02_(11-34) Ethics Instruction During the Period of Thai Educational.pmd


ETHICS INSTRUCTION DURING THE PERIOD OF THAI

EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Kanchana Singhsa

Ph.D. candidate Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

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Abstract

The Educational Reform Period is one of the most significant eras in Thai

[Siamese] history and its modernization. This era witnessed the farsighted planning

and implementation of educational reforms by the Thai Rulers.  This text discusses

the key methods of classroom education used in Ethics Instructions in Thai pri-

mary schools during the educational reform period (1871-1970).  It analyses five

key methods of delivering lessons on this subject, which has played an important

role in the overall development of Thailand in the century. This importance is due to

the fact that primary school education formed foundation of the future educational

empowerment of the citizens.  Thus, a detailed analysis of those methods is signifi-

cant for understanding the overall educational development of the nation.

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11Prajna Vihara, Volume 12, Number 2 July-December 2011, 11-34

2000 by Assumption University Pressc

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INTRODUCTION

Prior to the late 19th century, education in Siam was conducted exclu-

sively by the religious, much as in Europe during the Middle Ages. Buddhist

monasteries were the main centres of learning in Thailand or Siam. Boys were

sent to live with and learn from monks so that they would become good men

and conduits for the transmission of Buddhist values to society, while girls

generally remained at home and taught to perform household chores. Similar

to the medieval situation in Western countries, monks had functioned as cus-

todians of knowledge and traditional wisdom, and were the agents of the

nurturing of literacy. They were considered to possess the expertise necessary

for the administering of formal education.(Depaepe M, 2000; 361)1 It was

their duty __ both sacred and professional __ to inculcate religious and secular

knowledge in their learners. It was therefore inevitable that monastic methods

of Buddhism would still exert a strong influence on the methods used by lay

teachers in Thailand after an era of educational modernization began in 1871.

It was King Chulalongkorn (or King Rama V, 1853-1910) who initiated these

reforms based upon admiration he and his father King Mongkut had for Western

advancements in civilization. King Chulalongkorn observed these advance-

ments first-hand on his visits to Colonial governments in Singapore, Java and

India during the years 1870-1872 and later to Europe in 1897. His reforms

were not only directed towards education but to politics, law, the judicial

system, the military, transportation, the postal service, finance, literature and

journalism. These reforms were also designed to resist the immanent threats

of colonization.

With this process of reform, schooling began to be carried out in the

Western style even though schools were still located in Buddhist monasteries.

Ethics was included as a subject in the primary curriculum, and its content

increasingly incorporated __ alongside traditional Buddhist teachings __ values

borrowed from Western secular culture. This article offers a historical analysis

of the variety of teaching methods in Thai primary schools from period of

educational reform or modernisation (1871-1970). It focuses on the role played

by Buddhist monks and lay teachers who carried out the ethics instruction in

monasteries and primary schools in this period.

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12  Prajna Vihara- -~



BUILDING THE FUTURE THROUGH THE CLASSROOM

One cannot fully understand the project of Siamese educational re-

form without appreciating the link between the reform policy itself and the

methods employed in Ethics Instruction in the classroom. This discussion will

therefore offer interpretations of the relationship between the contents of the

curriculum and the methods adopted to deliver those contents. The govern-

ments that pursued the expansion of education and the reform of the curricu-

lum also endorsed specific teaching methods.

The reformers hoped that a modernised education system would gradu-

ally re-shape Siam into a state that could hold its own against the industrial and

military might of the colonial Western powers. In the service of this aim, the

Siamese peasant was to be re-moulded into a citizen fit for a modern state:

literate, technically skilled, and ambitious for his own economic betterment.

As part and parcel of this transformation, he was to be made conscious of his

duties as a citizen, and this required his moral education. Primary schools

were to be the spearhead of Siam’s response to the Western threat.

(Sayamanont, R., 1964; 878-880).2

Before we proceed further, we must pose a key question: what does

the concept of a method of classroom education refer to? We must not take it

for granted that the meaning of this is known to everyone. We shall base our

understanding on the opinions of a few authors.

‘By the phrase “method of classroom education” we mean any delib-

erate and systematic procedure that teachers use in schools to pass on to their

pupils the information, concepts, skills, values, etc. that form the content of the

subject curriculum they are employed to teach’. As Eze, Iwunna, and

Wittayadamrong define it, the concept of a classroom educational method

refers to the special procedure which teachers employ in the delivery of teaching

and learning in schools. (Eze A E, 1998; 35)3 The procedure involves a step

by step approach in the handling and delivery of lessons. This process de-

mands careful preparation of lessons by teachers. (Iwunna P, 2009; 184)4

It also requires that a number of educational activities which support

the relevance of the teaching method being used should be employed, in order

to facilitate pupils’ understanding of the lessons being delivered.5 It follows, in

view of the professional nature of teaching, that teachers must be properly

prepared and equipped with the skills, knowledge and tools which enhance

Kanchana Singhsa  13



education in the classroom. Glauert claims that the choice of method is con-

sidered a crucial element in the educational development of children in view of

the need to impact their ability to understand lessons effectively, to the extent

that their senses of reasoning and comprehension are empowered. By this

approach, learners are assisted to organise their knowledge systematically

and be able to apply it in their subsequent life and work (Glauert E, 2009; 42-

3).6

Akahara maintains the opinion that the concept of classroom method

of education refers to those professional practices which teachers employ in

the delivery of different lessons in schools. This author adds that these me-

thodical approaches enable both teachers and pupils to get a better grip of the

core lessons being taught. Following the adoption of different techniques in

the teaching of lessons, learners’ abilities to develop mental and creative im-

ages of the core contents of lessons are strengthened. Ability to create per-

sonal understanding of lessons is ensured too, while teachers are challenged

to make adequate preparations prior to the delivery of specific classroom

lessons. (Akahara)7

The emphasis on professionalism we find in these writers supports the

Thai policy of reforming teaching and learning methods. The decision to em-

ploy appropriate teaching methods strongly suggests that there were obvious

governmental objectives behind the choice of such professional approaches,

most especially in the areas of impacting learners’ overall intellectual, moral,

and physical knowledge. (Sudaprasert K, 1973; 14)8

The need to consolidate the status of Siam as a modern state, capable

of meeting its political, scientific, economic and skilled labour needs in the

comity of world nations, was a factor in these developments. It involved the

need to shape both the intellectual and moral character of learners. Siamese

educational reform was therefore an investment in future generations, in whose

hands the building of a modern nation state would lie.

METHODS OF CLASSROOM EDUCATION

The activities of teaching and learning in schools required ample prepa-

ration on the part of teachers, who were the key players in all classroom

activities. (Akahara)9 This suggests that the successful handling of these core

14  Prajna Vihara- -~



educational activities necessarily entails the use of the appropriate teaching

aids which contributed to children’s understanding of lessons, to the extent

that they were able to apply them, whether as workers or citizens in adult life.

(Thai National Archives, 1908)10 Having said that, we shall now, discuss the

different methods of classroom education or methods of teaching employed in

Siamese/Thai primary schools during the first hundred years of educational

reform (1871-1970).

The methods commonly employed in the teaching of ethics lessons in

primary schools can be organized under five headings: the “telling method”

which involves story telling, the “revision or recitation method” which involves

the rote learning of religious formula, the “lecture method”, the “showing

method”, and the “exercising method”. Although there still were other signifi-

cant methods used in that period, visual aids and fieldtrips. These methods

were not required in government promulgations of primary curricula, but they

were also used in ethics instruction in primary classroom during the reform

period.

The Telling Method

As the name suggests, the telling method seems similar to the lecture

method. This is based on the understanding that teachers constituted the pri-

mary role in educational activity. By this activity, teachers conducted the ac-

tivities of teaching and learning verbally, in the telling or narrative format. The

choice of the topic was usually in ethics instruction and were mainly about

Buddha’s life, his disciples, and Ethical stories about Buddhism.  In Thailand,

it took the form of Jataka stories. (the former lives of the Buddha). With the

teacher at the centre of action and the mouthpiece of educational knowledge,

the activities of teaching and learning were a one-way street, with learners

remaining quite passive. They were required simply to attend patiently to the

lessons and stories of the teacher.

Kitthavorn informs us that in the pre-reform period, temples doubled

as schools and learning centres for all people. (Kitthavorn, P., 1981; 6-8)11

Those who wished to learn how to read and write, lived in the temples and

were instructed by monks. Beginning with the reform period in 1871, teaching

was elevated to the level of a career, and restricted to trained professionals.

This policy was quite different from pre-reform years, when monks served as

Kanchana Singhsa  15



teachers, and when there was no clear distinction between religious and secu-

lar education. (Sudaprasert K., 1973).12

Each monk had a senior preceptor (Pra Uppatcha) who officiated at

his ordination ceremony and who was assigned the responsibility of teaching

and taking care of the newly ordained monk after his ordination, a practice

that continues in some areas even until today. The preceptor monk normally

taught his disciples one-to-one. As the majority of the Buddhist texts used in

this process were originally written in Pali, the preceptor taught his disciples

by means of a sentence-by-sentence translation from Pali into Thai. As a fol-

low-up, the disciple carefully rehearsed the learnt sentences or phrases, while

the teacher controlled his accuracy, step by step. (Buddhist Preceptor, 2010)13

These views are echoed by Anumanratchathon, who tells us that dur-

ing that period, each boy who was individually taught by a monk learnt a story

on an ethical theme, and was expected to memorize and repeat it at the next

learning session, after which the monk proceeded to the next story. Thus, the

one-to-one telling method of instruction was used not only among monks

themselves, but also during the instruction of seminarians, and temple boys

(Phraya Anumanratchathon, 1986).14 This is illustrated by the picture which

16  Prajna Vihara- -~

Traditional Thai Education.



Kanchana Singhsa  17

shows the interaction between a preceptor monk and his pupil. (Traditional of

Siam Education)15

But what educational lessons did the monks ‘tell’? It was quite simple.

They told and elaborated what they themselves had learnt and knew from

religious texts, most especially those concerned with stories of the Buddha’s

life and his teachings, as well as Buddhist ethics. As Simon de la Loubeòre, the
French Ambassador who travelled with Jesuit missionaries to Siam in the 17th

century during the reign of King Narai, had observed and recorded, it became

fashionable for Siamese parents to send their children to live with, and learn

from, relatives or famous monks whom they knew. (Bhikkhu Prayudh Payutto,

Interview)16 While studying at the temple, the boys did not eat temple food,

but rather depended on their parents’ offerings. The preceptors taught their

students to read and write, the principles of Buddhist morality (Dhamma),

and stories of the life of Buddha. (de la Loubeòre, S., 1700)17 Seminarians
(those boys who aspired to become monks themselves) wore habits like those

of the monks. Under the guidance of their monk teachers, they lived, studied,

meditated and performed puja __ that is, ritual worship of the Triple Gem (The

Buddha, his Dhamma or teaching, and his Sangha or community of enlight-

ened disciples). The telling method seems to have been the most basic and



common method used by the preceptors. From the inception of the reform

period in 1871, this method was adopted in Siamese primary school class-

rooms all over the country though the teacher-student ratio changed from

one-to-one to one teacher to a group of pupils.

From the viewpoint of modern theories of learning, an obvious draw-

back of the telling method was the passive role of the learner. It offered little or

no opportunity for the development of creative or critical skills. (Iwunna, P.,

2009; 190).18 On the other hand, it gave teachers more control over their

classes. The understanding was that once the teacher took his stand to tell his

stories to the class, children desisted from all acts of distraction and noise

making, and focused on the lesson. This practice, however, widened the gap

between teachers and pupils, who perceived their class teachers as superhu-

man similar to the traditional view of monks, who have been held in high

esteem in Buddhist countries.

This method may be considered as an out of date method in teaching,

however, this doesn’t mean that this method should be given up in the primary

classroom. Telling method can be a very useful method for ethics instruction, if

the stories used are interesting or the teachers/tellers are skilful in telling. Look

at Jesus’ teaching, he often taught his disciples by telling stories and parables

such as “The Prodigal Son” (Luke 15:11-32), “The Good Neighbor” (Luke

10),19 etc. Those stories were easy to remember so that the disciples could

re-tell or apply in their life. In my own experiences, story telling method is a

powerful method in catechesis or teaching especially for a big group of audi-

ences.

Recitation Method

The recitation method formed another major method of education

available to teachers in Thai schools. Following this method, teachers were

able to make individual assessments of their pupils prior to the commence-

ment of any new lessons. Authors claim that the recitation method was in-

tended “to get the metal turning”, (i.e. to ‘warm up’ the learner’s mental facul-

ties) and to make a systematic connection between previous learning and the

new lesson. Our sources claim that this was also known as ‘recapitulation’ or

‘consolidation of knowledge’. (Depaepe, et al., 2000; 143).20 It was known

18  Prajna Vihara- -~



as a method of ‘lesson connection’ (Tor nhang sue) or ‘rote learning religious

formula’ in the Thai educational system.

According to Iwunna, the ‘questioning and highlighting techniques’

formed the core method in Catholic mission schools in Nigeria. Explaining

further, he maintains that the questioning method gave teachers the access to

open the minds of their class pupils to the core contents of the previous lesson,

while the highlighting method represented an attempt to repeat the major top-

ics of the same subject taught in the previous lesson. (Iwunna., 2009; 194).21

This leads Depaepe et al to conclude that this approach promptly captures

children’s attention. (Depaepe, et al., 2000; p. 74).22 At this point, we should

note that school textbooks were commonly used by Siamese teachers when

revising lessons on ethics in classes. Textbooks formed the key educational

aid. Naturally, such books were usually Buddhist religious texts, schoolbooks,

and ancient books of educational relevance. However, the contents of lessons

and subject of discussion influenced the choice of books used.

It became a matter of professional ethics for teachers to ensure that

learners followed the core elements of the lessons. At the end of each lesson,

children were expected to disperse to different corners of the school environ-

ment where they practiced their recitation in preparation for repeating it at the

commencement of the next lesson.

This explains the fact that the activity of recitation was highly signifi-

cant, especially as opportunities were given to each and every student to re-

cite the previous lesson before their teachers or monk teachers. This receives

the support of Depaepe, Debaere, and Van Rompaey, who add that the prac-

tice demanded that pupils stood before their teachers and in front of their

classmates and recited specific lessons.23 For Coe, this was simply a game of

word reproduction. (Coe, C., 2005; 141)24

This recitation method of education formed a major method of teach-

ing and learner-assessment in Siamese schools during the pre-reform era, as

well as the schools modernisation period. Beyond the four walls of formal

school institutions, monasteries and seminaries applied the same methods in

the course of training their pupils. To that end, teacher monks asked each of

their pupils to recite the previous lessons while they listened with critical atten-

tion. If a pupil could not recite it properly, the monk would repeat the lessons

to him. But after three times, if that pupil still could not remember clearly, he

could be punished.

Kanchana Singhsa  19



“In the evening, the disciple had to pick some flowers to

offer to the monk teacher as a mark of respect (this was called

dokmai tor nhang sue: ‘flowers to continue studying’). The

student, on accomplishing the revision by recitation, would

then progress to the next level, during which the monk

narrated the next lesson, after which students were sent away

to continue their individual recitation practices at different

corners of the school compound or monastery”. (Phraya

Anumanratchathon, 1986; 140-1)25

It then becomes quite understandable that the Thai educational sys-

tem has continued to witness the application of the revision method of class-

room education over the years, up to the present time. This is not to deny that

the method has been practiced alongside other methods of classroom educa-

tion in schools and other educational institutions. The big difference was that in

the new primary schools (unlike in the temples of the pre-reform era), learners

who could not perform well in the recitation of the previous lessons were still

given the opportunity to continue with the next lesson. It encouraged students

to repeat frequently their lessons, most especially the core contents of previ-

ous topics learnt. It created a forum for better, effective, and individual recita-

tion exercises, and discouraged the attitude of mere comprehension of educa-

tional elements contained in lessons. However, it must be appreciated that

caution necessarily needs to be employed in its excessive use and unprofes-

sional overuse. (Hyman, R. T., 1970; 164-6)26

Lecture Method

Authors have classified this method as “the traditional method of teach-

ing, wherein the lecturer transmits information in an autocratic fashion to pas-

sive student listeners. In the pure form, students have no opportunity to ask

questions or offer comments during the lecture”.27  According to this source,

this method is considered most helpful when new topics or detailed informa-

tion need to be presented. This is because it permits a large group of students

to receive succinct information quickly in a highly structured manner. It is fur-

ther argued that the strength of this method is in its ability to present directly a

great deal of information, or to reveal facts and prior knowledge and experi-

20  Prajna Vihara- -~



ences. It adds that this method could be viewed as safer, easier, and more

reliable. Another source argues that this method is the one most frequently

used in institutions of higher education throughout the world, and concludes

that this technique is still favoured in view of its ability to provide understand-

ing to learners at this level. (Large classes)28

Even so, the method is still criticized. For instance, Hyman strongly

claims that “people have nowadays got a strange opinion that everything should

be taught by lectures. Now, I cannot see that lectures can do so much good as

reading the books from which the lectures are taken”. (Hyman., 1970; 127-

35).29  This leaves us with the impression that, for effective results, this method

must be complemented by other educational methods. While this method re-

mained the general trend in the era of Siamese educational reform, Siamese

teachers, through the course of their training and re-training, acquired the skills

of applying other relevant teaching methods in the delivery of class lessons.

However the lecture method still remained significant in the educa-

tional system of Siam, most especially in the teaching of Ethics Instruction

lessons. For instance, this was given prominence in the Regulations for Basic

Education of 1892 (Kodpikad Moolsaman) which indicated that “in teaching

Dhamma, the teacher usually asks students to recite the virtues of Buddha

and perform puja (ritual worship of The Triple Gem) before or after the class”.

It adds that explanations should be freely given to students and other learners,

while teachers must be the learners’ role models of good conduct. (Depaepe,

et al., 2000; 172)30

Thus, it seems possible that one key method by which teachers taught

the primary school curricula on Ethics or morality was by asking pupils to

recite worship of The Triple Gem in class. Meanwhile, the teachers also found

time to explain the meaning of Dhamma to them. Teacher monks had taught

Ethics Instruction to students in primary classrooms during the pre-reform

period. In doing this, they had also followed the national curricula, most espe-

cially in the areas of adopting a formal timetable, books and teaching meth-

ods, and examination techniques. However, the lecture method is not very

different from the telling method that was in use in the temples. The major

difference lay in its adoption of a more formal and structured approach in the

delivery of lessons. It was also adapted to accommodate larger student groups.

This became paramount in view of the need to accommodate the growing

numbers of learners being enrolled in schools as a result of the government’s

Kanchana Singhsa  21



desire to expand primary education during the reform period. (Ministry of

Education, Bangkok,1970; 63-6)31 Teachers were encouraged to employ all

possible teaching techniques which accommodated this core objective of ex-

pansion. (Thai National Archives, 1908)32

As the country’s program of educational reformation progressed, a

notable development was that trained lay people gradually took over from the

monks the task of teaching. The role played for centuries by monks as custo-

dians of literacy and culture gradually died away. At the same time, a greater

variety of novel teaching methods came to be employed in classrooms by the

new professional teachers. In the minds of the education planners, this was

necessary in view of the growing role that schooling had to play in the devel-

opment of the country. To that end, the lecture method was recognised as one

of the key methods needed for the teaching and learning of Ethics or Buddhist

virtue in primary school classrooms. Jandang (1993) strongly supports this

position with his claim that the lecture method was the major method com-

monly used by most teachers of Ethics and Buddhism in primary schools.

(Jandang, A., 1993)33

Showing Method

The showing method (also known as the illustration method) was an-

other classroom method of education followed in Siamese primary schools

during the era of school reform. In this method, teachers provided opportuni-

ties for using nonverbal educational techniques in the delivery of lessons. Some

sources say that this method was useful as a means of bringing concision and

clarity to the topic being taught. The method reduced the risk of the learners

misunderstanding crucial aspects of the lessons. (Iwunna. 2009; 192-3).34 By

means of various graphic and illustrative materials, such as photographs, paint-

ings, diagrams, wall maps, etc., learners were provided with images that clari-

fied the content of what was being taught in class. Udoh maintains that through

participation and observation, learners were effectively guided through the

core content of lessons. (Udoh, G. H., 1966; 58-62)35 It helped them to

distinguish fact from fiction, and to appreciate core class lessons on the strength

of their connectedness to knowledge empowerment. It also strengthened

children’s abilities to make connections between lessons learnt at school and

their daily lives outside the classroom.

22  Prajna Vihara- -~



Kanchana Singhsa  23

Thai traditional/religious book which was made of pulp and palm leaves.

Laska and Goldstein add that in some educational contexts, files,

slideshows, practical scientific experiments, and field trips were part and par-

cel of the showing method. (Laska & Goldstein, 1973; 6-7)36 We might add

that images of the Buddha, religious paintings, and other religious graphic

material were used in Ethics Instruction during the educational reform period.

In addition, field trips to monasteries, seminaries, and other religious estab-

lishments formed part of the method. In this way, temples became crucial

educational resources. Such trips helped shape children’s educational and

religious development, and their appreciation of the relevance of ethics in their

personal lives, and in the overall social development of Siam.

This demonstrates the fact that the showing method, which embraced

elements of learning by experience and forms of personal contact with educa-

tional and religious objects, was employed in a variety of ways. The fact that

the stories of Buddha and his teachings were written on temples’ walls and



Samud Koi (traditional books made of wood pulp and palm leaves), and

illustrated in other paintings, underlines the importance of this method of edu-

cation in schools. It was a powerful tool for the understanding of the core

virtues of Buddhism, around which Ethics Instruction revolved.

Anumanrajathon strongly supports this opinion with the claim that ev-

ery year during the Mahachart ceremony (commemorating a popular legend

about a previous life of the Buddha as a generous prince), temples were deco-

rated as locations in the forest setting of the Mahachart story. Thirteen cloth

posters, each depicting one of the thirteen sections of the story of the Mahachart,

were hung on the walls of the hall to help learners imagine the events of the

story more vividly, and thereby absorb its ethical message more effectively.

Anumanrajathon sees this as equivalent to the field trips which learners engage

in today, and as comparable with the illustrative images of the ‘Way of the

Cross’ displayed in Catholic schools. (Phraya Anumanratchathon, 1986; 225)37

Let us then conclude this discussion with the opinion of Kuporipan

(2009, August), who claims that “when I was in primary school, which was

run by Buddhist monks in my hometown, all the students gathered together

every Friday after school time to perform ritual worship [of The Triple Gems],

and attend the Monk’s sermon for an hour or two. Sometimes, we were

brought to the temple that the school was attached to, to join in a ceremony on

religious days, or simply to see the temple, Buddha’s statues, and appreciate

the stories of the Buddha depicted on the wall. The pictures of the Buddha’s

life had been used by some teachers in the classroom for ethics instruction in

the Buddhist context”. This underlines the fact that there are always several

roads to any particular destination. It suggests that classroom activities alone

have never been quite enough. Practical and illustrative educational activities

outside the four walls of classrooms also matter, and advance learners’ edu-

cational empowerment.

The Exercise method

We have come to the last method of classroom education followed in

Siamese primary schools during the educational reform period. That is the

imitating or exercise method, also known as the activity method. This was not

so much a single method as a diverse set of methods loosely bound together

by the concept of exercises or ‘activities’. The set was a mixture of traditional

24  Prajna Vihara- -~



practices with elements imported from the West. It included such things as

ritual worship, sports, quasi-military drills, scouting activities, recitation exer-

cises, and homework assignments. (Laska & Goldstein., 1973; 80)38 In the

minds of the government’s educational reformers, the connection between

these seemingly disparate activities was that  students were required to do or

produce something. In that sense, they could all be counted as examples of an

‘activity’ or ‘exercise’ method, in contrast to the other methods (such as the

‘telling’, ‘lecture’, or ‘showing’ methods) in which the learners were essen-

tially passive, or at least receptive to the teacher’s input.

Obviously, some of the exercises, drills, or activities in the above list

were concerned with moulding behaviour and character, rather than imparting

knowledge or understanding. However, the moulding of character was itself a

key aim of the reformed Siamese educational system, and from that point of

view these drills, sports, etc. were unequivocally regarded as educational

methods. Knowledge and understanding were simply other means to that same,

larger, end. We might compare this to the emphasis on team sports as a char-

acter-forming activity in the British public school system of the colonial era.

Indeed, the British model may have inspired the inclusion of sports in the

‘exercise method’.

It might seem odd that ‘recitation’ puts in a repeat appearance here as

part of the ‘exercise’ method. However, this is a consequence of the fact that

the repertoire of teaching methods was not formulated at a single time as a

logically consistent scheme. Rather, the repertoire grew organically over time.

The ‘recitation’ method, as such, was carried over from the time-honoured

monastic tradition, where it was the necessary complement of the ‘telling’

method. The activity method, on the other hand, was mainly a modern addi-

tion to this tradition __ one that arose from the transfer of education from the

monasteries to the new primary schools. However, as recitation was clearly

an ‘activity’ rather than a passive absorption of learning, it made sense to

count it again under the new heading.

In the context of ethics instruction, ritual worship was an especially

important item in the diverse range of activities encompassed in the ‘exercise

method’. Ritual worship was directed to The Triple Gem (the Buddha, his

Dhamma or teaching, and his Sangha or community of enlightened disciples).

Through such worship, teachers imparted to their students the ethical prin-

ciples and virtues. It imbued learners with attitudes of humility, simplicity, obe-

Kanchana Singhsa  25



dience, love, and commitment to duties. Van Vliet remarks that “everyone in

the temple, leader, monks, seminarians, and temple boys, learns how to read

and worship together in the morning and evening”. (Vliet, J. V., 1692; 76)39

This was underlined in the 1892 (Kodpikad 2435) Primary School Curricu-

lum, which recommended that in the teaching of ethics, “the Dhamma is to be

recited, translated and worshipped”. (Bhikkhu Prayudh Payutto)40

This was again highlighted in the 1911 Primary School Curriculum,

which supported the employment of several practical activities of ‘learning by

doing’ in the educational empowerment of learners. The activities of worship,

moral discussion, and scouting became paramount in the handling of Ethics

Instructions in schools. To that end, it was indicated that “the success of Ethics

Instruction was dependent on practising, not [only] knowing”. (Thai National

Archives, 1911)41

Thus, a succession of Siamese educational curricula approved the

inclusion of ethical and practical activities in primary schools’ curricula, under

the umbrella of the ‘exercise method’. This policy program was driven by,

among other things, the need to influence the educational and moral develop-

ment of Siamese citizens, in anticipation of their future roles in the develop-

ment of the country. The understanding was that, with the aid of practical

educational activities, children’s core values could be shaped decisively for

the rest of their lives.

MODERN TECHNOLOGY AND THE 20TH CENTURY THAI

CLASSROOM

The approach of the 20th century and the birth of the computer age in

the last quarter of the twentieth century that opened the door to the modern-

ization of the traditional methods of classroom education in the 19th and 20th

centuries discussed in this text, were followed in schools and educational insti-

tutions in Thailand and other technology-driven countries of the world, most

especially those in the southeastern parts of the Asian continent. Driven by this

era of technological breakthrough, scientific and technology-based educa-

tional programs which enhanced the quality of teaching and learning in schools

were developed. Scientific and computer-based educational programs which

modernized the traditional teaching methods were introduced into classrooms.

26  Prajna Vihara- -~



Supported by these technological programs of school education, teachers

and pupils found the activities of teaching and learning interesting and motivat-

ing.

In line with this development, it is not out of place that schools and

educational institutions in China, Indonesia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, Hong

Kong, India, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, etc., recorded huge benefits

from this technological awareness, and consequently tailored their programs

of education along the lines of the science and technology. In the methods of

delivering classroom lessons, therefore, no stones were left unturned as infor-

mation and communication technology was adapted to the classroom. Thus,

modern technology has developed computers, audio visual facilities, televi-

sion sets, computer projectors, microphones, listening devices, video cas-

settes, radios, tape recorders, and calculators which enhanced the quality of

classroom education provided in Thai schools. As it were, the introduction of

these technologies brought about the desired modernity and heightened lit-

eracy in the educational institutions in Thailand and several of its Asian

neighbours. (Office of the National Education Commission, 115-6)42

For instance, our field trip to a few primary schools in Bangkok pro-

vided crucial support to this claim, which I like to illustrate by using the audio

visual screen as a typical example. With the introduction of audio visual aids,

learners’ visual and auditory senses were stimulated simultaneously. It allowed

for a greater efficiency of communcation, and boosted the quality of the pre-

sentation. As students senses were directed to the screen, the teacher needed

to talk less, allowing the students also time to contribute, or play other roles in

the course of the lesson. As an aid in the teaching of Ethics in schools, audio

visual displays assist teachers apply the exercising or imitating method more

professionally, most especially in the mastery of the Buddhist prayer rituals in

schools.43

As a technological aid, it impacted children’s practical knowledge of

the core contents of lessons, most especially in the areas of story-telling, lis-

tening, pronunciation, reading, etc. It impacted the quality of their listenership,

and developed their abilities to play leadership roles within the class and within

the larger Thai society. Thus, instead of allowing themselves to be driven by

the contents of the educational lessons being delivered, modern technology

provides them the opportunities of participating more actively in their class-

room activities. The effect is that this development made wider impacts in the

Kanchana Singhsa  27



literacy development of young learners, and eliminated elements of stress and

boredom in class activities.44

Again, using this audio visual facility as an aid in the activity method of

classroom education in the teaching of Mathematics, children are practically

led through the core methods of calculation. With the aid of the graphic dis-

plays of human images doing specific forms of calculation, children are moti-

vated to apply similar practical methods in their own calculation tasks. And

using an aid in the teaching of sports, the graphic displays provide learners

with firsthand practical guides which direct their sporting activities. Tactically

then, learners feel motivated to follow the exact examples provided by the

screen images displayed in the class during the day’s lessons. (Office of the

National Education Commission, 34-5)45

With these few illustrations, no one is left in any doubt about the rel-

evance and educational role which technological devices such as video cas-

settes, television sets, audio visual machines, tape recorders, microphones,

radios, and modern science equipments made in the handling of lessons in

primary schools in Thailand. With these modern educational aids, teachers are

being assisted in the application of their professional skills and ability in han-

dling their class lessons. The larger effect is that teachers are able to impact

the learning dispositions of learners, as well as elicit their understanding abili-

ties with less difficulty. (UNESCO, 1992)46 Supported with the appropriate

technological educational aids, children pay rapt attention to class activities.

Class lessons become more interactive, more lively, and lead to a multi-di-

mensional activity between teachers and pupils. To that end, learners are en-

couraged to develop critical and individual minds while lessons are presented.

Pupils become more independent, more inquisitive, open-minded, and more

creative. Above all, the use of modern technological devices enhances the

quality of teachers’ outputs during the lessons, most importantly when micro-

phones are used in delivering lessons in larger classes. (Office of the National

Education Commission, 1999; 156)47

Again, it is important to appreciate the relevance of computers as

core classroom aids in the 20th century Thai school education. Computers

enhance children’s abilities to become part and parcel of their own education,

as well as enable them to develop individual and critical knowledge of class

lessons. Computers motivate children’s inspiration to learn more deeply. Sit-

ting in front of computers, children are motivated to develop the attitude of

28  Prajna Vihara- -~



self-competence, scientific awareness, entrepreneurship, and desire for more

knowledge. Computer designed educational programs offer learners the abili-

ties to develop individual approaches to specific problems and class tasks.

They help children to pay closer attention to the educational lessons which

they consider relevant to their lives and future careers, as well as enable them

to pick out what is valuable from the great variety of materials presented for

learning. (Depaepe, et al., 2000; 149).48

It could then be said that the introduction of scientific and technology-

based teaching aids into Thai classrooms brought numerous positive innova-

tions in the traditional methods of classroom education associated with the

pre-reform periods. These educational aids enhance teachers’ abilities to handle

their class lessons more competently and precisely, without boring learners

with their inefficiencies and lack of preparations for specific lessons. The ad-

aptation of modern technological devices into classroom education made teach-

ing and learning attractive to both teachers and learners. They encourage learners

to develop the attitude of self confidence, as well as assist teachers consoli-

dating their professional roles as the number one managers of classroom edu-

cation. To cap it all, the birth of the 20th century technology-based educational

aid has enhanced the quality of education of children, and improve their prac-

tical skills. Most importantly, the introduction of modern technological devices

in Thai primary schools has shifted the emphasis from book-learning to a

more practical educational training, more relevant to the individual learner’s

future career needs.

CONCLUSION

It is a common understanding that routine brings boredom and mental

stagnation. Conversely, many proverbs (‘a change is as good as a rest’; ‘va-

riety is the spice of life’; etc.) remind us that variations in routine can revitalise

our interest and experience. The implications for education are obvious: class-

room activities would become boring and even oppressive if only a single

method of instruction was used. Thus, to sustain effective learning over time,

there is a need for frequent changes of instructional methods. In order to re-

charge the mental batteries of learners, teachers have to apply a variety of

strategically relevant and novel approaches. This common insight seems to

Kanchana Singhsa  29



have encouraged the governmental reformers of Siamese education to pre-

scribe the use of these new teaching methods.

We have surveyed the range of teaching methods approved for use in

Siamese primary schools during the period of educational reform __ ‘telling’,

‘recitation’, ‘lecture’, ‘showing’ and ‘exercise’.  This study has been an at-

tempt to give some historical background and insight into the major methods

of empowering learners through knowledge and ethics instruction considered

essential for the citizens of a modern state. The choice of particular methods

of lessons delivery was influenced by the nature and scope of the subject

being taught.

Endnotes

  1Depaepe, M. (2000). Demythologizing the educational past. An endless task

in history of education. In R. Lowe (Ed.), History of education: Major themes, 1: De-

bates in the history of education,  (356-370), London: Routledge, p. 361.
2Sayamanont, R. (1964). Major Piboonsongkhram’s government policy of 16th

March, 1942. 878-880.
3Eze, A. E. (1998). Primary school teaching methods. In A. B. C. Ugwu & A.

Omalle (Eds.), Introduction to primary education studies, (35), Enugu: Fred-Ogah

Publishers, p. 35.
4Iwunna, P. (2009). The impact of the Christian missionary education. p. 184.
5Wittayadamrong Ratthana strongly accepted this opinion. She added that

once pupils were aided with the right teaching methods in the delivery of lessons, they

had bright chances of understanding clearly the core lessons presented to them. Ac-

cording to her, pupils simply needed a clear ray of educational light from their teachers,

and would be able to follow effectively.
6Glauert, E. (2009). Research in early childhood science education: Issues for

early childhood curriculum design and implications for primary science education. In H.

G. R. Lauterbach, B. Marquardt-Mau (Ed.), Lernen und kindliche Entwicklung.

Elementarbildung und Sachunterricht, (42-43), Bad Heilbrunn: Julius Klinkhardt, pp.

42-3.
7Akahara. (n.d.). Nursery education in Nigeria.
8Sudaprasert, K. (June 1973). Primary education in Thailand. Bulletin of the

UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia, 14.
9Akahara. (n.d.). Nursery education in Nigeria.
10Thai National Archives. (1908/B.E. 2452). Primary Curriculum 1909 (ror. sor.

128). Curriculum. Bangkok: Dhammakarn Ministry.
11Kitthavorn, P. (1981). Sangha’s role in Thai education in the reign of King

30  Prajna Vihara- -~



Kanchana Singhsa  31

Rama V. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, pp. 6-8.
12Sudaprasert, K. (1973). Primary education in Thailand.
13Buddhist Preceptor.  (2010, January).  Retrieved October 8th, 2010, from http:

//dict.longdo.com/search/priest%20%20officiates%at20an%20ordination%20 ceremony.
14Phraya Anumanratchathon. (1986/B.E.2529a). Tradition of Education. Thai

Traditions by Sathienkoses. (2nd ed.). Bangkok: Khurusapha.
15Traditional of Siam Education between Buddhist monk and disciple. The

monk uses Buddhist texts written on palm leaves as the core teaching aid. (Demon-

strated by M. Phun Pitsamai Ditsakul) photo by Robert Lens around 1907/B.E. 2450.
16Bhikkhu Prayudh Payutto, a famous monk in education, strongly agreed with

this opinion during our interviews on 18th July, 2010.  It is his opinion that Thailand still

needs the services and religious roles of its monks in order to witness real growth in the

21st century.
17De La Loubeòre, S. (1700). Description du royaume de Siam 1687-1688. Paris:

Chez Henry & la veuve de Theodore Boom.
18Iwunna, P. (2009). The impact of the Christian missionary education. p. 190.
19Christian’s Bible: New testament.
20Depaepe, et al. (2000). Order in progress. p. 143.
21Iwunna. (2009). The Impact of the Christian Missionary Education. p. 194.
22Depaepe, et al. (2000). Order in progress. p. 74.
23Depaepe, Debaere & Rompaey. (1992). Missionary education in the Belgian

Congo. pp. 270-1.
24Coe, C. (2005). Youth, nationalism, and the transformation of knowledge.

Dilemma of culture in African schools. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, p. 141.
25Phraya Anumanratchathon. (1986).  Tradition of education, Phraya

Anumanratchathon. (1986). Tradition of education. pp. 140-1.
26Hyman, R. T. (1970). Introduction: Recitation as Interaction.  Ways of Teach-

ing. Philadelphia, New York, Toronto: Rutgers University, pp. 136-64; Suwankul, L. (1975/

B.E.2518).  Development of Primary and Secondary Curriculum in Thailand.  Adminis-

tration of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, pp. 164-6.
27Jones, A. S., Bagford, L. W. & Wallen, E. A. (1979).  Strategies for Teaching.

Metuchen, N.J., & London: The Scarecrow Press, p. 92.
28Large classes: A teaching guide: Lecturing. (2008).  The Centre for Teaching

Excellence. Retrieved October 4th 2010, from http://www.cte.umd.edu/library.teaching

LargeClass/guide/ch5.html.
29Hyman. (1970). Introduction: Recitation as Interaction, Hyman. (1970).

Introduction: Recitation as Interaction.  pp. 127-35.
30Depaepe, et al. (2000). Order in progress, p. 172; and Wyatt, D. K. (1994).

Studies in Thai history, op. cit.
31Ministry of Education, Bangkok. (1970).  Education in Thailand, pp. 63-6.
32Thai National Archives. (1908). Primary Curriculum 1909.
33Jandang, A. (1993). An organization of the elementary school curriculum

B.E. 2521/1978 (Revised edition) regarding the Buddhism for Prathom Suska One



32  Prajna Vihara- -~

and Two in elementary schools under the jurisdiction of the Office of the National

Primary Education Commission, Education Region Two. [Unpublished Master The-

sis], Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
34Iwunna. (2009). The Impact of the Christian Missionary Education. pp. 192-3.
35Udoh, G. H. (1966). An elementary school geography for Eastern Nigeria,

Book I. Lagos: Macmillan & Co. (Nigeria) Ltd., pp. 75-82.
36Laska & Goldstein. (1973). Traditional Teaching Method Laska & Goldstein.

(1973). Traditional Teaching Methods. pp. 6-7.
37Phraya Anumanratchathon. (1986). Tradition of education, pp. 15-8; Iwunna.

(2009). School textbooks as tools, p. 225.
38Laska & Goldstein. (1973). op. cit., p. 80.
39Vliet, J. V. (1692). Beschrijving van het Konikrijk Siam (The Short History of

the Kings of Siam). (L. ANDAYA, Trans.). Bangkok, p. 76.
40Bhikkhu Prayudh Payutto was strongly in favour of this opinion, and added

that Thai citizens still need the light of moral education and Buddhist doctrines in order

to emerge as a developed nation of the 21st century.
41Thai National Archives. (1911). Common Curriculum ror sor 130 (B.E.2454).

Curriculum. Bangkok: Dhammakarn (Education) Ministry; and Ministry of Education.

(1913). The Royal Curriculum.
42Office of the National Education Commission & Office of the Prime Minister.

(1999). Education in Thailand, pp.115-6.
43Our field work took us to the following primary schools: Assumption College,

Bangkok;  St. Gabriel’s School, Bangkok; & St. Joseph’s School, Bangkok.
44Office of the National Education Commission, Office of the Prime Minister,

Ministry of Education & Ministry of University Affairs. (2000). Education in Thailand.

Bangkok: Office of the National Education Commission, pp. 34-5; Depaepe, M. & Simon,

F. (2003). Open-air schools in Belgium. A marginal phenomenon in educational history

reflecting larger social and historical processes. In A. M. Chatelet, D. Lerch & J. N. Luc

(Eds.), L’eècole de plein air. Une expeèrience peèdagogique et architecturale dan l’Europe
du XXe siecle / Open-air schools. An educational and architectural venture in Twen-

tieth Century Europe,  (80-95), Paris: Editions Recherches.
45Office of the National Education Commission & Office of the Prime Minister.

(1999). Education in Thailand. Bangkok: Office of the National Education Commission,

p. 116.
46UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. (1992). Education

for affective development. A guidebook on programmes and practices. Bangkok:

UNESCO.
47Office of the National Education Commission & Office of the Prime Minister.

(1999). Education in Thailand. p. 156.
48Depaepe, et al. (2000). Order in progress. p. 149.



Kanchana Singhsa  33

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