190-Note for Authors


Prajñâ Vihâra, Volume 7, Number 2, July-December, 2006, 157-183 157
© 2000 by Assumption University Press

CONTRASTING THE PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE IN

EASTERN  PHILOSOPHY  AND  IN  THE

PHILOSOPHY  OF  AQUINAS  FROM  THE

PERSPECTIVE  OF  IMMANENCE  AND

TRANSCENDENCE

Eui-Chai Tjeng

Sogang University, Korea

Abstract

Within Asia, the tradition of Western Christian thought coex-

ists with Eastern thought. In this paper, I wish to compare, contrast

and synthesize the conceptions of life found in Asian philosophies

and religions, on the one hand, and on the other hand what I con-

sider the essence of Western Christian philosophy, namely the thought

of St. Thomas Aquinas.  This is for the purpose of finding a common

culture of mankind based on the love of life. Through mutual under-

standing and cooperation Christianity and Chinese civilization can

contribute to the formation of a unified Asia and a unified mankind.

Introduction

Today, due to the astonishing advances in science and technology

and the corresponding expansion of human knowledge, a true unity of

mankind is rapidly becoming a reality. However, because of the historical,

regional differences in philosophy, religion, ideology, and interest, it is also

likely that the world will experience much conflict and confusion in the

process of achieving this unity.

As the birthplace of some of the most profound philosophies and

religions, Asia will play a crucial role in this process. Without a unified

Asia, a unified world can scarcely be imagined.

Among the Asian civilizations, the Chinese civilization is one of the

oldest and richest. It is then only appropriate that we initiate a conversation

between the Chinese civilization and Christian philosophy as we enter the



New Millenium. This is made even more timely and urgent since it is clear

that the Pacific Rim will increasingly become the world center of thought,

economics, politics and culture in the future.

The Chinese civilization has never been expansionist, but rather

peace-loving and has always been able to absorb and indigenize foreign

cultural influences. As one of the oldest civilizations in the world, Chinese

civilization has encountered, and has many times been invaded by foreign

civilizations. However, it has always absorbed those cultures to create

dazzling syntheses. Moreover, the Chinese civilization has helped in the

further development of all those cultures that it came into contact with,

providing them with new incentives and directions. In the recent era, she

has absorbed and indigenized communism.

Now, as we enter the New Millennium China will have to meet

the challenge of a global culture that is increasingly becoming one. In this

process, it cannot avoid an encounter with Christianity. During the past

2000 years, Christian thought has been the spiritual foundation on which

the Western civilization has been built. On the other hand, by undergoing

a process of indigenization through its encounter with Chinese thought,

Christianity needs to absorb all the nutrients that the rich soil of Chinese

civilization has to offer. Through mutual understanding and cooperation,

Christianity and the Chinese civilization can contribute to the formation of

a unified Asia and a unified mankind.

At the same time, Christianity and the Western civilization need to

be aware of the fact that since the latter half of the 20th century, as Western

colonialism came to an end, the younger generations in many Asian

countries began to express an attachment to their traditional cultures ever

more frequently. During the past few centuries Western imperial powers,

by using their advanced science and technology (guns, cannons and the

art of war), have colonized vast stretches of Asia. However, they have not

been able to dominate Asia in cultural and spiritual terms. As far as I can

see, the younger generations of Asia are delving into the study of their

traditional cultures with increasing conviction, partly as a reaction against

the past Western dominance and partly based on the newly found conviction

that their traditional culture is superior to that of the West. There are many

instances of young intellectuals with doctorates from leading universities

of the West who have been absorbing themselves in the study of Asian

158  Prajñâ Vihâra



thought, especially their own native thought.

As we embark on the process of promoting the unity of all

mankind, Christian philosophy, Chinese culture, and all other religions and

cultures of Asia have to take as their starting point the most basic point on

which all can agree. In other words, we need to start our conversation

from something that all people, individuals, religions can accept as being

the most fundamental and common. Then we should try to build on that

point so as to build a common culture for all mankind. This common point,

I think, is none other than love of life.

That is why I have titled my paper “Contrasting the Philosophy of

Life in Eastern Philosophy and in the Philosophy of Aquinas from the

Perspective of Immanence and Transcendence“. In this paper, I wish to

compare, contrast and synthesize in some sense the conceptions of life

found in Asian philosophies and religions, on the one hand, and on the

other hand what I consider the distillation of Christian philosophy, namely

Aquinas’ thought. This is with a view towards constructing a common

culture of mankind based on the love of life.

In 1991, Sogang University of Korea founded the Research

Institute for Life and Culture. At that time, Korean society was witness to

a rash of horrible crimes such as child kidnapping and murder while

environment destruction through air and water pollution was becoming

increasingly acute as the result of rapid industrialization. In response to

these problems, various governmental agencies, academic institutions, the

media, and religious organizations convened seminars, hearings, and

meetings so as to increase people’s awareness. However, none were as

effective as the institute which was founded under the motto, “Pro Mundi

Vita, for Life in the world (John, 6, 25)” by Sogang University, a mission

school. With enthusiastic response and support from the media and the

public, the institute and the university were instrumental in stemming the

tide of child kidnapping and murder and in instilling an awareness of

environmental issues among the public. For someone who has participated

in the institute from its inception and also served as the first president, it

has been a personally gratifying experience.

From 1991-2, I also served as the chairman of the national

committee which drafted a ‘National Declaration of the Environment’.

Through this experience, I was able to meet and exchange views with

Eui-Chai Tjeng  159



leaders from many segments of Korean society, including religious leaders

and civic organization leaders all of whom were experts on the environment

and issues of life in Korea. This has instilled in me an even stronger sense

of the sacredness of human life and nature and it has been a privilege and

an honor to have been a part of this massive and successful effort to instill

in the Korean public those same sense and values.

The Research Institute for Life and Culture has convened many

seminars and the statements of religious leaders and intellectuals read on

these occasions as well as other writings and publications on the issue of

life have provided much aid in preparing the current paper.

Section 1.  Taoism and Life

Life in Taoism

Taoists believe that the “tao” ( 道   translated as way or direction)

is the origin of all things in the universe and the origin of life. The tao is the

supreme master of the universe and its origin.1) It is the origin of all things

in a sense that all things came from the tao and they return to it in the end.

Lao Tzu frequently identified the tao with “void” (
無 

). The tao is

a state of void, which is Invisible (無形 ), Nameless (

無名 

). It is also the Absence

of desire( 

無慾 

), Absence of knowledge( 無知 ), and Inaction( 

無爲 

). The notion

that the tao is a state of void also means that the tao in essence is a

limitless existence. In other words, the tao is understood as void, because

it transcends the limit of human perception.2)

Being void, the tao can embrace all things in the universe, which

have different shapes and characters, and at the same time leave them to

exist separately giving expression to their individual characters.3)

Chuang Tzu (

莊 子

), who refined the teaching of Lao Tzu (

老子  

)

two hundred years later, explained that the tao exists inside all things in the

universe. It is omnipresent (

無 所 不 在

). According to Chuang Tzu, the tao

forms one body embracing all things and at the same time it lets all the

creatures radiate their individual characters.4) Although the tao is the origin

of the universe, it produces the universe out of inaction by letting things

follow their natural course. Chuang Tzu said that “Water springs out and

flows down not because it tries to (Inaction), but it does it spontaneously

160  Prajñâ Vihâra



(natural way).” 5) Inaction in Taoism does not mean that no action is taken.

Both Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu ascribed the origin of life to the

tao. In addition Chuang Tzu introduced the concept of “chi

(

氣 

)”(translated as spirit or breath or vital force) to explain the process of

birth and death. According to Chuang Tzu, birth and death are a result of

the gathering and dispersion of chi. While life lasts for only a short moment

and vanishes into the ever-evolving universe, chi, the origin of life, exists

forever and presides over the evolution process.

Chuang Tzu further introduced the Yang (positive) and Yin

(negative) sides of chi.6) Yang chi and Yin chi interact with each other and

produce the universe. But the Yang chi and Yin chi do not exist separately.

They merely reflect the two facets of one chi.

Taoists emphasize spiritual life. Chuang Tzu said that the spirit

comes out of the tao.7) Human life is distinguished from other creatures

because of its spiritual nature. A human being can reach the state of the

“tao” through spiritual intuition, by elevating his spirit and ultimately

assimilating it with the tao.

The elevation of spiritual life is a way of returning to the origin of

life. This is called “returning to the root”(復歸於根 , 歸根 ). The tao works

to produce all things and let them converge back to the tao. Returning to

the root enables man to peel off the layers of pleasures of the secular life,

one after another, ultimately entering into the state of void. Returning to

the root is a way of nature.

Lao Tzu emphasized returning to the root, as it enables man to

grasp the complete view of the real life. Taoists view all things of the

universe in the context of one organic body of life. We, human beings, can

perceive the universe as one body of life by adhering to the tao and

assimilating oneself into it.8)

The tao cannot be touched. It has no substance but contains the

substance of all things. It produces, penetrates, nourishes, and fulfills all

things. It has no form but contains all possible forms. Man follows the

laws of the earth. Earth follows those of heaven. Heaven follows those of

the tao. The tao is spontaneous. The tao is then in itself without law. The

tao is the void. The tao cannot be understood as God in the sense of

ruler, monarch, commander, architect, and maker of the universe.9)

Eui-Chai Tjeng  161



Natural Life and Moral Life

The Taoist is interested in natural life while the Confucianist attaches

great importance to the moral life. The Taoist view of life can be found in

Yang Chu’s (

楊朱

) theory of selfishness (

爲我主義  

).

Mencius says “Yang Chu chose selfishness: if by plucking out a

single hair he could benefit the world, he would not do it.”10) Lü Spring

and Autumn (

呂氏春秋  

) says “Yang Chu values self.”11) The Huainan

tzu (

准南子

) says “Preserving life and maintaining what is genuine in it, not

allowing things to entangle one’s person, this is what Yang Chu established”.

Mencius criticized it.12) The Han FeiTzu (

准南子

) says “There is a man

who despises things and values life.”13) He is Yang Chu.

From the above quotations we can conclude that Yang Chu’s basic

thought was to value life and despise external trappings of life, e. g., fame,

wealth, high rank etc. The follower of Yang Chu, seek extreme selfishness.

They might be given to self indulgency or free indulgence of the appetites.

The Yangist regards oneself not as a moral self but as a sensual self.

Therefore the selfishness cannot help degenerating into greed. They are

susceptible to Nihilism.

Man cannot live alone. He lives according to many relations e. g.,

father and son, ruler and ruled, husband and wife, elder and younger,

friend and friend, which we call the five cardinal relations (

五倫

) in Confucian

Ethics. In order to avoid conflict between members of society, there are

norms that make a society vibrant and stable. The norm which maintains

good relations is called Propriety (

禮 

). However, Propriety of kinship

society can become empty. Confucius(

孔子 

), who is the founder of

Confucianism (儒家 ), vitalizes it with his teaching of human heartedness

(仁 ,benevolence). The Chinese character 仁 consists of two words, man

(

人 

) and two (

二

). It cannot be attained through selfishness. Human

heartedness comes out through a respect for the life of others.

Mencius( 

孟子

) develops the concept of human heartedness in his

theory of human nature, and debates with his opponent Kao-Tzu

( 

告子 

), who might have been influenced by the Yangist. The two

philosophers have opposite views of the problem of human nature. While

Kao-Tzu maintains that human nature only has a natural life, e.g., eating

and sexuality, Mencius insists that it not only has a natural instinct but also

contains a moral inclination, e. g., human heartedness and righteousness.

162  Prajñâ Vihâra



Moral inclinations belong to nature in the same way as the physical growth

of the body. Mencius says that man has four cardinal inborn virtues (

四德  

)

which emerge from four shoots (

四端  

). Mencius gives an exactly parallel

account of the conflict between appetites and morality. He says “Life I

desire, the right too I desire, if I cannot have both, rather than life, I choose

right”. Life means natural life and right is the moral life (

舍生取義  

).14) This

saying is exactly contrary to the teaching of Yang-tzu, who says despise

things and value life (

輕物重生

).15)

Section 2.  Confucianism and Life

Life in Confucianism

Heaven and Earth are the fountain of all beings and the space

where all beings make their living. Heaven and Earth are logically prior to

all beings. They are the source of all life.1)

Heaven and Earth determine the direction. The vital force of

mountain and lake are united. Thunder and wind arouse each other, water

and fire do not combat each other. Thus are eight trigrams intermingled.2)

Heaven, earth, mountain, lake, thunder, wind, water, fire, these

eight (things) are the basic beings, which compose Nature and through the

interrelation of these things, the natural world is constructed. The image of

the natural world is that, as mentioned above, Heaven and Earth each

takes its right position, viz. above and under, and together they combine

their virtue.3)

Between Heaven and Earth, the vital force of water in the lake

rises to the mountain and becomes clouds and rain, the stream of the

fountain on the mountain flows into the lake and becomes the fountain and

water.4)

Thunder and wind encounter and respond to each other. Kan

(

坎 

) water and Li (

離 

) fire are irreconcilable opposites. However, they

do not conflict; on the contrary, they balance each other and make an

harmonious world.

Thunder awakens and brings vitality to all things, which are

dormant; wind disperses vital energy to all things; rain sprays water over

all the withering things, gives moisture to all thing and makes them luxuriant;

Eui-Chai Tjeng  163



the sun brings warmth; the mountain makes all things complete; lake brings

pleasure. Heaven brings about rulership, the receptive Earth brings about

shelter and conception and nourishes all things.5)

As mentioned above, Heaven, Earth, mountain, lake, water, fire,

each plays its own role, and is interrelated and intermingled; together they

bring about all living creatures.6)

Confucius systematized the tradition. He spoke of Tien (

天 

,

Heaven). His Heaven is purposeful and the master of all things. It is not

the “greatest of all spiritual beings who rules in a personal way”, but a

Supreme Being who only reigns, leaving his moral law to operate by itself.

The First Principle in Neo-Confucianism

Chou Tun-i (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073) is the pioneer of neo-

Confucianism and was influenced by Taoism. He used the concepts of the

Great Ultimate or Wu-chi (

無極 

, Non-Ultimate) which came from Lao-

Tzu (

老子

). He blended the Taoist element of void with Confucian thought

but Chou never explained the nature of the Great Ultimate.

This was explained by Chu-Hsi (

朱熹 

, 1130-1200) who was

also influenced by Taoism, but interpreted it in his own way. He said, “The

Great Ultimate is nothing other than principle” and added, “The Great

Ultimate is merely the principle of heaven and earth and the myriad things.

With respect to heaven and earth, there is the Great Ultimate in them.

With respect to the myriad things, there is the Great Ultimate in each and

every one of them. Before heaven and earth existed, there was assuredly

this principle. It is this principle that through movement generates the Yang.

It is also this principle that through tranquility generates the Yin. He states

then that man and heaven form one body, i.e. he stated the unity of man

and nature.7)

In fact, the Confucian view of life seems even more illuminating on

the aspects of morality. Confucian moral views such as Three Cardinality

(

三綱 

), Five Constant Relationships (

五倫 

), Benevolence, Righteousness,

Ritual and Wisdom (

仁義禮智 

) etc., articulated the most profound version

of natural morality. To discuss its content further, however, will inevitably

bring us to a broader realm, beyond the focus of this paper. Therefore I

shall conclude the Confucian view of life at this point.

164  Prajñâ Vihâra



Section 3.  Buddhism and Life

It is generally said that the reality of man is divided into two parts.

One is man’s body made up of four elements-earth, water, fire and wind-

and the other is man’s spirit in man’s body. This is the view of life in

Buddhism. In Buddhism the essence of human life is Buddha nature.

Buddhism maintains that all sentient beings in this world, even

insects have Buddha nature in them. Every creature in this universe has

already existed in various incarnations by Karma. Karma is the law of

moral causation. Basically it is volition. Volitions may be good or ill, so

actions may be wholesome or unwholesome according to their results.

This endless play of action and reaction, cause and effect, seed and fruit,

continues in perpetual motion, and this is becoming, a continually changing

process of the psycho-physical phenomena of existence. Therefore the

natural law is that if this exists, that also exists. Otherwise, that doesn’t

exist, either.

This is the reality of life and the principle of existence. This shows

us that everything in this universe is one, the whole, and an object is one

and you and I live in mutual society or in mutual Karma.

In both five precepts and ten precepts, the thought “Not to kill

anything which has its own life” is, as one of the practice items in human

moral principles. The view of life about human spirit made the thought of

Karma. And the thought of rebirth originated with Karma. Karma is the

corollary of rebirth; rebirth, on the other hand, is the corollary of Karma.

All things in the universe- green leaves, red and yellow flowers,

mountains, rivers, the sun, murmurs of the stream, the sound of wind, and

so on- is the sound of life. This is the essential view of life in Buddhism.

As I am a small universe as well as an element in the big universe,

I am the reality of life. This is the dignified view of life in Buddhism.

We live in an age of self-alienation and dehumanization, not realizing

the thought of the same substance and great compassion, the Buddhist

Commandments and sanctity of life.

What makes us to be cruel, to be mean and to be blind to anything?

What on the earth prevents us from getting out of the recycle of birth, and

death, and evil passions?

Eui-Chai Tjeng  165



That’s because there are three poisons- greed, anger and stupidity-

in our mind.1)

The Buddha saw the suffering of people and started to search for

a solution to this problem. He became aware of the futility of social living

and of philosophical discourse and taught that they hindered man’s right

living. Finally, he came to the conclusion that nothing was eternal and

thought that all was impermanent (Sanscrit: anitya), even gods. For him,

all was a flowing reality (be it external things or human beings), all existence

meant suffering, and all was a concatenation of points called dharmas.

The Buddha also denied the essential or ultimate reality of things

and the existence of the self or soul (ãtman). Consequently, he said that
there was no eternal “I”. For him human beings and gods are caught in the

cycle of births and deaths (samsãra) because the extinction of life is only a
projection toward a new existence. This cycle goes on until the effect of a

completed deed (karman) is stopped. Karman is not substantial but after

a man dies his acts remain in another kind of corporeal form. Those acts

are rewarded or punished in heaven or hell but even heaven and hell are

impermanent. For Buddha then, there will be further reincarnation and

transmigrations, i.e., new births or new existences which are also subject

to misery and suffering.

Nirvãna means etymologically to extinguish or blow out, and is
man’s main goal. It can be reached by following the “way of the Buddha”,

i.e., his teaching. Nirvãna is a condition which is achieved by the elimination
of the ego, craving, and all bonds. This elimination lets man overcome his

karman and the succession of lives and births (samsãra). When man reaches
Nirvãna “neither man not gods will see him again.”2)

The original teaching of the Buddha denies all gods and states that

everything is impermanent and thus nothing is eternal. Later Mahayãnã
Buddhism developed the existence of a supreme and eternal being, the

“Absolute Buddha”, which is contrary to the original Buddha’s thought.

For them, this Absolute Buddha also cannot be known, is one, etc., i.e. it

was presented along the lines used to present Tao.3)

Thoughts about life in Buddhism can be explained on the basis of

human centeredness. Purification of our mind to restore the true-self (

眞我 

)

is a Buddhist’s thought about life. More specifically, suffering as a

characteristic of all living beings comes from a false life that maintains the

166  Prajñâ Vihâra



transmigration of life and death, thus one must seek release from the wheel

of rebirth which will lead to the restoration of the true-self based on “true

permanent mind (

眞如心

).” This truth is the essence of the character of

spiritualism. One should not abuse this wisdom for this is a Buddhist’s

thought of life.4) This kind of ‘true life’ should be done in the present life,

that is, immanent character.

Section 4.  Shamanism and Life

(in the context of Korean shamanism)

Life is one of the most interesting concerns in many religions, East

and West. Nonetheless it is not so easy to find a very clear discourse

about “This is life!” In the world of religions, they say that all living things,

human beings included, are created by god. In the folk religion of Korea,

this kind of belief is expressed by “God blesses with a baby.” The deity of

pregnancy, birth and bringing up a child is called Samshin (

삼신

) in Korean

folk-belief and/or in Korean shamanism. According to research, the belief

in Samshin is a wide spread phenomenon all over the country. So in this

article I have tried to find out the identity of Samshin in the stories about

the life-giving deity in folk-belief and in the shamanistic world in Korea.

The belief in Samshin appears in various forms. Especially materials

about the prayer for delivery of a son that is related to the Samshin shows

the following characteristics: Firstly, this Samshin-belief is dominated by

women. Secondly, it is directed towards natural things. For example, people

pray mainly to huge rocks and big trees. Thirdly, they pray in famous

mountains and near big rivers. So it is a kind of belief in mountain-

god[sanshin 

산신 

] and in water-god[sushin 

수신

].

According to the shamans’ transmission of words, the first deity

among Samshin is for the pregnancy, the second is for the birth and the

third is for the child rearing. In addition, the first deity gives flesh, the

second gives bones and the third gives soul. These three deities have

functionally different roles, but they are originally only one god. It seems

to be a kind of cosmic Triad theory in Korean shamanism. The effort to

secure life is a natural conclusion, if one holds that life is sacred.

We can often hear of the Samshin-myth in the shaman’s epos,

Eui-Chai Tjeng   167



even nowadays in shamanistic rituals. E.g, we can analyze the identity of

Samshin in the shaman’s song, named samt’aejap’uri(

(삼태자풀이 )

),

chesokponp’uri(

(제석본풀이)

) or tanggumagit’aryong(

(당금아기타령)

).

According to this epos, Samshin is born from a deity disguised as a buddhist

monk and a girl named Tanggumagi(

당금아기

). In this story we can see

the religious thought that the direct cause of human birth is the sexual

relationship between a man and a woman, but the fundamental reason is

the ‘nomination’[chomji 

점지 

] of the deity[Samshin]. In the field of Korean

folk religion, it is believed that birth, bringing up and death are beyond

human control. It is supposed that the control over life belongs to the

supra-mundane realm of the deity[Samshin]. Here we can see that folk

religiosity expresses what the human life itself possesses. God gives life to

human beings. Therefore the vital force or vital principle belongs to the

divine realm. So a human being should not dare to invade this holy realm.

The shaman’s explanation, through the Samshin-story, about the

origin and principle of life shows that phenomena such as life and death

are personalized or deificated. They speak of the strong impurity which

the phenomenon such as death accompanies, of the cautiousness and

prudence that tries to secure life from the contagion of death. They think,

this dark shadow, far from the order of life, tries to access living people.

This kind of attitude would confirm the characteristics of the religious life

of most Korean people. We can say this is the search for holiness. The

right way which human beings should follow, is finally, the prudential method

and the practical application of how we can secure our life. In this sense,

life is a victorious figure that overcomes death. In the context of Korean

folk religion, one can be really free when in harmony with Samshin who is

the source and donor of life. We call it the divine law or divine order which

connect Samshin with life.1)

Now let me say something about the shaman (called Mudang in

Korea) who is a mediator between the spirits (Kwisin) and man. From

early times the ancestors were honored as members of the family and

clan. Their descendants believed in their ancestors’ postmortem power.

This belief propitiated the formation of an anxiety to keep them placated

in order to receive protection and blessings from them. The people feared

evil spirits and venerated the good ones.

The relations between the spirits and man were arranged with the

168  Prajñâ Vihâra



shaman’s help. The shamans are said to have personal spirits to help them,

and to possess magical forces. They dance, perform exorcisms, and offer

sacrifices to the spirits to propitiate them. Their rites are called Kut. The

Shamanist’s main goal is to bring blessings and avoid misfortune. The

Shamanist’s idea of a supreme god who rules the universe and gives rain

and grain for a good harvest is very appealing.2)

Section 5.  Philosophy of Life in the Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas explains his theory of life at first from the view

point of experience, then transcendence. That is why he considers vegetative

life, sense and intellectual life, and finally Divine Life which is life itself and

the first principle of all life. So, I treat here Thomas Aquinas’ theory of life

according to his Summa Theologiae I, 18, 75 and 78 where he explains

the essentials of his theory of life.

Life in general

Aquinas considers life in general in the Summa Theologiae

systematically. First of all he questions ‘what things have life?’ that is, ‘are

all natural things a life?’ 1)

Here it might be better if we talk about the etymological

consideration of life i.e. psyche (in Greek), nephesh (in Hebrew), soma

and psyche, zeo and zeo aionis ‘sarx and pneuma’ and ‘pneuma zoopoioun’

(in New Testament) etc., and also the history of philosophy of life i.e.

Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, Augustinus, Boetius, Albertus Magnus, Fransis

of Assisi, Bonaventura, R. Decartes, I. Kant, G. W. F. Hegel, K. Marx, S.

Kierkegaard, H. Bergson, Teilhard de Chardin, M. Heidegger, G. Marcel,

H. Jonas, Fritjof Capra, Mother Theresa etc.

But Aquinas questions directly ‘what things have life?’ in his Summa

Theologiae. He agrees with the words of Dionysios’ De div. nom.2) that

is, ‘Plants live with life’s last echo.’ According to this view, ‘plants have

the lowest degree of life. Therefore inanimate bodies which are lower than

the plants, do not possess life.’3)

Then Aquinas discusses animal life. Obviously quoting the words

of Aristotle’s De Plantis, I, 4,4) he writes, ‘life in animals is plain to see.’

Eui-Chai Tjeng  169



That is why ‘we first say that an animal is living when it begins to have

movement of itself (ex se) and we judge that it is still living so long as this

kind of movement appears in it and when it no longer has any movement

of itself we say that life has failed and the animal is dead.’ 5)

We can understand the movement (motus) in two ways, that is, in

the strict sense and the wider sense. In the strict sense ‘we take movement

as “the act of that which is incomplete,” i.e. in potentiality for (further)

existence, or in the wider sense as including “the act of that which is already

completed,” in the way that an act of understanding or of sensation is also

called movement.’ 6) This is what Aristotle says in De Anima III. 7) ‘Thus

we call “living” those things (viventia) which produce in themselves some

kind of movement or operation.’ 8)

Aquinas then asks: ‘is life an activity?’ He quotes in ‘Sed contra’

of this article the words of Aristotle’s De Anima II 9) that is, ‘for living

things, to live is to be’ (vivere viventibus est esse). Here he considers the

meaning of the words ‘to live’ and ‘life’ which discloses the principle or

the root of appearance that is, the phenomenon and the relation of both.

‘The word is applied to things because of something in their external

appearance, namely self-movement; nevertheless it is not applied to indicate

precisely that, but rather the substance which of its nature has the power

of moving itself or giving itself any kind of impulse to activity. In the latter

sense ‘to live’ means simply to exist in such a nature (secundum hoc vivere

nihil aliud est quam esse in tali natura); and ‘life’ means the same but in the

abstract. Hence ‘living’ is not an accidental predicate but a substantial

one. Yet sometimes “life” is taken in the less proper sense to mean the

activities of life, from which things are said to have life.’ 10) Here he quotes

the words of Aristotle’s Ethic. IX 11) that is, “to live is primarily to have

sensation and understanding.”

Here Aquinas clarifies the derivation of phenomenon or operation

from esse. So he continues to say ‘sensation and understanding and the

like are taken to mean sometimes certain activities, sometimes the existence

itself of things which have those activities.’ 12) He also quotes here the

words of Aristotle’s Ethic. IX 13) that is, ‘for living things “to be is to have

sensation or understanding” i. e. to possess a nature ready to sense and

understand.’ 14)

He then considers the reality of the vegetable, sense and intellectual

170  Prajñâ Vihâra



lives with their different activities, and then in gradation of table life,

intellectual life is more perfect than sense-life. Finally the life of God which

is the first principle (source) of all lives, 15) is most perfect that is, life itself.

He says: ‘life is attributed to certain things because they act of themselves

and not as moved by other things; hence the more perfectly this is verified

in a thing the more perfectly does it possess life.’ In the matter of movers

the principal agent is that which acts through its own form.’ 16)

Vegetable life

‘Some things move themselves without consideration of the form

or end in view provided for them by nature, but only so far as concerns

the carrying into effect to movement. Such things are plants, which move

themselves by growth and decrease according to the form with which

nature endows them.’ 17)

Sense-life

‘Other things move themselves in a further sense: not merely with

respect to the carrying into effect of the movement, but also with respect

to the form which is the principle of movement, which form they acquire

for themselves. Such are animals, the principle of whose movement is not

the form implanted in them by nature but one received through the senses.

Hence the more complete their sense, the more extensive their self-

movement. Thus in creatures which have only the sense of touch, their

self-movement consists merely in dilatation and contraction, like oysters

scarcely more than the movement of plants; while those which have

complete sense-equipment, enabling them to know not only what is joined

to them or touches them but also things at a distance, advance to what is

at some distance from them.’ 18)

In this way Aquinas clarifies the essence of the sense-life with

self-movements not only that in itself but also self-movement to the things

at distance but this kind of life is limited to implantation by nature. Hence

his consideration on life goes further; to a higher level of life which is an

intellectual one transcending all the sense activities.

Intellectual-life

‘But although such animals receive through the senses the form

Eui-Chai Tjeng  171



which is the principle of their movement, they do not independently

determine for themselves the end of their activity or of their movement;

that is implanted in them by nature, and an instinct of nature moves them to

a particular activity by means of the form apprehended by the senses.

Higher than such animals are those which move themselves with reference

also to the end in view, which they provide for themselves. This can be

done only by reason and intellect, to which it belongs to know the relation

of end and means to end, and direct the one to the other. Thus beings

which have intellect have a more complete kind of life in that their self-

movement is more complete.’ 19)

Although intellectual activity or intellectual life is a higher one than

the others, but still it is restricted to the implantation of nature that is, the

first principles and ultimate end of intellectual life, etc. Aquinas’ consideration

of life goes still further to reach the highest life without any limitation, that

is, life itself by nature. Such life is Being itself as it is always in the state of

activity. ‘Although our intellect is self-actuated in certain ways, still certain

things are provided for it by nature, e.g. first principles (prima principia),

about which it has no choice, and the ultimate end (ultimus finis), which it

is not free not to will. Hence although the intellect moves itself to some

extent, still it must in some things be moved by another. That Being, then

whose own nature is its act of knowledge, which also does not have what

belongs to it by nature determined for it by another, is the Being which has

life in the highest degree (summus gradus vitae). Such a Being is God.

Therefore God possesses life in the highest degree (in deo maxime est

vita).’ 20) Aquinas here refers to Aristotle’s Metaphysics XII, 21) that is,

Aristotle, ‘having shown that God has intellect, concludes that he has life

the most perfect and eternal; because his intellect is most perfect and

always in the state of actuality.’

Aquinas then considers the principles (sources) of lives that is, the

principles of the vegetable, sense and intellectual lives from the different

activities of three kind of souls, that is, of anima vegetativa, anima sensibilis

and anima rationalis.

He writes, ‘the various sorts of soul are distinguished from one

another according to the different ways in which the activities of soul

transcend the activities of inanimate bodies. (In the whole physical world)

there is one particular activity of the soul which so greatly transcends the

172  Prajñâ Vihâra



physical that it is not even exercised through a bodily organ, and this is the

activity of the rational soul (anima rationalis, vel intellective). Another level

of activity, below this, takes place through a bodily organ but is not itself a

physical transaction (corporea qualitas), and such is the activity of sense-

soul (anima sensibilis vel sensitiva). (For though hot and cold and moist

and dry and other such physical qualities are needed for sense activity,

their activity is not the medium (mediante virtute) in which the activity of

the sense-soul has its being (operatio animae sensibilis procedat), but is

needed solely to render the organ ready.) Then the lowest level of activity

belonging to a soul is that which takes place through a physical organ and

by virtue of physical qualities. This sort of activity is more than merely

physical because physical change depends on external agents, whereas

this has an internal source. For this is common to all activities of the soul;

anything animate (omne animatum) in some fashion moves itself. And such

is the activity of the vegetative soul (anima vel nutritiva).’ 22) Aquinas here

refers to Aristotle’s De Anima II. Aristotle says ‘Digestion and its sequel

takes place through the instrumentality of heating.’

Further more, he considers the modes of living in terms of grades

of living things. ‘For there are some living things, namely plants, which are

purely vegetative. But there are some with sensation as well but without

movement in place, motionless animals such as shellfish. Some again have

the power of movement from place to place, the higher animals namely,

which need many things in order to stay alive and hence need to move if

they are to obtain distant things which their life requires. And some living

things have intellect along with these powers, namely men (with the power

of the intellect man can have the notion of universal being “ens universale”).

The appetitive powers, however, do not give rise to any distinct mode of

life, since appetitive is a property following necessarily on sense-

knowledge.’ 23)

Furthermore, scholastic philosophers and theologians explain the

spirituality of the rational soul from its immateriality as rational soul transcends

total materiality. Accordingly, such a spiritual soul bears immortality as it

has not been composed of any material parts. From this point of view an

eternal life can be endowed to the soul of a human being supposing the

grace of God.

Moreover the theory of Aquinas that ‘everything in God is life’ is

Eui-Chai Tjeng  173



gaining a more profound meaning in the period of the progress of human

knowledge, and life science and its technology. Aquinas, reflecting on the

moment of creation writes: ‘God’s life is his actual knowing. But in God

intellect, that which is known, and the act of knowing, are the same.

Therefore whatever is in God as known is his actual living or his life.

Hence, since all the things God produces are in him as know, it follows

that in him all things are the divine life itself.’ 24) We can also add next to

Aquinas, the words of Genesis:. ‘In the beginning God created heaven

and earth. And the earth was void and empty, and darkness was upon the

face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved over the waters.’ 25) So all

the creatures bear the vestiges of the spirit of God.

III.  Conclusion

The Notion of Immanence and Transcendence in Philosophies of

Life

There are many similarities between the oriental philosophies of

life based on religions and the Christian notion of life, especially as shown

in Thomas Aquinas in the phenomenal dimension. However, among them

there is also a great difference in the ontological dimension.

Their differences arise from the notions of immanence and

transcendence. Oriental philosophies, in general, concentrate on the studies

of the first principle (source) that makes up the phenomenon of life - that

is, on the studies of the beginning of life phenomenon and its returning to

the first principle. This is a kind of transcendence in a large sense, but in

this case, we can say that the root (source) and phenomenon, strictly

speaking, philosophically are homogeneous or univocal in general. In this

view point, oriental philosophies of religion are pantheistic, naturalistic,

and anthropomorphic more or less.

The tao (

道

), in Taoism, is the first principle of the existence of all

things, including human life. All things come into existence from the tao

and return to the tao and the tao infiltrates all the things in the universe.

The notion of the tao is void (

無

). Then, is the tao different from all things

in the universe? It is very difficult to understand the reality of the tao as

just “void.” So there is not clear distinction between the tao and all the

174  Prajñâ Vihâra



creatures.

In Confucianism, the origin of all things is explained by the eight

elements, that is, heaven, earth, mountain, pond, thunder, wind, water,

and fire. The movement of the universe and the natural phenomena are

explained by In-Yang(

陰陽 

) that is, by Shade and Light, the Five Functions

(

五行

), the tao (

道 

), and chi (

氣 

), The Great Ultimate etc.. Moreover,

Confucianism views human life as purely natural. The sacrifice ceremony

for ancestors in Confucianism is an expression of valuable humanity and

has some kind of transcendent character in the sense that it is a

representation of the communication between the soul of the dead and

living human being. Today the sacrifice ceremony for ancestors in Korea

has become the national ceremony for ancestor’s reverence. But the

material and the form of the sacrifice ceremony for ancestors is purely

natural, human, and anthropomorphic. The notion of the supreme

emperor(

上帝

) and Chon(

天 

) and the Great Ultimate which are developed

through the long passage of history contains the idea of transcendence in

some sense. These notions, too, in strict philosophical meaning, are

anthropomorphic as they are considered from only the view point of the

realm of nature and human life.

To become a Buddha in human life (
成佛

), in Buddhism, is to

enter into Nirvana by passing over imperfect earthly life. This is the stage

which is achieved only by the self-discipline of human beings. In fact,

Karma effects (

業報

), Nirvana (

涅槃

), and becoming a Buddha (

成佛

),

in Buddhism, are the manifestation of the various forms in human life.

In short, the great oriental religions, in general, explain the first

principle and ultimate goal of human life within the limit of nature and the

human being, but also include some kind of a notion of transcendence in

that they seek to reach to a higher stage by passing over the present state

of life. Also, it is common that nearly all religions believe in a supernatural

being, its power, and the communication of a human being with it.

Therefore, although the oriental religions are consistent with the immanent

element, they also include a transcendent tendency in their basis due to

human nature. In other words, the oriental religions have a good disposition

for the real transcendence, especially Shamanism. Rather we can say,

they are very open for the real transcendent. The Korean religious mentality,

in general, is affected deeply by Shamanism since Korean’s existence on

Eui-Chai Tjeng  175



the Korean peninsula. That is why in Korea, even nowadays, Christianity

is flourishing with a lot of conversions and fervent devotion. On the other

hand, the Christian notion of life, especially the philosophy of life of Thomas

Aquinas, explains life by the theory of three kinds of souls and considers

human life or the soul as its source having immanent and transcendent

character. Individual human life derives from the intellectual, spiritual and

immortal soul. Consequently, Thomism revealed that the immortal life,

which is the deep hope of the human spirit, can be achieved by revelation

and the grace of God. In fact, great oriental religions have achieved a high

level in spiritual and moral life, but from the view point of philosophy of

religion, the ontological search, especially the question of transcendence,

is incomplete. They are obscure in the origin and ultimate goal of human

life, that is, its final destiny. Due to this incompleteness of the point of view

of Confucianism, Catholicism was introduced into Korea about 220 years

ago by a pagan Confucian scholar from China. When Confucian scholars

in Korea, who belonged to a ruling party at those times, came to read

天主實義

 (De Deo Verax Disputatio), which was written by Matteo

Ricci, a Jesuit missionary in Beijing, they were impressed by its clear

explanation of the transcendent idea of the origin and ultimate goal of

human life, and one of the Confucian scholars was sent to Beijing to study

it. He learned the Catechism by writing (although he knew Chinese

characters very well, he didn’t know the Chinese pronunciation) and was

baptized in Beijing. Returning to Korea, he did missionary work, and this

was the beginning of the Catholic Church in Korea. These Confucian

scholars tried to build up a so-called ‘Supplemented Confucianism’ in

Korea. In the ‘Supplemented Confucianism’, they added to Confucianism

the clear Christian notion of the origin and ultimate goal of human life,

which is lacking in Confucianism, that is, the Christian notion of

transcendence and immortality.

Thomas Aquinas notion of life, is based on the fact that human

beings are the image of God.1) Christianity explains that the first principle

of all things is God. Therefore, the Christian notion of life is originally

derived from God by creation 2) as He is life itself, so that Thomas Aquinas

recognizes the spirituality and immortality of the human soul 3) which is

immaterial. In other words, the first principle of human beings and life is

explained by a Divine Being who creates it. Human life exists for the

176  Prajñâ Vihâra



participation in eternal life. Human dignity, sociality, and community life

are explained from this ontological point of view.4) Furthermore Thomism

developed the theory of the inter-action and inter-communion of the Divine

Life and human one.

There is no univocal meaning between Divine Being and its creature,

they are different, but somewhat the same, therefore there is analogy 5)

between the life of God and human life. The notion of analogy is very

important to explain the so-called identity (secundum quid) and difference

(simpliciter) between the first principle and the creature. Oriental

philosophies, which are based on religions, lack the notion of analogy. In

fact in almost all the oriental religions there is a strong folk believe in

transcendence, although there is not an exact philosophical or logical

explanation of it. That is why there is approximately a univocal notion

between the first principle and creature ex. gr. between the tao, heaven,

nature, supreme emperor, Buddha and Samshin etc. and all things in the

universe. Therefore there is not a clear notion of distinction between them.

Rather here we can conclude that in the oriental philosophies, in strict

philosophical meaning, there is not any ontological distinction between the

first principle of all beings in the universe and all beings derived from it,

and there are only psychological projection and religious tendency of human

nature for transcendence. The important point is that human reason is not

logically convinced of such a transcendent reality in the oriental

philosophies. Therefore in the ontological sense there is only a so-called

notion of immanence. On the contrary, in Thomism there is a clear notion

of the distinction between ‘ens contingens’ and ‘ens necessarium’ that is,

the beings of the universe and the first principle by the notion of analogy.

Moreover in Thomism the theory of creation is sustained by the notion of

analogy. That is why the catholic Confusian scholars at the early time of

the Catholic Church in Korea preferred the word  (

天主

 Dominus Caeli,

the Lord of Heaven) to the supreme emperor (

上帝 

), although they used

both of them for God.

Life is precious, and, above all, human life is the most precious in

the universe. Since every religion agrees to this, all the religions give their

priority to protect and enrich human life. Thus, religions also have similarity

or homogeneity in moral life, which is the proper domain of the human

being. The comparison of the Decalogue in Christianity with the Three

Eui-Chai Tjeng  177



Fundamental Principles (

三綱 

, the Three Bonds) and the Five Moral

Disciplines in human relations (

五倫

, the Five Relationships), and the

comparison of the Decalogue with Septem Vitia Capitalia in Christianity

with the Five and the Ten Buddhist Commandments, can be such an

example.

Common Culture based on Love of Life

Today, we are in need of a common culture in which all humanity

can live together as one and the same. In fact, today in the intellectual

world there is a strong tendency to shape the unity of mankind. So they

propose “Universal Declaration of Human Responsibilities”, “Universal

Values of Ethics” etc.6) Our Catholic philosophy can propose a more

fundamental common way of living, that is, a common culture of mankind,

based on love of life. Moreover, the incredible development in life science

and technology, such as the progress of the Cyber world and the success

of the Genome project and the revival of some lives from two hundred

and fifty million years ago by scientists and the survival of some organisms

in boiled water, along with the invasion of the holy realm of human life with

human cloning and Ru 486, the taking medicine internally for abortion

etc., cause the urgent need for the formation of a common culture based

on the true love of a right life, as life, especially human life should be the

proximate value criterion of all things in the universe.

The slogan, which has led humanity for the last few centuries, was

‘justice’. The quickening of this slogan was due to Marxism, which was

shown up as a reaction against the harsh reign over the colonies all over

the world, and the strenuous exertion of the Catholic Church, which

enhanced the right of ‘human dignity’ and ‘justice’. Asia, being the birthplace

of most of the distinguished religions, profound philosophies and having

the widest region with the largest population, fell down to become the

colonies of the Great Powers. Now the colonial period, in terms of territorial

rights is ended, but colonialism still exists in the sense of economic

exploitation. Under this circumstance, the concept of ‘human right’ and

‘justice’ is strongly and continually required. Moreover such a concept is

always required in human life.

But the new culture is needed for mankind in this New Millennium.

Such culture should be a common culture which can solve the problem of

178  Prajñâ Vihâra



life that all people, all cultures and all religions care for. In the New

Millennium, we need to form a common culture based on the love of life,

this kind of love implies justice based on human dignity, further more,

human dignity as image of God.  This new culture should be equally

participated in by all human beings even by those who live in the hinter

lands and isolated regions. In fact, the love of life is a requisite for all

human beings. So now it is desired that the consciousness of “common

vocation” and “participation” 7) is fostered. It is expected that, within a few

centuries, Asia will play an important role for the unity of mankind in the

world as the era of Pacific Rim, especially of Asia is coming. The unity of

mankind must be preceded by the unity of Asia. In this point, all religions

in Asia can contribute through their constant dialogue and co-operation.

Such dialogue and co-operation are in a good process in Korea right

now. Religions in Asia, including Christianity, should study and enrich each

other through constant dialogue 8) not only in the phenomenal notion of

life, but also in the primordial notion of life, including the tao (

道 

), the

supreme emperor (

上帝

), heaven (

天 

), becoming a Buddha (

成佛 

) and

Samshin (

삼신 

) of Shamanism, etc. which are a dimension of

transcendence in a wider sense, and the notion of phenomenal and

ontological dimension of life in Christianity. And such efforts will be able to

form a common culture based on the love of life which is required in the

third Millenium. Especially, in this point, the Catholic Church can play an

important role with wisdom and practice of ‘unitas in diversitate’ and

‘diversitas in unitate.’ The Catholic Church has to open more and more

her mind and spirit to the future and to Asian thoughts and life as the

Catholic Church is universal and eschatological. In fact, in Korea, the

Research Institute for Life and Culture, as mentioned above, has held

many seminars on life for many years. And it has taken extensively the

opinions on the notion of life of the Korean religions. In fact, now there

are some organizations for co-operation among religions for social welfare

activities in Korea. Recently, some Catholic Institutes and periodicals in

Korea are trying to study and practice the notion of life and inculturation.

Catholic philosophy can perform its part in the formation and the expansion

of a common culture with its ontological notion of being, including the

transcendental notions of the one (

一 

), the true (

眞

), and the good (

善 

).

Up to  now, Thomism has explained the ontological notion of being in the

Eui-Chai Tjeng  179



order of the ‘one’, the ‘true’, and the ‘good’, but nowadays it is required

that the Catholic Church practice the ‘good’, which all human beings and

religions can sympathize with. In practicing, the ‘good’ must be based on

the ‘true’, and this must be based on the ‘one’. Then, by explaining the

meaning of life in the order of the ‘good’, the ‘true’, and the ‘one’, that is,

basically by explaining the oneness of God, Catholic philosophy can

contribute a lot toward the formation of such a new culture. In this way,

Mother Theresa in India can be considered as a great sign for formation

of the common culture of love of life in the New Millennium.

ENDNOTES

endnotes to section 1

1) Wang Bi, “Lao Tzu Tao Te Ching”, Zhong Hua Publishing Co., 1984.

2) La Kuang, “History of Chinese Philosophy and Ideology”, Xue Sheng

Publishing Co., 1982. p. 177.

3) Fang Tong Mei, “Primitive Confucian Ethics & Philosophy”, Li Ming

Cultural Corp.,1983, p. 215.

4) Chuang Tzu, “Chi Pei You”, pp. 749-750.

5) Chuang Tzu, “Tian Tzu Fang”, p. 716.

6) Chuang Tzu, “Chie Yang”, p. 913.

7) Chuang Tzu, “Chi Pei You”, p. 741.

8) Catholic Theology and Thought, Vol. 20, 1997, pp. 39-63  (Im Keum Ja,

“Taoists’ View of Life”).

9) Hector Diaz, M. G., A Korean Theology, Nene Zeitschrift für
Missionswissenschaft, CH-6405 Immensee 1986, pp. 142, 172.

10) Mencius, “Chinhsin(A)”(doing one’s utmost mind) ‘Yang Chu chose

selfishness: if by plucking out a single hair, he could benefit the world, he would

not do it’.

11) Lü Spring and Autumn, “Buer”(non-two) ‘Yang sheng values self ‘).

12) Huainan Tzu, “Fanlunshun” Great series of Chinese Literature. p. 12)

(Han Fei-Tzu, “Hsien shüeh 48”(prominent learning 48) p. 26).
14) Mencius, “Kao-Tzu(A)” Great series of Chinese Literature 7, p. 8)

15) Chung, In-Chae, The Natural Life and Moral Life, ‘Studies on Life and

Culture’, Vol. 1. Sogang Univ. 1993. pp.578~1-578~4.

endnotes to section 2

1) Kwuak ShinHwuan: “Thought of eternal creation of life in I Ching”,

Catholic Theology and Thought, Vol. 20, 1997. Summer, pp. 5-7).

180  Prajñâ Vihâra



2) Shuo Kua, Discussions of the Trigrams 3.

3) Kong Yingda, Analytic Center of I Ching.

4) Great Compendium of Interpretation of I Ching: small commentary).

5) Shou Kua, Discussion of the Trigrams 4, Chen Guying, A Study and

Commentary on the I Ching, 1999, p. 692).

6) Choi Youngjin, “The Relationship between Man and Nature from the

point of I Ching’s view- New Culture of Life-” 21 Century Culture of Life and

Religion, 19th Seminar manuscript, Institute for Life and Culture, Sogang

University, 2000. pp. 40 seq.

7) Hector, Ibid. pp. 173, 174, 175.

endnotes to section 3

1) Seo, Eui-Hyun (President Korean Buddhist Chogye Order

Headquarters), Buddhism and Life, Studies on Life and Culture, Vol. 1, Sogang

Univ. 1993.

2)  Hector, Ibid. pp. 134-136.

3)  Hector, Ibid. pp. 172-173.

4) Oh, Hyong-Keun, ‘Buddhism and Life,’ Catholic Theology and

Thoughts, no. 20, Catholic University, 1977, pp. 21-28; 35-38.

endnotes to section 4

1) Park, Il-Young, ‘Shamanism and Life’, Philosophy and Life, Uri

Academy, 2000, pp. 166-174.

Cf. Jo Za Young, People’s Thought on Shamanism, Cana Art, 1995.

Cf. J. A. Kister, A Drama of Life, Sogang University, 1997.

2) Hector, Ibid. pp. 130-132.

endnotes to section  5

1) Cf. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae(S. Th), I, 18, 1. In my article I

quote the English translation of Thomas Aquinas’ S. Th(Latin text and English

translation, Black-Friars, 1964~).

2) IV, 1, PG. 3, 856B, S. Th. lect, 1. S. Th. I. 18, 1. Sed Contra.

3) S. Th. I. 18, 1c.

4) 1, 815a10-10.

5) S. Th. I. 18, 1c.

6) Ibid.

7) C. 4. 429b22-430a9, S. Th. lect. 9, 720-727; C. 7, 431a4-8, S. Th. lect. 12,

765-767-Cf lib. II. C. 11, 423b26-424a10, S. Th. lect. 23, 546-548.

8) S. Th. I. 18, 1c.

9) C. 4, 415b13, S. Th. lect. 7, 319.

10) S. Th. I. 18, 2c.

11) C. 9, 1170a16-19, S. Th. lect. 11, 1902.

12) S. Th. I, 18, 2 ad 1.

13) C. 9, 1170a30b, S. Th. lect. 11, 1908.

Eui-Chai Tjeng  181



14) S. Th. I. 18, 2 ad 1.

15) S. Th. I. 18, 3c.

16) Ibid.

17) Ibid.

18) Ibid.

19) Ibid.

20) Ibid.

21) C. 7, 1072b26-30, S. Th. lect. 8, 2544.

22) S. Th. I.76, 3c et 78, 1c.

23) Ibid.

24) S. Th. I. 18, 4c.

25) Gen. 1, 1-2

endnotes to conclusion

1) Cf. S. Th. I. q. 93.

2) Cf. S. Th. I. qq. 99, 44, 45, 67-72.

3) Cf. S. Th. I. qq. 99, 75, 84, 87.

4) Cf. All through S. Th. I-II, II-II.

5) Cf. S. Th. I. qq. 9, 13, 9, 5

6) For instance, ‘In 1997, some thirty former heads of state and government

who constitute The Inter-Action Council submitted a draft of a “Universal

Declaration of Human Responsibilities” to all heads of state and government and

of the United Nations, UNESCO. And “A Declaration of Human Duties and

Responsibilities” was presented to UNESCO(1999) by the Third Millennium Project

of the City of Valencia, Spain, in cooperation with UNESCO and ADC Nouveau

Millénaire. The document was drafted by a “high-level group” chaired by South
African Justice Richard J. Goldstone and including Richard Falk, Bernard Kouchner,

Rudd Lubbers etc.’ Moreover now Prof. Yersu Kim who was the Director of Division

of Philosophy and Ethics at UNESCO, Paris until April 2000 and one of my friends,

is preparing “Universal Value of Ethics” for the Year, 2001 of the “Dialogue among

Cultures” of UN, collecting materials through some International Conferences.

Now he is planning a world wide conference for that in Korea in 2001 to propose
“Universal Value of Ethics” to UN through UNESCO. Still he desires to have a

conference of religious scholars ex. gr. Catholics, Protestants, Confucianists,

Hinduists, Buddhists, and Islamics etc. in some place, especially in the Vatican

City. So if we can help him, it will be a good contribution for the shaping of the

unity of mankind. Yersu Kim, A Common Framework for the Ethics of 21st Century,

UNESCO, Paris, 1999. pp. 14-16.

7) Cf. Tran Van Doan, “The Search for the Pentecostal Spirit: Jean Ladriere

on Culture”, Humanity in the 21st Century: Towards a New Vision, Acta of The

Fourth International Conference of Asian Association of Catholic Philosophers,

Catholic University, Seoul, 2000, pp. 213-238, Cf. Tjeng Eui-Chai, Metaphysics,

1997-10th, pp. 364-366.

182  Prajñâ Vihâra



8) The words of Cardinal Augustino Sodano, the Secretary of State, the

Vatican, given on the occasion of the Korean translation of Summa Theologiae by

St. Thomas Aquinas with Pope John Paul II’s special interest, words and blessings

are very meaningful, saying: ‘Is this approach itself not a solid point of contact

with great philosophical systems of the East and a sure promise of a very fruitful

dialogue between intellectual tradition of East and West? Such a dialogue in turn

is the obligatory of the progress of human culture, as well as a requisite for a

deeper inculturation of Christianity among the peoples of vast continent of Asia.’

Eui-Chai, Tjeng, ‘Welcome Address’ Acta of Fourth International Conference of

the Asian Association of Catholic Philosophers, 1999. p. xix.

Eui-Chai Tjeng  183