechanism of the earthworm’s gut is brought about by the strong ligands produced in the gut and peristalsis 
(contraction and relaxation) which helps in the movement of food (Carpenter et al., 2007). It is observed that 
the gut provides a suitable environment for the incubation of microbial colonies (Edwards and Lofty, 1977). 
The gut microbiota degrade the organic matter through secretion of hydrolytic enzymes (Swati and Hait, 
2017). Several digestive enzymes such as protease, invertase, amylase, lipase, cellulase, chitinase, etc., present in 
the alimentary canal help in the process of decomposition (Edwards, 1988b). Such digestive enzymes 
decompose organic matter constituents such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and proteins (Garcia et al., 
1992; Lemtiri et al., 2014). 

The intestinal mucus of earthworms mainly consists of gluco-proteins and other glucosidic and proteic 
molecules (Morris, 1985). The nitrogenous compounds present in the mucus significantly enhances the gut 
microbial activity (Zhang et al., 2000; Lemtiri et al., 2014). The chemical changes of the ingested organic matter 
are brought about by enzymatic digestion (Sharma, 1994). As a consequence of these processes, aromatic 
protein compounds in the organic matter decrease, whereas humic acid-like and fulvic acid-like substances 
increase (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2015). Ingestion of organic materials by earthworms increases the microbial 
count in the gut up to 1000-fold (Edwards, 1988a). These microbe species are primarily the N-fixing and 
decomposer type which are excreted out with nutrients as vermicasts (Singleton et al., 2003). Reports suggested 
that the neutral pH and moist conditions of the foregut of earthworms promoted the growth of microbes 
capable of digesting cellulose (Lavelle and Gilot, 1994). Singleton et al. (2003) reported the presence of 
hydrocarbon degrading bacteria such as Pseudomonas alcaligenes and Acidobacterium in the gut of earthworms. 
Hussain et al. (2016) identified and isolated N-fixing and P-solubilizing bacterial strains of the genus Bacillus, 
Serratia, Burkholderia, and Kluyvera from the gut of earthworms. 

Earthworms enhance the process of mineralization by mixing the fragmented organic matter with 
mineral particles and microorganisms (Parmelee, 1998). Higher mineralization in the produced vermicasts 
could be attributed to higher microbial activity and a higher concentration of labile compounds such as soluble 
carbon and lignin (Coq et al., 2007). Even in the absence of sufficient gut enzymes, they are capable of digesting 



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organic matter by stimulating soil microbes (Khomyakov et al., 2007; Nechitaylo et al., 2010; Fujii et al., 2012). 
Primarily, earthworms and microbes stay in a mutualism, wherein earthworms affect the diversity and 
metabolic activity of microbes and microbes constitute a part of the earthworm diet (Lemtiri et al., 2014). 
Earthworms play a crucial role in nutrient cycling processes involving C and N (Lemtiri et al., 2014). They play 
two contrasting roles in regulating organic C dynamics, viz., a) enhancing organic C mineralization by 
stimulating microbial activity and b) stabilizing organic C by formation of micro and macro aggregates (Angst 
et al., 2019). They are capable of converting organic matter with relatively wide C:N ratios into forms of lower 
C:N ratios, which resultantly enhances the nutrient cycling of N (Syers and Springett, 1984). 

 

 
Figure 4. Figure 4. Figure 4. Figure 4. Bioaccumulation and biotransformation of metals in chloragogenous cells (modified from: 
(Swati and Hait, 2017)) 
 
Earthworms are capable of up-taking potentially toxic elements mainly through two pathways – dermal 

uptake and dietary uptake (Dominguez and Edwards, 2011; Xiao et al., 2021). A higher content of mobile 
metal fractions is resultantly produced as metals are unbounded from their ions and carbonates because of the 
digestion of degradable organic matter. These mobile fractions get accumulated in the cutaneous tissues as a 
stress response of the earthworms (Li et al., 2009; Swati and Hait, 2017). Organic wastes get mineralized and 
humified to form simpler or short chain organic acids during biodegradation. These newly formed organic acids 
form stable metal complexes and/or silicate fractions by binding to the available metal content (Hait and Tare, 
2012). The earthworms have adapted to the process of metal accumulation by maintaining a balance between 
uptake and excretion. The rate of metal excretion increases in earthworms overcoming the metal uptake in 
tissues which helps them survive the metal induced stress conditions (Li et al., 2009; Swati and Hait, 2017). 
Various metals such as Cd, Pb, Hg, and Zn are stored in the chloragogenous tissues of earthworms (Figure 4) 
after their accumulation (Song et al., 2014; Goswami et al., 2016). Different factors like metal type and its 
exposure level, earthworm species and its physiology and age, production of metal chelating proteins, and 
substrate characteristics influence the metal accumulation potential and binding mechanism of earthworms 
(Nannoni et al., 2011). The chelation of metals is induced by a low molecular weight protein – metallothionein 
(MT), wherein this cysteine rich protein chelates metals with the help of their thiol groups and transport them 
to the chloragogenous tissues (Homa et al., 2016). It has been observed that exposure of earthworms to toxic 
elements like Cd and Hg up-regulates the expression of MT in the intestine (Maity et al., 2009; Colacevich et 
al., 2011). However, the metal accumulation potential of earthworms doesn’t always correlate with the MT 



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induction in intestines (Goswami et al., 2016). Interestingly, the induction of other non-MT proteins which 
are capable of accumulating such toxic elements has been reported, which explains why this incongruity exists 
(Hussain et al., 2021). Earthworms also accumulate PAHs by dermal absorption and/or intestinal digestion, 
which are then bio-transformed or biodegraded into more stable harmless compounds (Sinha et al., 2008). 

 
    
ConclusionsConclusionsConclusionsConclusions    
 
The pollution of toxic constituents originating from industrial wastes or sludges has severely affected 

the environment and human health. Even though considerable progress has been made in bioremediation of 
such pollutants, the scope of vermicomposting in remediation of such pollutants is yet to be fully explored. As 
discussed in this review, several factors are inextricably associated with vermicomposting which could accelerate 
the biodegradation process of such toxic constituents and render it for large-scale implementation. Empirical 
studies have shown the positive effects of different bulking agents in vermicomposting which could help in 
chalking out the suitable bulking materials for vermiremediation of different industrial wastes/sludges. The 
influence of abiotic factors on vermicomposting and the role of different earthworm species also provides 
valuable insights for making it a more viable process. It can be suggested that vermiremediation can be made a 
more scalable process with proper knowledge and understanding of the various co-dependent factors. Thus, 
this study can be taken as an opportunity where further research investigations can be carried out to fill the 
gaps in developing the vermiremediation process in management of industrial wastes. 
 
 

Authors’ ContributionsAuthors’ ContributionsAuthors’ ContributionsAuthors’ Contributions 
 
SN: Manuscript writing, editing and review; AQ: Manuscript editing and review; SD: 

Conceptualization, manuscript editing and review. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 
 
 

Ethical approvalEthical approvalEthical approvalEthical approval (for researches involving animals or humans) 
 
Not applicable. 
 
 
AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements    
 
The research received funding by University Grants Commission (UGC) of India (Ref: No.30-

555/2021 (BSR)). 
 

Conflict of InterestsConflict of InterestsConflict of InterestsConflict of Interests    
 
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to this article. 
 
 
    
    
    
    
    



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