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B O O K R E V I E W por_182 463..466

Review of Health of Antarctic wildlife: a challenge for
science and policy, edited by Knowles R. Kerry &
Martin J. Riddle (2009). Dordrecht: Springer. 470 pp. ISBN
978-3-540-93922-1.

Climate change and disease, among other factors, play an
important role in the regulation and evolution of animal
populations through the differential survival of individu-
als (Holmes 1996; Harvell et al. 2002). The study and
monitoring of disease is important because diseases are
likely to be spread more rapidly now than in the recent
past because of increased globalization and rapid human-
induced climate change (Daszak et al. 2000; Ward &
Lafferty 2004). Antarctic wildlife offers a unique oppor-
tunity to study disease spread in terms of globalization
and climate change because: (1) Antarctic animals are
increasingly exposed to humans and other disease
vectors, such as introduced species; and (2) there is strong
evidence of climatic changes in and around Antarctica
(Mayewski et al. 2009), which together may affect the
composition and virulence of pathogens or increase the
overlap between Antarctic and other seabirds and their
parasites (e.g., Kovats et al. 2001).

In their new book, Health of Antarctic wildlife: a challenge
for science and policy, two pioneer researchers of the effects
of humans on Antarctic wildlife, Knowles Kerry and
Martin Riddle, bring together what is known about
disease prevalence and the management of disease out-
breaks in the Antarctic. This book and its many
contributors—28 in all—provide an up-to-date overview
of the health of Antarctic birds and seals. For any prac-
tising biologist, ecologist or veterinarian interested in
Antarctic biology this book is immensely valuable, not
only because it brings together information from a wide
range of fields and expertise, but also and perhaps most
critically it describes exactly how suspicious die-offs
should be treated to minimize the potential spread of
disease, and to reduce the risk to the human researchers
most likely to discover such events.

Antarctica is unlikely to share many of the diseases
found in the neighbouring southern continents on
account of the temporal (many millions of years) and
geographical/spatial isolation of the continent by the
Southern Ocean, which forms a functional barrier across
which few animals, among them, birds and seals, can

cross. Most animals in Antarctica and on the surrounding
sub-Antarctic islands have evolved in relative isolation,
which has limited their contact with disease and inhibits
the introduction of vectors or intermediate hosts, such as
ectoparasites. Consequently, Antarctic animals are likely
to have reduced immune capabilities for fending off intro-
duced disease. Indeed, there have been only two reported
cases of mass mortalities of Antarctic wildlife: one of
crabeater seals (Labodon carcinophagus) and one of Adélie
penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) (Laws & Taylor 1957; Gardner
et al. 1997); two smaller, more insidious, mortality events
occurred in the sub-Antarctic involving the Amsterdam
albatross (Diomedia amsterdamensis) and Hooker’s sea lions
(Phocarctos hookeri) (Weimerskirch 2004; Wilkinson et al.
2006). However, the wildlife in Antarctica is no longer as
isolated as in the past because of the ease of transport to
Antarctica and the increasing number of people visiting

Correspondence
Clive R. McMahon, School for Environmental Research, Charles Darwin

University, Casuarina Campus, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia.

E-mail: clive.mcmahon@cdu.edu.au

Polar Research 29 2010 463–466 © 2010 the author, journal compilation © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 463

mailto:mcmahon@cdu.edu.au


the southern polar regions, including scientists, fishers
and tourists, a topic covered comprehensively in Health
of Antarctic wildlife. Not only are more people visiting the
Antarctic, but rapid and widespread travel within Ant-
arctica is now commonplace. This behaviour increases
the risk of disease spread, endemic and introduced alike.
Whereas disease spread is not a novel concern (Murray
1964), the issue of disease introduction has, until the
publication of Health of Antarctic wildlife, received rela-
tively little scientific attention in Antarctica. One
possible reason for this is that little is known of diseases
in Antarctic animal populations, in particular the intro-
duction of disease, and probably more importantly the
manifestation of as yet undiscovered or mutating dis-
eases (for an example of a recently discovered novel
virus, see Linn et al. 2001). Another explanation may
have to do with the rarity with which diseased individu-
als are observed. This may change if disease outbreaks
occur more frequently or if they are more readily
observed because of increased scientific observation in
Antarctica.

Animal behaviour, including human behaviour, is an
important component in the spread and maintenance of
disease (McCallum et al. 2001). As such, it is important
that it forms the basis of any assessments investigating or
managing disease. Sadly, in Health of Antarctic wildlife,
animal behaviour other than human behaviour receives
little focused attention, as do life-history studies in
general (see below). Of particular concern for the spread
of disease is the human propensity to alter ecosystems
through their behaviour, e.g., habitat modification and
the introduction of invasive species, thereby altering the
behaviour of animals. This brings into contact species that
otherwise would have very low chances of interacting,
increasing the probability of disease spread. Moreover,
the fact that many Antarctic taxa such as seals, penguins
and Antarctic petrels form dense aggregations highlights
how animal behaviour can promote the easy intracolony
spread of disease. Because most colonies tend to be sepa-
rated by large distances, the potential for intercolony
infection is probably low, but this is currently difficult to
quantify because of the paucity of species-specific behav-
ioural information. Little is known of individual animal
movements between breeding colonies and/or the extent
of mixing between populations. Diseases can be spread
between colonies via other means, such as predators and
scavengers. The south polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki)
is such a predator/scavenger. Skuas are mobile predators
that feed/scavenge on all Antarctic taxa, and travel freely
between the Northern and Southern hemispheres
(Devillers 1977), and may therefore be significant con-
tributors to intercolony disease spread. The clear need to
integrate animal behaviour, e.g., migratory and dispersal

behaviour, and animal biology and ecology in general,
receives little coverage in Health of Antarctic wildlife, in
contrast to the study of human behaviour.

Human activity in Antarctica can promote disease
spread and outbreaks by a number of direct and indirect
mechanisms, and this is covered thoroughly in Health of
Antarctic wildlife. People may act as vectors for infectious
agents, either by bringing non-indigenous pathogens into
the region or by translocating indigenous pathogens.
Although humans are not the only mechanism for
disease incursion to Antarctica, they are an important
mechanism for disease or pathogen introduction because
of their mobility and diets. Of particular concern are
imported poultry products, including eggs, egg powder
and frozen or freeze-dried meat, which may be sources of
viruses and bacteria that are pathogenic to humans, seals
and seabirds. Poultry has been linked to the transmission
of Newcastle disease in Antarctic seabirds, and because
antibodies to Newcastle disease have been found in many
birds (e.g., Gardner et al. 1997, and references therein), it
follows that viral (and other) diseases, such as avian
influenza, can be easily transmitted to Antarctic birds
through foodstuffs regularly consumed by humans in
Antarctica. Vehicles, equipment and clothing used in Ant-
arctica can also carry pathogens if they are used for
recreation, training or work in other locations before
being used in Antarctica.

Human activity may also result in stress to wildlife,
a major contributing factor to the outbreak of disease
(Lafferty & Holt 2003). Humans may cause animals stress
by polluting the Antarctic environment (e.g., discharging
sewage into the ocean from research stations or ships at
sea) or by creating food shortages, as when fisheries
compete for the same food stocks. Researchers and tour-
ists disturb animals in other ways. Stress to animals may
also be induced by climate change and habitat destruc-
tion, and fragmentation that results from human
activities. It is often thought that because Antarctic
species are well adapted to survive under extreme envi-
ronmental conditions that they are immune to
environmental stress—this is clearly not the case.

Prevention in most cases is probably the most effective
way of dealing with diseases in Antarctica, simply because
it is not easy to observe clinical ante-mortem symptoms
in the field. To prevent pathogenic disease from being
introduced into Antarctica, strict quarantine measures
need to be implemented, and it is encouraging to note
that there are now strict pre-departure checks in place to
restrict the accidental introduction of pathogens. The
problem here is one of compliance, especially on illegal
vessels (generally fishing vessels) entering Antarctic
waters. Such illegal vessels, many of which originate in
Asia, where diseases like avian influenza are prevalent

Book review

Polar Research 29 2010 463–466 © 2010 the author, journal compilation © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd464



(Webby & Webster 2001), are of particular concern and
high risk. This risk is exemplified by the presence of avian
influenza antibodies in Antarctic seabirds (Morgan &
Westbury 1988; Austin & Webster 1993), indicating that
these birds have at some stage been exposed to the virus.
Of concern are the high mutation rates of viruses: it is
feasible that a benign form may under certain circum-
stances (e.g., climate change) morph rapidly into a
virulent form that bypasses the immune response, result-
ing in serious pathological consequences and pandemic
disease. Health of Antarctic wildlife makes an important
research and practical contribution by highlighting the
quarantine measures that Australia in particular is taking
to limit the probability of disease introduction into Ant-
arctica. Such proactive quarantine measures are likely to
be the most effective way of limiting potential disease
outbreaks.

Much remains to be learned about disease in Antarctic
wildlife if the risk of disease introduction is to be managed
effectively. Little information is currently available on
which to base reliable risk assessment. Sound research
and long-term monitoring programmes will reduce the
risk of large-scale infections and reduce the vulnerability
of wildlife in Antarctica to disease outbreak. Health of
Antarctic wildlife provides an invaluable first step to
achieving this by summarizing what is known to date and
delineating practical measures to manage outbreaks. The
book also outlines the key research requirements that will
contribute to the better understanding and management
of disease in Antarctica, including:
• Baseline information on disease agents so that native

and exotic disease agents can be distinguished and
regional and seasonal variation of disease can be
understood.

• Baseline information on population size, health
status, mortality, migratory behaviour and population
dynamics.

• The distribution and abundance of potential pathogens.
• The processes that promote disease outbreak, e.g.,

climate change and stress.
• The survival of pathogens on foodstuffs, vehicles and

clothing.
• The effectiveness of Antarctic sewage treatment to

remove pathogens.
• The likelihood of transfer of pathogens.
• Monitoring affected populations, and recovering corp-

ses to confirm disease occurrence.
Diseases play an important role in evolutionary and eco-
logical processes, so collecting this kind of information,
along with developing practical methods for the on-site
investigation of disease incidents, will undoubtedly con-
tribute to the ultimate aim of sound conservation of a
unique part of our planet.

Although Health of Antarctic wildlife covers much ground
thoroughly, I was left wondering where the papers on
population ecology and demography were. Animal life
history can have a profound effect on the spread or main-
tenance of disease in populations. Information regarding
animal movement and habitat use, how animals interact
with one another and other animals, how population
density affects animal interaction and movement, and
how changes in population size affect animal behaviour
are all vital pieces of information to map and assess the
spread of disease. Ultimately life-history and vital-rate
information are crucial components needed for designing
and implementing management strategies, such as the
management of badgers in the UK to curtail bovine tuber-
culosis (Woodroffe et al. 2009). Indeed, an increasingly
important component of managing disease is to use
models to simulate and predict potential rates of spread.
Such models rely heavily on basic life-history information
as inputs to quantify the rates at which animals will
re-invade areas from which animals were removed:
either killed by disease or culled to control disease. Given
the importance of integrating life-history information and
disease behaviour to inform effective disease manage-
ment and control, it was a little disappointing that this did
not receive more attention in the book. A section describ-
ing and perhaps even presenting some easy-to-use tools
that assess the effectiveness of removing animals for
disease control (Jenkins et al. 2008), or a section on how
life history and environmental variability interact to drive
disease spread, would have been most informative. Many
of these tools have only been developed very recently
(e.g., McMahon et al. 2010), and serve as motivation for
a future Antarctic wildlife health symposium.

It has been 10 years since the symposium upon which
this book is based was held, and it is timely, perhaps even
overdue, that a follow-up symposium be held. Given the
importance of a broad ecological context, such a sympo-
sium might build on the excellent groundwork of this first
meeting by taking a broader view of health in the Ant-
arctic by contextualizing the role of disease and health in
managing the Antarctic ecosystem as a whole: taking a
“one-health approach” (Daszak et al. 2007). This collabo-
rative approach to understanding the processes of disease
emergence links veterinary medicine, public health and
ecological approaches in a single framework underpinned
by evolutionary theory. This would not only greatly
advance the field of study, it would also provide a frame-
work from which to develop coordinated projects with
the single goal of ensuring a functional ecosystem, by
defining the role of disease in driving population change.
The dynamics of disease emergence are complex and an
integrated process such as the one-health approach is the
best way forward for developing a sound understanding

Book review

Polar Research 29 2010 463–466 © 2010 the author, journal compilation © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 465



of the mechanics of disease emergence and its effective
management or containment.

Clive R. McMahon

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Book review

Polar Research 29 2010 463–466 © 2010 the author, journal compilation © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd466