The role of weathering and pedological processes for 
the development of sorted circles on Kvadehuksletta, 
Svalbard - a short report 
BERND ETZELMULLER and JOHAN LUDVIG SOLLID 

Etzelmiiller. B. & Sollid, J .  L. 1991: The role of weathering and pedological processes for the development 
of sorted circles on Kvadehuksletta, Svalbard - a short report. Polar Research 9(2). 181-191. 

The presence of silt-rich, fine-grained material at the center of the well-developed sorted circles on 
Kvadehuksletta, Svalbard. is a precondition for their development. Field work, laboratory work, and data 
from published studies indicate that the fine-grained material is a dissolution product of the dolomitic 
bedrock. The silt is accumulated in situ and by slope wash in terrain depressions. Chemical weathering 
and other pedogenetic processes. such as the translocation of silt, are of great importance in Arctic regions 
and can create the sedimentological prerequisitzs for cryogenetic processes, such as frost sorting and 
cryoturbation. Thercfore, the bedrock composition and the composition of surficial material are considered 
to be important control factors for these processes. 

Bernd Etzelmiiller and Johan Ludvig Sollid, Department of Physical Geography, Universiry of Oslo. P .  0. 
Box 1042 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo 3, Norway 

~ 

' ' ~ P 0 ~ , 4 ~ \ ~ 5 ~ ' '  

Introduction 
Sorted circles on Kvadehuksletta. situated on the 
peninsula BrGggerhalvoya, Svalbard, are mainly 
developed in fossil fluvial and beach sediments. 
The circles appear nearly unique on Svalbard 
because they are exceptionally well-developed 
and unusually large. They were first described in 
detail by Miethe (1912). On Kvadehuksletta (Fig. 
1) the circles form local networks, as shown in 
Fig. 2. The dynamics of the well-developed circles 
on Kvadehuksletta have been studied in detail 
by Hallet and others (Hallet & Prestrud 1986; 
Andersen 1988; Hallet et al. 1988). Patterned 
ground in general o n  the north side of Brogger- 
halvoya has been studied in detail by VanVliet- 
Lanoe (1988). Similar circles on Svalbard have 
been reported from southern Spitsbergen in the 
Hornsund area (cf. Jahn 1975). 

This report deals with the problem of the 
regional distribution of this type of patterned 
ground and the prerequisites for its development 
on Kvadehuksletta. The genesis of silty fine- 
grained material, found in the center of the 
circles, is therefore regarded to be of great import- 
ance. On Kvadehuksletta fine material is lacking 
in the unaltered recent beach sediments but is 
found in older beach sediments. It is suggested 
that special geological and hydrological factors 
may favour frost sorting processes and the dev- 
elopment of patterned ground on Kvadehuks- 

letta. This is indicated by the lack of well-devel- 
oped forms in other similar strand-flat areas on 
Svalbard which were observed under a surveying 
project carried out by the Department of Physical 
Geography, University of Oslo, in collaboration 
with the Norwegian Polar Research Institute (Sol- 
lid et al. 1991). 

The fine material is believed to originate as a 
weathering product, mainly from the dissolution 
of dolomitic limestone. Carbonate dissolution has 
been described as an important geomorphological 
agent in Arctic regions (Hellden 1974; Salvigsen 
& Elgersma 1985; Akermann 1973) and is viewed 
as a major prerequisite for the development of 
the sorted circles on Kvadehuksletta. 

This report is to be regarded as a summary of 
preliminary results from field and laboratory work 
carried out in 1987 and 1988 at the Department 
of Physical Geography, University of Oslo, in 
connection with detailed geomorphological and 
Quaternary geological mapping of Kvadehuks- 
letta, scale 1 : 10000 (Tolgensbakk & Sollid 1987). 
As a part of this project the genesis of the fine- 
grained material found in the sorted circles was 
studied by Etzelmuller (1989) under the super- 
vision of J. L. Sollid. More substantial infor- 
mation about granolumetric and mineralogical 
analysis of the soils, especially those associated 
with the sorted circles, will be presented in 
another report when further laboratory analyses 



182 B .  Etzelmiiller & J. L .  Sollid 

K O E S F M I D E U  

i 

.** i<... 

:.<x,F " O C .  C L U l .  

IO.ltO C I k C I  

_.<I .U 

1 

Fig. I .  Kvadehuksletta. located on the peninsula Br0ggerhalvoya on the south side of Kongsfjorden. The highest marine limit is 
about 80 m a.s.1. Only the most pronounced beach terraces and well-developed sortcd circles are shown (based on Tolgensbakk 
& Sollid 1987). 

are completed and all data from previous field- 
work have been processed. 

Setting 
Kvadehuksletta is a strand-flat area o n  the north- 
western point of B r ~ g g e r h a l v ~ y a ,  western Spits- 
bergrn (79"N 1 7 " E )  (Fig. 1 ) .  T h e  bedrock of 
the area consists mainly of permo-carboniferous 
dolomite and minor areas of younger clastic sedi- 
ments (Orvin 1934: Challinor 1967). 

The climate is high Arctic with a marine influ- 
ence. Ny-Alesund, about 10 km southeast of Kva- 
dehuksletta, has an annual mean air temperature 
of -6.1"C and mean precipitation of 373 mm. O n  
Kvadehuksletta precipitation is assumed to be 
higher and the summer temperature slightly lower 
due to the location of Ny-Alesund in a fjordbasin. 
The thickness of the permafrost in the area is 
estimated to be about 200 m based on mcasurc- 
ments carried o u t  in front of the glacier Austre 
Brsggerhreen, about 1 0 k m  south of Kvade- 
huksletta ( L i e s t d  1977). 

A complex of raised beach ridges covers most 
of the strand-flat a r e a  (Fig. 1). T h e  best preserved 
ridges are located at levels below the shoreline a t  
45 m ,  dated to Late Weichsel (about 13.5 ka) by 
Formann et al. (1987). Large beach ridges a r e ,  
however, found up to a level of 74 m .  According 
to Formann & Miller (1984) the uppermost beach 
ridges could be of pre-Weichselian age (130- 
290 ka). They could suggest an ice-free Kvade- 
huksletta i n  the Weichsel. while most recently 
Mangerud et al. (in press) propose a large Weich- 
selian ice sheet, reaching to the edge of the con- 
tinental slope in the west. T h e  latter does not 
necessarily imply that the beach ridges a r e  of 
postglacial age. Marine or glacial deposits can 
survive a glaciation under cold-based ice nearly 
undisturbed, as reported for recent forms from 
Storsya, Svalbard (Jonnson 1983) or supposed 
for fossil forms in the southeastern regions of 
Norway (Sollid & Sorbel 1984). 

Geomorphologically, t h e  complex of beach 
ridges could be divided into two areas, o n e  below 
and one above 45 m a.s.1. T h e  thickness of marine 
sediments varies by several metres around the 



The role of weathering and pedological processes on Kvadehuksletta. Svalbard 183 

Fig. 2. Network of well-developed sorted circles on Kvadehuksletta, developed in a moist terrain depression. The photo was taken 
from helicopter (J.L. Sollid 1985). The two parallel stripes across a circle at left-center can be used as a scalc; the distance bctwcen 
these stripes is about two metres. 

beach ridges and locally t o  almost zero in some 
interridge areas. H e r e  weathered bedrock, flu- 
vially reworked material. and patches of wet. 
richly vegetated tundra are found. T h e  litho- 
logical composition of the marine and fluvial sedi- 
ments on Kvadehuksletta reflect the bedrock 
geology of t h e  area, with a dominance of car- 
bonates. Samples of pebbles from the recent 
beach sediments showed a content of about 80% 
dolomitic limestone and about 5 %  other car- 
bonates; the remaining 15% were sandstones, 
conglomerates and metamorphic pebbles. N o  
significant difference in the lithological com- 
position between recent and fossil beach sedi- 
ments was found. 

The hydrological regime of Kvadehuksletta is 
controlled by the beach ridges and permafrost. 
Small ponds fed by snow and permafrost melt- 
water and by surface runoff a r e  formed in terrain 
depressions behind t h e  ridges. 

In spite of the relatively high precipitation, the 
cryogenetic undisturbed soils developed on the 
beach ridges a r e  classified as being within the 

Polar Desert Z o n e  (Tedrow 1977; Ugolini 1986). 
The arid soil regime is mainly controlled by sedi- 
mentological factors, such as the dominance of 
coarse-grained beach sediments with a thick 
active layer, which cause good drainage 
conditions. 

Field and laboratory work 
The fieldwork for this report was carried o u t  
during the summers of 1987 and 1988. Soil sam- 
pling and detailed geomorphological and soil 
mapping were carried out along special profile 
lines (Fig. 1). 

Analysis of the rocktype composition of beach 
sediments was performed by counting 150 to 200 
pebbles of the 8-16 m m  fraction. Grain size analy- 
sis was done by wet and dry sieving. The fraction 
smaller than 63 p was analysed by a Sedigraph 
5000 D. Mineralogical analyses were carried u t  
with a Phillips PW 1729 X-ray diffractor with a 
Cucy-lamp ( y  = 1.54060 A). T h e  fraction <63 



184 B .  Etzelmuller & J .  L .  Sollid 

S e c t i o n  1 

A 0 C 
C r n  I I I 

Fig. 3. Section through a 
typical well-developed 
sorted circle i n  moist 
terrain depression. 
overlain by beach 
sediments A .  Domain 
(gravelly silt). B .  Circle 
border (rounded to 
subrounded bcach 
sediments, no fines). C. 
Intercircle area (rounded 
to angular gravelly beach 
sediments). Note the 
distinct border hetwecn 
domain and border. and 
border and inter-circle 

0 5 0  100 I50 2 0 0  2 5 0  3 0 0  area. 

was used for a randomly-oriented bulk sample. 
The clay fraction ( < 2  w )  was separated by sedi- 
mentation methods. At this stage an oriented 
sample was prepared and treated by standard clay 
mineral analysis techniques. 

Regional distribution pattern 
Sorted circlcs 

The stone borders outlining the sorted circles 
have a maximum height of about SOcm, with 
average heights of 20 to 3 0 c m .  T h e  material in 
the stone borders consists mainly of stones with 
a diameter of up to a few centimetres. T h e  gravel 
in the borders reflects the surficial material where 
the circles a r e  found. T h e  central areas of the 
circles are dominated by silty fines. T h e  fine 
domain is limited sharply by the gravel border. 
The limit extends vertically downwards pre- 
sumably to the permafrost table. T h e  same ver- 
tical pattern was observed between the circle 
borders and the inter-circle area (cf. Fig. 3 )  sug- 
gesting some kind of vertical movement. T h e  fine 
domain constitutes a plug under the centre of the 
borders. Locally, material rich in silt was also 
found under the circle borders. as has also been 
described by Jahn (1975) from the Hornsund 
region. 

Detailed geomorphological mapping shows 
that the well-developed networks of sorted circles 
(Fig. 2) are concentrated around terrain depres- 
sions where the water supply is relatively good. 
especially surrounding ponds and between beach 
ridges (Fig. 1). These forms are found both in 

marine beach sediments and in fossil fluvial 
material. T h e  age of the deposits does not seem 
to govern the pattern of distribution significantly. 
The circles a r e  abundant and well-developed both 
in the youngest beach sediments and close t o  the 
marine limit. However, areas with a network of 
sorted circles. as shown in Fig. 2, are found mainly 
behind the 2 8 m  ridge (Tolgensbakk Jt Sollid 
1987) which is dated t o  about 10 ka (Formann 
et al. 1987). This distribution pattern is d u e  t o  
topographical and hydrological factors. 

Single sorted circles a r e  found over the entire 
strandflat area in various degrees of development. 
They are even found o n  dry areas and in dolomitic 
weathering material in terrain depressions where 
surficial material thickness is small and water 
supply is present. T h e  borders of these circles are 
built up of angular stones from bedrock weath- 
ering debris. 

Cryogenetic undisturbed soils 

The well-drained soils developed on the beach 
ridges are described in previous works (Formann 
& Miller 1984; Mann e t  al. 1986: Sletten 1988). 
A major feature of these soils is a 15 t o  40 cm thick 
silt accumulation horizon (B,) which underlies an 
A-horizon showing extensive dissolution signs on 
pebbles (Fig. 4). In and beneath the silt horizon 
secondary carbonate precipitation is found on the 
bottom side of t h e  gravel. T h e  chemistry and 
kinetics of the solution and precipitation of car- 
bonates in these soils is described by Sletten 
(1988). Soil morphology and soil water chemistry 
indicate that this pedogenetic silt is mainly a resid- 
ual of the dissolution of dolomitic gravel. 



The role of weathering and pedological processes on Kuadehuksletta, Sualbard 185 

cm 
I 

P r o f i l e  C :  S o i l  c a t e n a  

I1 Ill IV V V I  V I I  

,.c' 
: S E  
7 

0 

C 
N W  

5 0  - 
4 0  - 
3 0  - 
2 0 -  x 
1 0 -  2 

rn 
0 2 0 0  4 0 0  600 800 1000 1 2 0 0  1400 1600 1800 2 0 0 0  2 2 0 0  2400 

m e t e r s  

tiorisonla1 I V e r l l c a l  s c a l e  
1 1 5  

M o i s t  t e r r a i n  d e p r e s s i o n s  B e a c h  s e d i m e n t s ,  d r a i n e d  

Fig. 4. Soil catena along profile line C-C' (cf. Fig. 2). DP = desert pavement. A = horizon with obvious signs of carbonate 
dissolution (angular to subangular pebbles). B, = silt accumulation horizon (notation according to Formann & Miller (1984)). 
A / B ,  = horizon which shows beginning of silt translocation (siltcaps on pebbles). B/C = transition between silty B-horizon and 
parent material. G = water-saturated horizon (gleyic). 0 = organic horizon. (g) = temporally water saturated. 

The silt is translocated down through the soil 
column by percolating pore water and enriched 
in a silt horizon (Formann & Miller 1984). The 
translocation of fines is described by Tedrow 
(1977) and Ugolini (1986) as an important pedo- 
logical process in well-drained polar soils, and 
reported from other areas, for example in mor- 
ainic material in Arctic Canada (Locke 1986) and 
in polar soils of Antarctica (Campbell & Claridge 
1987). Formann & Miller (1984) attempted t o  
use the degree of silt accumulation in the soils 
developed on the beach ridges as a relative dating 
tool for the marine deposits. In the youngest 
beach ridges, silt is mainly accumulated as silt 
caps on pebbles, while on older beach ridges 
the pebbles are totally imbedded in the silty soil 
matrix (Fig. 4). The border between the two 
typical morphological features is the 45 m beach 
ridge. 

Silt-rich horizons are lacking on the recent 
beach ridges between Kvadehuken and Kongs- 
fjordneset. There are no signs of silt accumu- 
lation, even by eolian or by pedogenetic 
processes. 

Silt rich soils were observed in wet inter-ridge 
depressions, found outside the well-developed 

sorted circle areas. In these areas hydromorph 
soils have formed, with a gravelly 0- and A- 
horizon and a silty gleyic B-horizon saturated with 
water (Fig. 4). 

Transitions between cryogenetic undisturbed 
soils and sorted circles 

Transitions between silt horizons and sorted 
circles are observed especially on the slopes of 
the beach ridges and in wet depressions. It is 
obvious that silty hydromorphic soils dominate in 
areas saturated by water, while sorted circles are 
formed in areas not constantly saturated by water 
but having a good water supply. This confirms 
observations by e.g. Jahn (1975) in the Hornsund 
region and by Van Vliet-Lanoe (1988) along the 
northern coast of BrBggerhalvOya. Transitions 
between pedogenetic silt horizons and poorly- 
developed sorted circles on the top of beach ridges 
have been observed locally. Several excavations 
show that the B,-horizon locally reaches the 
surface, showing an early phase of development 
of sorted circles, even on dry areas as represented 
by the top of the beach ridges. Transitions 
between horizontal silt horizons and mudboils o r  



186 

% 
100 

8 0  

60 

4 0  

2 0  

B .  Etzelmiiller & J .  L .  Sollid 

- A (gravel: 82.6%) 
- - -  B (gravel: 93.4%) 

c (gravel: 36.8%) 
+ D (gravel: 31.82) 

0 
9 8 7 6 6 4 3 2  1 0 -1 

Phi 
Fig. 5 .  Grain size distribution from silt-rich fines. Soils sampled from the fine-grained center of sorted circles and from nearby 
areas. Gravel was removed from the samples; the amount of gravel removed is given in brackets. A = Silt accumulation horizon 
of soil developed on 36-m beach ridge. B = Domain from section 1. C = Domain from circle developed in weathering material. 
D = Silt accumulation in undisturbed hydromorph soils ( 3 3  m a.s.1.). 

poorly-developed sorted circles observed on the 
slopes of beach ridges seem to be the result of 
slope-wash and translocation of silt by percolating 
pore water. Such subsurface drainage is confirmed 
by observations referred in Van Wet-Lanoe 
(1988) where these features can occur in zones 
with drainage concentration. Subsurface drainage 
down the slopes of the beach ridges on Kvade- 
huksletta can concentrate on the permafrost 
table, especially in late spring and early summer. 

Some results from soil sampling 
and analysis 
Most work was carried out on the material rich 
in silt, sampled in soils from the fine-grained 
centre of sorted circles and from adjectant areas. 
As one of the aims of this work was to find 
evidence of the origin of fines in the circles, the 
samples were divided into silt collected from 
sorted circle sites and silt collected from other 
sites for cornparism. The first group was sub- 
divided into fines from circles developed directly 
on beach terraces and from circles developed in 
moist depressions between terraces. 

The most striking feature is that the pedo- 
genetic silt found in t h e  silt horizons of the cry- 
ogenetic undisturbed soils and the silty material 
in the sorted circles located nearby do not show 
any signficant difference, either in grain size dis- 

tribution or in mineral composition. The fines 
here consist mainly of medium-coarse to coarse 
silt with a relatively small amount of fine and 
medium sand and clay (Fig. 5 ) .  

Mineralogical analysis of the fines shows that 
the silt is mainly composed of dolomite and 
quartz, with a varying amount of feldspar and 
mica. The quantitative distribution of the main 
minerals in the silt is found to be nearly the same 
as for the local unweathered dolomitic bedrock, 
with slightly higher values for quartz due to the 
dissolution of carbonates (Figs. 6 and 7). The silt 
in sorted circles developed directly from weath- 
ering material does not show any significant min- 
eralogical difference to unweathered bedrock 
(Fig. 6). Feldspar and mica are therefore inherited 
from sandstones and conglomerates found in the 
surficial material. 

Fines in sorted circles developed in moist 
depressions show small variations in grain size 
distribution and mineral compositions of the silt 
and clay fraction over the entire study area. 
Almost the same values of these parameters, 
which are close to those of unweathered bedrock, 
have been measured both in forms nearby the 
recent coast line and nearby the highest marine 
limit, about 80 m a.s.1. 

The diffraction pattern of the silts directly con- 
nected to beach terraces indicates an increase 
of quartz, feldspar and mica content relative to 
dolomite with the age of the beach terraces, both 



The role of weathering and pedological processes on Kvadehuksletta, Svalbard 187 

- 10 

- 5  

- 0  

Q +  M 
3,34 

I '  

h D 2 , 8 9  

- 40 

- 35 
0 
0 
C 

-30 2 
X 

a 

- 2 5  $ 
0 

- 20 

- 15 

- 10 

F 

0 

L A  

I I  I 1 I  

I I I 1  

I 

I l l  ' I  I 

1 " I  r - " I *  * 
1 

h I  
I I I 

I 
0 

45 40 35 30 25 2 0  15 10 5 
d e g r e e  2 8 

Fig. 6. X-Ray diffraction pattern of fines from soil horizons and sorted circles. Samples A t o  E, pulver sample (<63 p). Sample 
F, oriented sample of clay fraction, untreated. A = dolomitic bedrock. B = domain from circle developed in weathering material. 
C = domain from section 1 cf. Fig. 3. D = silt accumulation in hydromorph soil (33 m a.s.1.). E = silt accumulation horizon of 
soil developed on 36-m-beach ridge. F = same as E, but fraction less than 2 p. Labels of the peaks: M = mica, K/C = kaolinite 
and chlorite, Q = quartz, F =feldspars, Ca = calcite, D = dolomite. 



188 B. Etzelmiiller & J .  L .  Sollid 

100 

80 

20 

n 

Fig. 7. Relative intensities of 
randomly oriented bulk saniples " 

45 rn beach ridge (fraction < 63 p) of the B,-horizon of 
undisturbed soils developed on thc 
main beach ridges on Kvadehuksletta. 
The relative intensities are expressed 
in percentage Of the sum the 
intensities of the shown minerals. 

28 rn beach ridge 
36 rn beach ridge 49 ,,,beach we 

Feldspars 1 Mica 11 KaolinitdChbrite 
I..! 

in the randomly oriented bulk samples (Fig. 7) 
and in the oriented samples of the clay fraction. 
The amount of clay minerals is almost negligible 
in the Late Weichselian and Holocene areas of 
Kvadehuksletta, excepting some mica, kaolinite 
and chlorite inherited from bedrock. In this frac- 
tion dolomite and quartz dominate, with a higher 
quartz content relative to dolomite. The relative 
amount of clay minerals and feldspar seems to 
increase in the silt developed on older beach 
terraces above 45 m a.s.1. A possible time depen- 
dence of the mineralogical contents of the fines 
will be discussed in a later paper. 

To test the hypothesis of the silt mainly being 
a residue of carbonate dissolution, a dissolution 
test was carried out. Here crushed dolomite rock 
fragments and pebbles from beach sediments 
(fraction 4-8cm) were treated with a light acid 
(pH 2.5) over a period of one week. After this 
period a considerable amount of residue was pro- 
duced, which could be analysed by grain size and 
mineral distribution. Knowing that the chemical 
conditions of the test did not represent natural 
conditions. the results of the analyses showed, 
however. similar values as those obtained from 
field samples, with a low clay content and the 
mode of the distribution in the medium to coarse 
silt fraction. The test indicates that the dissolution 
of the dolomitic bedrock o n  Kvadehuksletta pref- 

erably produces a residue rich in medium to 
coarse silt. 

Discussion 
Goldthwait (1976) defined the sedimentological 
prerequisites for the development of frost-sorted 
patterned ground as primarily being the existence 
of poorly sorted, heterogenous sediments with a 
relatively high amount of silt and clay (more than 
15%). According to Washburn (1980) the amount 
of silt and clay is important for effective frost 
heave and frost sorting. Most sorted forms 
described in different studies are observed in 
areas dominated by till; till normally satisfies the 
above-mentioned granolumetric conditions (e.g. 
Ballentyne & Matthews 1982; Harris & Cook 
1988; Karte 1979). 

Fines are originally lacking in the marine beach 
deposits on Kvadehuksletta. The accumulation of 
silts in areas where networks of sorted circles are 
abundant can be explained as being an older 
sediment layer, the result of secondary trans- 
location processes by slope wash or sub-surface 
drainage, or the result of in situ weathering. The 
silts can be of marine origin, deposited before the 
Pleistocene beach sediments. A stratigraphic silt- 
rich layer beneath the beach sediments was, how- 



T h e  role of weathering and pedological processes oti Kvadehuksletta, Svalbard 189 

ever, not verified elsewhere in the study area. 
Sections along the rivers show the beach sedi- 
ments resting directly o n  the bedrock. T h e  terrain 
depressions behind the fossil beach ridges rep- 
resent a similar coastal environment as observed 
around the recent beach ridges, with the existence 
of lagoon lakes behind a beach berm. There, 
one would, theoretically. expect to find fluvial or 
lacustrine sedimentation of silt rich fines. If this 
is the case, o n e  would expect stratigraphic silt 
layers in or o n  t o p  of beach sediments with a 
relative high degree of sorting. This was not 
observed in the field. Hand-augering o n  several 
sites shows that the silts a r e  accumulated as pore 
fills in the gravelly surficial material, resulting in 
low sorting values of the material. Drilling in the 
present lagoon lakes would give a better answer to 
the last proposed theory. T h e  above observations 
indicate, however, that the silt accumulation is 
due to other processes than marine or lacustrine 
sedimentation. 

Field observations and laboratory analysis indi- 
cate that the silt in the centres of the sorted 
circles is of the same origin as the pedogenetic silt 
described in the soils developed on the beach 
ridges. T h e  fines in the domains of the sorted 
circles a r e  therefore also inferred t o  b e  originally 
a weathering product d u e  t o  chemical dissolution 
of the dolomitic bedrock and dolomitic gravel 
in the surficial material. T h e  feldspar and mica 
content indicates, however, that frost shattering 
occurs as well as the proposed dissolution of car- 
bonates, since these minerals are considered t o  be 
inherited from the clastic pebbles in the surficial 
material. Formann & Miller (1984) assume, how- 
ever, that chemical dissolution produces more 
silt-sized material o n  Kvadehuksletta. That pro- 
cesses other than frost weathering can b e  of 
importance in cold climates, a t  least in carbonate 
sedimentary rocks, is confirmed by the results of 
laboratory studies obtained by Fahey & Dagesse 
(1984), who showed that adsorption-related pro- 
cesses during oscillations of relative humidity and 
temperature can contribute t o  particle disin- 
tegration. 

O n  the basis of these observations the fines are 
believed t o  accumulate both by in situ weathering 
and by slopewash with later sedimentation in the 
coarse beach and fossil fluvial sediments in terrain 
depressions. T h e  grain size distribution of the 
surficial material then changes from a relatively 
well-sorted gravelly sediment to a poorly sorted 
material with a bimodal grain size distribution 

after the accumulation of fines. This distribution 
matches the sedimentological prerequisite des- 
cribed by Goldthwait (1976) for the development 
of frost-sorted patterned ground. When the silt 
content passes a certain limit, frost action can 
progress. This limit is estimated t o  be between 
1&12% silt and clay for the beach sediments, and 
is evidently reached when all macro pores in the 
gravelly surficial material are filled with fines. The 
water capacity then increases rapidly and favours 
further frost processes. The grain-size distribution 
of the silt rich material of the circle domain and 
the lower silt limit proposed here correspond with 
observations from other areas (cf. Ballentyne & 
Matthcws 1982: Goldthwait 1976; Harris & Cook 
1988; Nicholson 1976; Washburn 1988). Common 
for these observations is the presence of silt-rich 
fines in the circle domain, confirming the import- 
ance of the presence of silt-rich fines for the 
dynamic of frost processes (Washburn 1980). 

In more or less constantly moist areas, the 
lithological composition of the bedrock and the 
surficial material play an important role. both for 
frost processes and for the genesis of fines. T h e  
hydrological conditions not only govern the frost 
activity in the ground but also the production of 
fine-grained material. I n  terrain depression. in 
addition to the proposed translocation of silt, 
there will be a constant water supply from reactive 
snow and permafrost meltwater, at least in the 
late spring. This favours carbonate dissolution 
and in situ production of silty residue from the 
dolomitic limestone. This process will continue 
until a supposed upper limit of silt accumulation 
is reached. 

Based on data from published studies, the fea- 
tures described above, and observations from sec- 
tions dug in undisturbed soils and certain sorted 
circles in different stages of development, the 
following development pattern of sorted circles 
on Kvadehuksletta is suggested (Fig. 8). T h e  
sorted circles develop from a stage where gravelly 
sediments overlie fine-grained material. T h e  fines 
are originally produced by in situ weathering and 
accumulated either by soil processes in a silt hori- 
zon or by slope wash and sedimentation of fines 
in terrain depressions. This results in a higher 
frost susceptibility in part of the soil and leads to 
vertical and lateral mass displacement or dif- 
ferential frost heaving. A d o m e  of fines is formed, 
which migrates upwards, eventually reaching the 
surface ~ producing patterned ground (Sollid & 
Sorbel 1988). T h e  concept of vertical and lateral 



190 B .  Etzelmuller & J .  L .  Sollid 

I '  circles starts after a certain limit of silt accumu- lation has been passed. T h e  amount of silt 
accumulated in the surficial material is therefore 
one of the main factors that influences the dev- 
elopment and t h e  pattern of distribution of sorted 

1 circles on Kvadehuksletta. 

ri 

I 111 

FIR. 8 Stages n f  the derclopment of sorted circle\ (from Sollid 
& Sorhel 1988. modified). 1 = Initial stage of 5111 accumulation 
and Lcrtical torting. I I  = l'crtical and lateral mass dkplacc- 
mcnt. Ill = Earl) stage o f  the dcvclopment o f  sorted circles. 
forming a mud boil uhtch reaches the surface. IV = Later 5tage. 
with dcvcloprnent of circle border\. 

mass displacement in periglacial soils was dis- 
cussed by G r i p p  & Simon (1934) and later used t o  
explain the development pattern of sorted circles 
and other forms of patterned ground (cf. Jahn 
1975: Van Vliet-Lanoe 1988; Washburn 1988). 
Recently, convective processes d u e  to a density 
gradient in the soil a r e  suggested to be a main 
factor in the development of sorted circles (And- 
ersen 1988: Hallet & Prestrud 1986; Hallet e t  al. 
1988). 

It is supposed that t h e  sorted circles a r e  initially 
formed in a relatively short period of time. They 
probably then reach a mature state with little 
further change in their pattern. This would 
explain the small differences of t h e  fine-grained 
material in the circles covering the study area. It 
is further suggested that the development of the 

Conclusions 
O n  Kvadehuksletta t h e  development of frost- 
sorted patterned ground is directly related to the 
accumulation of fines, which seems to be a residue 
of the weathering of bedrock and autochtone 
dolomitic surficial material. This study suggests 
that chemical dissolution can be an important 
factor. even for the dynamics of cryogenetic pro- 
cesses. Together with o t h e r  geomorphological 
processes, such as slope washing, weathering is a 
prerequisite and source for later frost sorting and 
mass displacements in the soils of Kvadehuks- 
letta. T h e  dolomitic limestone is therefore sup- 
posed to be a major controlling factor for frost 
processes o n  Kvadehuksletta; this emphasizes the 
importance of bedrock petrography and sediment 
lithology for the distribution pattern of patterned 
ground o n  Svalbard. 

r\c.kfiok,/edjie,~ierirs. - B. Hallct reviewed thc paper and gave 
constructive comments. The laboratory analyses wcrc carried 
nut at the Department of Geology. University of Oslo. tinder 
the guidance of P. Aagaard and T. Winjc. The Norwegian Polar 
Research Imtitute contributed logistic and financial support. 
The Kings Bay Kull Comp. A/S allowcd us to use the cottage 
-'Geopol" on Kvadehuksletta during thc summer field work. 

The authors thank the rnentioncd persons and institutions. 

References 
Andenon. S. P. 1988: Upfreezing in sorted circles. westcrn 

Spitshcrgen. Pp. W 7 1  in Senneset, K .  ( e d . ) :  Proceedings. 
Fifth Internurional Conference on Perniufrosr. The Norwegian 
Committce on Permafrost, the Norwegian Institute of Tech- 
nology. Trondheim. 

Ballcntyne. C. K .  & Matthews. J .  A. 1982: The dcvelopnient of 
sorted circlcs on recently deglaciated terrain, Jotunheinmen, 
Norway. Arctic and Alpitie Research 14 ( 4 ) ,  341-351. 

Campbell, 1. B .  & Claridge, G .  G .  C. 1984: Antarctica: Soils. 
weathcring processes and environment. Developnierits in Soil 
Srience 16. Elsevier. Amsterdam. 368 pp. 

Challinor. A. 1967: The structure of Brtiggerhalvoya. Spits- 
bergen. Geoologitr Magazine 104, 322-3.36. 

Etzelmiiller. B. 1989: Finkornet materide, ders dannelse og 
b e y d n i n g  for frosrprosesser p d  KvadeAirkslena. Suolbard. 
L.ipubl. cand. scient. thesis in Geomorphology. Department 
of Physical Geography. University of Oslo. 113 pp. + appen- 
dix. 



The role of weathering and pedological processes on Kvadehuksletta, Soalbard 191 

Fahey. B .  S. & Dagcsse, D .  F. 1984: A n  experimental study on 
the effect of hcmidity and temperature variations on the 
granular disintegration of argillaceous carbonate rocks in cold 
climates. Arctic and A l p i n e  Research 1 6 ,  291-298. 

Formann, S .  & Miller, G. H. 1984: Time-dependent soil mor- 
phologics and pedogenic processes on raised beaches, Breg- 
gerhalvbya. Spitsbergcn. Svalbard archipelago. Arctic and 
Alpine Research, 381-394. 

Formann, S . ,  Mann. D. H. & Miller, G .  H .  1987: Late Weich- 
selim a n d  Holocene relative sea level history of Brdgger- 
halveya. Spitsbergen. Quaternary Research 27. 41-50. 

Goldthwait, R. P. 1976: Frost sorted patterned ground: a 
review. Quaternary Research 6. 27-35. 

Gripp, K .  & Simon, W. 1934: Die Experimentelle Darstellung 
des Brodelbodens. Nanrrwiss. 22. %lo. 

Hallet. B. & Prestrud, S .  1986: Dynamics of periglacial sorted 
circles in western Spitsbergen. Quaternary Research 26, 81- 
99. 

Hallct. 8.. Anderson, S .  P.. Stubbs. C. W. & Gregory, E. C. 
1988: Surface soil displacements in sorted circles, western 
Spitsbergen. Pp. 77&775 in Senneset. K. (ed.): Proceedings, 
Fifth International Conference on Permafrost. The Norwegian 
Committee on Permafrost, the Norwegian Institute of Tech- 
nology, Trondheim. 

Harris, C. & Cook. J. D .  1988: Micromorphology and micro- 
fabrics of sorted circles, Jotunheimen. southern Norway. Pp. 
776783 in Senneset, K. (ed.): Proceedings. Fifth Inter- 
national Confrrence o n  Permafrost. The Norwegian Com- 
mittec on Permafrost, the Norwegian Institute of Technology, 
Trond heim. 

Helldin, U. 1974: Karst. en studie av Artfjlllets karstomrade 
sam jamforande korrosionsanalyser f r i n  Vastspetsbcrgen och 
Tjekoslovakien. Meddelanden f r i n  L u n d s  Uniuersitets Geo- 
grajisku Institution A ohattdlitlgpar L X X I I .  192 pp. 

Jahn. A. 1975: Problems of theperiglacial zone. Polish Scientific 
Publishers. Warsawa. 220 pp. 

Jonnson. S .  1983: On the geomorphology and past glaciation 
of Stordya, Svalbard. Geografisku Annaler. ser. A 65 (1-2). 
1-17. 

Karte, J .  1979: Raumliche Abgrenzung und rcgionalc Dif- 
fercnzierung des Periglaziars. Bochumer Geographische 
Arbeiteri 35. 21 I pp. 

Liestel, 0. 1977: Pingos. springs and permafrost in Spitsbergcn. 
Norsk Polarinrtirutt A r b o k  1976, 7-25. 

Locke. W. W. 1986: Fine particle translocation in soils devel- 
oped on glacial deposits, southern Baffin Island, N.W.T., 
Canada. Arctic and A l p i n e  Research 18. 33-43. 

Mangerud. J . ,  Bolstad, M.. Elgersma, A , .  Helliksen. D.. Land- 
vik, J .  Y . ,  Lbnne. I . ,  Lyche, A .  K.. Salvigsen. O . ,  Sandahl. 
T. & Svendsen, J .  I .  in press: Thc last glacial maximum on 
western Svalbard. Quaternary Research. 

Mann. D. H . .  Sletten, R .  S .  & Ugolini. F. C. 1986: Soil 
development at Kongsfjorden, Spitsbergen. Polar Research 
4 ,  1-16. 

Miete. A. 1912: Uber Karreebodenformen auf Spitzbergen. 
Zeitschrift d e r  Gesellschaft f u r  E r d k u n d e  z u  Berlin (Vol. 4, 
1 6 1 9 ) .  241-244. 

Nicholson, F. H. 1976: Patterned ground formation and 
description as suggested by Low Arctic and Subarctic 
examples. Arctic and A l p i n e  Research 8 .  329-342. 

Orvin. A. K. 1934: Geology of the Kings Bay region. Spits- 
hergen. Skrifter o m  Svalbard of lshauer 57. 190 pp 

Salvigsen. 0. & Elgersma, A. 1985: Large-scale karst features 
and open taliks at Varderborgslettaouter Isfjorden, Svalbard. 
Polar Research 3 .  145-155. 

Sletten, R. S .  1988: The formation of pedogenetic carbonates 
on Svalbard: the influence of cold temperatures and freezing. 
Pp. 467-472 in Scnneset, K. (ed.): Proceedings, Fifth Infer- 
national Conference on Permafrost. The Norwegian Com- 
mitteeon Permafrost. the Norwegian Institute ofTechnology. 
Trondheim. 

Sollid J .  L. & Sdrbel. L. 1984: Distribution and genesis of 
moraines in Central Norway. Pp. 63-67 in Kdnigsson. L.-K. 
(cd.): Ten Years of Nordic Till Research. Striae 20. Uppsala. 

Sollid. J L .  & Serbel, L. 1988: The area of Kvadehuksletta and 
Ny-Alcsund. Pp. 2(&26 in Orheim. A .  & Sollid. J .  L. (eds.): 
Svalbard - Excursion Guide. Meddelelser fra Grografisk insri- 
tuti, UiO. Naturgeografisk serie. Rapport N r .  8. Oslo. 

Sollid, J .  L., Serbcl, L. & Bdeglrd, R. 1091: Sualbard coast 
oideo s u r v e y .  Department of Physical Geography. University 
of Oslo. and Norwegian Polar Rcscarch Institute. 

Tedrow. J .  C. F. 1977: Soils of the p o l a r  landscape. New 
Brunswick. 638 pp. 

Tolgensbakk, .I. & Sollid. J .  I .  1987: Kuadehukslerta. gemor- 
fologi og kuarruergeologi 1:10000. Geografisk institutt. Univ- 
ersitet i Oslo. 

Ugolini. F. C. 1986: Pedogenclic zonation in the well-drained 
soil of the arctic regions. Quafernary Resrarrh 26. 10&120. 

Van Vliet-Lanoe. B. 1988: The origin of patterned ground 
in N.W. Svalhard. Pp. 100b1013 in Senneset. K. (ed.): 
Proceedings. Fifth lnternarional Conference o n  Permafrost. 
The Norwegian Committee on Permafrost. the Norwegian 
Institute of Technology. Trondheim. 

Washburn. A .  L. 1980: G e o c r v o l o g y .  A suroey of periglacial 
processes and enuironmenr. Arnold. WashingtonINew York. 

Washburn, A .  L. 1988: Near-surface soil displacemcnt in sorted 
circles. Resolute area. Cornwallis Island. Canadian High 
Arctic. Canadian Journal of Earth Science 26. 941-955. 

Akermann, J .  1983: Notes on chemical weathering. Kapp 
Linne. Proceedings. 4th International Permafrost Conference. 
1&16. 

406 pp.